ME355 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

HW #2 solutions 4/18/2014
cold worked parts are: (a) The surface finish of the
cold-worked part would be smoother than the hotworked part, and possibly shinier. (b) If hardness
values could be taken on the parts, the cold-worked
part would be harder. (c) The cold-worked part would
likely contain residual stresses and exhibit anisotropic
behavior. (d) Metallographic examination of the parts
can be made: the hot-worked part would generally
have equiaxed grains due to recrystallization, while
the cold-worked part would have grains elongated in
the general direction of deformation. (e) The two parts
can be subjected to mechanical testing and their
properties compared.

Questions:
Q1: Explain the difference between recovery and
recrystallization.
Answer: These phenomena are described in Section
3.6 on p. 96. Recovery involves relief of residual
stresses, reduction in the number of dislocations, and
increase in ductility. In recrystalization, new equiaxed
and stress-free grains are formed, replacing the older
grains.

Q2: Describe why different crystal structures exhibit

different strengths and ductilities.
Answer: Different crystal structures have different
slip systems, which consist of a slip plane (the closest
packed plane) and a slip direction (the closepacked
direction). The fcc structure has 12 slip systems, bcc
has 48, and hcp has 3. The ductility of a metal depends
on how many of the slip systems can be operative. In
general, fcc and bcc structures possess higher ductility
than hcp structures, because they have more slip
systems. The shear strength of a metal decreases for
decreasing b/a ratio (b is inversely proportional to
atomic density in the slip plane and a is the plane
spacing), and the b/a ratio depends on the slip system
of the chemical structure. (See also Section 3.3.1
starting on p. 87.)

Q4: Explain why the strength of a polycrystalline metal

at room temperature decreases as its grain size
increases.
Answer: Strength increases as more entanglements of
dislocations take place with grain boundaries and with
each other. Metals with larger grains have less grainboundary area per unit volume, and hence they are
not able to generate as many entanglements at grain
boundaries, thus the strength will be lower. (See also
Eq. (3.8) on p. 92.)

Q5: Explain the advantages and limitations of cold,

warm, and hot working of metals, respectively.
Answer: These are explained briefly in Section 3.7 on
p. 98. Basically, cold working has the advantages of
refining the materials grain structure while increasing
mechanical properties such as strength, but it does
result in anisotropy and reduced ductility. Hot working
does not result in strengthening of the workpiece, but
the ductility of the workpiece is preserved, and there

Q3: How can you tell the difference between two

parts made of the same metal, one shaped by cold
working and the other by hot working? Explain the
differences you might observe.
Answer: Note that there are several methods that can
be used to determine the differences between the two
parts. Some of the methods of distinguishing hot vs.
1

is little or no anisotropy. Warm working is a

compromise.

environment and temperature on the workpiece

material.

Q6: Two physical properties that have a major

influence on the cracking of workpieces, tools, or dies
during thermal cycling are thermal conductivity and
thermal expansion. Explain why.

Q8: What is the consequence of oxides of metals

being generally much harder than the base metal?
Explain.
Answer: The consequences are numerous, and the
oxide can be beneficial as well as detrimental. In
sliding contact, the oxide is a hard surface that, as a
result, is wear resistant [see Eq. (4.6) on p. 145], and it
can also protect the substrate from further chemical
attack. However, if an oxide wear particle spalls from
the surface, a detrimental three-body wear situation
can result. Also, as discussed in Chapter 2, the hard
surface layers may be detrimental from a fatigue
standpoint if their ductility is compromised. Finally, if
a material is plastically deformed, as in the processes
described in Chapters 6 and 7, the oxide layer may
crack or even break off, resulting in a surface finish
that may

Answer: Cracking results from thermal stresses that

develop in the part during thermal cycling. Thermal
stresses may be caused both by temperature gradients
and by anisotropy of thermal expansion. High thermal
conductivity allows the heat to be dissipated faster
and more evenly throughout the part, thus reducing
the temperature gradient. If the thermal expansion is
low, the stresses will be lower for a given temperature
gradient. When thermal stresses reach a certain level
in the part, cracking will occur. If a material has higher
ductility, it will be able to undergo more by plastic
deformation before possible fracture, and the
tendency for cracking will thus decrease.

Q7: We have seen that a surface has various layers.

Describe the factors that influence the thickness of
each of these layers.

Q9: List and briefly describe the types of wear

encountered in engineering practice.
Answer: This topic is discussed in Section 4.4.2 on p.
144. Basically, the types of wear are: A) Adhesive wear,
where material transfer occurs because one material
has bonded to the other and relative motion shears
the softer material; see Fig. 4.10 on p. 145. B) Abrasive
wear, where a hard asperity plows into a softer
material, producing a chip, as shown in Fig. 4.10 on p.
145. This can be a two-body or a three-body
phenomenon. C) Corrosive wear, which occurs when
chemical or electrochemical reactions take place,
thereby removing material from surfaces. D) Fatigue
wear, common in bearings and gears, is due to damage
associated with cyclic loading, where cracks propagate
and cause material loss through spalling. E) Erosion,
caused by the abrasive action of loose hard particles.

These layers generally consist of a work hardened

layer, oxides, adsorbed gases, and various
contaminants (see Fig. 4.1 on p. 132). The thickness of
these layers is influenced by the nature of surfacegeneration process employed (casting, forming,
machining, grinding, polishing, etc.) and the
environment to which the surface is exposed during
and after its generation. Thus, for example, dull cutting
tools or severe surface deformation during
metalworking operations produce a relatively thick
work-hardened layer. In addition to production
methods and choice of processing parameters, an
equally important factor is the effect of the

F) Impact wear, refers to spalling associated with

dynamic loading of a surface.

hardness, consistent with Problem 4.18 above; (b)

improving the quality of the contacting materials, such
as eliminating inclusions, impurities, and voids; (c)
improving the surface finish and integrity during the
manufacturing process; (d) surface working, such as
shot peening or other treatments; (e) reducing contact
stresses; and (f) reducing the number of total cycles.
(See also Section 2.7 starting on p. 56.)

Q10: How can adhesive wear be reduced? How can

fatigue wear be reduced?
Answer: Adhesive wear can be reduced by studying
the effects outlined in the answer to Problem 4.18
above. Fatigue wear can be reduced by: (a) reducing
the load and sliding distance and increasing the
Problems:
P1: ASTM grain size no. 7

P2: The second case will recrystallize at a lower temperature because it has undergone a higher degree of cold
work.
P3: The material does follow the Hall-Petch effect. = 35.22 + 4581/2
P4: Sine: Ra/Rq=0.90, Saw-tooth: Ra/Rq=0.866, Square wave: Ra/Rq=1.0