Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Materials
Their nature and
behaviour
Third edition
Edited by
Contents
Contributors
Acknowledgements
Preface P.L.J. Domone and J.M. Illston
Part One Fundamentals W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon
Introduction
1
States of matter
1.1
Fluids
1.2
Solids
1.3
Intermediate behaviour
Surfaces
5.1
Surface energy
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Water of crystallisation
Wetting
Adhesives
Adsorption
Part Two Metals and alloys W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon
Introduction
8
Physical metallurgy
8.1
Grain structure
8.2
Crystal structures of metals
8.3
Solutions and compounds
10 Forming of metals
10.1 Castings
10.2 Hot working
10.3 Cold working
10.4 Joining
11 Oxidation and corrosion
11.1 Dry oxidation
11.2 Wet corrosion
11.3 Control of corrosion
11.4 Protection against corrosion
12 Metals, their differences and uses
12.1 The extraction of iron
12.2 Cast irons
12.3
12.4
12.5
Steel
Aluminium and alloys
Copper and alloys
17.4
17.5
Loss of workability
References
R.C. de Vekey
Introduction
30 Materials and components for brickwork and blockwork
30.1 Materials used for manufacture of units and mortars
30.2 Other constituents and additives
30.3 Mortar
30.4 Fired clay bricks and blocks
30.5 Calcium silicate units
30.6 Concrete units
30.7 Natural stone
30.8 Ancillary devices ties and other xings/connectors
30.9 References
31 Masonry construction and forms
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Mortar
31.3 Walls and other masonry forms
31.4 Bond patterns
31.5 Specials
31.6 Joint-style
31.7 Workmanship and accuracy
31.8 Buildability, site efciency and productivity
31.9 Appearance
31.10 References
32 Structural behaviour and movement of masonry
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Compressive loading
32.3 Shear load in the bed plane
32.4 Flexure (bending)
32.5 Tension
32.6 Elastic modulus
32.7 Movement and creep of masonry materials
32.8 References
33 Durability and non-structural properties of masonry
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Durability
33.3 Chemical attack
33.4 Erosion
33.5 Staining
33.6 Thermal conductivity
33.7 Rain resistance
33.8 Sound transmission
33.9 Fire resistance
L. Hollaway
Introduction
34 Polymers: types, properties and applications
34.1 Polymeric materials
34.2 Processing of thermoplastic polymers
34.3 Polymer properties
34.4 Applications and uses of polymers
34.5 References
Contributors
Professor D.G. Bonner
Department of Aerospace, Civil and
Environmental Engineering
University of Hertfordshire
Hateld Campus
College Lane
Hateld
Herts AL10 9AB
(Bituminous materials)
Professor J.M. Dinwoodie OBE
16 Stratton Road
Princes Risborough
Nr Aylesbury
Bucks HP17 9BH
(Timber)
Dr P.L.J. Domone
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
University College London
Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT
(Editor and concrete)
Professor D.J. Hannant
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 5XH
(Fibre reinforced cements and concrete)
Professor L. Hollaway
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 5XH
(Polymers and polymer composites)
D.G. Bonner
Professor David Bonner graduated in Civil Engineering from the University of Leeds where he later
gained a PhD in Trafc Engineering. Following a
period working in the Highways Department of
Lincolnshire County Council, he joined the University of Hertfordshire (then Hateld Polytechnic) where he became Reader in Construction
Materials. He subsequently became Head of Civil
Engineering and is presently Associate Dean
(Academic Quality) for the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences.
J.M. Dinwoodie
Professor John Dinwoodie graduated in Forestry
from Aberdeen University, and was subsequently
awarded his MTech in Non-Metallic Materials
from Brunel University, and both his PhD and
DSc in Wood Science subjects from Aberdeen
University. He carried out research at the UK
Building Research Establishment for a period of
35 years on timber and wood-based panels with a
special interest in the rheological behaviour of
these materials. For this work he was awarded
with a special merit promotion to Senior Principal Scientic Ofcer. Since his retirement from
BRE in 1995, he has been employed as a consultant to BRE to represent the UK in the preparation of European standards for wood-based
panels. In 1985 he was awarded the Sir Stuart
Mallinson Gold Medal for research on creep in
particleboard and was for many years a Fellow of
the Royal Microscopical Society. In 1994 he was
appointed an Honorary Professor in the Department of Forest Sciences, University of Wales,
Bangor, and in the same year was awarded an
OBE. He is author, or co-author, of over one
hundred and thirty technical papers and author
of three text books on wood science and technology.
P.L.J. Domone
Dr Peter Domone graduated in civil engineering
from University College London, where he sub-
sequently completed a PhD in concrete technology. After a period in industrial research with
Taylor Woodrow Construction Ltd, he was
appointed to the academic staff at UCL, rst as
lecturer and then as senior lecturer in concrete
technology. He teaches all aspects of civil engineering materials to undergraduate students, and
his principle research interests have included nondestructive testing, the rheology of fresh concrete,
high-strength concrete and most recently, selfcompacting concrete.
D.J. Hannant
Professor David Hannant is a Professor in Construction Materials at the University of Surrey
and has been researching and teaching in the eld
of bre-reinforced cement and concrete since
1968. He has authored a book, patents and many
publications on steel, glass and polypropylene
bres and has been active in commercialising thin
sheet products to replace asbestos cement.
L.C. Hollaway
Professor Len Hollaway is Professor of Composite Structures at the University of Surrey and has
been engaged in the research and teaching of
composites for more than 30 years. He is the
author and editor of a number of books and has
written many research papers on the structural
and material aspects of bre matrix composites.
J.M. Illston
Professor John Illston spent the early part of his
career as a practising civil engineer before entering higher education. He was involved in teaching
and researching into concrete technology and
structural engineering as Lecturer and Reader at
Kings College, London and then Head of
Department of Civil Engineering at Hateld Polytechnic. His interest in his discipline took second
place when he became Director of the Polytechnic, but, on retirement he undertook preparation
of the second edition of this book. He has acted
as passive editor of this edition.
I.R. McColl
Dr Ian McColl is a senior lecturer at the University of Nottingham. His rst degree is in physics
and after receiving his PhD from Nottingham he
was involved in industrially sponsored research
and development work at the university before
taking up a lecturing post in 1988. He teaches
mainly in the areas of engineering materials and
engineering design. His research interests centre
around the fretting and fatigue properties of
engineering materials, components and assemblies, and the use of surface engineering to
improve these properties.
J.R. Moon
Dr Bob Moon is a metallurgist married to the
rst woman to study civil engineering at the University of Nottingham. His PhD was awarded by
the University of Wales (Cardiff) in 1960. He has
worked in the steel industry in South Wales,
researched into titanium and other new metals at
IMI in Birmingham and into superconductors,
magnetic materials and materials for steam turbines at C.A. Parsons on Tyneside. He joined the
staff of the University of Nottingham over 30
years ago and has taught materials to civil engineers for the majority of that time. He is now
reader in materials science and researches into the
triangle connecting processing, microstructure
and properties of materials made from powders.
R.C. de Vekey
Dr Bob de Vekey studied chemistry at Hateld
Polytechnic and graduated with the Royal Society
of Chemistry. He subsequently gained a DIC in
materials science and a PhD from Imperial
College, London on the results of his work at the
Building Research Establishment (BRE) on materials. At BRE he has worked on many aspects of
building materials research and development and
between 1978 and 2000 led a section concerned
mainly with structural behaviour, testing, durability and safety of brick and block masonry
buildings. From September 2000 he has relinquished his previous role and become an associate to the BRE. He has written many papers and
advisory publications and has contributed to
several books on building materials and masonry
and has been involved in the development of
UK and international standards and codes for
building.
Acknowledgements
I rst of all want to express my thanks to John
Illston for his tremendous work and vision that
resulted in the rst two editions of this book, and
for his encouragement and helpful advice in the
early stages of preparing this edition. My thanks
also go to all the contributors who have willingly
revised and updated their text despite many other
commitments. They have all done an excellent
job, and any shortfalls in the book are entirely
my responsibility. I greatly appreciate the advice
and inspiration provided by my students at UCL
and my colleagues at UCL and elsewhere, who
have suffered due to my neglect of other duties
whilst preparing and editing the manuscript.
Finally, but most importantly, I must acknowledge the support given to me by my wife and
children, who I have neglected most of all, but
who have borne with good grace the many hours
I have spent in my study.
P.L.J. Domone
I wish to express my appreciation to the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) and in particular
to Dr A.F. Bravery, Director of the Centre for
Timber Technology and Construction, not only
Preface
This book is an updated and extended version of
the second edition, which was published in 1994.
This has been extremely popular and successful, but the continuing recent advances in many
areas of construction materials technology have
resulted in the need for this new edition.
The rst edition was published under the title
Concrete, Timber and Metals in 1979. Its scope,
content and form were signicantly changed for
the second edition, with the addition of three
further materials bituminous materials,
masonry and bre composites with a separate
part of the book devoted to each material,
following a general introductory part on Fundamentals.
This overall format has been retained. One new
small part has been added, on polymers, which
was previously subsumed within the section on
polymer composites. The other signicant
changes are, rst, in the section on concrete,
where Portland cement, admixtures, cement
replacement materials and aggregates now have
their own chapters, and new chapters on mix
design, non-destructive testing and high performance concrete have been added; and, second, in
the section on bre reinforced cement and concrete, which has been rearranged so that each
type of composite is considered in full in turn.
All of the contributors to the second edition
were able and willing to contribute again, with
two exceptions. First, the co-author of the rst
edition and editor and inspiration for the second
edition, John Illston, is enjoying a well-earned
retirement from all professional engineering and
academic activities, and did not wish to continue
as editor for this edition. This role was taken over
by Peter Domone, with considerable apprehen-
sion about following such an illustrious predecessor and the magnitude of the task. Fortunately,
John Illston provided much needed encouragement, advice and comments, particularly in the
early stages,
Second, one of the contributors, Bill Biggs, had
sadly died in the intervening period, but two new
contributors have revised, extended and updated
his Fundamentals and Metals sections. The
most signicant addition is a consideration of
equilibrium phase diagrams.
Levels of information
The structure of materials can be described on
dimensional scales varying from the smallest,
atomic or molecular, through materials structural
to the largest, engineering.
Selection of materials
The engineer must consider the tness of the
material for the purpose of the structure being
designed. This essential tness-for-purpose is a
matter of ensuring that the material will perform
adequately both during construction and in subsequent service. Strength, deformation and durability are likely to be the principal criteria that
must be satised, but other aspects of behaviour
will be important for particular applications, for
example water-tightness or speed of construction.
In addition, aesthetics and environmental impact
should not be forgotten.
Table 0.1 gives some properties of a number of
TABLE 0.1
Material
Density
(tonne/m3)
Stiffness (E)
(GPa)
Strength or limiting
stress (MPa)*
Work to fracture
(toughness) (kJ/m2)
Diamond
Common pure metals
Structural steel
High strength steel
Cast iron
Silica glass
Titanium and alloys
Aluminium and alloys
Timber
3.5
519
7.85
7.85
6.97.8
2.6
4.5
2.7
0.170.98
(dry)
0.5
1.82.5
1000
20200
195205
205
170190
94
80130
6979
0.61.0 perp grain
916 par grain
13
2045
50 000
2080
235450
2601300
2201000
50200
1801320
40630
90200 (tens)
1590 (comp)**
4080
410 (tens)
20150 (comp)
30100
100300
600700
5090
1530
1001000
100130
15120
0.20.3
0.01
25115
830
820 Crack perp grain
0.52 crack par grain
0.51
0.03
2 106
1.0
3.4
27.5
5.0
8.9 105
1.0
1.1
16
1.7
1.0
0.7
0.06
0.12
0.10.3
10100
530
24
3.8
7.5
0.53
1.1
Epoxy resin
1.11.4
Glass bre comp (grp)
1.42.2
Carbon bre composite
Nylon
1.11.2
Rubber
0.951.15
2.63
3545
180200
24
210
*in tension unless stated; yield stress for metals, otherwise ultimate stress.
**on clear specimens.
Relative cost ()
per unit:
mass
volume
l
FIGURE 0.1
A simple cantilever.
(0.1)
(0.2)
maximum useful stress that the material can tolerate in tension. In dening this, we must take
into account the variability of materials, discussed below.
The cost of a beam is simply WM, where M is
the cost of the material per unit mass. Working
the arguments through again give criteria for
stiffness and for strength at minimum cost. These
turn out to be similar to those used before, i.e.
E1/3/V and 1/2/V, where V is the material cost
per unit volume density cost per unit mass.
Table 0.2 shows how these four factors relative
to those for structural steel work out for some of
the materials listed in Table 0.1. Where appropriate the mid-range properties have been used,
together with the prices given in Table 0.2.
Remembering that we are looking for maximum
values, the most obvious result is that timber is
outstanding in terms of stiffness and strength at
both minimum weight and minimum cost
nature clearly got things right without any help
from us. Thinking only about weight and neglecting cost points to the efciency of diamond (not a
realistic option!), titanium, aluminium, epoxy
resin and nylon. But when it comes to minimising
costs, the highest scoring materials other than
timber are steel and concrete.
Table 0.2 does not, of course, give a complete
picture. Prices will vary from time to time, and
other properties, such as ease of construction,
durability and toughness have not been taken
into account. Also, composite systems, such as
reinforced concrete and bre reinforced systems
have not been considered. Nevertheless, it does
give food for thought.
The cost of the energy used in manufacturing
the material and its transport and fabrication
must also not be overlooked, either in simple economic or in environmental terms. High-strength
versions of all the materials covered in this book
are often sought with the intention of reducing
the volume of material for a given structure, normally with a commensurate saving in energy;
and, conversely, lower grade materials are sometimes introduced to replace higher grades as, for
example, in the partial replacement of cement by
the waste material, pulverised fuel ash (y ash).
An important issue facing engineers is the variability of the properties of the material itself,
which clearly depends on the uniformity of its
structure and composition.
The strength or maximum allowable stress is of
particular concern. In tension, for ductile materials this can be taken as the yield strength or the
proof stress (see Chapter 9), but for brittle materials it may have to be chosen on the basis of the
approach described in Chapter 6. In compression,
brittle materials have a well dened maximum
stress, but ductile materials may not fail at all,
they just continue being squashed.
The variability can be assessed by a series of
tests on nominally similar specimens from either
the same or successive batches of a material; this
usually gives a variation of strength or maximum
stress with a normal or Gaussian distribution as
shown in Figure 0.2. This can be represented by
the bell-shaped mean curve given by the equation
1
(m)2
y exp
(0.3)
s
2
2s2
m
Strength
FIGURE 0.2
strength.
(0.4)
(0.5)
(0.6)
TABLE 0.2 Weight and cost comparisons for the use of alternative materials for the cantilever of Figure 0.1
(all gures relative to mild steel 1, material properties as in Table 0.1)
Material
Diamond
Structural steel
Silica glass
Titanium and alloys
Aluminium and alloys
Spruce (par. to grain)
Concrete
Epoxy resin
Nylon
Cost
Minimum weight
Minimum cost
(/tonne) Stiffness criterion Strength criterion Stiffness criterion Strength criterion
E1/3/
max1/2/
E1/3/ . /tonne
max1/2/ . /tonne
2 106
1.0
3.4
27.5
5.0
1.0
0.7
3.8
7.5
3.8
1.0
2.4
1.4
2.1
6.4
1.8
1.5
1.7
31.8
1.0
2.1
3.0
3.4
7.7
0.6
3.2
3.6
1.9 106
1.0
0.8
0.05
0.4
6.4
2.6
0.4
0.2
1.6 105
1.0
0.7
0.1
0.7
7.7
0.8
0.8
0.5
TABLE 0.3 Comparison of strengths of construction materials and their coefcients of variation. c compression, t tension
Material
Mean strength
MPa
Coefcient of
variation (%)
Steel
Concrete
Timber
460 t
40 c
30 t
120 t
11 t
18 t
2
15
35
18
10
10
20 c
10
100
Area
% failure
failure rate
Number of results
Values of typical mean strengths and their coefcients of variation for materials in this book are
given in Table 0.3. Steel and ungraded timber at
the two ends of the scale. The manufacture of steel
is a well developed and closely controlled process
so that a particular steel can be readily reproduced
and the variability of properties such as strength is
small; conversely, ungraded or unprocessed timber,
which in its natural form is full of defects such as
knots, and inevitably exhibits a wide variation in
property values. The variability can, however, be
reduced by processing so that the coefcient of
Comment
Margin
ks
m
10
Strength
1
Characteristic
strength
FIGURE 0.3
strength.
0.5
1.5
2.5
(0.7)
Concluding remarks
We hope that this preface has encouraged you to
read on. It has described the general content,
nature and approach of the book, and sets the
scene for the level and type of information on the
various materials that is provided. It has also
given an introduction to some ways of comparing
materials, and discussed how the unavoidable
variability of properties can be taken into account
by engineers. You will probably nd it useful to
refer back to these latter two sections from time
to time.
Enjoy the book.
A note on units
In common with all international publications, and with national practice in many countries, the SI
system of units has been used throughout this text. Practice does however vary between different parts
of the engineering profession and between individuals over whether to express quantities which have
the dimensions of [force]/[length]2 in the units of its constituent parts, e.g. N/m2, or with the internationally recognised combined unit of the Pascal (Pa). In this book, the latter is used in Parts 1 to 7, and
the former in Part 8, which reects the general practice in other publications on the materials concerned.
The following relationships may be useful whilst reading:
1 Pa 1 N/m2
1kPa 103 Pa 103 N/m2 1 kN/m2
1MPa 106 Pa 106 N/m2 1 N/mm2
1GPa 109 Pa 109 N/m2 1 kN/mm2
The magnitude of the unit for a particular property is normally chosen such that convenient numbers
are obtained e.g. MPa (or N/mm2) for strength and GPa (or kN/mm2) for modulus of elasticity of
structural materials.