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Aluminium alloys
Production
Production of aluminium by electrolytically
reducing Al2O3 in liquid salt (cryolite = sodium
aluminum fluoride Na3AlF6) to liquid metal. This
process is very energy consuming and
encourages recycling, which requires only a
fraction of the energy for reducing Al2O3 (HallHeroult process)
7.1
Nonmagnetic
Low Tm = 660 C
This is due to the formation of Al2O3 at the slip edges, which prevents reversibility of slip in cyclic loading.
7.2
Strengthening mechanisms
Table 7.1 The effect of strenthening mechanism in Al and Al alloys
7.3
Al designation systems
Wrought alloys
Casting alloys
- Heat-treatable
- Heat-treatable
- Nonheat-treatable
- Nonheat-treatable
Numbering system
1st number specifies the principle alloy element
Other numbers refer to the specific composition of the alloys
Temper Designations
F: As-Fabricated
W: Solution treated
O: Annealed
T: Age hardened
H: Cold worked
7.4
Examples
Wrought alloys
- 1xxx: Commercially pure Al
- 3xxx: Al-Mn
Casting alloys
- 1xx: Commercially pure Al
- 2xx: Al-Cu
- 4xx: Al-Si
7.5
Wrought alloys
a) Not age-hardenable
Single-phase
Strain hardening
Solid-solution strengthening (limited due to limited solubility)
Grain size control
7.6
Two-phases
Al-Mg (5xxx): Al-Mg solid solution solid-solution hardening
Fine dispersion of intermetallic compound Mg2Al3
Dispersion hardening*
also: - Strain hardening
- Grain size control
Al-Si (4xxx): +
: almost pure Si dispersion hardening
The Mg2Al3 phase is incoherent and does not lend itself for age hardening because
precipitates nucleate heterogeneously resulting in a coarse distribution.
7.7
b) Age-hardenable alloys
Al-Si-Mg (6xxx)
- + (as in Al-Si alloys) + age-hardening by Mg2Si precipitates
Al-Cu (2xxx), Al-Mg-Zn (7xxx)
- Age-hardenable excellent specific strength = strength/density
- Limited solubility limited amount of precipitates limited total
strength
- Overaging for > 175 C
7.8
7.9
Guinier-Preston zones
Fig. 7.3. Crystal structures of the equilibrium phases
(a) and (b). Open and solid circules represent Al
and Cu atoms, respectively. is completely
incoherent, and the resulting high interfacial energy
gives rise to a very high nucleation barrier. Therfore,
only nucleates heterogeneously at grain
bounadaries in a coarse distribution not suitable for
hardening. Because of the high nucleation barrier of
several metastable phases exist. The so-called
Guinier-Preston zones GP I (e) are precipitations of
Cu atoms on 100 planes. They form already below
100C by homogeneous nucleation via diffusion
mediated by quenched-in vacancies*. GP II or (d)
is a superstructure of GP I and forms similarly. The
tetragonal phase (c) is partially coherent, and
dislocations are needed to compensate the
mismatch along the c-direction. Consequently, the
nucleation barrier is higher than for GP I and GP II,
and nucleates heterogeneously at dislocations.
7.10
7.11
Casting alloys
Many alloys contain enough Si to cause eutectic reaction
low Tm good fluidity and castability
Al-Si alloys:
Solidification conditions
- Grain size and shape
- Nature of eutectic microstructure
7.12
Al-Li alloys
Li: only element (beside Be) that increases the elastic module of Al
at the same time reduces its density
7.13
Rapid solidification: liquid alloy broken into drops that quickly solidify
Thixocasting
7.14
Thixocasting
Stirring during solidification
dentritic structure broken up
rounded primary Al grains
+eutectic
2. Reheating in + L region
fluidity like liquid
3. Casting under pressure
Uniform microstructure
Minimum of casting defects due to
small liquid fraction
For automotive parts: pistons, wheels
Fig. 7.5. Dendritic structure in hypoeutectic AlSi casting alloy (a) can be broken up by the
stirring action and forms primary aluminum
phase forms a round (b)
7.15
Mg alloys
Extracted electrolytically from MgCl2 in seawater
= 1.74 g/cm3
Tm = 649 C
hcp structure much less ductile than Al
Alloying increases number of active slip planes
More active slip planes also at elevated temperature ( formability)
Low strain hardening coefficient
Small degree of solid solution strengthening
No corrosion resistance in presence of salts (seawater!)
7.16
Advanced alloys
- High purity: > 5 wt.% Ce or other RE
Protective MgO film: improved corrosion resistance
- Rapid solidification Larger amount of alloying elements dissolved
Further improvment in corrosion resistance
Mg-Al alloys
Age hardening: up to 10 wt.% Al
1. Alloying Zr, Th, Ag, Ce overaging
resistance at 300 C
2. Alloying up to 9% Li extremely
light weight alloys
3. Strengthening by ceramic particles or
fillers, e.g., SiC
4. Applications: aerospace industry high
speed machinery (e.g., printer carrier
unit)
7.18
Be alloys
Fig.7.7. A comparison of the strength-to-weight (a) and modulus of elasticity-to-weight (b) ratios
of beryllium and other nonferrous alloys.
7.19
7.20
Copper alloys
Production
Cu-Fe ore containing S
oxygen
T
Fe oxide + pure Cu
Purification: e.g.,electrolytically
Properties
fcc: excellent ductility and strain hardening coefficient
(12 slip systems) good formability
= 8.93 g/cm3: specific strength < as for Al and Mg alloys
Excellent corrosion resistance
Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity
Soldering and brazing ability
7.21
Table 7.6. Properties of typical copper alloys obtained by different strengthening mechanisms.
Applications
- Electrical components, electronics (< 1% impurities)
- Plumbing parts, ...
- Decoration: Pure Cu (red), Zn add (yellow), Ni add (silver colour)
7.22
Leaded Cu alloys
Effect of Pb spheres
Improvement of machining characteristics
Minimization of wear
- Lubrication
- Embedding of hard particles in soft lead spheres
Health problems with Pb
Good machinability also obtained with P additions.
7.23
Cu-Be alloys
Age hardened
High strength
High stiffness Application in springs
Nonsparking
7.24
Ni and Co alloys
General properties of Ni and Co alloys
Ni fcc good formability
417C
Co hcp fcc: polycrystals more brittle below 417C
7.25
7.26
Table 7.7. Composition, properties and applications for selected Ni and Co alloys.
7.27
Superalloys
Ni, Ni-Fe and Co alloys + large amount of alloying elements
High strength at elevated temperature
High creep resistance up to 1000C
Corrosion resistance even at elevated temperature
Application
- Vanes and blades for turbine and gas engines
- Heat exchangers
- Components for chemical reaction vessels
- Heat-treating equipment
7.28
a) Solid-solution hardening
Large amount of Cr, Mo, W
- Mo, W: large elements slow diffusion high T creep stability
- Cr: also oxide scale and carbide former
- Smaller additions of Ta, Zr, Nb, B
B segregates at grain boundaries of Ni3Al*
- Increase in coherent strength of GB
- Disordering of GB region no superdislocations
Relief of dislocation pile-up stess by slip across the boundary
(see Hall-Petch process)
Strongly reduced crack formation at GB
B also softens the grains, e.g., by segregation to dislocations thus preventing superdislocation
dissociation.
7.29
c) Precipitation hardening
Ni3Al, Ni3Ti or Ni3(Ti, Al) during aging
Coherent low interfacial energy small driving force for overaging
good strength even at high temperature
7.30
(a)
(b)
Ti alloys
Kroll process: TiO2
TiCl4: reduced to Ti by Na or Mg
7.32
882C
-Ti: hcp
-Ti: bcc
(martensitic transformation)
Transformation temperature changed by
alloying!
-stabilizers: Al, oxygen*, hydrogen*
(high manufacture cost to minimize gas!)
-stabilizers: V, Ta, Mo, Nb
Sn, Zr: - do not affect - transformation
- Provide solid-solution strengthening.
Mn, Cr, Fe: produce eutectoid reaction
- Reduction of - transition temp.
- Two-phase structure at room temp.
*In the close packed structures the interstices are larger than in bcc.
Applications
Chemical processing equipment
Marine components
Biomedical implants
Airframe and jet engine components
Ni-Ti: shape-memory alloys
7.34
Commercially pure Ti
Used for its superior corrosion resistance
Impurities (e.g.,oxygen) increase yield strength
Applications
Heat exchangers
Piping
Reactors
Pumps
Valves for chemical and petrochemical industries
7.35
-Ti alloys
Typ. alloy: Ti - 5wt.% Al - 2.5 wt.% Sn Solid-solution hardening of hcp
Annealing in region:
Rapid cooling acicular or Widmansttten grain structure: provides good fatigue
resistance
Furnace cooling more platelike structure provides better creep resistance
(larger features)
Fig. 7.14. (a) Annealing and (b) microstructure of rapidly cooled -Ti alloys (
100). The -phase first nucleates at grain boundaries and then extends into the
bulk in the form of Widmansttten plates.
7.36
-Ti alloys
Rich in stabilizers rapid cooling produces 100%
metastable
Strengthening:
Applications:
7.37
--Ti alloys
Proper balance of and stabilizers mixture of and at RT
Ti - 6% Al - 4% V: most common Ti alloy, used up to 350 C
Annealing just below -transus temp.
small amount of remains grain growth in prevented
Slow cooling equiaxed grains of
hcp plates form with basal planes parallel to 110 of bcc matrix
- Good ductility and formability (compared to basket weave
structure)
- Nucleation of fatigue cracks difficult
7.38
Fatigue cracks may nucleate more easily but must follow tortuous path
along / boundaries
- Good fracture toughness
- Good creep resistance
7.39
(a)
(b)
(c)
7.40
Quenching
7.41
7.42
Refractory Metals
W, Mo, Ta, Nb: high Tm > 1925 C high temp. service
Applications: filaments, rocket nozzles, electronic capacitors, chem.
processing equipment, ...
High density limited specific strength
Table 7.9. Properties of refractory metals
7.43
- High Tm
- Good adhesion
- Diffusion barrier for contaminants
- Low thermal expansion mismatch
7.44
Forming characteristics
Nb, Ta: ductile-to-brittle transition (bcc structure) below RT
good formability
Mo, W: transition temperature > RT
hot working fibrous microstructure with lower transition temperature
Alloys
W: alloying of Hf, Re, C operation up to 2100 C solid-solution strengthening
W-Mo: complete solute solubility solid-solution strengthening
W - 2% ThO2: dispersion strengthening to prevent grain boundary sliding,
(e.g., in filaments),
Oxide particles incorporated during powder metallurgy processing.
Nb reinforced with W fibers improved high-temp. properties.
7.45