Metals

III. Mechanical properties

J. McCord

(mostly from Reed-Hill and Callister)

Contents - Mechanical properties

General remarks

Elastic properties

Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation by dislocations
Definition of dislocations
Slip of dislocations
Interactions of dislocations
Deformation twinning
Deformation of polycrystals
Creeping
Fracture
Fatigue
Solid solution hardening
Dispersion and precipitation hardening
3-III-2

Failure by fracture

Failure of engineering materials or metals

Improper materials selection and processing
Inadequate design of the components

Fracture mechanisms
Brittle fracture (movement of crack without plastic deformation)
Ductile fracture (crack spreads with localized plastic deformation)

Often no sharp division between ductile and brittle failures can be made!

3-III-3

Failure by easy glide

Hexagonal metals deform by easy glide on the basal plane (Zn, Cd, Mg)

Strong temperature dependence of single crystal stress-strain curves

(a)

(b)

Mg

(x100)

Fig. 3.79 Stress-strain curve of magnesium crystals. (a) The effect of temperature
on the stress-strain curves and (b) the effect of strain rate.
3-III-4

Failure by easy glide (single glide system)

No strain hardening at higher temperatures (lower strain rates)

Coarse widely speeded slip bands
Stress concentration at notches

Heterogeneous shear fracture

(a)

(b)

Mg

Fig. 3.80 Stress-strain curve of magnesium crystals. (a) The effect of

temperature on the stress-strain curves and (b) corresponding
extensive slip and fracture by shear along one slip band.

3-III-5

Failure by necking

Cubic crystals

Multiple glide on several slip bands

Assumption of double glide

Randomly reduction of area
Necking will occur more easily in the
reduced section than in the
remainder of the specimen
Cross-section area of the bands
becomes smaller and smaller
Locally increasing shear stress

Necking and finale failure

Only one possibility
Limited to single crystals

Fig. 3.81 (a) Crystal oriented for double slip. (b)

Development of a neck. (c) Chisel edge
fracture.

3-III-6

Failure related to twinning

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.82 The lattice reorientation due

to twinning may induce failure. (a) Zinc
or cadmium crystal. (b) Rotation of
lattice due to slip. (c) Formation of
twin. (d) Deformation leading to
fracture in twin

Lattice reorientation through twins.

Slip systems with higher Schmid factor ms
Increase of plastic deformation inside the twin than in the parent crystal

Zn, Cd
Twinning along the [1012] plane

No involvement of cracks (rupture)!

3-III-7

Brittle to ductile fracture

(a)
Ductile fracture
Soft metals (Au, Pb) at room
temperature
Metals at elevated temperatures

Common
Tensile fracture profile for
ductile metals
Fracture is preceded by some
moderate amount of plastic
deformation (necking)

Brittle fracture without

preceding deformation

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.83 (a) Highly ductile fracture in which the specimen

necks down to a point. (b) Moderately ductile fracture after
necking. (c) Brittle fracture without any plastic deformation
(schematically!)
3-III-8

Cup-and-cone fracture

Fracture process occurring in several

stages

Necking

Formation of voids

Coalesce and form elliptical crack

Growth of crack

Rapid propagation of a crack

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.84 Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture.

(a) Initial necking. (b) Small cavity formation.
(c) Coalescence of cavities to form a crack. (d)
Crack propagation. (e) Final shear fracture.

(d)

(e)
3-III-9

Brittle vs. ductile fracture

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.85 (a) Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum and (b) brittle fracture in a low
carbon steel.

3-III-10

Brittle facture

No pre-deformation

Rapid crack propagation

Absence of plastic deformation

Transcrystalline

Cleavage

Transgranular or transcrystalline cleavage

Crack propagation through successive and
repeated breaking of atomic bonds along
specific crystallographic planes

Intercrystalline cleavage
Crack propagation along grain boundaries
Intercrystalline
Fig. 3.86 Classification of brittle fracture types in
terms of microscopic features.
3-III-11

Transcrystalline and
intercrystalline
fracture

Fig. 3.87 Examples of the two

brittle fracture types in terms of
microscopic features.
3-III-12

SEM images of fracture surfaces

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.88 (a) Transcrystalline and (b) intercrystalline brittle fracture surfaces. (c)
Ductile transcrystalline fracture by void condensation. (d) Fatique fracture
surface.

Theoretical fracture strength

Fracture strength of a solid material is a function of the cohesive forces that

exist between atoms

Theoretical limit for the cohesive strength of a brittle elastic solid

E: modulus of elasticity
a0: atomic distance ( )

E E
th

2 a0 10

Experimental fracture strengths of most engineering materials

normally lie between 0.001 and 0.1
th

Fracture occurs above a critical level and fracture strength not reproducible
Materials contain defects!
Stress concentration (local increase of stress) at voids, cracks and
notches!
3-III-14

Stress concentration

Defects that exist under normal

conditions at the surface and within the
interior of a body of material

Applied stress will be amplified

2a
2l

max

max > 0

(b)

(a)

0
Fig. 3.89 (a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile along the line
XX in (a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.

3-III-15

Griffith theory

2a
2l

Elliptically shaped defect

max: maximum stress at crack tip

max
0:
t:
a:

Fig. 3.89 Idealized geometry of a crack.

a
a
2a
= 0 1 + = 0 1 + 2
02
l
t
t

Magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress

Radius of curvature of the crack tip
Length of a surface crack or half of the length of an internal crack

max
a
=2
= Kt
0
t
Kt: Stress concentration factor (determined by shape of crack)
3-III-16

Stress concentration
at a crack

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.90 (a) Stress concentration at a

sharp crack tip of a notch in a brittle
material. (b) Blunting of the crack tip by
plastic deformation.

Brittle fracture
No plastic deformation - stress release only by crack extension

Intermediate case
Only few slip systems available or slip hindered by hardening

Ductile fracture
Stress release by plastic deformation
Blunting of the crack tip
3-III-17

Stress
concentration
factors
Dependence on sample or
edge shape

Kt:
Stress
concentration
factor

Fig. 3.91 Theoretical stress

concentration factor curves for
three simple geometrical shapes.
3-III-18

Regimes of crack induced failure

Basically three steps
1. Crack formation
Corrosion
Wear
Surface roughness
Brittle grain boundaries
Dislocation pile up
Reactions of dissolved gases
2. Subcritical crack growth: requirement of energy
3. Critical crack growth: release of energy

3-III-19

Regimes of crack induced failure

Basically three steps
1. Crack formation
2. Subcritical crack growth: requirement of energy
Under static load
During creep
Corrosive environment (stress corrosion cracking)
Under cyclic load (fatigue)
3. Critical crack growth: release of energy

3-III-20

Regimes of crack induced failure

Basically three steps
1. Crack formation
2. Subcritical crack growth: requirement of energy
3. Critical crack growth: release of energy
Brittle fracture (cleavage)
Ductile fracture (shear fracture) without local necking
Ductile fracture with local necking

Brittle-to-ductile transition at characteristic temperature!

3-III-21

Crack formation - and microstructural features

Microstructural features

(a)

(b)
Grain boundaries
Twin boundaries
Preciptations
LC pile-up

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.92 Mechanisms of the formation of

microcracks by dislocation pile-up: (a) at a
grain boundary, (b) at a twin boundary, (c) at
a grain boundary with a precipitation or
segregation which weaken interatomic
bonding, (d) at the intersection of slip bands.

Particle pile-up
Fig. 3.93 Void formation by pile-up of
dislocations at particles that are bound to the
matrix with low interfacial strength.
3-III-22

Crack formation during plastic deformation

Crack formation in ductile materials, particularly fcc metals

Formation of microvoids by dislocation pile up at inclusions
Coalescence of voids by stress concentration and local necking

Crack formation during grain boundary sliding

Particularly at grain boundary triple points
Vacancy flows to regions of high stress facilitate formation of microcracks

3-III-23

2a

Griffith theory of crack propagation

Wtot = Wsurface + Welastic + Wplastic + Wpotential

Ductile materials Wplastic >> Welastic

Ideal brittle materials (Griffith) Wplastic = 0

Fig. 3.94 The driving force

for crack propagation is the
reduction in strain energy. A
simple approximation is that
the strain is relaxed in a
sphere around the crack
with radius a.

Wtot = Wsurface Welastic

(Linear elastic fracture mechanics Wpot = 2Welastic)

Assumption: Growing of crack with length 2a (normalized thickness 1)

Release of elastic energy (driving force)

Wel

V =

2 a 2

2E
2E
Energy required to create new surface (s spec. surface energy)

Wel

Wsurface 4 s a

dWtot
<0
da

3-III-24

Griffith theory
Surface energy Wsur

Energy

Wtot = Wsur Wel

Wtot =

a 2 + 4 s a

Total energy Wtot

Crack growth by external stress

Stable crack

Above critical stress c

Rapid crack growth - instability

dWtot
<0
da

c =

2E s
a

Crack length a

Elastic energy Wel

Fig. 3.95 Griffith energies

ac =

2E s

3-III-25

Correction for partly plastic deformation

Wplastic > 0

Adding a spec. plastic deformation energy

s + p

Where p represents a plastic deformation energy associated with crack

extension

c =

2E ( s + p )

EGc
=
a

Gc the critical strain energy release rate

3-III-26

Stress analysis of cracks

Fig. 3.96 The three modes of crack surface displacement

(from left to right). Mode I, opening or tensile mode; mode II,
sliding mode; and mode III, tearing mode.

K is the stress intensity factor

Fig. 3.97 The stresses acting in front of

a crack that is loaded in a tensile mode
I configuration.

K
3

x =
cos 1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r
K
3

cos 1 + sin sin

y =
2
2
2
2r

K
3
xy =
sin cos cos
2
2
2 3-III-27
2r

W
a
a
Y =
tan

W
a
W

radians

geometric factor Y

Fracture toughness Kc
Toughness is a measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy up to fracture.

c =

c a

external properties

a
W

c aY

2E s
a
E s = K c
Material properties

= Kc

The constant Kc value for thicker specimens is the

plane strain fracture toughness KIc

c aY = K Ic

Fig. 3.98 Schematic representation of

a flat plate of finite width having a
through-thickness center crack.
3-III-28

Toughness with plate thickness Kc vs. KIc

Tougher for small plate thickness

fracture toughness Kc

K Ic
Plane stress behavior
(surface effect)

Plane strain behavior

thickness B
Fig. 3.99 Schematic representation showing the effect
of plate thickness on fracture toughness.

3-III-29

GIc and KIc for different materials

GIc

K Ic = GIc E

kJm-2

MPam-1/2

Material

Al alloys, ductile fracture

7...16

22...33

Ti alloys, ductile fracture

10...40

30...120

mild steel, ductile fracture

500...900

300...400

high-strength steel, ductile

fracture

5...130

30...150

mild steel, brittle fracture

0.6...60

10...100

Polycarbonate, ductile fracture

50...60

1.1

Polycarbonate, brittle fracture

0.4

Epoxy

0.2

0.8

Glass

0.002...0.01 0.3...0.6

Table 3.6. Critical strain energy release rate GIc and plane strain fracture toughness KIc for
selected engineering materials
3-III-30

Yield strength and KIc for different materials

Table 3.7. Yield strength and plane strain fracture toughness KIc for selected engineering
materials
3-III-31

Critical crack length for different metals

ac =

2
Ic
2

Table 3.8 Ranking of several metal alloys relative to

critical crack length (thin-walled vessel).
3-III-32

Fracture
toughness vs.
strength

Fig. 3.100 Fracture toughness

versus strength of different
engineering materials.

3-III-33

Connection between strength and toughness

Strength can only be increased at the expense of toughness

fracture toughness KI

Fig. 3.101 Fracture toughness Kic

and KIscc vs. yield strength for highstrength steel. Hardening increases
the yield stress due to impediment
of dislocation movement. The
reduced plasticity at the same time
reduces the blunting of the crack tip
by plastic deformation and thus
decreases the toughness.

yield strength
3-III-34

Impact fracture testing Charpy impact test

Measuring the total energy
absorption

Fig. 3.102 Illustration of the Charpy

impact test to determine toughness.
It employs a standard size
specimen that contains a notch. The
total energy absorption in breaking
the sample is recorded.

3-III-35

Brittle to ductile transition

(a)

(b)
-59C

-12C

4C
brittle

16C
ductile

24C

Fig. 3.103 (a) Temperature dependence of the Charpy V-notch

impact energy (curve A) and percent shear fracture (curve B) for a
steel. (b) Photograph of racture surfaces of steel Charpy V-notch
specimens tested at indicated temperatures.

79C
3-III-36

Variation of impact energy with temperature

Fig. 3.104 Variation of the impact
energy with temperature for different
materials.

fcc metals with low yield strength y: generally ductile for all temperatures!
High-strength materials with y > E/150: always brittle
bcc metals with y < E/300: brittle-ductile transition
Requirement for engineering materials: transition temperature below the T
3-III-37
range of usage!

Variation of impact energy with carbon content

in steel
room
temperature

Figure 3.105 Influence of carbon content on the impact energy versus

temperature behavior for steel.
3-III-38

Toughness from stress-strain curves

Toughness
Measure of the work per unit volume required to cause fracture at f
f

f
F (l ) dl
= d
Work per unit volume =
A(l ) l
0
0

F (l )
=
A( l )

dl
= d
l

: true stress
: true strain
f: fracture strain

Toughness corresponds to the area under the

true stress-true strain curve

3-III-39

Stress-strain curves
Stress

(a)

Low toughness

Fracture
Toughness

Strain

Strain

(c)

Fig.
3.106
(a)
Illustration
of
the
determination of toughness from the stressstrain curve. (b) Stress-strain curve with low
and (c) with high toughness.

Stress

Stress

(b)

High toughness

Strain

3-III-40

Ductile fracture in stress-strain curves

n

Youngs
modulus E

Onset of necking

TS
Finale
fracture

Tensile strength ts

0.1% proof
stress 0.1%
Yield
strength

Fig. 3.107 Schematic illustration of the

general characteristics of a tensile
stress-strain curve. The index n
indicates nominal quantities n= F/A0;
n = (l-l0)/l0.

n
0.1% strain

(Plastic) strain
after fracture f

y: yield strength (F/A0 at the onset of plastic flow)

0.1: 0.1% proof stress (F/A0 at a permanet strain of 0.1%)
TS: tensile strength (F/A0 at the onset of necking, (ultimate) tensile strength UTS)
3-III-41
f: (plastic) strain after fracture (tensile ductility)

Deformation in tensile test

t-t
curve

Onset of necking

Stress

UTS
-
curve

Specimen shape as a
Function of strain

Strain

Fig. 3.108 Deformation in a

tensile test gives rise to an
elongation of the sample.
Since plastic deformation
occurs at constant volume,
this leads to a reduction in the
cross section. With plastic
deformation, the cross section
area decreases, but the loadcarrying capacity of the
specimen increases due to
strain hardening. Eventually
an elongation is reached
where
the
incremental
increase
in
load-carrying
capacity
due
to
strain
hardening becomes less than
the incremental decrease in
load-carrying capacity due to
decreasing load-bearing area.

Nominal or engineering stress:

= F/A0 (dashed line)

Nominal or engineering strain:

= (l-l0)/l0 = l/l0

True stress:

t = F/A = ln(1 + ) (solid line)

True strain

l
l 0 + l
dl

= ln(1 + )
(= t ) = = ln = ln
l
l0
l0
l0
3-III-42
l

Necking condition
Plastic deformation
Reduction in cross section
Strain hardening

dF d
dF

=
A+
d d
d

V = const. -> dA=-Ad

dF
=0
d

Start of necking:

=
d 1 + neck

d
d

= ln(1 + ) d =

d
1+

neck: strain where necking starts

> neck: mechanical instability

3-III-43

Determination of start of necking

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.109 (a) Illustration of the necking condition (Considre construction). (b) The start of
necking can also be estimated as the maximum in the engineering stress F/A0 (only
approximation). The Considre construction yields a more precise value of neck.
3-III-44

Stress-strain curves for compressive load

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.110 (a) Stress-strain curves of typical metals of sufficient ductility are identical for tension
and compression. In contrast, brittle materials such as ceramics and cast iron exhibit a much
higher strength under compression than under tensile load (b).

Brittle materials: much higher strength under compression

Reasons: Compressive force closes cracks
No strain energy release upon crack extension
3-III-45

Weibull statistics (brittle fracture)

Existing defects
The design strength of a brittle material is determined by its low fracture
toughness in combination with the lengths of the crack-like defects it
contains.
Distribution of defects in defect-sensitive materials
Probability of failure

Fig. 3.111 In tension the largest defect propagates unstably (different case for compression).
3-III-46

Probability of failure
m
PS (V0 ) = exp
0
(a)

0 material constant
m material constant (Weibull modulus)
Ps survival probability (one volume element)
(b)

Fig. 3.112 (a) The Weibull distribution function. (b) When the modulus, m, changes, the survival
probability changes as shown.

V m
PS (V ) = exp
V0 0

Ps survival probability
3-III-47

Fatigue failure
Characteristics
Failure that occurs
in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
at low stress level (lower than static tensile or yield strength)
after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling
Fatigue
is the single largest cause of failure in metals (approx. 90% of all metallic
failures)
is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals
shows no gross plastic deformation associated with failure

Fatigue through initiation and propagation of cracks

Fracture surface is perpendicular to direction of applied tensile stress
3-III-48

Fatigue failure
Two possible starting conditions
1. Fatigue of initially uncracked components

No preexisting macroscopic cracks fracture controlled by crack initiation

(Small components: ball races, gear teeth, crank shafts, ...)
High cycle fatigue: Stresses < y > 104 cycles to fracture
(Rotating and vibrating systems: wheels, axes, engine components)
Low cycle fatigue: Stresses > y < 104 cycles to fracture
(Components with occasional overloads airframes, turbine components)

2. Fatigue of initially cracked samples

Preexisting cracks propagation controlled fracture

(Large structures particularly with welds (bridges, ships, pressure vessels)

3-III-49

Fatigue failure

Table 3.09 Fatigue behavior

3-III-50

Cycling stresses

Mean stress for cyclic m

m =

max + min

2
Range of stress for cyclic loading r

(a)

r = = max min

Stress amplitude for cyclic loading a

min

a = r = max
2
2
Stress ratio R

R=

min
max

Fig. 3.113 Variation of stress with time, accounting for

fatigue failure. (a) Reversed stress cycle with alternating
stress of equal magnitude. (b) Repeated stress cycle, in
which maximum and minimum stresses are asymmetrical
relative to the zero-stress level. The mean stress range of
stress and stress amplitude are indicated. (c) Random stress
cycle.

(b)

(c)

3-III-51

Plastic strains - hysteresis

Bauschinger effect
Yield strength decreases when the
direction of strain is changed
Initial loading
Elastic deformation
O to C:yield stress in tension
Plastic deformation (C to D)
Reversal of deformation
D to E: yield stress in compression
Compressive yield stress is smaller than
the initial yield stress in tension
Cycle completed at F
Hysteresis loop
Completed with path F to G to D to
complete the hysteresis loop
Loop is nearly symmetrical

3-III-52

Fig. 3.114 Hysteresis in strain stress curves.

Fatigue
testing
Bending

Axial
Fig. 3.115 Fatigue
testing in tension
(compression) or in
rotating bending.

m =

max + min
2

= max min

Applied sinusoidal stress

Axial stress (tension-compression)
Flexural stress (bending)
Torsional stress (twisting)
Fig. 3.116 Stress vs. time
3-III-53
|m| 0 decreases tolerable stress amplitude!

Fatigue testing device

Compression

Tension
Fig. 3.117 One form of rotating-beam fatigue-testing machine with fatigue-test
specimen. Specimen is bent while it rotates. Any point in the reduced middle section
alternates between states of tensile and compressive stress.

3-III-54

Fatigue strength test procedure

Series of tests
Stress cycling of a specimen at a relatively large maximum stress
amplitude (approx. two thirds of the static tensile strength)
Counting the number of cycles N to failure

Procedure repeated on other specimens with progressively decreasing

maximum stress amplitudes

Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles
to failure for each of the specimens.
Two distinct types of SN behavior are observed
S-N curve with fatigue limit (S const. for high N)
S-N curve without fatigue limit (S continuously decreasing for high N)

3-III-55

S-N curve (Whler curve)

Figure 3.118 Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to
fatigue failure (N) for a material that displays a fatigue limit.

Fatigue limit := fatigue strength, e.g. steels

3-III-56

S-N curve (Whler curve)

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x
x

Figure 3.119 Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue failure
(N) for a material that does not display a fatigue limit. Shown is a best-fit curve.

(@ N1 >107 ) - Fatigue strength, e.g. nonferrous metals (Al-, Cu-alloys, ...)

N (@ S1) Fatigue life
3-III-57

Approximate fatigue stress of metals

Table 3.10 Approximate fatigue stress of metals and alloys.

3-III-58

max-N curve
min = 0, max > 0 R = 0
min < 0, max > 0 R < 0
min > 0, max > 0 R > 0

Fig. 3.120 The effect of R on the S-N curves.

Note that as R becomes more positive, the
endurance limit increases.
Fig. 3.121 The effect of several values of m upon the
cyclic stress pattern for constant value of the stress range.

3-III-59

Fatigue SN probability

Figure 3.122 Fatigue SN probability of failure curves for a 7075-T6 aluminum

alloy. P denotes the probability of failure.

Differences in specimen fabrication, surface preparation, and metallurgical variables.

SN curves are normally average values
3-III-60

Crack initiation and propagation

Fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps
1. Crack initiation
Formation of small crack at some point of high stress concentration
2. Crack propagation
Crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle
3. Final failure
Rapidly advancing crack once it has reached a critical size

3-III-61

Crack propagation and failure

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.123 Examples of crack propagation. (a) Fracture surface of a rotating steel shaft that
experienced fatigue failure. Beachmark ridges are visible in the photograph. (b) Transmission
electron image showing fatigue striations in aluminum. (c) Fatigue failure surface. A crack
formed at the top edge. The smooth region also near the top corresponds to the area over which
the crack propagated slowly. Rapid failure occurred over the area having a dull and fibrous
texture (the largest area).

3-III-62

Fatigue behavior of cracked

components
Assumption
All large structures contain cracks!
Initial length a0 of cracks not known
Safe life of the structures determined by how many cycles
the structure can last before the occurrence of
catastrophic crack growth
K = aY

K max = max aY
K min = min aY
K min = 0

for min > 0

for min 0

Fig. 3.124 Geometry of fatigue-crack growth in pre3-III-63

cracked components.

Cyclic stress intensity K

K = K max K min = aY

Tensile stress

Compressive stress

Fig. 3.125 Fatigue-crack growth in pre-cracked components. The cyclic stress intensity K
increases at constant stress amplitude due to crack growth (a const.).

3-III-64

Crack length with N

Fig. 3.126 Crack length versus the number of cycles N at stress levels 1 and 2
for fatigue studies. The crack growth rate da/dN is indicated at crack length a1 for
both stress levels.
3-III-65

Fatigue-crack growth
rates
I.

Non propagating fatigue cracks

II. Steady-state regime

Linear logarithmic relationship

da
m
= A(K )
dN
A, m material constants
m = 3 10
III. Unstable crack growth

Fig. 3.127 Schematic representation of logarithm

fatigue crack propagation rate da/dN versus
logarithm stress intensity factor range K. The three
characteristic regions of different crack growth
response (I, II, and III) are indicated.
3-III-66

Fatigue-crack growth rates

Ni-Mo-V steel
0.2% yield strength = 580 MPa
Test temp. = 24 C
Test frequency = 30 Hz
Max. cyclic load 18 kN 44 kN
da
log
= m log(K ) + log(A )
dN
Nf

Nf = dN =
0

ac

da
m

a0 A(K )

Initial flaw length a0 not known

Critical crack length ac from fracture
toughness tests
Fig. 3.128 Logarithm crack growth rate versus logarithm
stress intensity factor range for a NiMoV steel.

3-III-67

(b)

Microscopic features of
fatigue
(a)
Cyclic loading
Slip bands group into packets
or striations

Persistent slip bands form

Fatigue cracks form in single

crystals cycled at low and
intermediate

Increased strain amplitudes

because they are regions of
highly concentrated strain

PSB

extrusion
intrusion

(c)

Plastic deformation!

Fig. 3.129 The difference in the surface contours where slip bands
intersect the surface for (a) one-directional deformation and (b)
alternating deformation. (c) Persistent slip band protrusions with
superimposed extrusions and intrusions in a copper single crystal

3-III-68

Persistent slip bands (PSBs)

PSBs form after many cycles by cross-slip and climb

New dislocation arrangement of lower strain energy

Many dipoles and multipoles (no long-range strains)
Cell structure with dislocation walls

Accumulation of defects

PSBs cannot be removed completely by chemical polishing

(they are persistent)

Orientation 45relative to tensile axis (maximum Schmid factor ms)

3-III-69

Model of crack initiation and propagation

Neumanns coarse slip model of fatigue
(2)

Slip plane a is work hardened below

the slip step

(3)

High shear stress at surface edge

Slip plane b becomes operative

(4, 5) Planes a and b slip almost back

Irreversible effects: e.g., oxidation or
contamination
Incomplete welding of the surface
(8)

New slip plane c

Asymmetrical crack propagation
under symmetrical cycling

Two sets of slip planes required - experimentally confirmed

Fig. 3.130 Model of P. Neumann for the formation of a crack at coarse surface steps under
3-III-70
symmetrical cycling. (First cycle finished after step 5; restart after step 11).

Low cycle fatigue

Fatigue is facilitated by surface
defects!
Stage 1
Crack initiation in direction of
maximum ms
Slip bands
Stage 2
Intensity factor increases with
crack length
Propagation normal to tensile
axis ( to )

Fig. 3.131 Crack formation in low-cycle fatigue.

3-III-71

Fatigue crack growth

Tension
Crack tip stretched open by
formation of plastic zone
Creation of new surface
Compression

Tension

Compression

Crack is squeezed shut

New surface folds forward
Alternatively

Tension

Voids caused by inclusions

Faster propagation of crack
Fig. 3.132 Growing of fatigue cracks grow by (a) production
of a plastic zone without inclusions and (b) with voids
caused by inclusions.
3-III-72

Fatigue crack propagation

(a)

(c)

(e)

(b)

(d)

(f)

Fig. 3.133 Fatigue crack propagation mechanism (stage II) by repetitive crack tip
plastic blunting and sharpening. (a) Zero or maximum compressive load, (b) small
tensile load, (c) maximum tensile load, (d) small compressive load, (e) zero or
maximum compressive load, and (f) small tensile load. The loading axis is vertical.
3-III-73

Crack formation in high-cycle fatigue

Fig. 3.134 Crack formation in highcycle fatigue

Plastic flow at stress concentrations.

3-III-74

shear stress

Hardening mechanisms
So far
1. Work hardening by plastic
deformation

Stage I

Stage II

Stage III

d
II =

d II

Dislocations as obstacles
1
2

y Gb N

shear strain

2. Hardening by grain refinement

Hall-Petch relation

y 0 +

ky
D

Fig. 3.135 Work hardening and Hall-Petch

relation.

3-III-75

Solid solution hardening

Solid solution hardening
Impurity atoms as obstacles
Hardening by alloying
Caused by the interaction of alloying elements with dislocations
Increase in glide resistance
Three different ways in which solute atoms can interact with dislocations
Parelastic interaction (lattice parameter effect)
Dielastic interaction (shear modulus effect)
Chemical interaction (Suzuki effect)

3-III-76

Critical shear stress 0 (MPa)

Phenomenology Ag-Au single crystals

atomic % Au
Fig. 3.136 Composition dependence of critical shear stress in Ag-Au single
crystals.
3-III-77

Paraelastic interaction lattice parameter effect

Paraelastic interaction: interaction of misfit strain with dislocation
Solute atoms with an atomic size different from the matrix atoms.
Incorporation into the crystal lattice causes compressive or tensile stresses
Edge dislocations posses a hydrostatic stress field
Large impurities and interstitial atoms
Enrichment in dilatational field of
Small substitutional impurities
Enrichment in compressional field of
Movement of dislocations
Separation of dislocation and solute atoms
Input of elastic energy gained during segregation of the solute atom to the
dislocation
Application of additional stress to overcome the back-driving force
3-III-78

Interstitial atoms at edge dislocations

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.137 Preferred positions of substitutional atoms at the core of an edge

dislocation (a) Interstitial atom and (b) interstitial clusters, e.g., C in -Fe in in
dilatational stress field of dislocation core of an edge dislocation. The elastic
attraction gives rise to an interaction force that impedes dislocation movement.

3-III-79

Substitutional atoms at edge dislocations

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.138 (a) Arrangement of large substitutional atoms, e.g., Zn in Cu and (b) smaller (filled
circle) as well as larger (shaded circle) substitutional atoms.

3-III-80

Paraelastic interaction

Pressure on -dislocation
(Hydrostatic stress field)
1
Gb 1 + sin
p = ( xx + yy + zz ) =
3
3 1 r

Radius of solute Rso and matrix atoms Rmat

1+ =

RSo
RMat

Interaction energy
8
sin 1
E par = GbR 3

3
r
r

Fig. 3.139 Paraelastic interaction between a

substitutional atom and a edge dislocation in a
distance r.

Maximum paraelastic interaction force

max
Fpar
= Gb 2

3-III-81

Screw dislocations

Fig. 3.140 Anisotropic distortion of C in -Fe.

Screws dislocations: No hydrostatic stress field! No paralelastic interaction.

Impurities with anisotropic distortional field
Paraelastic interaction with shear field of screw dislocations

3-III-82

Dielastic interaction
Energy density of a dislocation is proportional to the shear modulus

Solute atom introduces different shear modulus

Binding energy changes due to solute atom
Volume of the solute atom contributes to the total energy of the dislocation

Strain field of dislocation induces elastic moment around impurity atom

Edie

Gb 2 R 3
1
=
2 2
6
r
r

Change of interaction energy

relative change in shear modulus

Maximum paraelastic interaction force for a screw dislocation

max
Fdie
=

1
Gb 2
20
3-III-83

Yield point phenomena

Diffusion of solute atoms!

Fig. 3.141 Mobile impurity atoms segregate to the core

of dislocations to reduce the strain energy (Cottrell
atmosphere). As a consequence, an additional force
has to be applied to free the dislocations. This gives
rise to a pronounced yield point. C and N, e.g., are
already mobile at room temperature on long time scale.

Sharp yield point

Dislocations are freed from Cottrell
atmosphere (segregated impurity atoms)

3-III-84

Stress (MPa)

Yield point in carbon steels - strain aging

(a)

(b)

(c)

No yield point directly after

preloading
Renewed impurity segregation
After prolonged aging
Sharp yield point as in
virgin sample

Strain (%)
Fig. 3.142 (a) Pronounced yield point in carbon steel. (b) If the stress is relieved for a
short time and then reapplied no pronounced yield point is observed. (c) After a longer
period of stress relief a pronounced point reappears.
3-III-85

Stress (MPa)

Portevin-Le Chatelier effect

Dynamic strain aging
(Portevin-Le Chatelier effect)
Detail of the serrated curve

Fig. 3.143 Schematic hardening

curve of a material exhibiting the
Portevin-Le Chatelier effect.
Strain (%)

Mobility of solute atoms large enough to follow dislocation (e.g. 200C for C in Fe)
Segregation of solute atoms during deformation
(dislocation movement retarded at obstacles)
Occurrence of serrations in vs. curve by alternating segregation and
detachment of the dislocation from its Cottrell atmosphere

3-III-86

Chemical interaction (Suzuki effect)

Dependence of stacking fault energy on chemical composition

Stacking fault energy reduced and dissociation width becomes wider

with increasing solute concentration

Segregation of impurity atoms in stacking fault reduces dislocation

energy (Suzuki atmosphere)

Stronger dissociation of dislocations by local impurity enrichment impedes

dislocation movement

Increase in dislocation energy upon movement of dislocation

Requires mobile impurity atoms!

3-III-87

Change in critical shear stress with concentration

(a)

Nitrogen in Nb
Carbon in Fe

(b)

Fig. 3.144 The critical shear stress increases with the square root of the impurity concentration for both
substitutional (a) and interstitial (b) solid solution.

Increase in yield strength: cSol

Problem: Solubility small for impurity atoms with strong misfit
Strong misfit most effective
3-III-88

Effect of alloying element

Fig. 3.145 The hardening effect in copper solid solution crystals is dependent on the alloying element
(s pre-factor in dependence).

3-III-89

Dispersion hardening

Substantial strengthening by nonmetallic particles

Oxides, carbides, borides
Cu-BeO
(in dispersion)

Orowan mechanism (see before)

Stress (MPa)

Cu-Co
(precipitated)
Cu-Co
(in solution)

Fig. 3.146 Orowan mechanism.

Strain
Fig. 3.147 Hardening curves of high purity copper and
copper alloys. In CuCo particles are shearable, in BeO
they are not.
3-III-90

Precipitation hardening

Coherent, partially coherent, or incoherent phase boundaries

For coherent phase boundaries

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.148 (a) Schematic sketch of a shear off of a particle after cut by a dislocation and (b)
observed in aged Ni19%Cr6%Al (after strain of 2%)

3-III-91

Precipitation hardening (theoretical)

Two competing mechanisms optimum particle size

Pre ~ r
Orowan
Precipitation hardening

Or ~

1
r
Fig. 3.149 Theoretical dependence
of strengthening on particle size.

r0 =

Gb 2

3
3-III-92

Strengthening
mechanisms in
metals

Fig. 3.150 Strengthening

mechanisms in metals (to
be translated)
3-III-93

Mechanism

Strengthening
mechanisms in
metals

Work or strain
hardening
Frank-Read
Sand
Gb
1 N
Generation
+
fNk(rT,a
)
dG
N

yy
pGb
yN

f 0Gb
cSol
impediment
of
yR

y
+

y
dT

2
r D
dislocations

R = f
; cSoldc
Passing
stress

dc

Solid solution
hardening
Dielastic and
paraelastic
interaction of
dislocations with
alloying elements
Precipitation
hardening
Impede
movement of
dislocations by
coherent orndnoncoherent 2
phase
Martensitic
hardening
Impede
movement of
dislocations
through internal
stresses

Example

y Gb N

Single
crystals
Polycrystal

y Gb N

y p + f ( T,a )

Cutting stress
Grain boundary
strengthening
Impede
dislocation
movement at
grain boundaries

Fig. 3.150t Strengthening

mechanisms in metals
(translated)

Quantitative description

Hall-Petch-Relation

y 0 +

ky

Fine grain
steels

Friction stress

dG
R f
cSol
dc

Cutting stress

S N r

Orowan stress

Brass, ironcarbon AlMg

Ni-base alloy
dispersionhardened Al

Gb N
r

dT

R = f
; cSol
dc

C15
and other
steels with
medium and
high carbon
content