The IP address Identifies both the logical host and the logical network addresses.

Each host on the entire network must have a unique IP address.

Two devices on the same subnet must have IP addresses with the same network portion of the
address.
Two devices on the same subnet must have unique host portions of the IP address.
Do not use the first or the last host address on a subnet address range.
The subnet mask identifies which portion of the IP address is the network address, and which
portion is the host address. Two devices on the same subnet must be configured with the same
subnet mask.
The default gateway identifies the router to which communications for remote networks are
sent. The default gateway address is the IP address of the router interface on the same subnet
as the local host. Without a default gateway set, most clients will be unable to communicate
with hosts outside of the local subnet.
The DNS server address identifies the DNS server that is used to resolve host names to IP
addresses.
The host name identifies the logical name of the local system.
Application (Layer 7) The Application layer integrates network functionality into the host
operating system, and enables network services. The Application layer does not include
specific applications that provide services, but rather provides the capability for services to
operate on the network.
Most Application layer protocols operate at multiple layers down to the Session and even
Transport layers. However, they are classified as Application layer protocols because they start
at the Application layer (the Application layer is the highest layer where they operate).
Services typically associated with the Application layer include:
HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP
Presentation (Layer 6) The Presentation layer formats or "presents" data into a compatible
form for receipt by the Application layer or the destination system, such as the presentation of
an ASCII-coded file. Specifically, the Presentation layer ensures:
Formatting and translation of data between systems.
Negotiation of data transfer syntax between systems, through converting character sets to the
correct format.
Encapsulation of data into message envelopes by encryption and compression.
Restoration of data by decryption and decompression.
Session (Layer 5) The Session layer's primary function is managing the sessions in which data
is transferred. Functions at this layer include:
Management of multiple sessions (each client connection is called a session). A server can
concurrently maintain thousands of sessions.
Assignment of the session ID number to each session to keep data streams separate.
Set up, maintain, and tear down communication sessions.
Transport (Layer 4) The Transport layer provides a transition between the upper and lower
layers of the OSI model, making the upper and lower layers transparent from each other.
Transport layer functions include:
End-to-end flow control.
Port and socket numbers.
Segmentation, sequencing, and combination.
Connection services, either reliable (connection-oriented) or unreliable (connectionless)
delivery of data.
Data at the Transport layer is referred to as a segment.
Network (Layer 3) The Network layer describes how data is routed across networks and on to
the destination. Network layer functions include:
Identifying hosts and networks using logical addresses.
Maintaining a list of known networks and neighboring routers.
Determining the next network point to which data should be sent. Routers use a routing
protocol to take into account various factors such as the number of hops in the path, link
speed, and link reliability to select the optimal path for data.
Data at the Network layer is referred to as a packet.
Data Link (Layer 2) Logical LinkControl (LLC)
The Data Link layer defines the rules and procedures for hosts as they access the Physical
layer. These rules and procedures specify or define:
How hosts on the network are identified (physical or MAC address).
How and when devices can transmit on the network medium (media access control and logical
topology).
How to verify that the data received from the Physical layer is error free (parity and CRC).
How devices control the rate of data transmissions between hosts (flow control).
Data at the Data Link layer is referred to as a frame.
Physical (Layer 1) The Physical layer of the OSI model sets standards for sending and
receiving electrical signals between devices. Protocols at the Physical layer identify:
How digital data (bits) are converted to electric pulses, radio waves, or pulses of lights.
Specifications for cables and connectors.
The physical topology, including wireless access points.
Data at the Physical layer is referred to as bits.
The Application layer corresponds to the Session, Presentation, and Application layers of the
OSI model. Protocols associated with the Application layer include FTP, HTTP, Telnet, Smtp,
DNS, and SNMP.
The Host-to-host layer is comparable to the Transport layer of the OSI model and is
responsible for error checking and reliable packet delivery. Here, the data stream is broken into
segments that must be assigned sequence numbers so that the segments can be reassembled
correctly on the remote side after they are transported. Protocols associated with the Host-tohost layer include Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and User-Datagram Protocol (UDP).
The Internet layer is comparable to the Network layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for
moving packets through a network. This involves addressing of hosts and making routing
decisions to identify how the packet traverses the network. Protocols associated with the
Internet layer include Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP), and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).
The Network Access layer corresponds to the functions of the Physical and Data Link layers of
the OSI model. It is responsible for describing the physical layout of the network and how
messages are formatted on the transmission medium.
Network Architecture

Ethernet is a wired networking standard and is the most common networking architecture used
in LANs (both in business and home networks).
Dial-up networking is a common way to connect a computer (often your home computer) to a
remote network, such as the Internet or a business network. A modem on each computer uses
the phone lines to send and receive data.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a fast-growing alternative to dial-up networking to connect to
the Internet. DSL uses regular phone lines to send digital broadband signals.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is another alternative to traditional dial-up that
can be used to connect to the Internet or to directly communicate with another computer
connected to the ISDN network. ISDN is more common in Europe than in the U.S. ISDN
sends digital signals and can use regular telephone wiring, but must be connected to a special
ISDN network.
Wireless networking uses radio waves or infrared light (with the air as the transmission
medium) to send data between hosts. Wireless networks are common in homes, businesses,
airports, and hotels. Most wireless networks connect into larger wired networks (such as
LANs) which are in turn connected to the Internet.
A network is a group of computers that can share information through their interconnections. A
network is made up of the following components:
Computers (often called nodes or hosts)
Transmission media--a path for electrical signals between devices
Network interfaces--devices that send and receive electrical signals
Protocols--rules or standards that describe how hosts communicate and exchange data
Despite the costs of implementation and maintenance, networks actually save organizations
money by allowing them to:
Consolidate (centralize) data storage
Share peripheral devices like printers
Increase internal and external communications
Increase productivity and collaboration-----------------------------------------------------------In a peer-to-peer network, each host can provide network resources to other hosts or access
resources located on other hosts, and each host is in charge of controlling access to those
resources. Advantages of peer to peer networks include Easy implementation, Inexpensive
Disadvantages of peer to peer networks include: Difficult to expand (not scalable), Difficult to
support, Lack centralized control, No centralized storage----------------------In a client/server network, hosts have specific roles. For example, some hosts are assigned
server roles which allow them to provide network resources to other hosts. Other hosts are
assigned client roles which allows them to consume network resources. Advantages of
client/server networks include: Easily expanded (scalable), Easy support, Centralized,
services, Easy to backup
Disadvantages of client/server networks include: Server operating systems are expensive,
Requires extensive advanced planning----------------------------------------------------------A local area network (LAN) is a network in a small geographic area, like in an office.
A wide area network (WAN) is a group of LANs that are geographically isolated but
connected to form a large internetwork.
The term network often describes a network under a single organization with control over the
entire network. This could be a local area network at a single location, or a wide area network
used by a single business or organization. If, for example, two companies connected their
internal networks to share data, you could call it one network. In reality, however, it is two
networks, because each network is managed by a different company.
A subnet is a portion of a network with a common network address.
All devices on the subnet share the same network address, but have unique host addresses.
Each subnet in a larger network has a unique subnet address.
Devices connected through hubs or switches are on the same subnet; routers are used to
connect multiple subnets.
Internetwork: A network that includes geographically disperse (WAN) connections that
connect multiple LANs is often called an internetwork. Additionally, connecting two networks
under different management is a form of internetworking, as data must travel between two
networks.
The Internet is a large, world-wide, public network. The network is public because virtually
anyone can connect to the network, and users or organizations make services freely available
on the Internet.
Users and organizations connect to the Internet through an Internet service provider (ISP).
The Internet uses a set of communication protocols for providing services called TCP/IP.
Individuals and organizations can make services (such as a Web site) available to other users
on the Internet.
Intranet: An intranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies. Services on an
intranet are only available to hosts that are connected to the private network. For example,
your company might have a Web site that only users who are connected to the private network
can access.
Extranet: An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies, but whose resources
are made available to external (but trusted) users. For example, you might create a Web site on
a private network that only users from a partner company can access.------------Coaxial cable is an older technology that is usually implemented with a bus topology. It is not
suitable for ring or star topologies because the ends of the cable must be terminated. It is
composed of two conductors, which share a common axis, within a single cable.
Coaxial cable is built with the following components:
Two concentric metallic conductors:
The mesh conductor is a second physical channel that also grounds the cable. It is made of
aluminum or copper coated tin. The insulator, which surrounds the inner conductor, keeps the
signal separated from the mesh conductor. It is made of PVC plastic. The mesh conductor,
which surrounds the insulator and grounds the cable. It is made of aluminum or copper coated
tin. The PVC sheath, which is the cable encasement. It surrounds and protects the wire. It is
made of PVC plastic.
Advantages Highly resistant to EMI (electromagnetic interference), Highly resistant to
physical damage
Disadvantages Expensive, Inflexible construction (difficult to install), Unsupported by newer
networking standards----------------------------------------------------------------------------------RG-58 : 10Base2 Ethernet networking (also called Thinnet) : 50 ohms
RG-59 : Cable TV and cable networking : 75 ohms

RG-6 : Cable TV, satellite TV, and cable networking : RG-6 has less signal loss than RG-59,
and is a better choice for networking applications, especially where longer distances (over a
few feet) are involved. : 75 ohms
RG-8 : 10Base5 Ethernet networking (also called Thicknet) : 50 ohms
F-Type
Twisted onto the cable
Used to create cable and satellite TV connections
Used to connect a cable modem to a broadband cable connection
BNC
Molded onto the cable
Used in 10Base2 Ethernet networks
AUI
Is a DB15 serial connector, Used in 10Base5 Ethernet networks. Two wires that carry the data
signals (one conductor carries a positive signal; one carries a negative signal). They are made
of 22 or 24 gauge copper wiring. PVC or plenum plastic insulation surrounds each wire.
Plenum cable is fire resistant and non-toxic. It must be used when wiring above ceiling tiles.
PVC cable cannot be used to wire above ceilings because it is toxic when burned.
Two wires are twisted to reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
crosstalk. Because the wires are twisted, EMI should affect both wires equally and can be
cancelled out. ------------------------------Multiple wire pairs are bundled together in an outer
sheath. Twisted pair cable can be classified according to the makeup of the outer sheath:
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has a grounded outer copper shield around the bundle of twisted
pairs or around each pair. This provides added protection against EMI.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) does not have a grounded outer copper shield. UTP cables
are easier to work with and are less expensive than shielded cables.--------Phone cable:RJ-11 Used to connect a PC to a phone jack in a wall outlet to establish a dial-up
Internet connection. Has two pairs of twisted cable (a total of 4 wires).
Cat 3:RJ-45 Designed for use with 10 megabit Ethernet or 16 megabit token ring.
Cat 5:RJ-45 Supports 100 megabit Ethernet and ATM networking. Cat 5 specifications also
support gigabit (1000 Mb) Ethernet.
Cat 5e:RJ-45 Similar to Cat 5 but provides better EMI protection. Supports 100 megabit and
gigabit Ethernet.
Cat 6:RJ-45 Supports 10 gigabit Ethernet and high-bandwidth, broadband communications.
Cat 6 cables often include a solid plastic core that keeps the twisted pairs separated and
prevents the cable from being bent too tightly.
Additional standards for Cat 6 include Cat 6a (advanced) and Cat 6e (enhanced) which provide
better protection against EMI.
Each type of UTP cable can be substituted for any category below it, but never for a category
above. For example, Cat 6 can be substituted for a task requiring Cat 5e; however, neither Cat
5 nor Cat 3 should be used for this particular task.
RJ-11
Has 4 connectors, Supports up to 2 pairs of wires, Uses a locking tab,
to keep connector secure in outlet, Used primarily for telephone wiring
RJ-45
Has 8 connectors, Supports up to 4 pairs of wires, Uses a locking tab
to keep connector secure in outlet, Used for Ethernet and some token ring connections, To
connect computers using fiber optic cables, you need two fiber strands. One strand transmits
signals, and the other strand receives signals. Fiber optic cabling is composed of the following
components:
The core carries the signal. It is made of plastic or glass.
The cladding maintains the signal in the center of the core as the cable bends.
The sheathing protects the cladding and the core.
Fiber optic cabling offers the following advantages: Totally immune to EMI
(electromagnetic interference), Highly resistant to eavesdropping, Supports extremely high
data transmission rates, Allows greater cable distances without a repeater
Disadvantages Very expensive, Difficult to work with, Special training required to attach
connectors to cables
Multi-mode and single mode fiber cables are distinct from each other and not interchangeable.
Single Mode
Transfers data through the core using a single light ray (the ray is also called a mode)
The core diameter is around 10 microns
Supports a large amount of data
Cable lengths can extend a great distance
Multi-mode
Transfers data through the core using multiple light rays
The core diameter is around 50 to 100 microns
Cable lengths are limited in distance
Fiber optic cabling uses the following connector types:
ST Connector
Used with single and multi-mode cabling. Keyed, bayonet-type connector. Also called a push
in and twist connector. Each wire has a separate connector. Nickel plated with a ceramic

ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection. As part of the
assembly process, it is necessary to polish the exposed fiber tip to ensure that light is passed on
from one cable to the next with no dispersion
SC Connector
Used with single- and multi-mode cabling. Push on, pull off connector type that uses a locking
tab to maintain connection. Each wire has a separate connector. Uses a ceramic ferrule to
insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection. As part of the assembly process,
it is necessary to polish the exposed fiber tip
LC Connector
Used with single- and multi-mode cabling. Composed of a plastic connector with a locking
tab, similar to a RJ-45 connector. A single connector with two ends keeps the two cables in
place. Uses a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection
Half the size of other fiber-optic connectors
MT-RJ Connector
Used with single and multi-mode cabling. Composed of a plastic connector with a locking tab.
Uses metal guide pins to ensure it is properly aligned. A single connector with one end holds
both cables. Uses a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray
deflection.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Often you will purchase fiber optic cables of the correct length and with the requisite
connectors for your application. For long cable runs between floors or overhead, you might
hire an experienced contractor to install the cable and the necessary connectors. To add
connectors onto a fiber optic cable requires some practice.
Keep the area as clean as possible.
Cut the cable with a clean 90 degree cut.
Polish the end of the cable prior to adding the connector. Use special polishing film and tools
for polishing cable ends.
Glue or crimp the connector onto the cable.
Cover or cap any connectors that won't be hooked up immediately to keep them clean.
If necessary, you can directly splice two cable ends together; however, this requires expensive
and specialized equipment.
While fiber optic cabling can support much longer distances than copper wiring, it is still
subject to signal loss. Several factors contribute to signal loss: Cable length, Connectors,
Splices
You can evaluate a given segment of fiber optic cable and use these factors to calculate how
much signal loss (measured in dB) you should reasonably expect. This estimate is called a loss
budget. When calculating a loss budget for a segment of fiber optic cable, use the following
guidelines:
Connectors: 0.3 dB loss each
Splices: 0.3 dB loss each
Multimode cabling:
3 dB loss per 1000 meters (850 nm core diameter)
1 dB loss per 1000 meters (1300 nm core diameter)
Single mode cabling:
0.5 dB loss per 1000 meters (1310 nm core diameter)
0.4 dB loss per 1000 meters (1550 nm core diameter)
Router doesn't have TCP only IP. TCP checks orientation and sizes of packets, routers just
need to move and chop up packets.
TCP on routers has an exception, for routers that need higher reliability("gateway" routers
between networks).
TCP handles sequencing, duplicate packets, lost packets and out of order packets, UDP
doesn't.
Packets could be out of order due to router lag, or different paths.
Duplicate packets are due to slow or lost packets arriving after resent packets.
Three way handshake for starting and ending of connections.H1>H2, H2>H1, H1>H2.
IP encapsulation adds and drops hardware id's, every time you encapsulate you drop a header
UDP is "connection-less" sends to everyone no handshake, is message oriented, makes no
attempts at recovery of packets, (allows any connection: 1to1, manytomany, 1tomany)
UDP checksum is optional "pin" on packet used to verify correctness of packet(intactness),
IPv4 checksum incorrect resend it all, IPv6 checksum incorrect find wrong packet and resend
that packet
IPv6 host chooses route and chops up packets, routers only move(bridge) packets
IPv6 service field specifies priority, but in IPv4 it service field nothing
Bootstrap Protocol: (BOOTP), provides the computers IP address, the address mask to use,
and the address of a default router, via the DHCP server in one step upon boot up
DHCP is a method for automatically assigning addresses and other configuration parameters to
network hosts. Using a DHCP server, hosts receive configuration information at startup,
reducing the amount of manual configuration required on each host.
129.52.6.0/16 <<first 16bits are 1's
128-64-32-16-5-4-2-1