07 SAR Filtering Enhancement

Radiometric Enhancement
-Outline-
Filtering
Speckle Reduction
- Definition; Why speckle filtering; What is the ideal
speckle reduction filter
- Non-adaptive filters (FFT filters)
- Adaptive filters (Frost, Lee, MAP Gamma filters)
Edge Detection
- Ratio edge detector filter
- Touzi filter
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada
Radiometric Enhancement (contd)

-Outline-
Analysis of Image Texture

Visual Enhancement
Contrast Enhancement
Linear Enhancement
Nonlinear Enhancement
- Histogram, Exponential, Logarithmic,
Power Law Stretch
Introduction
This section reviews the methods of enhancing the
radiometrics of an image using speckle reduction filters,
spatial enhancement filters and visual enhancements.
The understanding of radar speckle is key to the
understanding of SAR and SAR radiometric
enhancements.
Often the reduction of speckle is desired to improve
classification and/or for enhancement.
To reduce speckle, adaptive filters (e.g. map gamma
filter), should be used rather than non-adaptive filters (e.g.
FFT filters) on radar imagery.
Adaptive filters take into account the local properties of the
terrain backscatter or the nature of the sensor, whereas
non-adaptive filters do not.
Introduction to Speckle
Image variance or speckle is a granular noise that inherently
exists in SAR imagery (Figure 5.1).
Speckle gives a single look image a grainy, salt and pepper
appearance and is the dominating factor in radar imagery.
Speckle noise occupies a wider dynamic range than the scene
content itself.
Images processed with a small number of 'looks' will have
distribution intensities which are quite asymmetric due to
speckle noise.
Creating a symmetrical histogram may not be the optimum
procedure. Instead, pixels are set to the extreme limits of the
data intensity distribution (e.g. DN values of 0 and 255 for 8-bit
data).
For a detailed review of speckle, see Raney (1998).
What is Speckle?
Speckle is coherent interference of waves scattered from terrain
elements observed in each resolution cell.
An incident radar wave interacts with each element of the

surface and surface cover to generate scattered waves
propagating in all directions.
Those scattered waves that reach the receiving antenna are
summed in direction and phase to make the received signal.
The relative phase components contain the differential
propagation paths.
The SAR focusing operation coherently combines the
received signals to form the image.
The scattered wave phase addition results in both
constructive and destructive interference of individual
scattered returns and randomly modulates the strength of
the signal in each resolution cell.
Figure 5.1 - Example of Speckle
What is Speckle? (contd)

Addition of backscatter from a collection of scatterers
produces random constructive and destructive
interference, see Figure 5.2.
Constructive interference is an increase from the

mean intensity and produces bright pixels.
Destructive interference is a decrease from the
mean intensity and produces dark pixels.
These random fluctuations give rise to speckle.

Reducing these effects enhances radiometric
resolution at the expense of spatial resolution.
Figure 5.2 - Speckle

Constructive Interference
Result
Coherent
radar waves
Destructive Interference
Result
Example of Homogenous Target

Constructive interference
Varying degrees of interference
(between constructive and destructive )
Destructive interference
Speckle Suppression
Speckle results from a coherent (phase included) process.
Speckle can be reduced by incoherent (amplitude or power) processes.
Speckle reduction (or smoothing) necessarily reduces the resolution

(increases the resolution cell size) of single channel SAR data.
Two basic linear processes:
- Multi-look - divides the signal into minimally overlapped frequency
bands, processes each to a reduced resolution image, registers
these, detects and adds the detected images. Examples of multilook processing are shown in Figure 5.3.
- Averaging - detects the full resolution image, performs local
averaging and resampling processes to create reduced resolution,
reduced speckle images.
- For distributed targets both processes are equivalent.
Figure 5.3 - Multi-look Processing
A
C
6.1 m x 6.1 m
N=1
QSAR = 0.027
6.1 m x 6.1 m
N = 16
QSAR = 0.43
B
Courtesy R.
Shuchman and
E. Kasischke,
ERIM
6.1 m x 6.1 m
N=4
QSAR = 0.11
1.5 m x 2.13 m
N=1
QSAR = 0.31
Examples of multi-look
processing. Note that
image chips A, B, and
C all have the same
resolution, but that
image chips C and D
have comparable
image quality factors
(data from an X-band
airborne SAR, 1972,
optically processed).
(In Principles &
Applications of
Imaging Radar,
Manual of Remote
Sensing, 1998,
Chapter 2 - Raney,
pg. 75)
Why Speckle Filtering?

The presence of speckle noise must be considered
when selecting analysis methodologies.
Speckle filtering will permit:
better discrimination of scene targets.
easier automatic image segmentation.
the application of the classical enhancement tools

developed for imagery from optical sensors such
as; edge detectors, per-pixel and textural
classifiers.
The Ideal Speckle Reduction Filter

Reduce speckle with minimum loss of information
In homogeneous areas, the filter should preserve:
radiometric information
edges between different areas
In textured areas, the filter should preserve:
radiometric information
spatial signal variability: textural information
Families of Speckle Reduction Filters

Non-adaptive filters
The parameters of the whole image signal are considered.

Do not take into consideration the local properties of the terrain
backscatter or the nature of the sensor.
Not appropriate for filtering of non-stationary scene signal.
Examples are the FFT filters.
Adaptive filters
Accommodate changes in local properties of the terrain

backscatter.
- The speckle noise is modelled as being stationary
- The target signal is not stationary since the mean backscatter
changes with the type of target
Examples are the Frost, Lee, Map Gamma, local mean and local
median filters
Figure 5.4 shows examples of adaptive filters.

Figure 5.4 - Gamma vs. Median Filter

Tapajs, Brazil
May 20, 1996 Beam F2
Median 5x5
Original Image
Map Gamma
5x5
Kernel Size
Examples of Mean, Median and Mode filter kernels
(or windows) are shown in Figure 5.5.
Filters are a sub-array of X by Y pixels that moves
through the image.
All three filters shown in Figure 5.5 are square box
filters, with a kernel size of 3 by 3 pixels
Degree of smoothing is a function of the size of the
kernel.
As filter kernel size increases, smoothing increases.
Figure 5.5 - Filtering Kernel

MEAN
5 7 4
9 8 6
5 5 8
5+7+4+9+8+6+5+5+8= 57
57 9 =
MEAN = 6
4,5,5,5,6,7,8,8,9
MEDIAN = 6
MODE
5 7 4
9 8 6
5 5 8
5x5
3x3
MEDIAN
5 7 4
9 8 6
5 5 8
7x7
4
555
6
7
88
9
MODE = 5
Source: CCRS
Mean and Median Filters

Principle
Intensity at each sample interval in the image is
replaced by the mean of pixel values in a moving
window surrounding the sample.
The box or mean filter preserves well the radiometry
but blurs textured areas.
The median filter assigns the window median value to
each sample.
Preserves texture information better
Modifies the radiometric information of
homogeneous areas, and does not preserve point
target signature
Not recommended for radar imagery.
See Figure 5.6 for examples of both filters.
Figure 5.6 - Median and Mean Filters

Tapajs, Brazil
Median 7x7
Original Image
Mean 7x7
Adaptive Filtering
Adaptive filters (e.g. Map Gamma) reduce speckle
while preserving the edges (sharp contrast
variation).
Adaptive filters modify the image based on statistics
extracted from the local environment of each pixel.
Larger kernel size (e.g. 11x11) result in an important
increased smoothing effect on the resulting image
(Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 - Gamma Filter

Tapajs, Brazil
Map Gamma
7x7
Original Image
Map Gamma
11x11
Advantages of Adaptive Filters

Most of the well known adaptative filters require the
calculation of the local observed mean and
normalized standard deviation (coefficient of
variation).
The adaptive filter produces an accurate estimate of
the backscattering coefficient inside homogeneous
(stationary) areas while preserving edge and texture
structure in nonstationary scenes.
Most Well-known Filters: The Frost Filter

Principle
The unspeckled pixel value is estimated using a

subwindow of the processing window.
The size of the subwindow varies as a function
of target local heterogeneity measured with
coefficient of variation:
the larger the coefficient of variation, the
narrower the processing subwindow
The Enhanced Frost Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,

IEEE, 1990) minimizes the loss of radiometric and
textural information (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 - Examples of Filters
Most Well-known Filters : The Lee Filter

Principle
The unspeckled pixel value is a weighted sum of

the observed (central) pixel value and the mean
value.
The weighting coefficient is a function of local
target heterogeneity measured with the coefficient
of variation.
The Enhanced Lee Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,

IEEE, 1990) minimizes the loss of radiometric and
textural information (Figure 5.8).
The Enhanced Lee and Enhanced Frost Filters
perform similarly.
Most Well-known Filters :

The MAP Gamma Filter
Background
The Frost and Lee filters are based on models

which do not use the statistical properties of the
underlying scene.
In a joint study with CESR (Toulouse, France),
CCRS participated in the development of the
MAP Gamma Filter (Lopes, Touzi, Nezri and
Low, IJRS, 1993).
Most well known Filters :

The MAP Gamma Filter (contd)
Principle
The filter is based on the assumption that the

(unspeckled) intensity of the underlying scene is
gamma distributed.
The filter minimizes the loss of texture information better

than the Frost and Lee filters within gamma distributed
scenes.
It is suitable for a wide range of gamma distributed scenes,
such as forested areas, agriculture areas, and oceans.
The filter preserves the observed pixel value for nongamma distributed scenes.
See Figure 5.9 for the filter example.
Figure 5.9 - Map Gamma Filter

Tapajs, Brazil
Original Image
Map Gamma
11x11
Effects of Filtering
Whereas, adaptive filters (Lee, Frost and Gamma)
preserve the mean value and are therefore
preferable for SAR imagery (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.11 shows that as the filter kernel size
increases, so does the percent change in standard
deviation.
A quantitative example of these effects on real data
is shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.10 - Effects of Filtering
Percentage Change in Mean
Filter Size & Type vs % Change in Mean
Raw
Median 7x7
Median 3x3
Lee 3x3
Median 5x5
Lee 7x7
Lee 5x5
Filter Size & Type
Frost 7x7
Frost 3x3
Frost 5x5
Source: CCRS

% Change in Standard Deviation
Filter Size & Type vs % Change in SD
Raw
Median 7x7
Median 3x3
Lee 7x7
Frost 3x3
Lee 3x3
Median 5x5
Lee 5x5
Filter Size & Type
Frost 7x7
Frost 5x5
Source: CCRS

Effects of Filtering on Sample Wheat Field Statistics, ERS-1 SAR
Mean
Standard
Deviation
% Change
in Mean
Raw
Median 3x3
Median 5.5
Median 7x7
Lee 3x3
Lee 5x5
Lee 7x7
Frost 3x3
Frost 5x5
Frost 7x7
Source: CCRS, Brown et al, 1993

% Change
in SD
Mean/SD
Edge Detection in SAR Images

Application : Segmentation of the image into separate
entities, classification
Types of Edge Detection Filters:
Directional, Gradient, Laplacian, Sobel, Prewitt,
Ratio Edge Detector
Warnings
The classical edge detectors (e.g. Gradient, Sobel)
developed for imagery from optical sensors are not
suitable for SAR images.
Because of the multiplicative nature of speckle,
they detect more false edges within brighter areas.
Imagery must first be filtered (Gamma) prior to
using the classical edge detectors.
Edge Detection in SAR Images (contd)

Potential alternatives
The ratio edge detector (R. Touzi et al., IEEE

TGRS, 1988) is suitable for SAR images and does
not require pre-filtering.
Performance of the ratio edge detector is better
since information is lost during pre-filtering for the
classical edge detectors.
Ratio Edge Detector Filter
Original SAR image
Ratio Edge Detector (5x5)

- For the gradient detector, the probability that a pixel of a homogeneous
area is assigned to edges (Pfa) is dependent on the mean power due to the
multiplicative nature of the noise.
- The operator detects more false edges in brighter areas.
- The ratio edge detector is the ratio of the average of pixel values of two
nonoverlapping neighborhoods on opposite sides of the point.
- The Pfa does not depend on the mean power
Gradient image (5x5)
- The performance of the ratio edge detector is a function of the size of

neighborhoods, the number of looks and the ratio of the mean powers.
(Touzi, et. al., 1998)

The Touzi multi-resolution speckle Filter

All the most well known adaptive filters were developed under the
assumption that the signal is stationary within the moving processing
window of a fixed size (i.e. its mean and variance do not vary within the
observation time).
The filters are not effective primarily when applied to fine structures
such as roads and trails which are generally smoothed out by the
filters.
A new multi-resolution filter the Touzi Filter (Figures 5.13 and 5.14)
was developed at CCRS (a part of PCI software 2002 version).
The size and the shape of the filter processing window are adapted
to signal nonstationarity.
The Touzi multi-resolution ratio edge detector is used for better
filtering of contours and edges (Touzi et al., IEEE TGRS 1998)
This permits more efficient speckle reduction and a better
preservation of the scene spatial variations (texture, edges, point
targets).
Source: R. Touzi, CEOS workshop 1999

Figure 5.13 - Touzi Filter

Tapajs, Brazil
Original Image
Touzi filter
Figure 5.14 - Touzi Filter

RADARSAT-1 image
Fine Mode
Lee filter
7X7
Original Image
Touzi filter
15X15
Introduction to Texture
Texture is the spatial variation of tones in an image.
Image texture may be qualitatively described as
having properties like fineness, coarseness,
smoothness, granulation, randomness, lineation,
mottled, irregular, hummocky (Figure 5.15).
In a SAR image, texture has two components: (1)
spatial variability in the scattering properties of the
scene and (2) speckle.
Figure 5.15 - Image Texture

Corn Field
Forest
Spatially Uniform Target

Fine Texture
Spatially Non-Uniform Target

Coarse Texture
300 m
Source: Ulaby and Dobson, 1989
300 m
Texture Analysis
Texture
Textural features contain information about the
spatial distribution of tonal variations.
Methods available:
Co-occurrence matrix (GLCM)
Grey level difference vector (GLDV)
Lacunarity (gap analysis)
Neighbouring grey level dependence matrix

(NGLDM)
Spatial correlation function
Model-based approaches
Texture Analysis (contd)

Texture
Textural features statistics can be extracted using a
grey level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM).
User specific neighborhood parameters.
Examples of features from GLCM:
- Homogeneity
- Contrast
- Dissimilarity
- Angular second moment
- Mean
- Standard deviation
- Entropy
- Correlation
Speckle suppression techniques may not preserve all

scene texture details.
Contrast Stretch
A contrast stretch enhances visual interpretation
(Figure 5.16).
Matches datas dynamic range to dynamic range of display.
Involves the construction of a look-up table (LUT).
LUT is a graphical model of the mathematical function
selected.
Figure 5.16 - Contrast Stretch

Rosario, Argentina
Original image
Linear Stretch
Linear Stretch
Effective upper and lower cutoff values are
established.
Upper and lower histogram values are set to
maximum & minimum limits respectively.
May use full or piecewise stretch.
Balance of the data are stretched linearly to
fill the expanded display range.
See Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17 - Linear Stretch
Nonlinear Enhancements
Distort the image radiometry.
Useful only for visual interpretation.
quantitative radiometric information can be lost.
spatial information is preserved.
results may not be replicable from scene to scene.
Histogram Stretch
Input display range may not be fully utilized.
Output display range makes full use of the
dynamic range.
Enhances the contrast where frequency of
occurrence is greatest.
Options include:
- Inverse frequency
- Frequency equalization
- Gaussian normalization
- Histogram matching
Inverse Frequency (or Infrequency)

Produce an image in which the bright pixels
represent those grey levels in the original
image which were infrequent.
LUT is derived from an inverted (upside
down) histogram of the input image data
values.
Useful for highlighting rare or small features
in an image (lineaments or edges).
Figure 5.18 is an example of infrequency
enhancement.
Figure 5.18 - Inverse Frequency Enhancement
Frequency Equalization
Redistribute pixel values so that there are
approximately the same number of pixels for each
data value available.
More for visual display than for image analysis.
Figure 5.19 is an example of Frequency
Equalization.
Figure 5.19 - Frequency Equalization
Exponential Stretch
High-range brightness is enhanced and high
histogram skew can be corrected.
Details in the higher part of the dynamic range
are revealed.
An example of an algorithm for this stretch is ex.
Logarithmic Stretch
Low-range brightness is enhanced and histogram
skew may be corrected.
Skewness is common and may invalidate some image
analysis algorithms which assume a normal data
distribution.
Also known as root Enhancement.
Root ( log N).
Tends to lend an overall brightening to the resultant
image (see figure 5.20).
Figure 5.20 - Logarithmic Stretch
Power Law Stretch

Changes the image brightness, S, as a power law:
Snew = Sn
n > 1 enhances strong returns at the expense of

weak returns.
n < 1 ( n ) enhances weak returns at the expense
of strong returns.
The special case n = 2 converts a magnitude
image to a power image.
Alters the probability distribution (histogram) of the

data and may invalidate processes based on
Gaussian assumptions.
TYPICAL SAR IMAGE PROCESSING METHODOLOGY

QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
AMPLITUDE
Digital Number
(DN)
TEXTURE ANALYSIS
(input for classification)
FILTER
(speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
- Non adaptive filters
AUTOMATED FEATURE
EXTRACTION
- image thresholding
- edge detection, lineaments
- directional filters (Sobel, etc.,)
AMPLITUDE + PHASE
Single Look Complex
(DNI + DNQ)
CONVERSION FROM DN TO:
or
(power)
ENHANCEMENT
(for visual interpretation)
- High pass filters
- Low pass filters
- FFT filters
- Contrast stretch
DATA FUSION
- RGB-IHS Colour Space
- Principal Component
Analysis
- Vector Overlay
Canada Centre for
STEREOSCOPY
- DEM generation
- Planimetric feature
extraction
CHANGE DETECTION
(e.g. ratio, difference)
GEOMETRIC CORRECTION
- Ortho-rectification using DEM
- Slant / ground range conversion
- Polynomial transformation
INFORMATION
EXTRACTION
- Valued-added
information map
ACCURACY
ASSESSMENT
INTERFEROMETRY
- DEM generation
- Coherence image
- Surface change detection
FILTER
(speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
- Non adaptive filters
STEREOSCOPY
- terrain interpretation
OTHER DATA
- multitemporal SAR
- optical RS
- geophysical
- Thematic polygons
or vectors (GIS)
- etc.
or
(dB)
CLASSIFICATION
- Supervised
- Unsupervised
Remote
Sensing,
CALCULATION OF
TARGET SIGNATURES
Natural Resources Canada
CONVERT POWER
VALUES TO dB
e.g. (dB) = 10 log10 ( X )
MODELLING
- Theoretical backscatter
- Geophysical parameters
extraction

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07 SAR Filtering Enhancement

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Radiometric Enhancement

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Radiometric Enhancement (contd)

Analysis of Image Texture

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

An incident radar wave interacts with each element of the

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.1 - Example of Speckle

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

What is Speckle? (contd)

Constructive interference is an increase from the

These random fluctuations give rise to speckle.

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.2 - Speckle

Example of Homogenous Target

Speckle reduction (or smoothing) necessarily reduces the resolution

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.3 - Multi-look Processing

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Why Speckle Filtering?

better discrimination of scene targets.

easier automatic image segmentation.

the application of the classical enhancement tools

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

The Ideal Speckle Reduction Filter

edges between different areas

In textured areas, the filter should preserve:

spatial signal variability: textural information

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Families of Speckle Reduction Filters

The parameters of the whole image signal are considered.

Not appropriate for filtering of non-stationary scene signal.

Examples are the FFT filters.

Accommodate changes in local properties of the terrain

Figure 5.4 shows examples of adaptive filters.

Figure 5.4 - Gamma vs. Median Filter

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.5 - Filtering Kernel

Mean and Median Filters

Figure 5.6 - Median and Mean Filters

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Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.7 - Gamma Filter

Advantages of Adaptive Filters

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Most Well-known Filters: The Frost Filter

The unspeckled pixel value is estimated using a

The Enhanced Frost Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,

Figure 5.8 - Examples of Filters

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Most Well-known Filters : The Lee Filter

The unspeckled pixel value is a weighted sum of

The Enhanced Lee Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,

Most Well-known Filters :

The Frost and Lee filters are based on models

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Most well known Filters :

The filter is based on the assumption that the

The filter minimizes the loss of texture information better

Figure 5.9 - Map Gamma Filter

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Figure 5.10 - Effects of Filtering