MA 2030 - Linear Algebra and Numerical Analysis

Arindama Singh & A. V. Jayanthan

The notion of a vector space is an abstraction of the familiar set of

vectors in two or three dimensional Euclidian space.

Let R denote the set of all real numbers.

We first recall certain good properties of vectors in the real plane:

There exists a vector, namely 0, such that for all x R2 ,

x + 0 = x = 0 + x.
For every x R2 , there exists another vector, denoted by x, such
that x + (x) = 0 = (x) + x.
Addition distributes over Multiplication.
Both addition and multiplication are associative.
There exists a vector, denoted by 1, such that for all
x R2 , 1 x = x.

NOTATION

We will always use x, y , z, u, v , w for vectors.

We will use the Greek letters , , , . . . and a, b, c for scalars
The symbol 0 will stand for the zero vector as well as zero scalar.
From the context, you should know which one it represents.
Let R denote the set of all real numbers and C denote the set of
all complex numbers.
F denote either R or C. Whenever needed, we will specifically
mention the set of scalars.

Definition
A set V with two operations + (addition) and (scalar
multiplication) is said to be a vector space if it satisfies the
following axioms:
(a) x + y = y + x, x, y V .
(b) (x + y ) + z = x + (y + z), x, y , z V .
(c) 0 V such that x + 0 = x x V .
(d) for each x V , x such that x + x = 0.
(e) (x + y ) = x + y F and x, y V .
(f) ( + ) x = x + y , , F and x V .
(g) () x = ( x) , F, x V .
(h) 1 x = x x V .

Examples of vector spaces

Example 0: V = {0} is a vector space over F.

 

a
Example 1:
:=
: a, b R with the usual addition
b
and scalar multiplication is a vector space over R.
R2

More generally:

a1

..
n
Example 2: R := . : ai R with the usual addition

an
and scalar multiplication is a vector space over R.

n
A vector in
R will either be represented as column vector, i.e., in
a1
..
the form . or will be represented as a row vector, i.e., in the
an
form (a1 , . . . , an ).

We will be using both the notation, according to the context and

convenience.

Examples of vector spaces

Example 3: V = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : x2 = 0} is a vector space over

R under the usual addition and scalar multiplication.

Example 4: V = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : 2x1 x2 = 0} is a vector space

over R under the usual addition and scalar multiplication.

Example 5: Is V = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : 3x1 + 5x2 = 1} a vector

space over R?

Examples of vector spaces

Example 6: Pn := {a0 + a1 X + + an X n : ai F} with the
usual polynomial addition and scalar multiplication is a vector
space over F.

Example 7: The set Mmn (F) of all m n matrices with entries

from F with the usual matrix addition and scalar multiplication is a
vector space over F.

Example 8: V = R2 , for (a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ) V and R, define

(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ), (a1 , a2 ) = (0, 0) if = 0
and (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 , a2 /) if 6= 0. Is V a vector space over R?

Examples of vector spaces

Example 9: V = {f : [a, b] R : f is a function}.
For f , g V , define f + g to be the map
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) for all x R.
For R and f V , define f to be the map (f )(x) = f (x)
for all x R.
What is the zero vector in V ?
The map f such that f (x) = 0 for all x [a, b].
For f V , f , defined by (f )(x) = f (x) is the additive inverse.
V is a vector space over R.

Examples of vector spaces

n
o
2
Example 10: V = f : R R : ddxf2 + f = 0 . Define addition
and scalar multiplication as in the previous example.
For f , g V ,

Similarly

d 2 (f +g )
dx 2

d 2 (f )
dx 2

+ (f + g ) = ( ddxf2 + f ) + ( ddxg2 + g ) = 0

+ (f ) =

d 2f
dx 2

+f

= 0.

V is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. Other

properties can easily be verified. Hence V is a vector space over R.

Basic properties of vector spaces

1. The zero element is unique, i.e., if there exists 1 , 2 such that
x + 1 = x and x + 2 = x, x V , then 1 = 2 .
2. Additive inverse for each vector is unique, i.e., for x V , if
there exist x1 & x2 such that x + x1 = 0 = x + x2 , then
x1 = x2 .
3. In a vectorspace V over F, for any x V and F:
(a) 0 x = 0
(b) (1) x = x
(c) 0 = 0.
Proof: x = (1 + 0) x = x + 0 x
Adding x to both sides, we get 0 = 0 x.

Vector Subspaces
Subspace of a vector space is a subset which follow the same
structure.

We have seen that:

W = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : 2x1 + x2 = 0} is a vector space.

P3 is a vector space and is a subset of the vector space P4

Definition: Let W be a subset of a vector space V . Then W is

called a subspace of V if W is a vector space with respect to the
operations of addition and scalar multiplication as in V .

Examples of subspaces

Example 0: {0} V is a subspace for any vector space V .

Example 1: W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : 2x1 x2 + x3 = 0} is a
subspace of R3 .
More generally, if A is an m n matrix and x = (x1 , , xn ), then
the set of all solutions of the equation Ax = 0 is a subspace of Rn .
(Prove it!)
Example 2: Pn is a subspace of Pm for n m.

Examples of subspaces
Example 3:
C [a, b] := {f : [a, b] R : f is a continuous function} is a
vector subspace of F [a, b] := {f : [a, b] R : f is a function}.
Example 4: R[a, b] := {f : [a, b] R : f is integrable } is a
vector subspace of C [a, b].
Example 5: C k [a, b] := {f : [a, b] R :
vector subspace of C [a, b].

dk f
dx k

exists } is a

Example 6: Pn can also be seen as a subspace of C [a, b].

Do we have to verify all 8 conditions to check whether a given

subset of a vector space is a subspace?
Theorem: Let W be a subset of a vector space V . Then W is a
subspace of V if and only if W is non-empty and x + y W for
all x, y W and , F.
Proof: If W is a subspace, then obviously the given condition is
satisfied.
Conversely suppose W is a subset which satisfies the given
condition.
The commutativity and associativity of addition, distributive
properties and scalar multiplication with 1 are satisfied in V and
hence true in W too. Therefore, we only need to verify the
existance of zero vector and additivie inverse.

W 6= x W x + (1)x = 0 W . Hence the

additive identity exists.
Now for y W , take x = 0 and = 1 in the given condition.
We get 0 + (1)y = y W . Hence additive inverse exists.
W is a subspace of V .
Given two vector subspaces, what are the other possibilities of
obtaining new vector subspaces from them?

Theorem: Let V1 and V2 are subspace of a vector space V . Then

V1 V2 is a subspace of V .
Proof: V1 & V2 are subspaces 0 V1 V2 . Therefore
V1 V2 6= .
Suppose x, y V1 V2 and F, then x + y belong to both
V1 and V2 (since they are subspaces) and hence they belong to
V1 V2
V1 V2 is a subspace.
If V1 and V2 are subspaces, then is V1 V2 a subspace?
Is the union of x-axis and y -axis a subspace of R2 ?