Chapter 4

Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

Copyright McGraw-Hill 2009

Chapter 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water
Molecular Equations
4.5 Concentration of Solutions
Ionic Equations
Molarity
Net Ionic Equations
Dilution
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
Solution Stoichiometry
Strong Acids and Bases
Brnsted Acids and Bases 4.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
Gravimetric Analysis
Acid-Base Neutralization
Acid-Base Titrations
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
Balancing Simple Redox Equations
Other Types of Redox Reactions

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

Solution: a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Solvent: normally the substance making up the largest part of a solution is called a solvent
Solute: substances making up the smaller part(s) of a solution.
Electrolyte: a substance dissolved in water to yield a solution that conducts electricity.
Non-Electrolyte: a substance dissolved in water to yield a solution that does not conducts
electricity.
What makes an electrolyte solution?
C12H22O11 (s)

H2O

C12H22O11 (aq)

NaCl (s)

H2O

Na+ (aq) + Cl (aq)

The presence of ions!

Dissociation: the process by which ionic compounds upon dissolving break apart into
constituent ions
Ionization: the process by which a compound forms ions when it dissolves.
Acids: compounds that dissociate to release a hydrogen ion (H+) during ionization
HCl (g)

H2O

H+ (aq) + Cl (aq)

Base: compounds that dissociate to produce hydroxide ions (OH-) during ionization

NH3 (g) + H2O

H2O

NH4+ (aq) + OH (aq)

Strong and weak electrolytes

Strong Electrolyte: 100% dissociation
All water soluble ionic compounds, strong
acids and strong bases
Weak electrolytes
Partially ionized in solution
Exist mostly as the molecular form in
solution
Weak acids and weak bases

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

nonelectrolyte

weak electrolyte

strong electrolyte

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

Most acids are weak electrolytes, except the ones listed in Table 4.1

Why are some acids and bases weak electrolytes ?

Examples of weak electrolytes

Weak acids
HC2H3O2(aq)

Weak bases
NH3 (aq) + H2O(l)

C2H3O2

+
+
H
(aq)
(aq)

NH4+ (aq) + OH

(aq)

(Note: double arrows indicate a reaction that

occurs in both directions - a state of dynamic
equilibrium exists)

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

Rules for determining strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes
and non-electrolytes

If the compound contains a metal cation or an ammonium cation and an anion it is an

ionic compound. Any ionic compound that dissolves in water is a strong electrolyte.

If a compound does not contain a metal or ammonium cation it is molecular.

Strong acids and strong bases are strong electrolytes.

If it is molecular, you must determine if it is a weak acid or base.

1. Weak acids normally have their ionizable hydrogen (H) written first (ie. HC2H3O2 , also
written as CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4 for acetic acid, carbonic acid, and phosphoric
acid. If the compound is an acid it is a weak electrolyte, except for the Table 4.1 acids
which are strong electrolytes.
2. Weak bases are normally related to ammonia, they have a nitrogen (N) bonded to a
carbon (C) or hydrogen (H). Examples are methylamine (CH3NH2), pyridine (C5H5N),
hydroxyamine (NH2OH). These are all weak electrolytes.

If a molecular compound is neither an acid or base, it is a non-electrolyte.

Problems

Practice Problem A
ethanol (C2H5OH) = non-electrolyte
nitros acid (HNO2) = weak electrolyte
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
= strong electrolyte

Practice Problem B
phosphorous acid (H3PO3)
= weak electrolyte
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
= weak electrolyte
ammonium sulfate (NH4) SO4
= strong electrolyte

Solubility
Solubility: the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent
at a specific temperature.
Hydration: the process by which water molecules remove ions from a solid ionic molecule.
H2O molecules attract the ions from the lattice structure and then surround them. This
prevents the ions from re-uniting

Polarity and Polar Molecules

Electrons are not always shared equally between two bonding atoms: one atom might exert
more of a force on the electron cloud than the other. This "pull" is termed electronegativity
and measures the attraction for electrons a particular atom has. The unequal sharing of
electrons within a bond leads to the formation of an electric dipole: a separation of positive
and negative electric charge. Fractional charges are denoted as + (delta plus) and - (delta
minus).
H2O

NH3

HF

+
+

+
+
+

Solubility Guidelines
Not all ionic compounds dissolve in water, this depends on the magnitude of the
attraction between water molecules and the magnitude of attraction between the
ionic components for each other.

Problems

Practice Problem A
PbCl2 = Insoluble
(NH4)3 PO4 = Soluble
Fe(OH)3 = Insoluble

Practice Problem B
MgBr2 = Soluble
Ca3(PO4)2 = Insoluble
KClO3 = Soluble

Precipitation Reactions
Precipitate: Compounds that form in chemical reactions that are
not soluble and come out of solution to form solids

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq)

(?) + PbI (?)

2NaNO3 (aq)
2 (s)

lead nitrate

sodium nitrate

sodium iodide

lead iodide

Precipitation Reactions
A precipitation reaction is then a chemical reaction in which a precipitate
forms normally when some aqueous ionic solutions are mixed.

sodium iodide

lead nitrate

lead(II) iodide

Molecular and Ionic Equations in Precipitation Reactions

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI(aq)

2NaNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s)

The metal cations exchange anions

Na2SO4 (aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)

2NaOH (aq) + BaSO4 (s)

Balanced Molecular Equation

But in solution
Na2SO4 (aq)

2Na+ (aq) + SO42 (aq)

Ba(OH)2(aq)

Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH (aq)

NaOH (aq)

Na+ (aq) + OH (aq)

2Na+ (aq) + SO42 (aq) + Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH (aq)

2Na+ (aq) + 2OH (aq) BaSO4 (s)

Ionic equation - Spectator molecules = Net ionic equation

SO42 (aq) + Ba2+ (aq)

BaSO4 (s)

Steps in writing a precipitation equation

1.Write and balance a molecular equation
2.Write ionic equation by separating the strong
electrolytes into ions (subscripts of monoatomic
and polyatomic ions become coefficients)
3.Write net ionic equation by removing spectator
ions
4.If both the reactants and products are all strong
electrolytes, there is no net ionic equation; no
reaction takes place.

Practice Problem
Write the molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for:
Sr(NO3)2 (aq) + Li2SO4 (aq)
Sr2+(aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2Li+(aq) + SO4 2 (aq)
Sr2+(aq) + SO4 2 (aq)

SrSO4 (s) + 2 LiNO3 (aq)

SrSO4 (s) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2Li+(aq)

SrSO4 (s)

Write the molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for:

2 AgNO3(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)
2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + SO42 (aq)
2Ag+ (aq) + SO42+ (aq)

Ag2SO4 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)

Ag2SO4 (s) + 2Na +(aq) + 2NO3 (aq)
Ag2SO4 (s)

Problems
Write the molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for:
BaCl2(aq) + ZnSO4(aq)
Ba 2+ (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + SO42 (aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42 (aq)

BaSO4 (s) + ZnCl2 (aq)

BaSO4(s) + Zn2+(aq) 2Cl (aq)
BaSO4(s)

Write the molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for:

(NH4)2CO3(aq) + CaCl2 (aq)
2NH4+ (aq) + CO32 (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl (aq)
Ca2+(aq) + CO32 (aq)

CaCO3 (s) + 2 NH4Cl (aq)

CaCO3(s) + 2NH4+ (aq) + 2Cl (aq)
CaCO3(s)

Acid Base Reactions

Termed neutralization reactions.
Involve an acid and a base.
A molecular compound (water) is a
common product along with a salt (ionic
compound).

Common Acids and Bases

ascorbic acid

hydrochloric acid

ammonia

acetic acid
sodium hydroxide

Example of a Weak Acid

A weak acid is a weak electrolyte; it does not
dissociate completely.
HC2H3O2(l)

H+(aq) + C2H3O2 (aq)

Acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is an example.

acidic proton

Most acids are weak acids.

Acid-Base Reactions

All other acids and bases are weak electrolytes, this becomes important for net ionic equations

Definitions of acids and bases

Arrhenius acid - produces H+ in solution
Arrhenius base - produces OH in solution
More inclusive definitions:
Brnsted acid - proton donor (proton = H+)
Brnsted base - proton acceptor
Svante Arrhenius a Swedish chemist (1859-1927)

Johannes Brnsted a Danish chemist (1879-1947)

Thomas Lowry an English chemist (1874-1936)

Arrhenius Acids and Bases

An Arrhenius acid is one that ionizes in water to
produce H+ ions.
HCl(g)

H2 O

H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

An Arrhenius base is one that dissociates in water

to produce OH ions.
NaOH(s)

H2 O

Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

Bronsted Acids and Bases

A Brnsted acid is a proton donor.
A Brnsted base is a proton acceptor.
In these definitions, a proton refers to a hydrogen atom that
has lost its electronalso known as a hydrogen ion (H+).
NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH3 is a Brnsted base:
accepts a proton to become
+
NH4

H2O is a Brnsted acid:

donates a proton to
become OH

NH4(aq) + OH(aq)

Acid-Base Reactions
A weak base (both Arrhenius and Brnsted)

ammonia

water

ammonium ion

hydroxyl ion

A weak acid (both Arrhenius and Brnsted)

HF (aq)

hydrofluoric acid

water

H+(aq) + F (aq)

hydronium ion

H3O+ = H2O H+

floride ion

Types of Acids and Bases

Types of acids
Monoprotic: one ionizable hydrogen (hydrocloric acid)
HCl + H2O
H3O+ + Cl
Diprotic: two ionizable hydrogens (sulfuric acid)
H2SO4 + H2O
H3O+ + HSO4
HSO4 + H2O
H3O+ + SO42
Triprotic: three ionizable hydrogens (phosphoric acid)
H3PO4 + H2O H3O+ + H2PO4
H2PO4 + H2O H3O+ + HPO42
HPO42 + H2O H3O+ + PO43
Polyprotic: generic term meaning more than one ionizable hydrogen

Types of bases
Monobasic: One OH group
KOH
K+ + OH
Dibasic: Two OH groups
Ba(OH)2
Ba2+ + 2OH

Donating one or two OH becomes

important in the laboratory setting
when preparing base solutions.

Types of Acids and Bases

A monoprotic acid has one proton to donate.
Hydrochloric acid is an example:
HCl(g)

H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

one equivalent of
solvated hydrogen ion

Types of Acids and Bases

A polyprotic acid has more than one acidic hydrogen atom.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is an example of a diprotic acid;
there are two acidic hydrogen atoms.
Polyprotic acids lose protons in a stepwise fashion:
Step 1:

H2SO4(aq)

H+(aq) + HSO4 (aq)

In H2SO4, the first ionization is strong.

Step 2:

HSO4(aq)

H+(aq) + SO4 (aq)

In H2SO4, the second ionization

occurs only to a very small extent.

Types of Acids and Bases

Bases that produce only one mole of hydroxide per
mole of compound are called monobasic.
Sodium hydroxide is an example:
NaOH(s)

H2 O

Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

one equivalent of
hydroxide

Types of Acids and Bases

Some strong bases produce more than one
hydroxide per mole of compound.
Barium hydroxide is an example of a dibasic base.
Ba(OH)2(s)

H2 O

Ba2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)

two equivalents of
hydroxide

Acid-Base Neutralization
Neutralization: Reaction between an acid and a base
Acid + Base
Salt + Water
Molecular equation:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
H+(aq)+ Cl (aq) + Na+(aq) + OH (aq)
Na+(aq) +
Net ionic equation:
H+(aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l)

Cl (aq) + H2O(l)

Problems
Write molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for the neutralization of:
Ba(OH)2 (aq) + 2 HF(aq)

BaF2 (s) + 2 H2O(l)

Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH (aq) + 2H+ + 2F- (aq)

BaF2 (s) + 2H2O(l)

ion and net ionic equations are the same since no spectator ions

Write molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for the neutralization of:
HBr (aq) + NH3(aq)

NH4+ (aq) + Br (aq)

Ionic: H+(aq) + Br (aq) + NH3(aq)

Net ionic: H+(aq) + NH3(aq)

NH4+ (aq) + Br (aq)

NH4+ (aq)

Problems

Write molecular, ionic and net ionic equations for the neutralization of:
2 HClO4 (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s)

Mg(ClO4)2 + 2 H2O

Ionic: 2H+(aq) + 2ClO4 (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2OH (aq)

Net ionic: 2H+(aq) + 2OH (aq)

Mg2+(aq) + 2ClO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

2H2O(l)

or
H+(aq) + OH (aq)

H2O(l)

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions

Often called redox reactions
Electrons are transferred between the reactants
One substance is oxidized, loses electrons
Reducing agent
Another substance is reduced, gains electrons
Oxidizing agent
Oxidation numbers change during the reaction

Oil Rig

Redox: Displacement Reactions

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Zinc is losing 2 electrons and is
being oxidized.
Reducing agent
Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Copper ions are gaining the 2
electrons and is becoming reduced.
Oxidizing agent
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Cu(s)

Zn(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Cu(s)
Cu(s) +Zn2+ (aq) + 2e
Cu(s) +Zn2+ (aq)

Each of these reactions represent a

half-reaction, but the half-reactions
can not occur separately

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions

The previous reactions is called a displacement reaction. Zinc (Zn-(s)) is oxidized by
copper (Cu2+-(aq)). Can the reverse reaction occur, can Cu be oxidized by Zn2+.

No!
Some metal lose eeasier than others
active metals

noble metals

Balancing Simple Redox Equations

Balancing redox reactions

Electrons (charge) must be balanced as well as number and types of atoms
Consider this net ionic reaction:
Al(s) + Ni2+(aq) Al3+(aq) + Ni(s)
The reaction appears balanced as far as number and type of atoms are
concerned, but look closely at the charge on each side.

Divide reaction into two half-reactions

Al(s)
Ni2+(aq) + 2e

Al3+(aq) + 3e
Ni(s)

Multiply by a common factor to equalize electrons (the number of

electrons lost must equal number of electrons gained)
2 [Al(s)
3 [Ni2+(aq) + 2e

Al3+(aq) + 3e ]
Ni(s) ]

Cancel electrons and write balanced net ionic reaction

2Al(s) 2Al3+(aq) + 6e
3Ni2+(aq) + 6e
3Ni(s)
2Al(s) + 3Ni2+(aq)

2Al3+(aq) + 3Ni(s)

Practice Problem

Practice Problem A
A.

Barium is located above cobalt

the reaction will not occur

B.

Sn(s)

Cu2+(aq) + 2eSn(s) +Cu2+(aq) + 2eSn(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Sn 2+(aq) + 2e-

Cu(s)
Cu(s) + Sn 2+(aq) + 2eCu(s) + Sn2+(aq)

C. Sodium is located above silver

the reaction will not occur

Sn is oxidized
Cu is reduced

A.

Ni(s)

Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

Ni(s) + Cu2+(aq) + 2eNi(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Ni 2+(aq) + 2eCu(s)

Ni is oxidized
Cu is reduced

Cu(s) + Ni 2+(aq) + 2eCu(s) + Ni2+(aq)

B. Potassium is located above silver

the reaction will not occur

C. Al(s)
Al 3+(aq) + 3eAu3+(aq) + 3eAu(s)
Al(s) + Au3+(aq) + 3e-

Al(s) + Au3+(aq)

Al is oxidized
Au is reduced

Au(s) + Al 3+(aq) + 3e-

Au(s) +Al3+(aq)

Oxidation Numbers
Each atom in a molecule has an apparent charge due to the interactions with other
atoms in the molecule. The oxidation number represents the charge the atom would
have if the electron was actually transferred from on atom to another. Also oxidation
numbers can be used to predict the ratio by which atoms will combine when they
form molecules.
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers
1. The oxidation number of an element, in its elemental form is zero.
2. The oxidation numbers in any chemical species must sum to the overall charge
on the species.
H2(g) +
Oxidation number
Total contribution to charge

0
0

F2(g) =

2HF(g)

0
0

+1 -1

N2(g) + 3H2(g) =
Oxidation number
Total contribution to charge

+1 -1

2NH3(g)

-3 +1

-3 +3

Elements with Reliable Oxidation Numbers

Oxidation Numbers for Elements of the Periodic Table

Problem 4.45
ClF

IF7

CH4

C2H2

C2H4

K2CrO4

+1 -1

+7 -1
+7 -7

-4 +1
-4 +4

-1 +1

-2 +1

+1 +6 -2

-2 +2

-4 +4

+2 +6 -8

+1 -1

K2Cr2O7

KMnO2

NaHCO3

Li2

NaIO3

+1 +6 -2
+2 +12 -14

+1 +3 -2
+1 +3 -4

+1 +1 +4 -2
+1 +1 +4 -6

0
0

+1 +5 -2
+1 +5 -6

KO2

KAuCl4

+1 -1/2
+1 -1

+1 +3 -1
+1 +3 -4

Combination Reactions May be Classified as

Redox Reactions

Na is oxidized by Cl (Na losses

an electron) and Cl is reduced
(gains an electron)

H is oxidized by O (H losses
an electron) and O is reduced
(gains an electron)

Decomposition Reactions May be Classified as

Redox Reactions
Potassium chlorate is strongly heated
2KClO3(s)

2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

+1 +5 -2

+1 -1

+1 +5 -6

+1 -1

O is oxidized by Cl (O losses electrons) and

Cl is reduced (gains electrons)

Decomposition Reactions can also be

Disproportionation Reactions
One element can under go both oxidation and reduction

Combustion Reactions May be Classified as

Redox Reactions
When hydrocarbons react with oxygen in a combustion
reaction to produce carbon dioxide and water

C is oxidized by O (C losses electrons) and

O is reduced (gains electrons)

Concentrations of Solutions

Concentration is the amount of solute

dissolved in a given amount of solvent.
Qualitative expressions of concentration
Concentrated higher ratio of solute to
solvent
Dilute - smaller ratio of solute to solvent

Comparison of Concentrated and Dilute

Solutions

Quantitation of Concentration
Molarity is the ratio of moles solute per
liter of solution

Symbols: M or [ ]
Different forms of molarity equation

mol
L

mol
M

mol

M L

Problems
Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving
45.00 grams of KI into a total volume of 500.0 mL.

45.00 g KI 1 mol KI 1000 mL

500.0 mL 166.0 g KI
1L

0.5422 M or 0.5422 mol

How many milliliters of 3.50 M NaOH can be prepared

from 75.00 grams of the solid?

1 mol NaOH
1L
1000 mL
75.00 g NaOH
40.00 g NaOH 3.50 mol NaOH
1L

536 mL

Dilutions

Process of preparing a less concentrated

solution from a more concentrated one.

serial dilution

Dilutions

Dilutions

mol = M x L

Problems
Need 250 mL of 0.10 M CuCl2 from a concentrated stock of 2.0 M
CuCl2. How much of the 2.0 M solution do we need?

McLc = MdLd
(2.0 M) (Lc) = (0.10 M) (250mL)
Lc = 12.5 mL
12.5 mL of the concentrated solution are needed;
add enough distilled water to bring to 250 mL of
solution.

Problem
What volume of 6.0 M H2SO4 is needed to prepare 500.0 mL
of a solution that is 0.25 M H2SO4?

Mc x Lc = Md x Ld
(6.0 M H2SO4)(Lc) = (0.25 M H2SO4)(0.5000 L)
Lc = 0.021 L or 21 mL

Solution Stoichiometry

Soluble ionic compounds dissociate

completely in solution.
Using mole ratios we can calculate the
concentration of all species in solution.
NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl
Na2SO4 dissociates into 2Na+ and SO42
AlCl3 dissociates into Al3+ and 3Cl

Solution Stoichiometry
Find the concentration of all species in a
0.25 M solution of MgCl2

MgCl2

Mg2+ + 2Cl

Given: MgCl2 = 0.25 M

[Mg2+ ] = 0.25 M (1:1 ratio)
[Cl ] = 0.50 M (1:2 ratio)

Solution Stoichiometry
Express the molar concentration for all species in
the following solutions
0.42 M Ba(OH)2
[Ba2+ ] = 0.42 M (1:1 ratio)
[OH ] = 0.84 M (2:1 ratio)

1.2 M NH4Cl
[NH4+ ] = 1.2 M (1:1 ratio)
[Cl ] = 1.2 M (1:1 ratio)

Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis

Section 4.6

Types of quantitative analysis

Gravimetric analysis (mass analysis)
Example: precipitation reaction
Volumetric analysis (volume analysis)
Example: titration

Gravimetric Analysis (mass analysis) of a

Precipitation Reaction
Typical steps:
Determine mass of unknown solid
Dissolve unknown in water
Combine with excess amount of known
substance to form a precipitate (excess
drives reaction to completion)
Filter, dry and weigh the precipitate
Use formula and mass of precipitate to find
% of ion in unknown solid

Problem
A 0.825 g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride ions (Cl+) and an unknown
metal is dissolved in water and treated with excess silver nitrate (AgNO3). If 1.725 g of
AgCl precipitate forms, what is the percent by mass of Cl in the original sample?

Steps in solution:

Find the % of Cl in AgCl

Multiply the % of Cl by the mass of the precipitate to

obtain the Cl in the sample

Divide the mass of Cl in sample by total mass of sample

(multiply by 100 for %)
% Cl =
0.247

35.45 g Cl
143.35 g AgCl

100 = 24.7%

1.725g AgCl ppt = 0.427 g Cl in sample

% Cl in unknown =

0.427 g Cl
100 = 51.7% Cl
0.825 g sample

Volumetric Analysis of Acid/Base Concentrations

Commonly accomplished by titration
Addition of a solution of known concentration
(standard solution) to another solution of unknown
concentration.

Standardization is the determination of the

exact concentration of a solution.
Equivalence point represents completion of the
reaction.
Endpoint is where the titration is stopped.
An indicator is used to signal the endpoint.

Volumetric Analysis of Acid/Base Concentrations

If we know the volume of an unknown solution and a standard solution

and the [standard solution], then we can calculate the [unknown solution]

Problem
15.0 mL of an unknown monoprotic acidic solution was measured and
placed in an Erlenmeyer flask. An indicator was added to the flask. At
the end of the titration 35.0 mL of 0.12 M NaOH had been used to
neutralize the acid. Calculate the molarity of the acid.

0.035 L NaOH
M=

0.12 mol NaOH

1L

0.0042 mol
= 0.28 M acid
0.015 L

1 mol acid
= 0.0042 mol acid
1 mol base

Problem
Calculate the molarity of 25.0 mL of a monoprotic acid if it took
45.50 mL of 0.25 M KOH to neutralize the acid.

0.25 mol KOH

0.04550 L
L

1 mol acid
1 mol KOH

0.01338 mol acid

0.0250 L

0.01338 mol acid

0.455 M

Key Points in Chap. 3

Molecular mass
Percent composition
Chemical equations
Reactants
Products
State symbols
Balancing

Key Points in Chap. 3

Mole concept and conversions
Empirical and molecular formulas
Combustion analysis

Stoichiometry
Limiting reactant
% yield
Types of reactions

Key Points in Chap. 4

Electrolytes (strong, weak, and non)
Precipitation reactions
Solubility rules

Molecular, ionic, and net ionic reactions

Acid-base neutralization reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions

Key Points in Chap. 4

Balancing redox reactions by the half reaction
method
Various types: decomposition, combination

Molarity
Solution stoichiometry
Gravimetric analysis
Volumetric analysis