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Construction

Materials
Their nature and
behaviour
Third edition

Edited by

J.M. Illston and


P.L.J. Domone

London and New York


Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

First published 2001 by Spon Press


11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Spon Press
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group


2001 Spon Press
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Construction materials : their nature and behaviour/edited by J.M. Illston and P.L.J.
Domone, 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Building materials. I. Illston, J.M. II. Domone, P.L.J.
TA403 .C636 2001
624.1'8dc21
2001020094
ISBN 0-419-25860-4 (pbk)
ISBN 0-419-25850-7 (hb)
ISBN 0-203-47898-3 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-78722-6 (Glassbook Format)

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

The biggest thing university taught me was that


with ambition, perseverance and a book you can
do anything you want to.
It doesnt matter what the subject is; once youve
learnt how to study, you can do anything you
want.
George Laurer, inventor of the bar code

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Contents
Contributors
Acknowledgements
Preface P.L.J. Domone and J.M. Illston

Part One Fundamentals W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon
Introduction
1

States of matter
1.1
Fluids
1.2
Solids
1.3
Intermediate behaviour

Energy and equilibrium


2.1
Mixing
2.2
Entropy
2.3
Free energy
2.4
Equilibrium and equilibrium diagrams

Atomic structure and interatomic bonding


3.1
Ionic bonding
3.2
Covalent bonding
3.3
Metallic bonding
3.4
Van der Waals bonds

Elasticity and plasticity


4.1
Linear elasticity
4.2
Consequences of the theory
4.3
Long-range elasticity
4.4
Viscoelasticity
4.5
Plasticity

Surfaces
5.1
Surface energy

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5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Water of crystallisation
Wetting
Adhesives
Adsorption

Fracture and fatigue


6.1
Brittle fracture
6.2
Ductile fracture
6.3
Fracture mechanics
6.4
Fatigue

Electrical and thermal conductivity

Part Two Metals and alloys W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon
Introduction
8

Physical metallurgy
8.1
Grain structure
8.2
Crystal structures of metals
8.3
Solutions and compounds

Mechanical properties of metals


9.1
Stressstrain behaviour
9.2
Tensile strength
9.3
Ductility
9.4
Plasticity
9.5
Dislocation energy
9.6
Strengthening of metals
9.7
Unstable microstructures

10 Forming of metals
10.1 Castings
10.2 Hot working
10.3 Cold working
10.4 Joining
11 Oxidation and corrosion
11.1 Dry oxidation
11.2 Wet corrosion
11.3 Control of corrosion
11.4 Protection against corrosion
12 Metals, their differences and uses
12.1 The extraction of iron
12.2 Cast irons

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12.3
12.4
12.5

Steel
Aluminium and alloys
Copper and alloys

Part Three Concrete P.L.J. Domone


Introduction
13 Portland cements
13.1 Manufacture
13.2 Physical properties
13.3 Chemical composition
13.4 Hydration
13.5 Structure and strength of hardened cement paste
13.6 Water in hcp and drying shrinkage
13.7 Modications of Portland cement
13.8 Cement standards and nomenclature
13.9 References
14 Admixtures
14.1 Plasticisers
14.2 Superplasticisers
14.3 Accelerators
14.4 Retarders
14.5 Air entraining agents
14.6 Classication of admixtures
14.7 References
15 Cement replacement materials
15.1 Pozzolanic behaviour
15.2 Types of material
15.3 Chemical composition and physical properties
15.4 Supply and specication
16 Aggregates for concrete
16.1 Types of aggregate
16.2 Aggregate classication: shape and size
16.3 Other properties of aggregates
16.4 Reference
17 Properties of fresh concrete
17.1 General behaviour
17.2 Measurement of workability
17.3 Factors affecting workability

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17.4
17.5

Loss of workability
References

18 Early age properties of concrete


18.1 Behaviour after placing
18.2 Curing
18.3 Strength gain and temperature effects
18.4 References
19 Deformation of concrete
19.1 Drying shrinkage
19.2 Autogenous shrinkage
19.3 Carbonation shrinkage
19.4 Thermal expansion
19.5 Stressstrain behaviour
19.6 Creep
19.7 References
20 Strength and failure of concrete
20.1 Strength tests
20.2 Factors inuencing strength of Portland cement concrete
20.3 Strength of concrete containing CRMs
20.4 Cracking and fracture in concrete
20.5 Strength under multiaxial loading
20.6 References
21 Concrete mix design
21.1 The mix design process
21.2 UK method of Design of normal concrete mixes
21.3 Mix design with cement replacement materials (CRMs)
21.4 Design of mixes containing admixtures
21.5 References
22 Non-destructive testing of hardened concrete
22.1 Surface hardness rebound (or Schmidt) hammer test
22.2 Resonant frequency test
22.3 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test (upv)
22.4 Near-to-surface tests
22.5 References
23 Durability of concrete
23.1 Transport mechanisms through concrete
23.2 Measurements of ow constants for cement paste and concrete
23.3 Degradation of concrete
23.4 Durability of steel in concrete
23.5 Recommendations for durable concrete construction
23.6 References

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

24 High performance concrete


24.1 High strength concrete
24.2 Self-compacting concrete
24.3 References

Part Four Bituminous materials D.G. Bonner


Introduction
25 Structure of bituminous materials
25.1 Constituents of bituminous materials
25.2 Bitumen
25.3 Types of bitumen
25.4 Aggregates
25.5 Reference
26 Viscosity and deformation of bituminous materials
26.1 Viscosity and rheology of binders
26.2 Measurement of viscosity
26.3 Inuence of temperature on viscosity
26.4 Resistance of bitumens to deformation
26.5 Determination of permanent deformation
26.6 Factors affecting permanent deformation
26.7 References
27 Strength and failure of bituminous materials
27.1 The road structure
27.2 Modes of failure in a bituminous structure
27.3 Fatigue characteristics
27.4 References
28 Durability of bituminous materials
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Ageing of bitumen
28.3 Permeability
28.4 Adhesion
28.5 References
29 Practice and processing of bituminous materials
29.1 Bituminous mixtures
29.2 Recipe and designed mixes
29.3 Methods of production
29.4 References

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Part Five Brickwork and Blockwork

R.C. de Vekey

Introduction
30 Materials and components for brickwork and blockwork
30.1 Materials used for manufacture of units and mortars
30.2 Other constituents and additives
30.3 Mortar
30.4 Fired clay bricks and blocks
30.5 Calcium silicate units
30.6 Concrete units
30.7 Natural stone
30.8 Ancillary devices ties and other xings/connectors
30.9 References
31 Masonry construction and forms
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Mortar
31.3 Walls and other masonry forms
31.4 Bond patterns
31.5 Specials
31.6 Joint-style
31.7 Workmanship and accuracy
31.8 Buildability, site efciency and productivity
31.9 Appearance
31.10 References
32 Structural behaviour and movement of masonry
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Compressive loading
32.3 Shear load in the bed plane
32.4 Flexure (bending)
32.5 Tension
32.6 Elastic modulus
32.7 Movement and creep of masonry materials
32.8 References
33 Durability and non-structural properties of masonry
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Durability
33.3 Chemical attack
33.4 Erosion
33.5 Staining
33.6 Thermal conductivity
33.7 Rain resistance
33.8 Sound transmission
33.9 Fire resistance

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

33.10 Sustainability issues


33.11 References

Part Six Polymers

L. Hollaway

Introduction
34 Polymers: types, properties and applications
34.1 Polymeric materials
34.2 Processing of thermoplastic polymers
34.3 Polymer properties
34.4 Applications and uses of polymers
34.5 References

Part Seven Fibre composites


Introduction

35 Fibres for polymer composites


35.1 Fibre manufacture
35.2 Fibre properties
35.3 References
36 Analysis of the behaviour of polymer composites
36.1 Characterisation and denition of composite materials
36.2 Elastic properties of continuous unidirectional laminae
36.3 Elastic properties of in-plane random long-bre laminae
36.4 Macro-analysis of stress distribution in a bre/matrix composite
36.5 Elastic properties of short-bre composite materials
36.6 Laminate theory
36.7 Isotropic lamina
36.8 Orthotropic lamina
36.9 The strength characteristics and failure criteria of composite laminae
36.10 References
37 Manufacturing techniques for polymer composites
37.1 Manufacture of bre-reinforced thermosetting composites
37.2 Manufacture of bre-reinforced thermoplastic composites
37.3 References

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

38 Durability and design of polymer composites


38.1 Temperature
38.2 Fire
38.3 Moisture
38.4 Solution and solvent action
38.5 Weather
38.6 Design with composites
38.7 References
39 Uses of polymer composites
39.1 Marine applications
39.2 Applications in truck and automobile systems
39.3 Aircraft, space and civil applications
39.4 Pipes and tanks for chemicals
39.5 Development of uses in civil engineering structures
39.6 Composite bridges
39.7 Retrotting bonded composite plates to concrete beams
39.8 Composite rebars
39.9 References

40 Properties of bre and matrices


40.1 Physical properties
40.2 Structure of the brematrix interface
41 Structure and post-cracking composite theory
41.1 Theoretical stressstrain curves in uniaxial tension
41.2 Uniaxial tension fracture mechanics approach
41.3 Principles of bre reinforcement in exure
41.4 References
42 Fibre-reinforced cements
42.1 Asbestos cement
42.2 Glass-reinforced cement (GRC)
42.3 Natural bres in cement
42.4 Polymer bre-reinforced cement
42.5 References
43 Fibre-reinforced concrete
43.1 Steel bre concrete
43.2 Polypropylene bre-reinforced concrete
43.3 Glass bre-reinforced concrete
43.4 Reference

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Part Eight Timber J.M. Dinwoodie


Introduction
44 Structure of timber and the presence of moisture
44.1 Structure at the macroscopic level
44.2 Structure at the microscopic level
44.3 Molecular structure and ultrastructure
44.4 Variability in structure
44.5 Appearance of timber in relation to its structure
44.6 Massvolume relationships
44.7 Moisture in timber
44.8 Flow in timber
44.9 References
45 Deformation in timber
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Dimensional change due to moisture
45.3 Thermal movement
45.4 Deformation under load
45.5 References
46 Strength and failure in timber
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Determination of strength
46.3 Strength values
46.4 Variability in strength values
46.5 Inter-relationships among the strength properties
46.6 Factors affecting strength
46.7 Strength, toughness, failure and fracture morphology
46.8 Design stresses for timber
46.9 References
47 Durability of timber
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Chemical, physical and mechanical agencies affecting durability and
causing degradation
47.3 Natural durability and attack by fungi and insects
47.4 Performance of timber in re
47.5 References
48 Processing of timber
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Mechanical processing
48.3 Chemical processing
48.4 Finishes
48.5 References

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Contributors
Professor D.G. Bonner
Department of Aerospace, Civil and
Environmental Engineering
University of Hertfordshire
Hateld Campus
College Lane
Hateld
Herts AL10 9AB
(Bituminous materials)
Professor J.M. Dinwoodie OBE
16 Stratton Road
Princes Risborough
Nr Aylesbury
Bucks HP17 9BH
(Timber)
Dr P.L.J. Domone
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
University College London
Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT
(Editor and concrete)
Professor D.J. Hannant
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 5XH
(Fibre reinforced cements and concrete)
Professor L. Hollaway
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 5XH
(Polymers and polymer composites)

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Professor J.M. Illston


10 Merrield Road
Ford
Salisbury
Wiltshire SP4 6DF
(Previous editor)
Dr I.R. McColl
School of Mechanical, Materials, Manufacturing
Engineering and Management
University of Nottingham
University Park
Nottingham NG7 2RD
(Fundamentals and metals)
Dr J.R. Moon
School of Mechanical, Materials, Manufacturing
Engineering and Management
University of Nottingham
University Park
Nottingham NG7 2RD
(Fundamentals and metals)
Dr R.C. de Vekey
Building Research Establishment
Garston
Watford
Herts WD2 7JR
(Brickwork and blockwork)

D.G. Bonner
Professor David Bonner graduated in Civil Engineering from the University of Leeds where he later
gained a PhD in Trafc Engineering. Following a
period working in the Highways Department of
Lincolnshire County Council, he joined the University of Hertfordshire (then Hateld Polytechnic) where he became Reader in Construction
Materials. He subsequently became Head of Civil
Engineering and is presently Associate Dean
(Academic Quality) for the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences.

J.M. Dinwoodie
Professor John Dinwoodie graduated in Forestry
from Aberdeen University, and was subsequently
awarded his MTech in Non-Metallic Materials
from Brunel University, and both his PhD and
DSc in Wood Science subjects from Aberdeen
University. He carried out research at the UK
Building Research Establishment for a period of
35 years on timber and wood-based panels with a
special interest in the rheological behaviour of
these materials. For this work he was awarded
with a special merit promotion to Senior Principal Scientic Ofcer. Since his retirement from
BRE in 1995, he has been employed as a consultant to BRE to represent the UK in the preparation of European standards for wood-based
panels. In 1985 he was awarded the Sir Stuart
Mallinson Gold Medal for research on creep in
particleboard and was for many years a Fellow of
the Royal Microscopical Society. In 1994 he was
appointed an Honorary Professor in the Department of Forest Sciences, University of Wales,
Bangor, and in the same year was awarded an
OBE. He is author, or co-author, of over one
hundred and thirty technical papers and author
of three text books on wood science and technology.

P.L.J. Domone
Dr Peter Domone graduated in civil engineering
from University College London, where he sub-

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

sequently completed a PhD in concrete technology. After a period in industrial research with
Taylor Woodrow Construction Ltd, he was
appointed to the academic staff at UCL, rst as
lecturer and then as senior lecturer in concrete
technology. He teaches all aspects of civil engineering materials to undergraduate students, and
his principle research interests have included nondestructive testing, the rheology of fresh concrete,
high-strength concrete and most recently, selfcompacting concrete.

D.J. Hannant
Professor David Hannant is a Professor in Construction Materials at the University of Surrey
and has been researching and teaching in the eld
of bre-reinforced cement and concrete since
1968. He has authored a book, patents and many
publications on steel, glass and polypropylene
bres and has been active in commercialising thin
sheet products to replace asbestos cement.

L.C. Hollaway
Professor Len Hollaway is Professor of Composite Structures at the University of Surrey and has
been engaged in the research and teaching of
composites for more than 30 years. He is the
author and editor of a number of books and has
written many research papers on the structural
and material aspects of bre matrix composites.

J.M. Illston
Professor John Illston spent the early part of his
career as a practising civil engineer before entering higher education. He was involved in teaching
and researching into concrete technology and
structural engineering as Lecturer and Reader at
Kings College, London and then Head of
Department of Civil Engineering at Hateld Polytechnic. His interest in his discipline took second
place when he became Director of the Polytechnic, but, on retirement he undertook preparation
of the second edition of this book. He has acted
as passive editor of this edition.

I.R. McColl
Dr Ian McColl is a senior lecturer at the University of Nottingham. His rst degree is in physics
and after receiving his PhD from Nottingham he
was involved in industrially sponsored research
and development work at the university before
taking up a lecturing post in 1988. He teaches
mainly in the areas of engineering materials and
engineering design. His research interests centre
around the fretting and fatigue properties of
engineering materials, components and assemblies, and the use of surface engineering to
improve these properties.

J.R. Moon
Dr Bob Moon is a metallurgist married to the
rst woman to study civil engineering at the University of Nottingham. His PhD was awarded by
the University of Wales (Cardiff) in 1960. He has
worked in the steel industry in South Wales,
researched into titanium and other new metals at
IMI in Birmingham and into superconductors,
magnetic materials and materials for steam turbines at C.A. Parsons on Tyneside. He joined the
staff of the University of Nottingham over 30

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

years ago and has taught materials to civil engineers for the majority of that time. He is now
reader in materials science and researches into the
triangle connecting processing, microstructure
and properties of materials made from powders.

R.C. de Vekey
Dr Bob de Vekey studied chemistry at Hateld
Polytechnic and graduated with the Royal Society
of Chemistry. He subsequently gained a DIC in
materials science and a PhD from Imperial
College, London on the results of his work at the
Building Research Establishment (BRE) on materials. At BRE he has worked on many aspects of
building materials research and development and
between 1978 and 2000 led a section concerned
mainly with structural behaviour, testing, durability and safety of brick and block masonry
buildings. From September 2000 he has relinquished his previous role and become an associate to the BRE. He has written many papers and
advisory publications and has contributed to
several books on building materials and masonry
and has been involved in the development of
UK and international standards and codes for
building.

Acknowledgements
I rst of all want to express my thanks to John
Illston for his tremendous work and vision that
resulted in the rst two editions of this book, and
for his encouragement and helpful advice in the
early stages of preparing this edition. My thanks
also go to all the contributors who have willingly
revised and updated their text despite many other
commitments. They have all done an excellent
job, and any shortfalls in the book are entirely
my responsibility. I greatly appreciate the advice
and inspiration provided by my students at UCL
and my colleagues at UCL and elsewhere, who
have suffered due to my neglect of other duties
whilst preparing and editing the manuscript.
Finally, but most importantly, I must acknowledge the support given to me by my wife and
children, who I have neglected most of all, but
who have borne with good grace the many hours
I have spent in my study.
P.L.J. Domone
I wish to express my appreciation to the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) and in particular
to Dr A.F. Bravery, Director of the Centre for
Timber Technology and Construction, not only

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

for permission to use many plates and gures


from the BRE collection, but also for providing
laboratory support for the production of the
gures from both existing negatives and from
new material.
Thanks are also due to several publishers for
permission to reproduce gures.
To the many colleagues who have so willingly
helped me in some form or other in the production of this revised text I would like to record my
very grateful thanks. In particular, I would like to
record my appreciation to Dr P.W. Boneld and
Dr Hilary Derbyshire, BRE; Dr J.A. Petty, University of Aberdeen; Dr D.G. Hunt, University of
the South Bank for all their valuable and helpful
advice. I would also like to thank colleagues at
BRE for assistance on specic topics: C.A.
Benham, J. Boxall, Dr J.K. Carey, Dr V. Enjily,
C. Holland, J.S. Mundy, Dr R.J. Orsler, J.F.
Russell, E.D. Suttie and P.P. White. Lastly, my
deep appreciation to both my daughter, who did
much of the word processing, and my wife for
her willing assistance in editing my text and in
proof reading.
J.M. Dinwoodie

Preface
This book is an updated and extended version of
the second edition, which was published in 1994.
This has been extremely popular and successful, but the continuing recent advances in many
areas of construction materials technology have
resulted in the need for this new edition.
The rst edition was published under the title
Concrete, Timber and Metals in 1979. Its scope,
content and form were signicantly changed for
the second edition, with the addition of three
further materials bituminous materials,
masonry and bre composites with a separate
part of the book devoted to each material,
following a general introductory part on Fundamentals.
This overall format has been retained. One new
small part has been added, on polymers, which
was previously subsumed within the section on
polymer composites. The other signicant
changes are, rst, in the section on concrete,
where Portland cement, admixtures, cement
replacement materials and aggregates now have
their own chapters, and new chapters on mix
design, non-destructive testing and high performance concrete have been added; and, second, in
the section on bre reinforced cement and concrete, which has been rearranged so that each
type of composite is considered in full in turn.
All of the contributors to the second edition
were able and willing to contribute again, with
two exceptions. First, the co-author of the rst
edition and editor and inspiration for the second
edition, John Illston, is enjoying a well-earned
retirement from all professional engineering and
academic activities, and did not wish to continue
as editor for this edition. This role was taken over
by Peter Domone, with considerable apprehen-

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

sion about following such an illustrious predecessor and the magnitude of the task. Fortunately,
John Illston provided much needed encouragement, advice and comments, particularly in the
early stages,
Second, one of the contributors, Bill Biggs, had
sadly died in the intervening period, but two new
contributors have revised, extended and updated
his Fundamentals and Metals sections. The
most signicant addition is a consideration of
equilibrium phase diagrams.

Objectives and scope


As before, the book is addressed primarily to students taking courses in civil or structural engineering, where there is a continuing need for the
unied treatment of the kind that we have again
attempted. We believe that the book provides
most if not all of the information required by students for at least the rst two years of three- or
four-year degree programmes. More specialist
project work in the third or fourth years may
require recourse to the more detailed texts that
are listed in Further reading at the end of each
section. We also believe that our approach will
continue to provide a valuable source of interest
and stimulation to both undergraduates and
graduates in engineering generally, materials
science, building, architecture and related disciplines.
The objective of developing an understanding
of the behaviour of materials from a knowledge
of their structure remains paramount. Only in
this way can information from mechanical
testing, experience in processing, handling and
placing, and materials science, i.e. empiricism,

craft and science, be brought together to give the


sound foundation for materials technology
required by the practitioner.
The Fundamentals section provides the necessary basis for this. Within each of the subsequent
sections on individual materials, their structure
and composition from the molecular level
upwards is discussed, and then the topics of
deformation, strength and failure, durability, and
manufacture and processing are considered. A
completely unied treatment for each material is
not possible due to their different nature and the
different requirements for manufacture, processing and handling, but a look at the contents list
will show how each topic has been covered and
how the materials can be compared and contrasted. Cross-references are given throughout the
text to aid this, from which it will also be apparent that there are several cases of overlap between
materials, for example concrete and bituminous
composites use similar aggregates, and Portland
cement is a component of masonry, some bre
composites and concrete.
It is impossible in a single book to cover the
eld of construction materials in a fully comprehensive manner. Not all such materials of construction are included, nor has the attempt been
made to introduce design criteria or to provide a
compendium of materials data. Neither is this
book a manual of good practice. Nevertheless we
hope that we have provided a rm foundation for
the application and practice of materials technology.

Levels of information
The structure of materials can be described on
dimensional scales varying from the smallest,
atomic or molecular, through materials structural
to the largest, engineering.

The molecular level


This considers the material at the smallest scale,
in terms of atoms or molecules or aggregations of
molecules. It is very much the realm of materials
science and a general introduction for all mater-

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

ials is given in Part One of the book. The sizes of


the particles are in the range of 107 to 103 mm.
Examples occurring in this book include the
crystal structure of metals, cellulose molecules in
timber, calcium silicate hydrates in hardened
cement paste and the variety of polymers, such as
polyvinyl chloride, included in bre composites.
As shown in Part One consideration of established atomic models leads to useful descriptions
of the forms of physical structure, both regular
and disordered, and of the ways in which materials are held together. Chemical composition is of
fundamental importance in determining this
structure. This may develop with time as chemical reactions continue; for example, the hydration
of cement is a very slow process and the structure
and properties show correspondingly signicant
changes with time. Chemical composition is of
especial signicance for durability which is often
determined, as in the cases of timber and metals,
by the rate at which external substances such as
oxygen or acids react with the chemicals of which
the material is made.
Chemical and physical factors also come
together in determining whether or not the material is porous, and what degree of porosity is
present. In materials such as bricks, timber and
concrete, important properties such as strength
and rigidity are inversely related to their porosities. Similarly, there is often a direct connection
between permeability and porosity.
Some structural phenomena such as dislocations
in metals are directly observable by microscopic
and diffractometer techniques, but more often
mathematical and geometrical models are
employed to deduce both the structure of the
material and the way in which it is likely to
behave. Some engineering analyses, like fracture
mechanics, come straight from molecular scale
considerations, but they are the exception. Much
more often the information from the molecular
level serves to provide mental pictures which aid
the engineers understanding so that they can
deduce likely behaviour under anticipated conditions. In the hands of specialists, knowledge of
the chemical and physical structure may well offer
a route to the development of better materials.

Materials structural level


This level is a step up in size from the molecular
level, and the material is considered as a composite of different phases, which interact to realise
the behaviour of the total material. This may be a
matter of separately identiable entities within
the material structure as in cells in timber or
grains in metals; alternatively, it may result from
the deliberate mixing of disparate parts, in a
random manner in concrete or asphalt or some
bre composites, or in a regular way in masonry.
Often the material consists of particles such as
aggregates distributed in a matrix like hydrated
cement or bitumen. The dimensions of the particles differ enormously from the wall thickness of
a wood cell at 5  103 mm to the length of a
brick at 225 mm. Size itself is not an issue; what
matters is that the individual phases can be recognised independently.
The signicance of the materials structural level
lies in the possibility of developing a more general
treatment of the materials than is provided from
knowledge derived from examination of the total
material. The behaviours of the individual phases
can be combined in the form of multiphase
models which allow the prediction of behaviour
outside the range of normal experimental observation. In formulating the models consideration
must be given to three aspects:
1. Geometry: the shape, size and concentration
of the particles and their distribution in the
matrix or continuous phase.
2. State and properties: the chemical and physical states and properties of the individual
phases inuence the structure and behaviour
of the total material.
3. Interfacial effects. The information under (1)
and (2) may not be sufcient because the
interfaces between the phases may introduce
additional modes of behaviour that cannot be
related to the individual properties of the
phases. This is especially true of strength, the
breakdown of the material often being controlled by the bond strength at an interface.
To operate at the materials structural level

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

requires a considerable knowledge of the three


aspects described above. This must he derived
from testing the phases themselves, and additionally from interface tests. While the use of the
multiphase models is often conned to research in
the interest of improving understanding, it is
sometimes taken through into practice, albeit
mostly in simplied form. Examples include the
estimation of the elastic modulus of concrete, and
the strength of bre composites.

The engineering level


At the engineering level the total material is considered; it is normally taken as continuous and
homogeneous and average properties are assumed
throughout the whole volume of the material
body. The materials at this level are those
traditionally recognised by construction practitioners, and it is the behaviour of these materials
that is the endpoint of this book.
The minimum scale that must be considered is
governed by the size of the representative cell,
which is the minimum volume of the material
that represents the entire material system, including its regions of disorder. The linear dimensions
of this cell varies considerably from, say, 103 mm
for metals to 100 mm for concrete and 1000 mm
for masonry. Properties measured over volumes
greater than the unit cell can be taken to apply to
the material at large. If the properties are the
same in all directions then the material is
isotropic and the representative cell is a cube,
while if the properties can only be described with
reference to orientation, the material is
anisotropic, and the representative cell may be
regarded as a parallelepiped.
Most of the technical information on materials
used in practice comes from tests on specimens of
the total material, which are prepared to represent the condition of the material in the engineering structure. The range of tests, which can be
identied under the headings used throughout
this book, includes strength and failure, deformation, and durability. The test data is often presented either in graphical or mathematical form,
but the graphs and equations may neither express

the physical and chemical processes within the


materials, nor provide a high order of accuracy of
prediction. However, the graphs or equations
usually give an indication of how the property
values are affected by signicant variables; such
as the carbon content of steel, the moisture
content of timber, the bre content and orientation in composites or the temperature of asphalt.
It is extremely important to recognise that the
quality of information is satisfactory only within
the ranges of the variables used in the tests.
Extrapolation beyond those ranges is very risky;
this is a common mistake made not only by students, but also often by more experienced engineers and technologists who should know better.

Comparability and variability


Throughout this book we have tried to excite
comparison of one material with another. Attention has been given to the structure of each
material, and although a similar scientic foundation applies to all, the variety of physical and
chemical compositions gives rise to great differences in behaviour. The differences are carried
through to the engineering level of information
and have to be considered by practitioners
engaged in the design of structures who rst have
to select which material(s) to use, and then ensure that they are used efciently, safely and
economically.

Selection of materials
The engineer must consider the tness of the
material for the purpose of the structure being
designed. This essential tness-for-purpose is a
matter of ensuring that the material will perform
adequately both during construction and in subsequent service. Strength, deformation and durability are likely to be the principal criteria that
must be satised, but other aspects of behaviour
will be important for particular applications, for
example water-tightness or speed of construction.
In addition, aesthetics and environmental impact
should not be forgotten.
Table 0.1 gives some properties of a number of

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

individual and groups of materials. These are


mainly structural materials, with some others
added for comparison. The mechanical properties
listed stiffness, strength (or limiting stress) and
work to fracture (or toughness) are all dened
and discussed in this book. It is immediately
apparent that there is a wide variety of each
property that the engineer can select from (or
cope with, if it is not ideal). It is also interesting
to note the overall range of each property.
Density varies by about two orders of magnitude
from the least to the most dense (timber to
metals). Stiffness varies by nearly three orders of
magnitude (nylon to diamond), strength by about
four orders (concrete to diamond) and work to
fracture by the greatest of all, ve orders (glass to
ductile metals). The great range of the last property is perhaps the most signicant of all. It is a
measure of how easy it is to break a material,
particularly under impact loading, and how well
it copes with minor aws, cracks, etc.; it should
not be confused with strength. Low values are
extremely difcult for engineers to deal with
low strength and stiffness can be accommodated
by bigger section sizes and structural arrangements (within limits), but low toughness is much
more difcult to handle. It is one reason why
bre composites have become so popular.
Clearly, in many circumstances more than one
material satises the criterion of tness-forpurpose; for instance, members carrying tension
can be made of steel or timber, facing panels can
be fabricated from bre composite, metal, timber
or masonry. The matter may be resolved by the
engineer making a choice based on his or her
judgement, with often some help from calculations. For example, comparisons of minimum
weight or minimum cost options for a simple
structure with different materials, obtained with
some fairly elementary structural mechanics, with
different materials gives some interesting results.
Consider the cantilever shown in Figure 0.1.
For linear elastic behaviour, the deection at the
free end is given by:
  Fl3/3EI
where E is the elastic modulus of the material and

TABLE 0.1

Selected properties of a range of materials

Material

Density
(tonne/m3)

Stiffness (E)
(GPa)

Strength or limiting
stress (MPa)*

Work to fracture
(toughness) (kJ/m2)

Diamond
Common pure metals
Structural steel
High strength steel
Cast iron
Silica glass
Titanium and alloys
Aluminium and alloys
Timber

3.5
519
7.85
7.85
6.97.8
2.6
4.5
2.7
0.170.98
(dry)
0.5
1.82.5

1000
20200
195205
205
170190
94
80130
6979
0.61.0 perp grain
916 par grain
13
2045

50 000
2080
235450
2601300
2201000
50200
1801320
40630
90200 (tens)
1590 (comp)**
4080
410 (tens)
20150 (comp)
30100
100300
600700
5090
1530

1001000
100130
15120
0.20.3
0.01
25115
830
820 Crack perp grain
0.52 crack par grain
0.51
0.03

2  106

1.0

3.4
27.5
5.0

8.9  105

1.0

1.1
16
1.7

1.0
0.7

0.06
0.12

0.10.3
10100
530
24

3.8

7.5

0.53

1.1

Spruce (par. to grain)


Concrete

Epoxy resin
1.11.4
Glass bre comp (grp)
1.42.2
Carbon bre composite
Nylon
1.11.2
Rubber
0.951.15

2.63
3545
180200
24
210

*in tension unless stated; yield stress for metals, otherwise ultimate stress.
**on clear specimens.

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

Relative cost ()
per unit:
mass
volume

l
FIGURE 0.1

A simple cantilever.

I is the second moment of area. For a rectangular


beam I  bd3/12, where b is the width of the
beam and d is its depth. Usually, the width is a
design constant, e.g. a bridge for four carriageways, but the depth can be altered to meet the
loading and deection requirements. The depth
is:
d  (4Fl3/Eb)1/3
The weight is:
W  lA  lbd  lb(4Fl3/Eb)1/3
where  is the density.
Rearranging, we have:
W  l 2b2/3(4F/)1/3(/E1/3)

(0.1)

so that, for a given set of design conditions (F, l,


b, ), W is minimised by maximising E1/3/. It
turns out that the same condition applies for any
type of beam, of any shape or of any loading conguration. The parameter E1/3/ is therefore the
selection criterion for stiffness at minimum
weight.
A similar approach can be taken to derive a
selection criterion for the strength of the beam.
For the cantilever in Figure 0.1, the maximum
tension stress generated is:
max  6Fl/bd 2
Following the argument through as before gives:
W  l3/2b1/2(6F)1/2(/1l/i2mit)

(0.2)

So, for strength at minimum weight, we want to


2
maximise 1li/mit
/. Note the use of limit, the

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

maximum useful stress that the material can tolerate in tension. In dening this, we must take
into account the variability of materials, discussed below.
The cost of a beam is simply WM, where M is
the cost of the material per unit mass. Working
the arguments through again give criteria for
stiffness and for strength at minimum cost. These
turn out to be similar to those used before, i.e.
E1/3/V and 1/2/V, where V is the material cost
per unit volume  density  cost per unit mass.
Table 0.2 shows how these four factors relative
to those for structural steel work out for some of
the materials listed in Table 0.1. Where appropriate the mid-range properties have been used,
together with the prices given in Table 0.2.
Remembering that we are looking for maximum
values, the most obvious result is that timber is
outstanding in terms of stiffness and strength at
both minimum weight and minimum cost
nature clearly got things right without any help
from us. Thinking only about weight and neglecting cost points to the efciency of diamond (not a
realistic option!), titanium, aluminium, epoxy
resin and nylon. But when it comes to minimising
costs, the highest scoring materials other than
timber are steel and concrete.
Table 0.2 does not, of course, give a complete
picture. Prices will vary from time to time, and
other properties, such as ease of construction,
durability and toughness have not been taken
into account. Also, composite systems, such as
reinforced concrete and bre reinforced systems
have not been considered. Nevertheless, it does
give food for thought.
The cost of the energy used in manufacturing
the material and its transport and fabrication
must also not be overlooked, either in simple economic or in environmental terms. High-strength
versions of all the materials covered in this book
are often sought with the intention of reducing
the volume of material for a given structure, normally with a commensurate saving in energy;
and, conversely, lower grade materials are sometimes introduced to replace higher grades as, for
example, in the partial replacement of cement by
the waste material, pulverised fuel ash (y ash).

An important issue facing engineers is the variability of the properties of the material itself,
which clearly depends on the uniformity of its
structure and composition.
The strength or maximum allowable stress is of
particular concern. In tension, for ductile materials this can be taken as the yield strength or the
proof stress (see Chapter 9), but for brittle materials it may have to be chosen on the basis of the
approach described in Chapter 6. In compression,
brittle materials have a well dened maximum
stress, but ductile materials may not fail at all,
they just continue being squashed.
The variability can be assessed by a series of
tests on nominally similar specimens from either
the same or successive batches of a material; this
usually gives a variation of strength or maximum
stress with a normal or Gaussian distribution as
shown in Figure 0.2. This can be represented by
the bell-shaped mean curve given by the equation
1
(m)2
y   exp  
(0.3)
s
2

2s2

where y is the probability density, and  is the


variate, in this case the strength. The strength
results are therefore expressed in terms of two
numbers:

Number of results or probability density

Variability and characteristic strength

m
Strength 

FIGURE 0.2
strength.

2. the range or variability, expressed as the standard deviation, s, given by


s2  [(  m)2/(n  1)]

(0.4)

(0.5)

The standard deviation has the same units as the


variate.
For comparison of different materials or different
kinds of the same material the non-dimensional
coefcient of variation cv is used, given by
cv  s/m

1. the mean strength, m, where for n results:


m  /n

Histogram and normal distribution of

(0.6)

cv is often expressed as a percentage.

TABLE 0.2 Weight and cost comparisons for the use of alternative materials for the cantilever of Figure 0.1
(all gures relative to mild steel  1, material properties as in Table 0.1)
Material

Diamond
Structural steel
Silica glass
Titanium and alloys
Aluminium and alloys
Spruce (par. to grain)
Concrete
Epoxy resin
Nylon

Cost
Minimum weight
Minimum cost
(/tonne) Stiffness criterion Strength criterion Stiffness criterion Strength criterion
E1/3/
max1/2/
E1/3/ . /tonne
max1/2/ . /tonne
2  106
1.0
3.4
27.5
5.0
1.0
0.7
3.8
7.5

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

3.8
1.0
2.4
1.4
2.1
6.4
1.8
1.5
1.7

31.8
1.0
2.1
3.0
3.4
7.7
0.6
3.2
3.6

1.9  106
1.0
0.8
0.05
0.4
6.4
2.6
0.4
0.2

1.6  105
1.0
0.7
0.1
0.7
7.7
0.8
0.8
0.5

TABLE 0.3 Comparison of strengths of construction materials and their coefcients of variation. c  compression, t  tension
Material

Mean strength
MPa

Coefcient of
variation (%)

Steel
Concrete
Timber

460 t
40 c
30 t
120 t
11 t
18 t

2
15
35
18
10
10

20 c

10

Fibre cement composites


Masonry

Structural mild steel


Typical concrete cube strength at 28 days
Ungraded softwood
Knot free, straight grained softwood
Structural grade chipboard
Continuous polypropylene bre with 6%
volume fraction in stress direction
Small walls, brick on bed

variation for chipboard or breboard is appreciably


lower than that for ungraded timber.
Engineers need to take both the mean strength
and the strength variation into account in determining a safe strength at which the possibility of
failure is reduced to acceptable levels. If the mean
stress alone is used, then by denition half of the
material will fail to meet this criterion, which is
clearly unacceptable. The statistical nature of the
distribution of results means that a minimum
strength below which no specimen will ever fail
cannot be dened, and therefore a value known
as the characteristic strength (char) is used, which
is set at a distance below the mean, called the

100
Area 
% failure
 failure rate

Failure rate (%)

Number of results

Values of typical mean strengths and their coefcients of variation for materials in this book are
given in Table 0.3. Steel and ungraded timber at
the two ends of the scale. The manufacture of steel
is a well developed and closely controlled process
so that a particular steel can be readily reproduced
and the variability of properties such as strength is
small; conversely, ungraded or unprocessed timber,
which in its natural form is full of defects such as
knots, and inevitably exhibits a wide variation in
property values. The variability can, however, be
reduced by processing so that the coefcient of

Comment

Margin
 ks

m

10

Strength 
1

Characteristic
strength

FIGURE 0.3
strength.

Failure rate, margin and characteristic

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

0.5

1.5

2.5

FIGURE 0.4 Relationship between k and failure


rate for normally distributed results

margin, below which an acceptably small number


of results will fall.
The total area under the normal distribution
curve of Figure 0.2 represents 100 per cent of the
results, and the area below any particular
strength is the number of results that will occur
below that strength, or in other words the failure
rate (Figure 0.3). The greater the margin, the
lower the failure rate. Clearly, if the margin is
zero, then the failure rate is 50 per cent. It is a
property of the normal distribution curve that if
the value of the margin is expressed as ks where k
is a constant, then k is related to the failure rate
as in Figure 0.4. Hence
char  m  ks

(0.7)

Engineering judgement and consensus is used to


choose an acceptable failure rate. In practice, this
is not always the same in all circumstances; for
example, 5 per cent is typical for concrete
(i.e. k  1.64), and 2 per cent for timber (i.e.
k  1.96).
As we have said, this analysis uses values of s
obtained from testing prepared specimens of the
material concerned. In practice it is also necessary

to consider likely differences between these and


the bulk properties of material, which may vary
due to size effects, manufacturing inconsistencies,
etc., and therefore further materials safety factors
will need to be applied to the characteristic
strength. It is beyond the scope of this book to
consider these in any detail guidance can be
obtained from relevant design codes and design
text books.

Concluding remarks
We hope that this preface has encouraged you to
read on. It has described the general content,
nature and approach of the book, and sets the
scene for the level and type of information on the
various materials that is provided. It has also
given an introduction to some ways of comparing
materials, and discussed how the unavoidable
variability of properties can be taken into account
by engineers. You will probably nd it useful to
refer back to these latter two sections from time
to time.
Enjoy the book.

A note on units
In common with all international publications, and with national practice in many countries, the SI
system of units has been used throughout this text. Practice does however vary between different parts
of the engineering profession and between individuals over whether to express quantities which have
the dimensions of [force]/[length]2 in the units of its constituent parts, e.g. N/m2, or with the internationally recognised combined unit of the Pascal (Pa). In this book, the latter is used in Parts 1 to 7, and
the former in Part 8, which reects the general practice in other publications on the materials concerned.
The following relationships may be useful whilst reading:
1 Pa  1 N/m2
1kPa  103 Pa  103 N/m2  1 kN/m2
1MPa  106 Pa  106 N/m2  1 N/mm2
1GPa  109 Pa  109 N/m2  1 kN/mm2
The magnitude of the unit for a particular property is normally chosen such that convenient numbers
are obtained e.g. MPa (or N/mm2) for strength and GPa (or kN/mm2) for modulus of elasticity of
structural materials.

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

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