FIELD EXCURSION

Geochemical and indicator mineral

exploration methods and ongoing
projects in the glaciated
terrains in northern Finland

Geochemical and indicator mineral exploration methods

and ongoing projects in the glaciated terrains
in northern Finland
Excursion guide, 26 - 30 August 2011

25th International Applied Geochemistry Symposium 2011

22-26 August 2011 Rovaniemi, Finland

Pertti Sarala and V. Juhani Ojala

Publisher: Vuorimiesyhdistys - Finnish Association of Mining and Metallurgical

Engineers, Serie B, Nro B92-11, Rovaniemi 2011

Sarala, P. and Ojala, V.J. 2011. Geochemical and indicator mineral exploration methods and ongoing projects in the glaciated terrains in northern Finland. Excursion guide in the 25th International Applied Geochemistry Symposium 2011, 22-26 August 2011, Rovaniemi, Finland. Vuorimiesyhdistys - Finnish Association of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Serie B 92-11, 72 pages.

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Geochemical and indicator mineral exploration methods

and ongoing projects in the glaciated terrains
in northern Finland
Pertti Sarala1 and V. Juhani Ojala2
1 Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 77, 96101 Rovaniemi, Finland,
e-mail pertti.sarala(at)gtk.fi
2 Store Norske Gull As, Ounasvaarantie 1, 96400 Rovaniemi, Finland,
e-mail Juhani.Ojala(at)snsk.no
Abstract
This field trip provides an introduction to the regional Quaternary geology of the area
and stops in several glacial deposit examples, demonstrations of indicator mineral
and till geochemical exploration methods. Practical examples are seen in visits to the
Kittil and Sodankyl area and in Karasjok (Norway). In addition, the trip includes
visits to the Kittil gold mine, Petjselk gold occurrence, Mkrselk high-tech
metalAu occurrence, Ravnnaluhppu Cu-Au-occurrence (Karasjok, Norway) and
Kevitsa Ni-Cu-PGE-project. Visits to the Inari Smi Museum and the Tankavaara
gold prospecting museum are also included.

Finnish Lapland has repeatedly situated in the central part of the Scandinavian glaciations. Glacial deposits indicate several glacial phases of different glaciations with separate till units and variable striae and till fabrics. However, glacial
morphology is mainly indicating only the last deglaciation phase when the ice divide
zone situated in the Central Lapland area crossing it with west-east orientation. Glacier margin was divided into ice-lobes having variable flow directions seen on the
orientation of active-ice moraine morphology and esker chains. The Central Lapland
area was mainly on supra-aquatic position during deglaciation although large, timetransgressively developed ice-lakes were common. In places, up to tens of metres
thick pre-Quaternary weathered bedrock surface exists and is a remark of several
hundreds of million years weathering crust. Typically the weathering crust only couple of metres thick and consists of the saprock part of the weathering profile.

Kittil Au Mine is the largest producing gold mine in western Europe. The
mine was opened in 2008 and and the current resource is 56.3 Mt averaging 3.88 g/t
gold (6.8 Moz/219 t Au). The deposit is a Palaeoproterozoic orogenic gold deposit
and it is open at the depth of 1.4 km and along strike. The deposit is hosted by the
subvertical, compressional, a 4-km long section of Suurikuusikko shear zone. The
gold is refractory: 71 % of gold in the lattice of, and as tiny inclusions in, arsenopyrite and 22 % in pyrite.

Use of surficial geology and different till geochemical sampling, and indicator mineral field concentration methods is demonstrated in several exploration targets.
The Petjselk gold occurrence (best intersections 3 m @ 28.2 g/t Au, 1.05 m @ 12.6
g/t Au) in the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt having strongly folded and faulted
cherty and carbonate and sericite altered mafic metavolcanic rocks. The Mkrselk
high-tech metal - Au occurrence in Vuotso is consisting mineralized hematite and
magnetite veins hosted by Archaean granitoid gneiss; the veins are controlled by
tensional fractures of a NW-trending major shear zone. Although the target is highly

potential for high-tech metal mineralization, the best section relates to gold (3 m @
2.2 ppm Au). The Ravnnaluhppu Cu-Au-occurrence (Karasjok, Norway) is located
in the Karasjok Greenstone Belt which is the northern part of the Lapland Greenstone Belt. The mineralization (best intersections 1 m @ 1.7 g/t Au, 9 m @ 0.5 %
Cu including 1 m @ 1 % Cu) is hosted by a sequence of folded and faulted mafic
metavolcanic rocks, felsic and black schists.

Kevitsa Ni-Cu-PGE Mine is under construction and it has an estimated measured and indicated resource of 275 million tonnes grading 0.3% Ni, 0.4% Cu 0.11
g/t Au, 0.2 g/t Pt and 0.15 g/t Pt. The deposit is hosted by the Kevitsa ultramafic
intrusion dated at 2.01 Ga with U-Pb in zircon. The size of the intrusion is about
4 x 5 km and the disseminated sulphide ore zone is located in the upper part of the
ultramafic zone, in the NE part of the intrusion.

Excursion program and route

Introduction
The glaciation of Northern Finland
Deglaciation of the northern Fennoscandia and the Barents
STOP 1: Kittil Gold Mine
STOP 2: Petjselk Gold Occurrence
Kiilop
STOP 3: Mkrselk REE-Au exploration target, Sodankyl, northern Finland
STOP 4: Pre-glacial weathered bedrock in the Vuotso area
STOP 5: Placer gold in Lapland - Tankavaara gold museum
STOP 6: The Ravnnaluhppu Cu-Au-Occurrence in Karasjok, Norway
STOP 7: Quaternary deposits in Kaamanen
STOP 8: Siida The National Museum of the Finnish Smi
STOP 9: Kevitsa Mine Project - The Kevitsa intrusion and associated Ni-Cu-PGE deposit

9
12
17
26
39
45
46
53
56
56
62
64
64

Friday, 26th August

Leave Rovaniemi at 17.00, arrival to the Hotel K5 in Levi, Kittil at 19.30. Dinner and accommodation.
Saturday, 27th August
Leave Levi at 8.30, arrival to the Kittil Gold Mine (Stop 1) at 9.30. Introduction to the mine and visit to the
Suurikuusikko open pit and possibly the processing plant. Presentation of the Quaternary geology and surficial
geochemistry of the area. Lunch in the mine.
Leave the Kittil Gold Mine at about 12.30, 40 km (30 min) drive to the Petjselk gold prospect (Stop 2).
Short introduction by GTKs geologists of the geology and till and pre-glacial weathered bedrock geochemistry on the test trench before demonstrations of the portable XRF equipments in the field. About 2h (120 km)
drive to Kiilop, where dinner and accommodation.

Sunday, 28th August

Leave Kiilop at 9.00, about 50 km (1 h) drive to the Mkr target area (Stop 3) at 10.00. Introduction
to the high-tech metal research in northern Finland and present geochemical studies in the Mkr target.
Also, visit to the old mine site in the area and drill cores before demonstration of stream water and sediment sampling.
Drive (20 km, 30 min) to the Vuotso airfield at 13.00, where we see pre-glacial weathered bedrock under
till cover (Stop 4). Then we move to the GTKs research station to Vuotso (5 km), where we have field
lunch and after that, demonstrations of the indicator (i.e. heavy) mineral concentration techniques.
Drive (15 km) to the Tankavaara gold museum at 16.00 (Stop 5). Visit to the gold museum where we
can get introduction to the placer gold history of Finnish Lapland and other areas in the world. After that
everybody have possibility for gold panning. Drive (15 km) back to Kiilop, where dinner and accommodation.
Monday, 29th August
Leave Kiilop at 8.00, about 200 km (3 h) drive to the Karasjok target area (Stop 6) at 11.00. Visit to the
Store Norske Gulls exploration studies with different field methods. Field lunch.
Drive (90 km, 1 h) to Kaamanen at 15.00, where introduction of the Quaternary geology and different
types glacigenic formations of the area (Stop 7). Afer that we drive (35 km, 30 min) to Inari, where visit
to the SIIDA, museum of Smi culture (Stop 8). Then 80 km (1 h) drive back to Kiilop, where dinner
and accommodation.
Tuesday, 30th August
Leave Kiilop at 9.00, about 100 km (1,5 h) drive to the Kevitsa Ni-Cu Mine project (Stop 9) at 10.30.
Visit to the mine site. Field lunch.
Drive (170 km, 2 h 15 min) back to Rovaniemi, where at 16.30. Drive via Rovaniemi airport and railway
station, and hotels.
Weather and clothing:
Weather in late August can vary considerably - the temperature range is in between 5 to 25C, being typically around 15C in daytime. It is recommended that one should have a weatherproof jacket in case of
rain.
During the visit to Kittil and Kevitsa mines safety boots, hard hat and safety classes are provided by the
companies.
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS:
The instructions of your guides and hosts MUST be followed at all times. Be aware of loose boulders
and do not approach too close the open pits at the mines. Be aware of heavy machinery.
Mobile numbers of your guides:
Pertti Sarala: +358 40 571 8673
Juhani Ojala: +358 40 848 0285

Excursion route and stop locations.

Introduction
Pertti Sarala and V. Juhani Ojala
Surficial geology and exploration
The northernmost part of the Fennoscandia has been
several times influenced and covered by continental
ice-sheets during the Quaternary. The core areas of
glaciers existed mainly in the Norwegian and Swedish mountain areas but also in northern Finland (Johansson et al., 2011). In the eastern sector, the ice
margin proceeded as far as the northwest Russian
Plain during the Late Weichselian Maximum (LGM;
25,000-9,000 years ago) (Fig. 1). Also, during the
Early (115,000-75,000 years ago) and Middle Weichselian (75,000-25,000 years ago) several glacial
phases existed but not in such a large volume (cf.
Svendsen et al. 2004). It is most probable that icesheet covered northern and initially also central Finland during the Middle Weichselian but not earlier
(Mkinen 2005; Sarala 2005a; Salonen et al. 2008).
Instead, northern Russia and North America were
largely covered by ice sheets during the Early Weichselian (Svendsen et al. 2004).

In glaciated terrain till is the most prominent surficial

material and it covers the bedrock (Fig. 2). Furthermore, in northern Finland till is usually covered by
several meters thick Holocene peat cover (grey areas
in Fig. 2). Due to glacigenic nature till debris and
fragments are always some distance derived from
the source(s) and have dispersed to the direction of
ice-flow, giving also a larger and more homogenized
indication of source than the bedrock itself (Shilts
1975). This is the thing why the till is widely used
in exploration in the glaciated terrains. An intensity
of secondary dispersion is influenced by many different factors which depend on the variations in, for
example, geology and topography, and sub-glacial
conditions during till deposition. Glacial dynamics
is one of the most important things, because it is affecting to whole ice mass and is a mixture of effects
caused by the climate and other environment factors.
Glacial morphology, which is mainly composed of
different moraine formations and glaciofluvial or
glaciolacustrine deposits, is a straight evidence of
variation in glacial dynamics, and it reflects the deposition conditions under and front of the glaciers
body. (Sarala & Ojala 2008.)

Fig. 1. The maximum

extent of the Last Weichselian Glaciation in
northern Europe in about
18 ka ago. Last ice divide
zone is marked as black
dot line and the area of
northern Finland as red
quadrangle. Map after
Svendsen at al. (2004).

10

Fig. 2. Quaternary map of

northern Finland.

Surficial geology has been used as a practical exploration tool in glaciated areas since the beginning of
2000 century (Sauramo 1924) but the geochemical
methods have been in use since the 1950s (Kauranne
1958; Wennervirta 1968; Shilts 1972, Kujansuu
1976). The main methods have been and still are
till geochemistry and heavy mineral investigation.
These methods are based on the use of secondary
dispersion of till. By till sampling the dispersion pattern and the extent can be estimated and sometimes
bordered. Sampling grids are critical in this view and
the use of them depends on the source or source areas that are under exploration. Regional geochemi-

cal mappings with sparse grids are useful when finding suitable provenances for exploration. For targeting the exploration the local scale with dense grids
is needed. Till sampling can be done using different
equipment like percussion drilling and spade but the
estimation of sampling depth must be based on the
till stratigraphy. For that purpose test pit excavations
and preliminary till and heavy mineral sampling are
usually needed (Hirvas & Nenonen 1990; Sarala
2005a). With new field and sampling methods and
analysis equipment the effectiveness of exploration
can be increased.

11

Geological setting
Bedrock of northern Finland can be divided into
six main units from north to south (Korsman et al.
1997) (Fig. 3): the Archaean Inari Area, the Paleoprotorozoic Lapland Granulite Belt (ca. 1.9 Ga),
Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland Greenstone Belt
(2.5-1.9 Ga), Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland
Granitoid Complex (1.9-1.8 Ga), Paleoproterzoic
Perpohja Schist Belt (2.0-2.3 Ga) and the Archaean
Pudasjrvi Complex (3.5-2.7 Ga). The area comprises a significant portion of the northern part of the
Archaean Karelian craton and it records a prolonged
and episodic history of sedimentation, rifting and
magmatism throughout the Palaeoproterozoic times.

Some nickel-copper sulphides and VMStype showing has been discovered thus far in the
Archaean greenstone belts, whereas orogenic gold
occurrences are more abundant and are part of an
important global mineralising event at 2.7 Ga. The
fragmented 2.5-2.4 Ga layered mafic-ultramafic
intrusive complexes within the Karelian craton
host major chromitite, nickel-copper and plati-

Fig. 3. Generalized
bedrock map of northern
Finland. Map after Sarala
& Ojala (2008).

num group metals (PGM) deposit. The Archaean

crust underwent numerous rifting events at 2.4-2.0
Ga, leading to voluminous ultramafic to mafic volcanism and plutonism in central Finnish Lapland
(Lehtonen at al. 1998). Resulting nickel-copper
mineralizations occur in host rocks that vary in
composition from komatiite-type to ferropicritic.

In northern Finland, dozens of orogenic gold
occurrences have been discovered in the extensive Palaeoproterozoic greenstone belts of Central Lapland,
Kuusamo and Perpohja (Lehtonen at al. 1998). Some
of the orogenic gold deposits in northern Finland have
an atypical metal association although most of their
features are similar to the gold-only orogenic occurrences. They are significantly enriched in copper and,
in some cases, also in cobalt, lanthanides/rare-earth elements, nickel and/or uranium, and are surrounded by
intense albitization predating gold mineralization and
related alteration. There are also iron oxide-coppergold (IOCG) deposits in northern Finland. The most
significant occurrences are the Kolari magnetite ore
bodies in westernmost Finnish Lapland at the Swedish
border.

12

Pre-Quaternary regolith
Weathered bedrock surface has been preserved beneath glacial deposits in many areas in northern
Finland (Hirvas 1991). Up to tens of meters thick
remnants of weathered bedrock are frequently found
particularly in topographic depressions under till
in Central Lapland. Typically only the saprock has
been preserved, but in places also the lower saprolite and parts of the upper saprolite of the weathering profile are present (Sarala et al. 2007). The saprock horizons are strongly fractured and they have
been zones of preferential groundwater movement
and they are commonly rich in secondary iron minerals like goethite. Trace elements such as Cu, Ni,
Co, Zn and Mo have been enriched in the fine fraction of the goethitic weathering crust and the concentrations can be many times higher than in the
underlying fresh bedrock (Peuraniemi 1990). The

The glaciation of Northern Finland*

Peter Johansson, Juha Pekka Lunkka
and Pertti Sarala
Introduction
The Scandinavian Ice Sheet, the centre of which
situated in the Scandinavian mountain range, covered Finland and the north-western Russian Plain
several times during the Quaternary cold stages.
It is not known precisely how many times Finland was covered by ice during the Quaternary. This
is because the area is situated close to the glaciation
centre and the ice advances eroded and deformed
most of previously deposited interglacial and glacial sediments during the cold stages. Therefore it
is common that only the pre-Quaternary weathered
bedrock surface and the sediments deposited during
the last cold stage (Weichselian) rest on the PreCambrian bedrock. Except for some scattered remnants of the Saalian esker ridges (Kujansuu & Eriksson 1995) in the ice-divide zone of northern Finland
(Finnish Lapland) and in the major river valleys in
the Pohjanmaa area, in western Finland (for location: Fig. 4), there are no distinct geomorphological landforms related to pre-Weichselian glaciations.
However, there are a number of sites where Middle
* Article is based on Johansson, P., Lunkka, J.P. and Sarala, P., 2011.
Late Pleistocene glacigenic deposits from the central part of the
Scandinavian Ice Sheet to Younger Dryas End Moraine zone; Excursion
guide and abstracts. The INQUA Peribaltic Working Group meeting and
excursion in northern Finland, 12-17 June 2011. Geological Survey of
Finland, Rovaniemi, 142 p.

mixing of the weathered material in till causes problems in till geochemistry and can in places distort
the geochemical pattern. Large amounts of secondary enriched weathered material in till are not
necessarily be related in any way to ore deposits.

In the areas where active ice lobes have
been existed, the remnants of weathered bedrock are
mostly eroded away. For example in southern Lapland pre-Quaternary regolith is rare. The same situation is also in the northernmost parts of the Lapland.
This suggests that the glacial activity in the central
Lapland area and the other areas on the northern and
southern side of it were different. It also indicates
that the central Lapland area repeatedly existed in
the central part of continental glaciers. In this icedivide zone, the cold-based conditions were dominant and it was poorly eroding during the late deglaciation phases as pointed out by Hirvas (1991).

and Late Pleistocene organic and glacial sediments

have been preserved, particularly in northern Finland and in Pohjanmaa, western Finland (cf. Hirvas
1991; Nenonen 1995). These sites provide the basis
for the general Quaternary stratigraphy of Finland.

According to the Finnish till stratigraphy,
there are six, stratigraphically-significant till beds
in Finnish Lapland. The key site for the till stratigraphy is the Rautuvaara area in western Finnish
Lapland (Hirvas et al. 1977; Hirvas 1991). The three
uppermost till beds are thought to represent Weichselian-age tills (Till Beds I III), two of these
(Till Bed I and II) are thought to have been deposited during the Late Weichselian (Fig. 5). The socalled Till Bed IV was laid down during the Saalian glaciation. The two lowermost till beds (Till
Beds V-VI) that occur beneath the Holsteinian peat
horizon may represent Elsterian or pre-Elsterian
tills (cf. Hirvas & Nenonen 1987; Hirvas 1991).

Middle Pleistocene glaciations

There is only one site, Naakenavaara in western

central Lapland where a peat unit, biostratigraphically correlative to the Holsteinian Stage interglacial
(Hirvas 1991; Aalto et al. 1992) is underlain by the
sand and gravel unit and the till unit. According to
Hirvas (1991) this till unit was most probably deposited during the Elsterian glaciation. During the
Saalian Stage glaciation all of Finland was covered
by ice (e.g. Svendsen et al. 2004) although little is
known about the Saalian glacial history. However,
there are a number of sites, particularly in Lapland
and central western Finland, where till or glacio-

13

fluvial deposits underlie Eemian organic sediments

(cf. Grnlund 1991; Eriksson 1993; Nenonen 1995;
Donner 1995).

Observations of the Saalian till bed have
been undertaken mainly from the central and southern Lapland (Hirvas 1991; Sutinen 1992; Mkinen
2005). Saalian till has been preserved in depressions
and it is usually highly compacted. Based on till fabrics and striae observations, the ice-flow direction
was from the southwest. This indicates that the centre of the glaciation situated in the central Sweden,
west to the Gulf of Bothnia.

Fig. 4. A deglaciation map of Finland

showing the Southern Lapland Marginal
Formations and the main Late Weichselian end and interlobate moraines, ice
lakes and ice limits. Key sites marked
on the map are: 1. Veskoniemi, 2. Sokli,
3. Maaselk, 4. Tepsankumpu, 5. Naakenavaara, 6. Rautuvaara, 7. Permantokoski, 8. Kauvonkangas, 9. Oulainen,
10. Hitura.

Fig. 5. Stratigraphical log of the Rautuvaara section based on the studies of Hirvas et al. (1977).
Kauvonkangas, 9. Oulainen, 10. Hitura.

14

Late Pleistocene glaciations (c. 110 11.7 ka)

The stratigraphy of the Early and Middle Weichselian substages is based on the correlation of the
interstadial organic deposits, till stratigraphy and
till-covered glaciofluvial landforms. These data suggest that southern and northern Finland experienced
a rather different glaciation history during the Weichselian. Basically, the main difference between
these two areas is that northern Finland was already
covered by the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the
Early Weichselian while there is no firm evidence
of Early Weichselian ice-cover in the southern part
of Finland at this time (Fig. 6). This is probably a
result of two separate ice-dome areas in the Scandinavian Mountains that behaved semi-independently in space and time during the Weichselian.

Fig. 6. Time-distance diagram showing the growth and decay

of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. A glaciation curve from northwest to southeast across
northern Finland.

Early Weichselian Substage (c. 110 74 ka)

It is generally assumed that after the Eemian Stage
interglacial ice began building up in the Scandinavian Mountains and spread into the adjacent areas
twice during the Early Weichselian stadials, MIS 5d
and MIS 5b. However, during the Early Weichselian
interstadials, Brrup, MIS 5c and Odderade, MIS 5a,
the ice melted at least once almost completely even in
the Scandinavian Mountains (cf. Anderson & Mangerud 1990; Saarnisto & Salonen 1995; Donner 1995).

In northern Finland, many stratigraphically important areas and key sites are located in the ice-divide
zone in Central Lapland (Fig. 4) where Pleistocene
sediments were preserved as a result of the low
ice-velocities and to frozen bed conditions (Hirvas
1991; Kleman et al. 1999; Sarala 2005b). As mentioned above, six different till units have been discovered in northern Finland and some of these till
beds are interbedded with organic layers (cf. Korpela 1969; Hirvas et al. 1977; Hirvas 1991; Helmens et
al. 2000, 2007). At Tepsankumpu, Central Lapland,
a type locality for the Tepsankumpu Interglacial, a
freshwater gyttja unit that occurs stratigraphically
between Till Beds IV and III is characterised by a
mixed taiga pollen assemblage (cf. Saarnisto et al.
1999). The Tepsankumpu Interglacial deposits and
other gyttja and peat deposits between Till Beds IV
and III elsewhere in Central Lapland are correlated
with the Eemian Stage (Hirvas 1991; Saarnisto et al.
1999). Similarly, a continuous sediment succession
from Sokli, in north-eastern Lapland, that consists of
three till beds interbedded with lacustrine, fluvial and
glaciolacustrine sediments above the Eemian marker
horizon clearly indicate that there were at least three
separate ice advances across Lapland during the
Weichselian Stage (cf. Helmens et al. 2000, 2007).

Within these Weichselian sediment successions, there are several sites where interstadial units
have been discovered between the Weichselian till
units. The interstadial unit at Maaselk, in Central
Lapland occurs between Till Beds III and II. In
this unit, birch dominates the pollen sequence. The
Maaselk interstadial is considered as the stratotype
locality for the Perpohjola Interstadial, an event that
was previously correlated with the Brrup Interstadial (cf. Hirvas & Nenonen 1987; Donner et al. 1986).
However, the results of recent studies in southern
and central Lapland suggest that the southern part of
Lapland at least was ice-free during the Early Weichselian Stadial, MIS 5d. Likewise, the Perpohjola
interstadial sediments are most probably correlative
of either to the Odderade Interstadial, MIS 5a, or to
one of the Middle Weichselian interstadials, MIS
3 (cf. Mkinen 2005; Sarala 2005a, 2007, 2008).

At Sokli, a silt unit, that contains a tundra-type pollen assemblage, separates the Eemian
interglacial and the Brrup interstadial units and
both the Odderade and the Middle Weichselian interstadial sediments are underlain by till (Helmens
et al. 2000). Therefore, it seems that north-eastern Finland was unglaciated until MIS 5b around
90 ka (cf. Alexanderson et al. 2008). During the
MIS 5d, the Scandinavian Ice Sheet margin most
probably located in northwestern Finnish Lapland or in northern Sweden (cf. Lundqvist 1992).

There are a number of landforms that are
related to the ice-flow activity in northern Finland
during the Early Weichselian glaciations. Ice-mar-

15

ginal landforms from the Pudasjrvi area, northern

Pohjanmaa have been described by Sutinen (1992).
These elongate landforms are mostly composed of
coarse, glaciofluvial sediment that strikes perpendicular to the Early Weichselian ice-flow direction
from NW to NNW. They are buried by Late Weichselian till. On the distal side of the Pudasjrvi End
Moraines, the till unit is absent and Eemian deposits
lie between the Saalian and Late Weichselian tills.
In addition to these Early Weichselian landforms,
till-covered, ice-marginal landforms in the Tervola
Ylitornio area (Mkinen 1985) and till-covered esker sequences (Johansson 1995) in central Lapland
might represent the deglaciation phase of the second
Weichselian stadial, MIS 5b. Although the Early
Weichsleian glacial history in Finland is rather well
constrained, it is still poorly known in detail. Particular problems are related to the correlation of different
till and interstadial units in northern Finland and to
the ice extent during the Early Weichselian stadials.
Middle Weichselian Substage (c. 74 - 25 ka)
At the beginning of the Middle Weichselian (c. 74
60 ka, MIS 4), the whole of Fennoscandia became
covered by the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (cf. Saarnisto
& Lunkka 2004; Svendsen et al. 2004). Litho- and
biostratigraphical evidence, supported by 14C- and
OSL dates suggest that the major part of Finland was
ice free at least once or possibly several times during the latter part of the Middle Weichselian Substage (MIS 3) between c. 5425 ka ago (cf. Nenonen
1995; Ukkonen et al. 1999; Lunkka et al. 2001, 2008;
Salonen et al. 2008; Helmens et al. 2007, 2009).

The extent of the Middle Weichselian ice
sheet in northern Finland is still unknown. According to Hirvas (1991), northern Finland remained
ice-covered after the Perpohjola Interstadial, previously correlated with Brrup Interstadial, until deglaciation in the Late Weichselian and Early Holocene. However, at several sites in southern Finnish
Lapland silt and sand units between till beds have
yielded OSL-ages ranging from 3969 ka (Mkinen
2005; Sarala et al. 2005; Sarala & Rossi 2006). At
one site in Kauvonkangas, southern Finnish Lapland
peat and gyttja horizons associated with periglacial
palaeosols occurring between two till beds have
yielded OSL and 14C ages between 3927 ka (Mkinen 2005), clearly indicating a Middle Weichselian
(MIS 3) ice-free period. Similarly at Sokli, eastern
Lapland, a two metre thick sequence of laminated
sediment is thought to have been deposited in a glaciolacustrine environment during MIS 3 at around 40
ka ago (Helmens et al. 2000, 2009). The laminated
unit contains pollen indicating shrub tundra vegetation. Based on relatively high tree pollen percentages in these sediments, it has also been argued that
pine and tree birch were probably growing only a few

hundred kilometres south or south-east of Sokli (Bos

et al. 2009). Recent results have therefore shown that
after the Odderade Interstadial the Scandinavian Ice
Sheet advanced across northern Finland during MIS
4. Subsequently, eastern and southern Lapland was
deglaciated during the MIS 3 before the last glacial ice advance in the Late Weichselian (Fig. 6).

A number of landforms are thought to
have been deposited by the Middle Weichselian
ice sheet. Sarala (2005b) has shown the northnorth-west south to south-east-trending drumlin
field and associated stratified sediments above in
south-western and western Finnish Lapland were
deposited by ice in the early stage of the Middle
Weichselian and during its deglaciation. In addition, ice-marginal deposits in southern and central
Lapland (cf. Sutinen 1992; Mkinen 1985) were
most probably formed during different stages of
the Middle Weichselain (MIS 4) ice recession.

At least three cross-cutting esker systems
have been identified in north-eastern Finland. Tillcovered eskers, with a north-south orientation, were
found just south of the Sokli area, in the same region where the old northern till bed (possibly deposited during the MIS 4). This till was deposited
by ice that moved southwards (Johansson 1995; Johansson & Kujansuu 1995). Therefore, the till and
esker stratigraphy, together with the interstadial
sediments of Middle Weichselian age (14C- AMS
age 42 ka) found at Sokli, indicate that the area was
deglaciated at least once during the Middle Weichselian, prior to the final build-up of ice at the
Late Weichselian maximum (Helmens et al. 2000).
Late Weichselian Substage (c. 25 11.7 ka)
The rapid ice-advance of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet
across Finland into the NW Russian Plain took
place after 25 ka cal BP ago (cf. Lunkka et al. 2001;
Svendsen et al. 2004). Based on clast fabric analysis
and bedrock striae measurements, the ice-movement
direction during this advance phase was from a westerly direction (cf. Salonen et al. 2008). Recent results
from Veskoniemi, northern Lapland also indicate
that the ice did not cover the area until c. 2225 ka
ago (Sarala et al. 2010). The Scandinavian Ice Sheet
reached its maximum extent in the north-west Russian Plain and the Kanin Peninsula between c. 18.5
17 ka ago (Lunkka et al. 2001; Larsen et al. 2006),
began retreating and Finland was completely deglaciated by c. 10 ka ago (cf. Saarnisto & Lunkka 2004).
The Late Weichselian deglaciation
(c. 11.7 10 ka)
The deglaciation of northern Finland is mainly based
on the study of glacigenic deposits and glaciofluvial
landforms (Tanner 1915; Penttil 1963; Kujansuu

16

1967; Aario & Forsstrm 1978; Johansson 1988,

1995). The retreating ice sheet melted in a supra-aquatic (terrestrial) environment, the results of which created a range of erosional and depositional landforms.
Subaquatic conditions existed only in the southwestern part of Lapland which was covered by the
waters of the Ancylus Lake phase of the Baltic Basin.

The youngest ice flow direction can be used
to delineate the retreat of the ice sheet, because this
retreat was usually in the opposite direction to that of
the last ice flow. The network of subglacial glaciofluvial systems (esker chains) shows the direction of
the retreating ice sheet even more accurately. These
systems contain depositional landforms, i.e. steepsided and sharp-crested esker ridges with zones
of glaciofluvial erosion between them. The radial
pattern of the Late Weichselian subglacial drainage systems reflects the direction of ice-marginal
retreat towards the ice divide zone in Central Lapland. In the northern part of Lapland, the ice margin retreated towards the south south-west and
in the southern part of Lapland to the north-west.

Meltwater activity at the boundary of the
ice sheet and the exposed terrain produced series
of shallow meltwater channels, i.e. lateral drainage
channels. These channels indicate the surface gradient of the ice sheet and the rate of melting at the end
of the deglaciation phase, when the highest mountains emerged from beneath the ice sheet as nunataks. Penttil (1963), Kujansuu (1967) and Johansson
(1995) have used these channels to reconstruct the
deglaciation in the mountain areas of Lapland. They
found that the surface gradient of ice sheet varied here
from 1 to 5 metres per 100 metres and the average ice
retreat rate was generally between 130-170 m/year.

In the supra-aquatic area of northern Finland, the ice margin retreated downslope along
the main river valleys. As a result the meltwaters
were unable to drain but formed ice-dammed lakes
in the river valleys at lower altitudes (Fig. 4). The
lake phases are indicated by the presence of ancient
shorelines and outlet channels, coarse outwash and
fine-grained glaciolacustrine sediments. The largest
of these glacial lakes covered thousands of square
kilometres and were located in Salla, eastern Lapland, in Muonio and Ounasjoki valleys, north-western Lapland and in the Inari Basin, northern Lapland
(Kujansuu 1967; Johansson 1995; Kujansuu et al.
1998). The ice lakes drained from one river valley to
another across the water divides creating erosional
landforms, such as deep and narrow gorges. Successive extramarginal meltwater systems formed along
the retreating ice-front. Some of these features can
be followed hundreds of kilometres from the higher
terrain in northwestern Lapland to the lower levels in
eastern Lapland (Kujansuu 1967; Johansson 1995).
Initially meltwater flow was directed northwards
over the main water divide. However, as the ice sheet

became smaller and retreated south-westwards, the

meltwater flow was redirected eastwards and finally
south-eastwards along the retreating ice margin towards the Baltic Basin. Collecting all the palaeohydrographic information, for example by mapping the
ice dammed lakes and the extra-marginal channels
between the ice-dammed lakes, it is possible to reconstruct a reliable picture of successive stages of the ice
retreat in the supra-aquatic areas (Johansson 2007).
became smaller and retreated south-westwards, the
meltwater flow was redirected eastwards and finally
south-eastwards along the retreating ice margin towards the Baltic Basin. Collecting all the palaeohydrographic information, for example by mapping the
ice dammed lakes and the extra-marginal channels
between the ice-dammed lakes, it is possible to reconstruct a reliable picture of successive stages of the ice
retreat in the supra-aquatic areas (Johansson 2007).

The Younger Dryas ice-marginal landforms
are situated in North Norway only 20 kilometres
from the northernmost part of Finnish Lapland (Sollid et al. 1973). At that time the ice-divide zone i.e.
the centre of the ice dome located in Central Lapland, and the active ice flow was towards the northeast and towards the south-east and east. Extensive
drumlin fields in Inari, northernmost Lapland and in
Kuusamo, south-easternmost Lapland were formed
during this flow phase. As the ice sheet began retreating from the Younger Dryas end-moraine zones
c. 11.6 ka ago (Saarnisto 2000), the highest mountain
tops in north-western and northern Lapland were the
first to emerge as nunataks from beneath the ice. The
main parts of northern and south-eastern Lapland became ice-free c. 10,500 years ago (Fig. 7). After ice
had reached the ice divide area in Central Lapland c.
10.3 ka ago, the ice margin stagnated in several places
and the ice melted in situ, partially as separate patches of dead ice. The last remnants of the continental
ice sheet melted in western Lapland c. 10.0 ka ago
(Kujansuu 1967; Saarnisto 2000; Johansson 2007).

17
Fig. 7. Recession of the margin of
the glacier in northern Finland towards the end of the last deglaciation. 1 = position of the ice margin,
2 = areas covered by ice-dammed
lakes and 3 = Ancylus Lake (Johansson 2007).

Deglaciation of the northern

Fennoscandia and the Barents Sea*
Juha Pekka Lunkka
The northernmost Finland and north Norway (Finnmarken) have been glaciated several times during the
Quaternary. In addition, there are glacial sediments in
the Varanger area that date back to the Neoproterozoic. Although the area has been covered by ice during
most of its recent history, there are virtually no Quaternary sediments in the Finnmark area that represent sediments older than the Late Weichselian. The
landscape is therefore characterized mainly by barren
bedrock and glacial landforms (Fig. 8) that were laid
down during the last deglaciation after ca. 18 ka ago.

* Article is based on Johansson, P., Lunkka, J.P. and Sarala, P., 2011.
Late Pleistocene glacigenic deposits from the central part of the
Scandinavian Ice Sheet to Younger Dryas End Moraine zone; Excursion
guide and abstracts. The INQUA Peribaltic Working Group meeting and
excursion in northern Finland, 12-17 June 2011. Geological Survey of
Finland, Rovaniemi, 142 p.

According to the results of the Nordkalott Project, a suite of ice movement direction indicators (e.g. striations) were interpreted to have been
formed during the Early Weichselian, when the ice
in the Varanger area and Finnmarken was flowing mainly from the south (Fig. 9). The Nordkalott Project also compiled the map of the ice flow
patterns for the Middle and Late Weichselian (Fig.
10) in which the ice flow directions deviate slightly from the Early Weichselian ice flow directions.

During the last glacial maximum (ca. 1820
ka), the Scandinavian (SIS) and Batrents Ice Sheets
(BIS) coalesced at the western edge of the Barents
Sea shelf. The SIS was flowing towards the north
and northeast while the BIS was flowing towards
the west (Svendsen et al. 2004). As both of the ice
sheets started to retreat from their maximum position several ice marginal positions can be traced
across northern Fennoscandia (Fig. 11). Generations
of streamlined forms (flutes, drumlins, striations)

18

can be used to picture the ice flow patterns during

the final phases of deglaciation while end moraines
and raised shorelines can be used to reconstruct the
successive ice marginal positions across the northern part of Fennoscandia (cf. Sollid et al. 1973).

Fig. 8. Quaternary map of northern Finland and Finnmarken showing the main landforms parallel and transverse to the ice flow.
Drumlins = red, end moraines = black, green stippled lines = eskers, green arrows = glaciofluvial cahnnel systems (Nordkalott
Project 1986).

19

Fig. 9. Ice flow directions in northern Fennoscandia during the Early Weichselian (Nordkalott Project 1986).

Fig. 10. Ice flow directions in northern Fennoscandia during the Middle and Late Weichselian (Nordkalott
Project 1986).

20

Fig. 11. The main ice marginal positions during the Late Weichselian deglaciation in northern Norway. Open
dots indicate sites that will be visited during this excursion (modified after Nordkalott Project 1986).

The following ice marginal zones (Fig. 11) and

the corresponding substages in northern Norway from north to south have been named and
their age have been estimated based on the regional age correlation of dated sediments and associated end moraines and shorelines (Fig. 12):

Risvik Substage (ca.1718 ka) representing the most northern ice marginal zone
close to the outer coast of Varanger Peninsula with associated shorelines L12 and L13.

Outer Porsanger Substage (ca. 15.5
ka). The ice margin at that time is represented by major end moraines at Strmmen and at
Vard with associated shorelines L6 and L7.

Korsns Substage (ca. 14.715.4 ka). The position of the ice margin related to this substage is uncertain in the Varanger area but the substage is thought
to be correlative to increased calving events in the
Varangerfjord when the shorelines were close to L6.

Rapparfjord Substage (ca. 13.8 ka; Older
Dryas-Blling chronozone). The corresponding
ice margin position during this stage is thought

to have been at Bransletta, Gandvik and Nyelv

on the southern side of Varangerfjord. Shorelines L3 and L2 are associated to this substage.

Gaissa Substage (ca.13 ka; Allerd chronozone). During this substage the ice marginal
position is marked by the distinct end moraines
south of Varangerfjord and west of the Tana Valley. L2 shorelines are associated to this substage.

Main Substage (ca. 12.4 ka; Younger Dryas chronozone) end moraines are correlative to
the Younger Dryas end moraines that run around
Fennoscandia, Kola Peninsula and Russian Karelia. Shorelines L0 and P11a outside and inside
the end moraines are correlated to this substage.

Korselv Substage (11.311.5 ka, Preboreal
chronozone) during which a minor end moraine
formed in the Tana Valley. Shoreline P10 is associated to this substage.

21

Fig. 12. Equidistant shoreline diagram for the Tana Valley area (modified after Sollid et al. 1973). L0 (blue line) represent the
shore line during the Younger Dryas and T1 (red line) shows the shoreline of the Tapes transgression c. 7 ka ago.

22

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J., 1999. New radiocarbon dates from Finnish mammoths indicating large ice-free areas in Fennoscandia during the Middle Weichselian. Journal of Quaternary Science 14, 711-714.
Wennervirta, H., 1968. Application of geochemical
methods to regional prospecting in Finland. Bulletin
de la Commission Gologique de Finlande 234, 91 p.

Fig. 13. Boulder field and scenery towards west on top of the Levi fell. Photo by P. Johansson.

26

STOP 1: Kittil Gold Mine

Pertti Sarala and Nicole L. Patison*
Suurikuusikko deposit and the mine
The orogenic Suurikuusikko gold deposit is within
the Palaeoproterozoic Central Lapland greenstone
belt, approximately 50 km northeast of the town of
Kittil in Finnish Lapland (Figs. 14 and 15). The host
rocks, timing of ore formation relative to regional
deformation, metamorphic grade, alteration assemblages present, and structurally controlled nature of

the deposit make it analogous to better known deposits in greenstone belts throughout the world (e.g.,
Yilgarn of Australia, Superior Province of Canada).
At Suurikuusikko, the gold is refractory, occurring
within arsenopyrite (>70 %) and arsenian pyrite as
lattice-bound gold or sub-microscopic inclusions.

Fig. 14. Formation map

of the Central Lapland
Greenstone Belt (after
Lehtonen et al. 1998)
showing the location of
the gold deposits and
occurrences in thea area,
with the three largest
known deposits named.
Composed by Vesa
Nyknen.

* Dr. Nicole Patison, Agnico-Eagle Finland, Kittil

Acknowledgements: Agnico-Eagle is gratefully acknowledged for the permission to publish the data. The information in this summary reflects the opinions of the author only
unless otherwise referenced. The majority of information
is based on data collected prior to 2005 (during the exploration phase of the deposit preceding mine development).

27

A mining operation started in 2008 then targeting a gold resource of 16 million tonnes (2.6 million ounces) averaging 5.1 g/t gold (Agnico-Eagle 2007). Until the end of 2010, 2 Mt of ore was
mined and more than 6 t of gold produced. The
present proven and probable gold reserves total approximately 4.9 million ounces from 32.7 million
tonnes grading 4.6 g/t (Agnico-Eagle 2011). Ore
intersections have very even grade distribution due
to the disseminated sulphide-like nature of the
ore (Table 1). The deposit still is open along strike
at both ends, and at depth; presently, the deepest
ore-grade intersection (6 m @ 9.5 g/t Au) is about
1200 m below the surface (Agnico-Eagle 2011).
Exploration history
Visible gold was discovered SSW of Suurikuusikko
by the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) in 1986
(Hrknen & Keinnen 1989). Subsequent ground-

geophysical surveys and geochemical sampling

lead to the identification of the Kiistala Shear Zone
(KiSZ), the deposits host structure. Suurikuusikko
was discovered in 1986 during diamond drilling by
GTK. A total of 77 diamond drill holes (9,320 m)
were completed by GTK, outlining a resource of
1.5 Mt with an average grade of 5.9 g/t (285,000
ounces of gold) by 1997 (Parkkinen 1997). In April
1998, the deposit was acquired by Riddarhyttan
Resources AB and the companys exploration activities increased the resource size to over 2 million
ounces of gold (Bartlett 2002). Ore-grade mineralisation was found over a five-kilometre strike length
of the KiSZ in similar structural and stratigraphic
positions. Mine feasibility studies on Suurikuusikko began in winter 2000. In 2004, Agnico-Eagle
Mines Limited acquired a 14 % ownership interest
in Riddarhyttan, and in 2005 acquired the remaining Riddarhyttan shares. In June 2006, a decision
was made to begin mine development. The Kittil
Mine achieved commercial production in May 2009.

Fig. 15. Geology in the vicinity of the Kittil Mine and KiSZ. Geological map is derived on the current GTK
digital bedrock map database. Composed by Vesa Nyknen.

28
Table 1. Examples of gold intercepts from drill core in the Kittil Mine.
Zone

Drill hole number

Mineralised section length (m)

Averaged grade of section (g/t Au)

Ketola
Ketola
Ketola
Ketola
Etel
Etel
Etel
Main
Main
Main
Main
Main
Main
Main
Main

02114
02107
02107
02104
R407
01802
02039
R473
R504
00717
R478
99002
R479
00730
98004

6.40
7.00
3.20
10.70
7.00
5.60
8.10
14.00
10.80
14.30
18.20
18.20
26.80
18.90
29.60

4.20
11.10
7.10
4.00
7.50
8.60
9.50
10.40
9.10
10.60
5.10
16.50
17.30
9.10
11.90

Geology
Suurikuusikko occurs within greenschist-facies
metavolcanic rocks of the ca. 2.0 Ga Kittil Group
(Lehtonen et al. 1998). Geochemical heterogeneity among the Kittil Group rocks has been interpreted to indicate that the Group is a composite of
arc terranes and oceanic plateaux amalgamated
during oceanic convergence (Hanski & Huhma
2005). Significant variations in metamorphic grade
within the Group also suggest that a number of
distinct lithological elements could be present
within the area currently mapped as Kittil Group,
and seismic surveys across central Lapland indicate a number of distinct crustal blocks (Patison et
al. 2006). The maximum current thickness of the
Kittil Group is between six and seven kilometres (Luosto et al. 1989) in the Kittil Mine area.

The mineralisation typically occurs in a
transitional formation between two thick (several 100 metres) mafic lava sequences (Figs. 16
and 17). The N- to NNE-trending host structure
(KiSZ) for the deposit coincides with this contact
between western and eastern lava packages. In the
area of the Main ore zone, host rocks change from
mafic pillow and massive lavas west of the mineralised zones to mafic transitional to intermediate lavas (andesite flows of Powell 2001) and minor pyroclastic material within mineralised zones.

Graphitic sedimentary intercalations containing chert, argillitic material and BIF occur within
the mafic volcanic sequence at the eastern margin of
mineralised zones, followed further east by mafic lava
packages and ultramafic volcanic rocks. The extent of
intermediate and felsic rock compositions present at
the deposit is not studied. The variation in appearance
(and hence the logging and mapping terminology for
rock compositions used here) may also alternatively
result from progressive alteration of mafic rocks. Most

ore is hosted by mafic rocks and those mapped as intermediate or felsic volcanic rocks. Metasedimentary units including BIF typically have low to no gold
grade, and the ultramafic rocks are unmineralised.

Orogenic events relating to CLGB development generated several phases of deformation. The
earliest deformation phases preserved (D1, D2) involved roughly synchronous N- to NNE- and S- to
SW-directed thrusting at the southern and northeastern margins of the CLGB (Ward et al. 1989). Northwest-, N-, and NE-trending D3 strike-slip shear
zones, including the KiSZ hosting the Suurikuusikko deposit, cut early folding and thrusting, but may
also reflect reactivation of older structures. Post-D3
events are limited to brittle, low-displacement faults.

Representative structural data for the deposit are shown in Figs. 18a to 18d. The Kiistala
Shear Zone has a strike length of at least 25 km
(Figs. 14 and 15). The dip of this shear zone in the
Suurikuusikko area is steeply east to sub-vertical
(Figs. 18b and 18c). Known mineralisation occurs
within N-trending and less frequently NE-trending
(e.g. Ketola ore bodies, Fig. 16) shear zone segments. The KiSZ is a complex structure, recording
several phases of movement. Most deformation has
occurred by flattening accompanied by some strikeslip movement. Aeromagnetic images of the KiSZ
indicate early sinistral strike-slip movement along
the zone. Immediately above the widest mineralised
zones, late dextral strike-slip movements are recorded on shear planes bounding mineralised zones. It is
not yet clear if the mineralisation coincides with a
combination of early and late shearing or only to the
later dextral shearing event which now delineates the
limits of gold mineralisation in most ore zones. An
apparent correlation exists between points of more
intense shearing within the KiSZ and the amount
of gold present in host rocks (Figs. 19a and 19b).

29

Fig. 16. Total magnetic field (on left) and electromagnetic (slingram out-of-phase, on right) images for the southern part
of the Suurikuusikko area, in 200 m grid. The blue colors represent magnetic lows and conductivity highs respectively
in Figs. 7a and 7b. Names refer to individual ore zones. Composed by Vesa Nyknen.

Fig. 17. Pit map from Suurikuusikko showing the main

rock types and structures, in 10 m grid (after Patison
et al. 2006). The grade estimates shown are visual estimates based on arsenopyrite abundance. Exposure of
the deposit prior to 2007 was limited to the two pits
shown in this figure.

30

Fig. 18. These stereoplots show the orientations of deformation features observed for Suurikuusikko (ordered from oldest to youngest). Fig. 18a, top left, shows bedding (dots), the trend of the typical regional foliation (lines) formed prior
to movements of the KiSZ related to mineralisation, and fold axes measured in the deposit area (stars). Figs. 18b (top
right) and 14c (bottom left) show the orientation of the graphitic shear zones (e.g. Fig. 17) associated with the KFZ
and ore zones. Fig. 18d (bottom right), shows the common orientation of post-mineralisation faults, although NE- (e.g.,
Fig. 18a) and E-striking faults and veins are also seen. Plots are lower hemisphere projections on equal area nets; point
symbols are poles to planes with frequency contours, stars in Fig. 18a are plunging lines; lines are planes). Plots after
Patison et al. (2006) and Patison (2001).

The envelopes of ore bodies strike N and have a

moderate N plunge. The control on the northerly
plunge is not completely resolved: factors to be
explored include the role of intersections between
multiple shear planes, and of the intersections of
depositional surfaces and shear planes. The orientation of regional fold axes (similar to axes in Fig.
18a) may also have a role in determining favourable
sites for mineralisation during shearing. Sulphides and host rocks show some evidence for deformation relating to post-mineralisation movements
on host shear planes. Post-mineralisation brittle

faults crosscut mineralised zones but are not known

to cause significant displacement of ore lenses.

Alteration in and around the deposit appears
typical for deposits of this type. Visually, intense
carbonate and albite alteration are associated with
gold-rich arsenopyrite and pyrite. Albite occurs as a
matrix overprint that typically extends less than two
metres into barren rock, and as brecciating micro
veinlets. Barren carbonate alteration includes distal
calcite veins, and dolomite/ankerite veins and infilling tectonic and/or hydrothermal breccia proximal
and within ore zones, respectively. Table 2 presents

31

Fig 19. These Figures show 3D solid geology models for the deposit
completed in 2004 (Patison 2006b). In both Figures the coloured
solids are assay-based ore solids for gold grade ( 1 g/t Au). The
brown solid is a solid of the host shear zone constructed to show
zones were deformation intensity is highest. Fig. 19a (near plan view
with slight N plunge) and Fig. 19b (vertical section) show the shearbound nature of the ore zones. Sheared bedding contacts which are
also mineralised (unmineable grades at the time of model creation)
are illustrated by the moderately east-dipping solids. Truncation by
cross faults is also evident in Fig. 19a.

a summary of progressive alteration of mafic pillow

lavas. Absent form this table is amorphous carbon.
The abundance of this graphitic carbon correlates
with the intense shearing that bounds most mineralised zones. The presence of such carbon suggests
extremely reducing fluid conditions during shearing
and possibly mineralisation. Gold-bearing sulphides commonly nucleated on shear planes, stylolitic
cleavage, and fractures bearing amorphous carbon
(Figs. 20a and 20b). Carbon isotope data indicates
that this material is sourced from carbon-rich sediments within the host sequence (Patison, unpub-

32

lished data). Argillite-rich units intercalated with

volcaniclastic material have high primary carbon
contents, and may have been chemically important
for localising gold-rich phases given the association
between amorphous carbon and mineralisation. Other alteration and ore mineral phases include rutile
and less abundant sericite, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite,
gersdorffite, chalcocite, sphalerite, bornite, chromite, galena, talnakhite, and Fe-hydroxides (the latter produced by weathering) in varying abundances
(Chernet et al. 2000).

The gold-rich sulphides appear to have a
late timing within the paragenetic sequence. The
majority (71 %) of gold occurs within arsenopyrite,

and visible arsenopyrite is a reliable indication of the

presence of gold within samples. Remaining gold
occurs in arsenian pyrite (22 % of gold), and infrequently as free gold (Kojonen & Johanson 1999).
Sub-microscopic gold is found as inclusions or solid-solution lattice substitutions within arsenopyrite
and pyrite (Chernet et al. 2000). Gold as inclusions
is common in pyrite but rare in arsenopyrite (typical
grain size from <1 to 100 mm; Kojonen & Johanson
1999). The composition of gold inclusions includes
various alloys with Ag and Hg (Chernet et al. 2000).
Rare stibnite veins and amorphous grains contain
extremely high gold grades and overprint the main
ore-bearing sulphides.

Table 2. Alteration minerals present in progressively altered mafic pillow lava. The data used are modal weight percentages
of mineral phases calculated using Mineral Liberation Analysis data collected at GTK. The thickness of line is proportional to
the relative volume of each mineral present in the sample. A mafic pillow lava sequence was used for this example to ensure a
constant rock type, although pillow lavas do not host significant volumes of ore. The felsic mineralised sample is included for
comparison and may, in fact, be the most altered end-member of a mafic rock alteration sequence.
Alteration Zone

Distal

Intermediate

Proximal / Ore

Ore

Ore

Rock type

Mafic
pillow lava

Mafic
pillow lava

Mafic
pillow lava

Mafic
pillow lava

Felsic

Sample

F5-001

F5-007

00404 189.90

F5-003

F5-002

5.16

3.3

8.71

SILICATES
Actinolite
Epidote
Titanite
Chlorite
Muscovite
Albite
Microcline
Plagioclase
Clinopyroxene (matrix)
Quartz
CARBONATES
Calcite
Dolomite
PHOSPHATES
Apatite
OXIDES
Rutile
SULPHIDES
Arsenopyrite
Pyrite
Pyrrhotite
GOLD GRADE (g/t)

33

Fig. 20. Back-scattered electron microprobe images of ore samples in mafic host rocks.
Fig. 20a, upper, shows nucleation (or recrystallisation) of arsenopyrite in graphitic (black
phase) milled zones relating to shearing. Fig. 20b, lower, shows a fractured competent
rock fragment with arsenopyrite associated with fracture infill. A penetrative shear
boundary is seen at the edge of this mineralised fragment (center of photograph). Field of
view in both figures is 1.5 mm.

34

Quaternary geology and geochemistry

Surficial geology, till geochemistry and heavy minerals were studied at the Kittil Mine during 20072009. This research was a joint project between the
Geological Survey of Finland and Agnico-Eagle
Finland. Aims were to clarify the till stratigraphy of
the area and study geochemical and heavy mineralogical signature of the glacigenic overburden and reflectance of the three known Au-bearing zones to it
in the area of Suurikuusikko open pit (Fig. 21). The

methods were conventional geochemistry for till and

pre-glacial weathered bedrock surface, using ICPOES and GFAAS after partial leaching with aqua regia, FAAS with syanide leaching (for Au analysis),
mobile XRF, and heavy mineral research. Samples
for the Quaternary chronology of stratified inter-till
layers and deposits were also taken, and dated by the
OSL method in the Nordic Laboratory for Luminescence Dating at Ris DTU, Denmark and in the Dating Laboratory of the University of Helsinki, Finland.

Fig. 21. W-E oriented soil profile over the three known Au ore zone in the southern part of the Suurikuusikko open pit. Au contents in till, weathered bedrock and heavy mineral samples are also presented in
the middle. According to Peltoniemi-Taivalkoski & Sarala 2009.

35

The glacigenic overburden in this area has three till

beds representing different glacial phases. The lowest till, which is observed only in places on the distal
side of bedrock highs relative to the glacial transport
direction, represents the oldest (Early Weichselian)
ice advance with an ice flow direction from NW to
SE. The uppermost tills represent the latest glaciation phase, having an indication of glacial advance
stage in the bottom and a retreat phase on the top
of the sequence. Glaciotectonically deformed stratified sediments that were part of a west-east oriented
melt-water channel crosscut the till deposits in the
middle of the Suurikuusikko open pit area. The
sediments were deposited at the end of Early Weichselian, about 73,000-78,000 years ago (Fig. 22).

Stratigraphical development since the Early
Weichselian is seen in Fig. 23. During the Middle
Weichselian there has been an ice free interstadial
stage of which the 55 ka old stratified sands are the
sign. There are also observations of the ice wedge
casts filled with silt and till as a mark of periglacial
conditions (Fig. 24). The most suitable time for the
formation of them is during the later part of the Middle Weichselian before the Late Weichselian glacial
advance of which tills cover the periglacial surface.
At the time of the last deglaciation area was under
proglacial ice-lake and fine-grained sediments cover
underlying sediments in the Suurikuusikko area.
Since that little lakes or ponds and peat bogs have
been covered the area. The beginning of growth
of peat can be dated back to 10,000 cal. years BP
based on the antler that was found in the contact
of glaciolacustric sediments and peat (Fig. 25).

Fig. 22. Till-covered, glaciotectonized sands in the middle of

the Suurikuusikko open pit with OSL sampling points and ages.
Photo by P. Sarala.

Fig. 23. Generalized Quaternary development of the Suurikuusikko area during the Weichselian.

36

Based on the till stratigraphy and geochemistry of

this area, the transport distance of till debris and
pebbles was estimated to be short for the bottommost till bed (Fig. 21). The upper till beds had much
longer transportation, and give no clear lithological and chemical indication of the local, underlying
bedrock. The most suitable indicator elements in

till, besides the gold itself, are As, K, Mn and Sb

with the heavy minerals like arsenopyrite and pyrite.
Instead, the number of visible (microscopic) gold
grains in heavy mineral concentrates both in till and
weathered bedrock samples was low reflecting very
fine-grained gold particles and/or the occurrence
of gold in the lattice of sulfide minerals (Fig 26).

Fig. 24. Ice wedge cast in till in the Rouravaara open pit. Ice wedge is filled by waterlain till and/or glaciolacustrine
sediments. OSL sampling points of the glaciofluvial/-lacustrine stratified sands are also marked and the ages dated
in separate dating laboratories mentioned in text. Photo by P. Sarala.

Fig. 25. About 10,000 years old antler found from the peat-sediment contact in the Suurikuusikko open pit, Kittil.
Photo by Jyrki Korteniemi.

37

Fig. 26. SEM images of gold grains in a) weathered bedrock sample and in b) upper till in Suurikuusikko.

38

References
Agnico-Eagle, 2007. Media release 21 December
2007. Available at: www.agnico-eagle.com.
Agnico-Eagle, 2011. Media release 28 April 2011.
Available at: www.agnico-eagle.com.
Bartlett, S. 2002. Suurikuusikko gold mineral resources to 15 November 2002. Micon International
Co. Ltd. Confidential internal memorandum.
Chernet, T., Kojonen, K. and Pakkanen, L., 2000.
Applied mineralogical study on the near-surface
Suurikuusikko refractory gold ore, Kittil, western
Finnish Lapland (Phase I). Geological Survey of
Finland, Report M 19/2743/2000/1/10, 22 p.
Hanski, E. and Huhma, H., 2005. Central Lapland
greenstone belt. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A. &
Rm, O.T. (eds.) Precambrian Geology of Finland
Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield.
Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, 139-194.
Hrknen, I. &and Keinnen, V., 1989. Exploration
of structurally controlled gold deposits in the Central
Lapland greenstone belt. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 10, 79-82.
Kojonen, K. and Johanson, B., 1999. Determination
of refractory gold distribution by microanalysis, diagnostic leaching and image analysis. Mineralogy
and Petrology 67, 1-19.
Lehtonen, M. I., Airo, M L., Eilu, P., Hanski, E.,
Kortelainen, V., Lanne, E., Manninen, T., Rastas,
P., Rsnen, J. and Virransalo, P., 1998. Kittiln
vihrekivialueen geologia. Lapin vulkaniittiprojektin raportti. Summary: The stratigraphy, petrology
and geochemistry of the Kittil greenstone area,
northern Finland. A report of the Lapland Volcanite
Project. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation 140, 144 p.
Parkkinen, J., 1997. The Suurikuusikko Gold Deposit. Mineral Resource Estimate. Geological Survey of Finland, Report M 19/2743/97/1, 20 p.
Patison, N.L., 2001. Structural and fluid chemical
controls on gold mineralisation in the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt, northern Finland. Geological
Survey of Finland, Report M 16/2001/6, 5 p.
Patison, N.L, Korja, A., Lahtinen, R., Ojala, V.J.
and the FIRE Working Group, 2006. FIRE seismic
reflection profiles 4, 4A and 4B: Insights into the
Crustal Structure of Northern Finland from Ranua
to Ntm. Geological Survey of Finland, Special
Paper 43, 161222.

Patison, N.L., Ojala, V.J. and Lampela, R., 2006. Kittil Mine 2006. Pit Stereophotography and Mapping:
Confidential report for Agnico-Eagle Finland. Geological Survey of Finland, Report R/764/41/2006.
Peltoniemi-Taivalkoski, A. and Sarala, P. 2009.
Maapern geokemialliset ja stratigrafiset tutkimukset Suurikuusikossa, Kittilss (Research for surficial geology, till geochemistry and heavy minerals in
Suurikuusikko, Kittil). Geological Survey of Finland, archive report P23.4/2009/25, 30 p. (in Finnish)
Powell, W., 2001. Petrographic Report on Suurikuusikko Rock Types. Confidential report for Riddarhyttan Resources AB. November 2001.
Ward, P., Hrknen, I. and Pankka, H.S., 1989.
Structural studies in the Lapland greenstone belt,
northern Finland and their application to gold mineralization: Geological Survey of Finland, Special
Paper 10, 7178.

39

STOP 2: Petjselk
gold occurrence
Helene Hulkki, Pertti Sarala and Tuomo Karinen
The Petjselk gold exploration target is located
in the eastern part of Kittil municipality about
20 km southeast from the Kittil Gold Mine, ca.
100 km north of the Arctic Circle (Fig. 27). Geologically the target is situated in the Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (CLGB) on
the northern continuation of Porkonen Formation.
Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) explored the
Petjselk area during 2002-2009 including bedrock mapping, systematic geochemical studies of
till and weathered surface of bedrock in an area of
52 km2 (with 250 m grid) accompanied with geophysical surveys, diamond drilling (a total of 10.8
km of drilling), trenching and heavy mineral survey.

Exploration history
Exploration activity started in the Petjselk area
over one hundred years ago. The prospecting interest was concentrating on iron and the focus area was
mainly to the south from Petjselk. In 1960s focus
was also on manganese and the prospecting activity
was increasingly expanded to the Petjselk area by
the mining company Otanmki Oy. The GTK performed preliminary studies for gold in the area during 1980s and 1990s. The first observation of gold
in bedrock in the property was made in 1987 from a
drill core which contained 0.87 ppm Au in 1.50 m
section (Keinnen 1993). However, gold content of
1.55 ppm was already documented in 1984 by Lapin
Malmi (part of the Outokumpu Oy) in their studies
concerning the possible gold potential in Fe-Mnformations of the Central Lapland (Anttonen 1984).

Fig. 27. The location and the

geology of the Petjselk
area. Basemaps: National
Land Survey of Finland,
licence no MML/VIR/
TIPA/217/11).

40

Geological settings
The Petjselk target represents the easternmost
part of the Kittil Group of the CLGB lithostratigraphic division (Fig. 28). This group is considered to be an allochtonous part of the CLGB and
is distinguished by two volcanic formations, the
Kautoselk and Vesmajrvi Formations. These
formations are separated by the Porkonen Formation, which consist mainly of banded iron formations and tuffogeneous graphitic schists. In many
places of which the Petjselk target is a good
example, the bedrock has undergone extensive hydrothermal alteration that is connected with tectonic weakness zones trending in various directions.

A regional seismic high resolution reflection
profile has been aquired in the Petjselk area to
help constrain large scale geologic framework and
locate possible metallogenically important features

Fig. 28. Main stratigraphic units of the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt. Major gold deposits are marked with yellow labels.

such as crustal-scale pathways of mineralizing fluids.

The seismic data reveals regions of lateral continuity
of reflective strata that probably emphasize low angle folds rather than steep faults (black lines in lower
Fig. 29). In this folding pattern an antiform structure
is building up in the Petjselk study area. The reflector truncations represent very likely fault zones
(red lines in lower Fig. 29). The most prominent
of them is outcropping into the east of Petjselk
and it is dipping west beneath the study area.
Till and weathered bedrock geochemistry
Regional scale geochemical survey was performed in
Petjselk to evaluate gold potential of the area and
delineate possible mineralized targets for follow-up
studies. Samples were taken from till and from the
surface of weathered bedrock beneath soil cover in

41
Fig. 29. The seismic HIRE-line of
Petjselk including reflectors and interpreted lithological (black) and tectonic
(red) boundaries. The fluid flow model in
anticline structure is shown in an upper
right hand corner.

250 m sampling grid. Uniform or almost uniform

geochemical zones are seen on geochemical maps
of till reflecting among others various rock units of
the area. However, geochemistry of the weathered
bedrock gives spot-like and scattered information
and uniform geochemical zones are not so obviously
outlined from geochemical maps. Sampling in 250 m
grids is too sparse to reflect e. g. discontinuous zones
consisting of narrow lens-like bodies of iron formation
or chert on geochemical maps of weathered bedrock.

Diamond drilling results illustrate that almost all metallic elements (including gold and its
path-finder elements like As, Bi, Te) are to varying
extent enriched in graphitic sulphide-rich schists including iron formation of sulphide-carbonate facies.
Primary sulphide-rich rock units produce high metal
contents e. g. into sampling mediums like till. Thus,
zones or targets with high metal contents can easily give false anomalies if the background is considered to be consisting only of mafic volcanites.

The anomaly patterns of different elements
on geochemical maps conform generally with the
different rock units of the area. However, many elements (e. g. Co, Cu, Fe, As, Bi, Te and Au) show
also anomaly patterns that are cross-cutting the general strike of rocks. These cross-cutting anomalies

are stretched along N-S, NE-SW or E-W directions

which correspond to directions of interpreted faults
and shears of the study area. Some examples of geochemical anomaly patterns seen in till and weathered
bedrock are shown in Figs. 30-31.

Detailed study areas were chosen on the basis of surficial geochemical studies of till and weathered surface of bedrock. In the detailed areas, till
stratigraphical observations, till geochemistry, heavy
mineral studies and channel sampling on trenches
were performed in order to directly locate and further prospect gold potential targets. The stratigraphic
observations and geochemical studies revealed that
in higher topographic areas, where the till cover is
only one to three meters thick, glacial transport distance of till is commonly only tens of meters (Fig.
32). Instead, in lowland areas glacial overburden is
usually thicker composing of several till beds and
thus, the uppermost till bed reflects only weakly the
underlying bedrock. High gold contents of till (>
20 ppb) have been observed largely in Petjselk
target with median 6.2 ppb and maximum 904 ppb
(Fig. 33). The highest gold contents in till also correlate with the number of gold grains found from the
heavy mineral samples.

42

Fig. 30. Au content in weathered bedrock and till is shown as interpolated map (IDW method), some contours are
also drawn. Au content 0.5 ppm in bedrock is shown as white diamond symbols.

Fig. 31. A combined As-Bi-Te content in weathered bedrock and till is shown as interpolated map (IDW method), some contours are also drawn. Au content 0.5 ppm in bedrock is shown as white diamond symbols.

43
Fig. 32. Short glacial
transportation (about
20 m) is seen as sharp
and short dispersion
of gold in the fine
fraction of till in the
Kerolaki area.

Fig. 33. Distribution of Au in till fines

(<0.06 mm) based on AAS analysis
method in the test pits and trenches in
Petjselk.

44

Many of these anomalous places were further tested

with geophysical surveys and diamond drillings. The
results proved further that gold has been enriched in
sulfide-carbonate-quartz-rich veinlets with two major gold-bearing zones associated with cherty rocks
in Kerolaki, and the carbonate and sericite altered
rocks in Selk-Mntyp. Furthermore, over 1 ppm
Au content has been commonly analyzed in the bedrock. The most gold-enriched section in diamond drill
core of the Kerolaki is 1.05 m @ 12.6 ppm and 1.00
m @ 3.1 ppm in the eastern part of Selk-Mntyp.
Strong enrichment of gold was discovered from Ranta-Mntyp with the best section having 3.00 m @

28.2 ppm. The exploration results are promising and

the area is considered to have significant potential for
gold (Hulkki et al. 2010). The Ministry of Employment and the Economy offers the Petjselk area for
purchase through an international tendering process
for undertaking further geological investigations.

During the visit to the stop, till and weathered
bedrock sampling for chemical analyses and heavy
mineral studies was demonstrated. Furthermore,
there are demonstrations of two different mobile XRF
methods of which the first one is a portable field analyzer (Fig. 34) and another mobile, car-transported
unit for drill cores and sediment samples (Fig. 35).

Fig. 34. Innov X Systems portable XRF analyzer tested in till

sample analysis. Photo by P. Sarala.

Fig. 35. Application of mobile XRF measurement unit by ScanMobile. Photo by P. Sarala.

References
Anttonen, R., 1984. Keski-Lapin Fe-Mn-muodostuman nytteist suoritettu kultatarkistus. Outokumpu
database, Report 001/3712,3721/RA/84/17.
Hulkki, H., Salmirinne, H., Karinen, T., Nyknen,
V. and Sarala, P., 2010. The Petjselk gold property. Geological Survey of Finland, Archive report
M19/3721/2010/62, 36 p.
Keinnen, V., 1993. Raportti Kittiln Petjselss
tehdyist kultatutkimuksista vuosina 1986-87. Geological Survey of Finland, Archive report M19/3721/93/1/10, 3 p., 5 app.

45

Kiilop
Pertti Sarala
Kiilop locates in the southern part of the Municipality of Inari, at the foot of the Kiilop and Ahop
Fells. Fell Centre Kiilop has long traditions of
nature tourism; it has provided high-quality active
holidays since 1964. Kiilop is an ideal place to experience real arctic nature, because it is located just
next to the gates to Urho Kekkonen National Park.
The Park is named after the former President of Finland (Urho Kekkonen) and called also as UKK National Park. It is the second largest National Park in
Finland (area 2,550 km2) and has amazing nature.

The heart of the UKK National Park consists
of the continuous Saariselk Raututunturit Fell
area. It is an easily traversable mountain area, shaped
by the last Ice Age. It consists tens of gently undulating, treeless fell tops rising over 400 meters and
typified by rounded mountain tops, gorges, boulder
fields and heaths (Fig. 36). The bedrock is composed
of the Precambrian granulite, garnet rich gneiss,

which was formed around 1,900 million years ago.

The present-day fells were formed by block movements during the Tertiary period, around 30- 50 million years ago. The uplift gave rise to pronounced
erosion, which lowered the fells and smoothed over
the originally sharp and angular forms of the landscape. The blocks fracture lines formed present
river valleys. During the Quaternary the erosion was
minor, except some deep melt-water channels. The
boulder fields have formed from the rock which has
slowly weathered after the deglaciation. In the southwest part of the National Park there is typical forest
wilderness with isolated fells, extensive open aapa
mires, pine forests and thickly-mossed spruce forests.

Reindeer husbandry, hunting and fishing
have long traditions in the region. They have left
their mark in the form of hole traps, reindeer fences and herders huts. Reindeer husbandry is to this
day the main source of livelihood in the region, although tourism is growing up in the tourist centres.
Around them there are marked trails, which make it
easy for even the inexperienced backpacker to move
around. Alternatively it is possible to go on long
and demanding hikes in the parks wilderness areas.

Fig. 36. A view over the fell region in Kiilop with gorge formed by the glacial melt-waters during the latest deglaciation.
Photo by P. Johansson.

46

STOP 3: Mkrselk REE-Au

exploration target, Sodankyl,
northern Finland
Olli Sarap and Pertti Sarala
High-tech metal project
GTKs four-year research project High-tech metals (2010-2013) aims to evaluate the exploration potential of high-tech metals including Li, Ti,
In, Ga, Ge, Nb, Ta and rare earth elements (REE).
During the project, existing data (previous reports,
databases, drill cores) has been combined to geochemical sampling, heavy mineral studies, geophysical measurements, geological mapping and
drilling to find potential targets for exploration.

The hi-tech metals, especially the REEs,
play a critical role in numerous applications and environment friendly energy technologies, e.g. hybrid
and electric cars, solar panels, wind turbines, phosphors, magnets, LCD screens, mobile phones and
computers. In the EU, the REE are considered as strategic metals mainly because currently any economic
Fig. 37. GTKs REE-exploration targets on
the Geological map of Finland.

deposits are not known in the area and all high-tech

metals are imported. The REEs are considered as
the most critical, as 95 % of the world production
is controlled by China, which has recently tightened
the production and export quotas. For example in two
last years the price of lanthanum has been increased
25-fold from 5.9 Eu into 149 Eu (IM 13.6.2011).

Several REE showings are known in Finland
and have been checked by GTKs high-tech project
(Fig. 37). The most promising rock types include
carbonatites (Sokli, Korsns), alkaline rocks (Otanmki, Iivaara), appinites (Central Lapland), rapakivi granites and pegmatites (S-Finland) and kaolin
weathering crusts (eastern and northern Finland).
Typical minerals containing REE are monazite,
ancylite, bastnasite, allanite, xenotime, euxenite,
apatite, zircon and kaolinite (Table 3). In addition,
new REE-potential areas can be located based on
geochemical anomalies in till and bedrock. Light
REE (La-Eu) tend to concentrate in carbonatites and
the more valuable heavy REE (Gd-Lu) are found in
alkaline granites and pegmatites and may also be
enriched by weathering processes. Carbonatites are
marked by La anomalies in till. Prominent heavy REE
anomalies (as revealed by Y in till) are shown in the
Tana Belt area and in rapakivi area (Figs. 38 and 39).

47
Table 3. The main REE-minerals in studied samples (Al-Ani et al. 2010).
Locality

Jammi

Iivaara

Otanmki

Korsns

Uuniniemi

Mkr

Vanttaus

Lehmikari

Palkiskuru

Palovaara

Honkilehto
Kortejrvi

Laivajoki

Suhuvaara

Rock type

REE-mineral phases

Carbonatite veins
Nepheline-syenite
Alkaline-gneiss
Carbonatite
Carbonatite and albitite
Arkose gneiss
Appinitic diorite
Appinite
Albitite

Albite-carbonate-rock
Carbonate mica schist
Carbonatite
Silicocarbonatite
Appinitic diorite

F-apatite, Sr-apatite, monazite, bastnsite, ancylite, trontianite, baryte

Apatite, allanite
Fergusonite(Y), Fergusonite(U), allanite, columbite
Apatite, monazite, carbocernaite, calcio-ancylite, bastnsite, baryte, barytocalcite
Apatite, monazite, euxenite, Fe-columbite, Fe-thorite
Euxenite, columbite, zircon
Apatite, allanite, sphene, zircon
F-apatite, monazite, allanite, ancylite, thorite, zircon, baryte
Apatite, bastnsite, allanite, monazite, ancylite, davidite, masuyite, sayrite, zircon
Allanite; ancylite, bastnsite and xenotime
Bastnsite, allanite, davidite, U-Pb minerals, U-Si minerals
Apatite, allanite, monazite, bastnsite, columbite
Apatite, monazite, allanite, bastnsite
Monazite, allanite

Fig. 38. Regional till and rock geochemistry anomalies indicate that
most promising a) yttrium (HREE) anomaly areas are located in Tana
Belt in north and rapakivi granites in south while b) lanthanum (LREE)
has several potential areas.

48
Fig. 39. Lantanium and yttrium anomalies of the
regional till geochemistry on the aeroradiometric
thorium map and aeromagnetic map.

49

Background for Au-REE-exploration in the

Mkrselk area of Tana Belt
The Tana Belt, immediately to the south of the Lapland Granulite Belt, northern Finland, was selected
as one of the main targets as the area includes prominent REE anomalies in regional till geochemical and
lithogeochemical data (Salminen 1995; Rasilainen et
al. 2008). These data indicate high La and Y concentrations in both till and bedrock in arkose gneiss areas
in an area which is 200 km wide. Especially interesting is that high Y values in till and rock samples indicate enrichment of the heavy REE in the bedrock.
Simultaneously with the REE exploration, all indications of gold will also be tested; the region includes a
number of known, small Au occurrences in bedrock
and extensive areas gold nuggets in the regolith.

The selection of Mkrselk as high-tech
target was based on regional till and bedrock Yanomalies of the Tana Belt, existing geological data
from earlier studies, possibility for ionic adsorption type HREE-deposit in saprolite and exploitation REE as a by-product of gold. The present main
Au- and REE targets locate in Mkrselk and also
Vaulo, 15 and 25 km northwest from the Vuotso village. The strongly deformed Tana Belt comprises
amphibolite, garnet-biotite and arkose gneisses, and
was thrusted together with the Lapland Granulite
Belt onto the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt during 1.9-1.8 Ga. The area is located in the latest ice
divide zone of the last (Late Weichselian) glaciation. Subglacial erosion has been weak and the till
transport distance short. The bedrock is covered by
5-30 m thick kaolinitic saprolite and the overlying
till, usually clay-rich, has a thickness of 0.5-15 m.

Mkrselk has been the exploration target
for gold in the past decades starting from the 1950
to recent. In 1949 first goldbearing erratic hematite-boulders were discovered by Holger Jalander,
1.5 km to the S from the deposit. After that GTK
(1949-55), Suomen Malmi (1955-1957), Rautaruukki (1970s), GTK (1978-1985) carried out glacial
erratic boulder survey, bedrock mapping, trenching,
ground magnetic survey and electric survey, aerial
photographic survey, trenching, till heavy mineral
survey, excavation of an exploration adit (failed),
till geochemistry and stratigraphy, high-altitude and
low-altitude airborne magnetic, electromagnetic and
radiometric survey, and diamond drilling. Later
holders were Conroy Plc. (19952002), Nordic Diamonds (20022003) (Eilu & Pankka 2009). Earlier
studies in the area suggest that the hydrothermal
quartz-hematite-pyrite veins at Mkrselk are
generally narrow (1 mm - 2 m) and are in connection with tensional fractures (Eilu & Pankka 2009).

Exploration methods and results

The recent study includes following methods: revising of old drill cores, trenching till and saprolite,
till stratigraphy study, geophysical measurements
and prospectivity studies, systematic geochemical
sampling by a percussion drill (grid 200 x 200 m,
area 30 km2), weak leaching geochemistry, stream
water and sediment geochemistry, diamond drilling,
mineralogical and chemical analyses of samples.

Revising of Mkrselk old drill cores
showed that core loss has been a serious problem during earlier gold investigations. Weathering in shear
zones can reach down to the depth of over 100 meters. In 2009-2011, trenching included 30 pits in electromagnetic anomalies and geochemical anomalies.

During new studies one 100 m long trench
in an electromagnetic anomaly revealed 13 meters
wide conform red hematite-quartz vein, altered
hematite-goethite-kaolinite saprolite, which contains 3.3 ppm (1.1-8.5 ppm Au, fire assay) gold and
400 ppm REE tot (Fig. 40). The vein is bordered
by kaolinitic saprolites, originally sericite-quartzite
and arkose gneiss and is restricted to amphibolite.
The drill hole R318 penetrates the same vein, where
gold and REE contents were in a same level as in the
trench, except in the sections of core loss (Fig. 41).
Fig 40. 13 m wide gold-rich hematite-quartz vein, which contain 3.3 ppm Au (ranging 1.1-8.5 ppm; analyzed by fire assay)
and 400 ppm REE tot. Photo by P. Sarala.

50
Fig 41. Mkr gold-hematite ore penetration by trenching and drilling.

Till geochemistry (ICP-MS and ICP-OES, aqua water) from fine fraction of the same trench indicate that
deposit in the Mkrselk area can be trace only a few
ten meters from the mother ore (Fig. 42). Till bed in
this trench is only 0.5-1.5 meters and its clay content is
high. Red color in till and weathered bedrock reveals
the gold potential target. Drilling and trenching programs have detected four side by side gold ore veins,
which connected to the electromagnetic anomalies.

Au content in till has a strong positive correlation with the positive electromagnetic anomalies, caused by the weathered sulphidic bedrock.
In Fig. 43 hematite prospectivity analyze base on
geophysics reflects the areas, where gold potential
is high. Au in till in grid sampling (percussion drilling with 200 m interval) correlates well with the
occurrence of hematite-rich zones in the bedrock.

On the other hand, the highest La and Y contents in till correlate well with the maxims of the radiation datasets (Fig. 44). The REE content in saprolite
at Mkrselk is 0.005 % (max 0.1 %) and at Vaulo
up to 0.4%, which is nearly at the same level as in the
ionic adsorption clays in China. Typical REE-rich
minerals are monazite, rhabdophane, xenotime and
kaolinite. The current drilling programs in 2011 are
1800 m at Mkrselk and 500 m at Vaulo, which
are concentrated both on gold and REE exploration.

Fig. 42. Mkr gold-hematite ore analyzed from the weathered bedrock and till samples. Au anomaly in till can be trace
only a few ten meters.

51
Fig. 43. Gold in systematic till geochemistry (grid 200
x 200 m; analyzed < 0.06 mm by ICP-MS after AR)
on a hematite prospectivity map based on geophysical
measurements.

Fig. 44. Yttrium contents in till (grid 200 x 200 m;

<0.06 analyzed mm by ICP-MS after AR digestion)
and in organic stream sediments (< 2 mm fraction
analyzed by ICP-MS after AR digestion) presented on
total radiation map.

52

Furthermore, stream water and stream sediment

sampling and the use of the results in high-tech metal exploration were tested in the Mkrselk area.
About 35 sampling points were chosen from the area
(Fig. 45a). Sampling was carried out following the
guidelines used in GTK (see for example Tenhola
& Tarvainen 2008). Water samples (100 ml) were
filtered through 0,45 m filter and analyzed by ICPMS. Temperature and pH were measured in the field.
Mineral stream sediment samples were sieved using
< 2 mm fraction size (Fig. 45b) and then leached
using aqua regia before analysis by ICP-MS. Organic stream sediment samples were gathered using nylon net (hole size 0.06 mm) (Fig. 45c), and
then after drying in 60C sieved for < 2 mm fraction. For analysis the samples were leach using aqua
regia and then analyzed by ICP-AES and ICP-MS
method. Ash content was determined by gravimetric after burning the samples 2 hours in 550C.

The results prove that stream water and
stream sediments (mineral and organic) can be used
in high-tech metal exploration. Correlation between
different sampling materials is usually good and
same anomalous areas come out in all datasets (Fig.
44). Of course, it is worth noticing that geochemical
reflectance is not unique due to differences in deposition processes for example between till and stream
sediments or mineral and organic stream sediments.
Generally it can be said that organic and mineral
sediments and organic sediments and water correlates usually well or moderate, but for only some
elements (e.g. Co, Cu, Mn, Zn) the correlation between the mineral stream sediment and water is good.

During the excursion we will visit on the old
test mining site of the Mkrselk (Fig. 46), see Aurich hematite vein and fresh bedrock samples (drilling
cores) in on-going diamond drilling and have a demonstration of stream water and sediment sampling.
Fig. 46. Old test mining site on top of the Mkrselk Hill.
Large excavation and drilling program was carried out in the
target at 1960s without any economical benefit. Photo by P.
Sarala.

Fig. 45. a) Typical stream water sampling place in the

Mkrselk area, b) mineral stream sediment sampling using
< 2 mm sieve, and c) organic stream sediment sampling using
nylon sieve. Photos by R. Pohjola and J. Valkama.

References
Eilu, P. and Pankka, H., 2009. FINGOLD - a public database on gold deposits in Finland. Version 1.1
[Electronic resource]. Espoo: Geological Survey of
Finland. Optical disc (CD-ROM)
Rasilainen, K., Lahtinen, R. and Bornhorst, T.J.,
2008. Chemical Characteristics of Finnish Bedrock
- 1:1 000 000 Scale Bedrock Map Units. Geological
Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation 171, 94
p.
Salminen, R. (ed.), 1995. Alueellinen geokemiallinen kartoitus Suomessa 1982-1994. Summary:
Regional geochemical mapping in Finland in 19821994. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation 130, 47 p. + 24 app. maps.
Tenhola, M. and Tarvainen, T. 2008. Purovesien ja
orgaanisten purosedimenttien alkuainepitoisuudet
Suomessa vuosina 1990. 1995, 2000 ja 2006. Summary: Element concentrations in stream water and
organic stream sediment in Finland in 1990, 1995,
2000 and 2006. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation 172, 60 p.

53

STOP 4: Pre-glacial weathered

bedrock in the Vuotso area
Pertti Sarala
The Vuotso area is a part of the ice-divide zone,
which was located in the Central Lapland. It constituted the centre of the ice flow during a number of
the more recent glaciations and it is characterized by
weak glacial erosion and deposition. The centre of the
latest glacier during the last glaciation was located
about 20-60 km to the south of the Vuotso area. From
there the ice sheet spread out towards its margins in
a fan-like manner. During the latest deglaciation the
ice flow direction was from SW to NE at Vuotso.

The weakness of the glacial action is also
reflected by the common occurence of weathered
bedrock, glaciofluvial landforms dating from before
the last glaciation and tor formations on the top of
some fells. The occurrence of old Quaternary deposits, and especially the concentration of sorted
and organogenic intercalations found between them,
provides probably the most reliable proof of low glacial erosion and deposition in the ice-divide zone.
Weathered bedrock
Pre-glacial weathered bedrock surface has been
preserved beneath glacial deposits in many areas in
northern Finland. The mechanically fractured and
chemically altered rock is known as rapakallio in
Finnish. Remnants of weathered bedrock up to tens
of meters thick are frequently found in topographic
depressions at the ice divide zone of Central Lapland
(cf. Hirvas 1991) (Fig. 47), being mostly covered
by a Late Weichselian till unit, 1-3 m in thickness.

According to Hyypp (1983) it is not possible to determine exactly when the weathering
occurred, but pronounced weathering is known to
have taken place as early as during the Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic eras, while the climate was also favourable for weathering during the Tertiary, approximately 25-50 million years ago. Based on the
illite dating results presented by Sarap (1996)
weathering reached the current erosion level about
1,200-1,000 Ma ago in the southern Finland and
the weathering profile probably developed episodically till Neogene. This is much earlier than the
ca. 100 Ma suggested by Hirvas & Tynni (1976),
Sderman (1985), Saarnisto & Tamminen (1987).

The fact that weathered rock is common in
the gently undulating areas south of Saariselk. At
the Vuotso airfield the weathered bedrock in situ between basal till and fresh bedrock is seen (Fig. 48).
The boundary between the weathered bedrock and
the fresh bedrock is alternating and in the fracture

VUOTSO

Fig. 47. The area of pre-glacial weathered bedrock surface to be

frequently found in northern Finland. After Hirvas (1991).

zones weathering extends to tens of metres. The

fresh bedrock is quartz-feldspar gneiss or gneissose
granite. Its mineral content is quartz, potash feldspar and plagioclase with minor amounts of biotite
and hornblende. The consistency of the weathered
rock, which may be clayey or sandy, depends mainly on the degree of alteration and on the rock type.
In the weathered bedrock the clay minerals mostly
only a few per cent of the matrix, consist mainly
of hydromica (illite) and kaolinite. The increase of
aluminium and the decrease of silicon dioxide are
the clearest proofs of kaolinization (Hyypp 1983).

Trace elements such as Cu, Ni, Co, Zn and
Mo have been enriched in the fine fraction of the goethitic weathering crust and the concentrations can
be many times higher than in the underlying fresh
bedrock (Peuraniemi 1990). This is why the weathered material mixed in till causes problems in till
geochemistry and can lead to the situation that in
places, large amounts of secondary enriched weathered material in till are not necessarily be related in
any way to ore deposits compared to the areas of
fresh bedrock (Sarala et al. 2007).

54

Tor-formations

References

Another form of weathering is the tor formations

found on top of the high hills and fells. The tors are
formed into the most durable i.e. the slowest weathering parts of bedrock usually composed of granitoids or volcanic rocks. The tors were formed before
the last glaciation, because the post-glacial erosion
has not been rapid enough to form the tors. The glacial erosion has been slight and the tors have been
preserved in shape under the ice sheet. They have
stayed intact, while the broken rock around them
has been transported away. In Vuotso area, the tor
formations can be found for example at the top of
the Riestovaara Fell (Fig. 49) where the forms are
more than five metres high and look like works of
an artist, although they were sculpted by nature.

Hirvas, H., 1991. Pleistocene stratigraphy of Finnish Lapland. Geological Survey of Finland, Bulletin
354. 123 p.
Hirvas, H. and Tynni, R., 1976. Tertirist savea
Savukoskella sek havaintoja tertirisist mikrofossiileista. Summary: Tertiary clay deposit at Savukoski, Finnish Lapland, and observations of Tertiary
microfossils, preliminary report. Geologi 28, 33-40.
Hyypp, J., 1983. Suomen kalliopern preglasiaalisesta rapautumisesta. Summary: Preglacial weathering of precambrian rocks in Finland. Papers of the
Engineering - Geological Society of Finland 15 (2),
1-17.
Peuraniemi, V., 1990. The weathering crust in Finnish Lapland and its influence on the composition of
glacial deposits. In: Aario, R. (ed.), Glacial heritage
of Northern Finland; an excursion guide. Nordia tiedonantoja, Sarja A, 1990, 1, 7-11.
Pulkkinen, E., 1985. Vuotson rapakalliosavi. Lapin
tutkimusseura. Vuosikirja XXVI, 41-45.
Saarnisto, M. and Tamminen, E. 1987. Placer gold
in Finnish Lapland. In: Kujansuu, R. and Saarnisto,
M. (Eds.), INQUA Till Symposium, Finland 1985,
Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 3, 181194.
Sarala, P., Rossi, S., Peuraniemi, V. and Ojala, V.J.,
2007. Distinguishing glaciogenic deposits in southern Finnish Lapland: implications for exploration.
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B),
116:1, 22-36.
Sarap, O., 1996. Genesis and age of the Virtasalmi
kaolin deposits, southeastern Finland In: Sarap,
O. (Ed.), Proterozoic primary kaolin deposits at Virtasalmi, southeastern Finland Geological Survey of
Finland, 87-152.
Sderman, G., 1985. Planation and weathering in
eastern Fennoscandia. Fennia 163, 347-352.

55
Fig. 48. Till-covered pre-glacial weathered bedrock surface near the Vuotso airfield. Photo P. Sarala.

Fig. 49. Tor formations on the top of the Riestovaara Fell in Vuotso, northern Finland. Photo P. Sarala.

56

STOP 5: Placer gold in Lapland Tankavaara gold museum

Pertti Sarala
References to the gold in Lapland date back to the
16th century. A breakthrough took place in the early
19th century when a kind of a gold rush to the River
Ivalojoki area occurred. The second gold rush took
place after the Second World War in the area of River Lemmenjoki. Gold has been dug in Lapland ever
since, and the digging still continues. Nowadays,
Tankavaara, Ivalonjoki and Lemmenjoki are the
most famous placer gold areas in Finnish Lapland.

Tankavaara gold field was found in the year
1936. An old Lapp Sauva-Aslak Peltovuoma, from
the nearby village Purnunmukka, saw this place in
a dream. Cripled as he was, neighbours helped him
to the site at the foot of Tankavaara, near the source
of Lauttaoja creek. They really found a rich deposit

which was easy to work by simple methods. After few years Werner Thiede, a German architect,
claimed this field in the name of his Finnish friend
in an attempt to estabilish a large-scale gold mine.
In 1939, just before the Winter War, Thiede was
expelled from the country. Max Peronius continued working in Tankavaara after the war. In 1946
he was killed in an explosion while dismantling
war-time landmines left behind by the retrieting
German soldiers. The work was continued by his
stepsons Jouko and Tauno Virtanen until 1953. In
year 1950 Tauno found biggest gold nugget (183 g)
in the area. This happening was one of those which
aroused GSFs interest to the area and Lapland.

Today Tankavaara gold village with its national gold museum and tourism service is one of
the most well-known sights in Lapland. In large
Golden World Exhibition visitors see and learn
the history of worlds gold panning. In Tankavaara
you can also expierence the great feeling of gold
fever by yourself, because there is possible to try
gold panning. See more http://www.tankavaara.fi.

STOP 6: The Ravnnaluhppu Cu-AuOccurrence in Karasjok, Norway

V. Juhani Ojala and Hannu Ahola
Introduction
The Ravnnaluhppu Cu-Au occurrence in the Karasjok Greenstone Belt (KGB) is located in Finnmark, in the northern Fennoscandian Shield (Fig.
50). North-south trending KGB is about 160 km
long and 20-40 km wide. Direct southern continuation of KGB, in the Finnish side of the border is
the Pulju Greenstone Belt. In more regional scale
KGB and the Pulju Greenstone Belt are part of
the Proterozoic Central Lapland Greenstone Belt
(CLGB). KGB stratigraphy has similarities to the
lower and middle parts of the CLGB stratigraphy

Based on lithological and structural analogies to the other parts of the CLGB in Finland, the
KGB is considered to be highly prospective for
komatiite hosted nickel, orogenic gold and also
layered intrusion hosted PGE-deposits similar to
the Kevitsa (First Quantum) and Sakatti (Anglo
American) deposits. To date, only a few exploration
campaigns for nickel, gold and PGE in the belt has
been conducted and the belt is under-explored when
compared to similar greenstone belts world wide.
General Geology
The Proterozoic KGB is bordered in the west by
the Jergull Gneiss Complex and in the east by the

Fig. 50. Location of the Ravnnaluhppu Cu-Au occurrence in the

Karasjok Greenstone Belt which is the northern continuation of
the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (basemap from the Geological map of the Fennoscandian Shield compiled by Koistinen
et al. 2001).

Tanaelv Migmatite Complex; both complexes are

marked Archaean in age on the Geological map of
the Fennoscandian Shield (Koistinen et al. 2001).
The Jergull Gneiss Complex is interpreted to be the
base for KGB and it is most likely largely reworked
during Proterozoic deformations. According to present interpretations the lowermost stratigraphic unit

57

of KGB is composed of felsic, intermediate, maficand ultramafic units of volcanic rocks with minor
metasedimentary rocks. Next straticraphic unit consists of heterogeneous quartzites and sandstones,
quartz-feldspar schists, micaschists and conglomerates, carbonate rocks and basaltic lavas and tuffites.
Next stratigraphic unit includes basaltic tuffites,
garnet micaschists, banded intermediate schists and
several sulphide phacies iron formations (chemical
sediments). Komatiitic volcanic rocks are found in
several different levels in this unit. The uppermost
stratigraphic unit of the greenstone belt is composed
mainly of komatiitic volcanic rocks. Mafic and ultramafic intrusive rocks are found from several different
straticraphic levels. (Davidsen 1994; Often 1985.)

Braathen and Davidsen (2000) divided Proterozoic deformation events are in four different
stages (D1-D4) in the KGB. These are considered to
be the main events defining the geometry of KGB.
Deformation style varies from ductile to ductilebrittle and brittle (folding, shearing and faulting).
They suggest a model in which the assembling of
the KGB, the Tanaelv Migmatite Complex and the
Levajok Granulite Complex occurred from major
orogen-normal E-W contraction (collision) during
the D1 episode. At this stage the greenstone belt was
isoclinally folded and welded to overlying units dur

ing west-directed thrusting of the medium- to highgrade complexes. From then on the greenstone belt
acted as a basal detachment zone. The D2 episode of
NNESSW shortening and SSW-directed thrust emplacement suggest dextral and orogen-oblique movement patterns, prior to continued orogen-perpendicular E-W shortening during the D3 episode. The final
faulting (D4) may relate to a post-orogenic, shieldscale strike-slip event (Braathen & Davidsen 2000).

Metamorphic grade varies from greenschist facies to amphibolite facies, with a general trend of increasing metamorphic grade from
west to east (Braathen & Davidsen 2000).
Ravnnaluhppu
Ravnnaluhppu area is situated three kilometers east
from the Karasjok town (Fig. 51). The Ravnnaluhppu area has been targeted because of anomalous Auand Cu-values in some rock samples collected during the field seasons 2005 and 2007 with Au-values
up to 0.5 g/t and Cu-values up to 0.4%. In addition,
2004 and 2007 soil sample profiles (till aqua regia and MMI samples) showed anomalies (Fig. 2).
During the 2008 summer field season three holes
were drilled in one profile (493.64 m), three heavy

Fig. 51. Location of the Ravnnaluhppu target area near the Karasjok town, also shown are the 2004 and 2007 geochemistry results
and 2008 drill hole locations.

58

mineral samples collected along the drill profile, and

ionic leach sample line (9 samples) collected along
the 2007 MMI sample line 1. In addition, samples
for the ionic leach method were collected to compare
the method to the MMI method. In April-May 2009,
Suomen Malmi Oy was contracted to carry a ground
geophysical survey (magnetics and Slingram) in
the area. The results were processed by Tapio Lehtonen, Astrock Oy and Jussi Aarnisalo. Mapping and
ground geophysics were used to produce geological

interpretation of the Ravnnaluhppu area (Fig 52).

In May-June 2009, several till geochemical profiles
were sampled across the 2004 geochemical anomaly and other targets interpreted from the ground
geophysics. During the geochemical sampling, a
portable Niton XRF analyzer was also used to map
the anomalous zone (Fig. 53). All methods used
defined an overlapping geochemical anomaly (Fig.
54) In June 2009, the bedrock below the mapped
overburden Cu-Au-anomalous zone was drill tested.

Fig. 52a. Geological interpretation of the Ravnnaluhppu area showing 2004 till geochemical sampling lines.

Fig. 52b. Ravnnaluhppu processed geophysics (combined magnetic and sligram), and 2009 ionic leach samples lines.

59
Fig. 53. Detailed till geochemical results of the Ravnnaluhppu target (agua regia and portable XRF analyzer results), and drill hole locations.

Fig. 54. Compilation of the geochemical anomalies of the Ravnnaluhppu target area and drill hole locations.

60

Discussion
Ravnnaluhppu 2008 drill holes (RAV-101 to 103)
were planned to test 2004 till (aqua regia) and
2007 MMI anomalies and 2009 holes (RAV-105
to 108) the continuation of the Cu-Au anomaly
defined by detailed geochemistry (Fig. 55). In
addition, two holes (RAV-109 and RAV-110)
were drilled to test soil Cu-anomaly at the contact between ultramafic rocks and blackschists
about one kilometre east of the main target area.

Most drill holes intersected weakly to
strongly carbonate-sericite-sulphide altered greenstone (including mafic and ultramafic rocks) -blackshist-micashist sequence. The alteration zone in the
drill holes RAV-102 and RAV-106 was Cu-mineralized over 100 m drill core length with maximum
Cu values being up to 1 % (Fig. 56). Cu values do
not correlate well with any lithology and anomalous values are in all rock types, but the highest
values are in blackschist-felsic schist package.
Highest gold values are in the heavily disseminated
to semimassive sulphide parts, highest value assayed being at the beginning of the hole RAV-102.

The Ravnnaluhppu drilling results show
that the overburden geochemical anomaly is directly
above the bedrock source and suggest that the Cu-Au
mineralization is most likely related to the blackshist-felsic schist package. The mineralization may be
epigenetic and related to carbonate alteration, or it is
remobilized. The correlation of Cu and Au is quite
good across the altered zone. Although the correlation
is not linear all gold peaks correlate with elevated Cu
but all elevated Cu zones do not have elevated Au.
This strongly implies that Au and Cu are introduced
during the same mineralizing event. The mineralized
zone was intersected in the holes RAV-102, 105,106
and 108. Difficulty to join grades, or rock types to
other holes in the in same profiles and location of
the geochemical anomalies at the structurally complex part of the sequence suggests some structural
control, or at least modification and remobilization
of the mineralization during deformation (Fig. 57).
Within drilled area potential for an economic CuAu mineralization is poor. However, northern part
of the ground survey area, there is an untested drill
target indicated by ionic leach Au and Cu anomaly.

Fig. 55. Geological interpretation of the Ravnnaluhppu area showing the drill hole locations the and 2004 till
geochemical Cu anomalies.

61
Fig. 56. Cross section looking west showing drill holes RAV-101, 102, 103. Cu (green) and Au (yellow)
values shown as histograms above and below the holes. Drill hole RAV-102 intersected over 100 m thick Cu
mineralized zone (length of RAV-102 hole is 144 m).

Fig. 57. Ravnnaluhppu interpreted cross section looking E (projected between the two main profiles). Histograms of Cu grades above and Au grades below the drill hole traces. Also shown are overburden Cu
anomalies and Au micronugget counts.

References
Braathen, A. and Davidsen, B., 2000. Structure
and stratigraphy of the Palaeoproterozoic Karasjok
Greenstone Belt, norh Norway, regional Implications. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, vol. 80, no.1.

Koistinen, T., Stephens, M.B., Bogatchev, V.,

Nordgulen, ., Wennerstrm, M. and Korhonen, J.
(comp.), 2001. Geological map of the Fennoscandian
Shield, scale 1:2 000 000.

Davidsen, B., 1994. Stratigrapfi, petrologi og geokjemi med vekt p komatiitiske bergarter innen
den nordligaste del av Karasjok grnnsteinbelte,
Brennelv, Finnmark. Institut for biologi og geologi,
Universitet I Troms.

Often, M., 1985. The Early Proterozoic Karasjok

Greenstone Belt, Norway; a preliminary description
of lithology, stratigraphy and mineralizations. NGU,
Bulletin 403.

62

STOP 7: Quaternary deposits

in Kaamanen
Pertti Sarala and Peter Johansson
The Inari Lake basin is a typical area of a high rate
of the continental ice sheet. The glacier eroded
its base by grinding the bedrock surface and tearing out big fragments up to tens of cubic metres in
size. The basal till and hummocks of ablation moraine are strewn with numerous boulders and stones,
which is a striking feature around the village Inari.

The streamlined moraine forms are typical
in the Kaamanen area (Fig. 58). The active ice flow

during the Younger Dryas stage was characterized

by the formation of drumlins and flutings. The drumlins vary in length from 150 to 2,500 m, in width
from 30 to 450 and in height from 2 to 60 m. The
width-length ratio is 1:2 - 1:20. The highest flutings
are almost 1 km long, 10-35 m wide and 1-4 m high
(Strm 1980). At its smallest, fluting consist of some
metres long till tails beginning from the distal side of
the boulder. Most common types of drumlins are the
lee-side forms with a core of bedrock, varying widely
in size. The smallest drumlins are normally without
a core of bedrock. When the lee-side bedrock core is
well distinguishable i.e. forming hill, the formation
can be called as crag and tail formation (Fig. 59).

Fig. 58. Geological map of the Kaamanen area. Green = esker, light brown = till, red = bedrock, grey
= peat and white = lakes and rivers.

63
Fig. 59. Crag and tail formation behind the peat bog in Kaamanen. The crag, i.e. bedrock hill is seen on the left side of the photo followed by the tail composed of till to the right. The length of the formation is about 2 km. Ice flow direction has been from left to right,
i.e. SW to NE. Photo by P. Sarala.

In drumlins the till material is in most cases well

sorted, better sorted than in flutings (Strm 1980).
The streamlined moraine forms are formed during the deglaciation phase. The drumlins indicate
a predominantly north to northeastwards direction of ice flow from the initial phase of the deglaciation. To the north of Kaamanen the direction of
flutings deviates from that of drumlins almost 30o,
which indicates younger ice flow direction from the
final phase of the deglaciation (Kujansuu 1992).

The steep-sided esker of Kaamanen is deposited on the bottom of the subglacial glaciofluvial
conduit (Fig. 39). The debris transported by the meltwater was washed and sorted into different grain sizes
according to speed of the water flow. The Kaamanen
esker is over ten meter high and it runs from SSW to
NNE (Fig. 60). It reflects the meltwater tunnel running
to NNE towards the ice margin. Near the esker there
are Aeolian deposits and some small dune ridges.
In northern Finland there is limited aeolian activity on fine sediments, mainly deflation of old, stable
periglacial sand dunes, eskers and the edges of glaciofluvial deltas that are exposed to strong winds. Dunes
and drift of aeolian sand are composed of material
deriving from sorted sediments of glaciofluvial and
fluvial origin. Dune material is well-sorted fine sand
( 0.2 0.6 mm). It occurs as single dunes, like at
Mutusniemi or large dune fields e.g. south of the lake
Iijrvi and on the both sides of the esker Tuuruharju.

Fig. 60. Cross section of the esker ridge in Kaamanen.

Photo by P. Sarala.

References
Heikkinen, O. and Tikkanen, M., 1979. Glacial flutings in northern Finnish Lapland. Fennia 157 (1),
112.
Kotilainen, M., 2004. Dune stratigraphy as an indicator of Holocene climatic change and human impact in northern Lapland. Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, Geologica Geographica 166.
Helsinki: Suomelainen tiedeakatemia. 156 p.
Kujansuu, R., 1992. The deglaciation of Finnish
Lapland. In: Kauranne, K. (Ed.) Glacial stratigraphy,
engineering geology and earth construction. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 15, 2131.
Strm, O., 1980. Drumliinit ja vakoumat Muotkatunturien alueella Suomen Pohjois-Lapissa. Summary:
Drumlins and flutings in the Muotkatunturit area of
northern Finnish Lapland. Turun Yliopiston Maantieteen Laitoksen Julkaisuja Publicationes Instituti
Geographici Universitatis Turkuensis 91. 31 s.

64

STOP 8: Siida The National

Museum of the Finnish Smi
The Smi Museum Siida at Inari is the national museum of the Smi and a national special museum in
Finland. The Smi Museum stores the spiritual and
material culture of the Finnish Smi in its collections
and presents it to the public through its exhibitions
and publications. Its main purpose is to support the
identity and the cultural self-esteem of the Smi.

The exhibitions of Siida deal with the history and culture of the Smi and nature in the
northernmost Lapland. The permanent exhibitions
are complemented by interesting changing exhibitions. The exhibition services of Siida are jointly
provided by the Smi Museum and Metshallitus.

The introductory exhibition presents the development of northern nature and culture as a timeline, which is also interlaced with world history. The
exhibition also introduces the visitor to the indig-

STOP 9: Kevitsa Mine Project The Kevitsa intrusion and

associated Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
Tuomo Trmnen and Markku Iljina
Geological Survey of Finland, Rovaniemi, Finland

enous peoples of the Arctic and the reindeer-herding

peoples of Northern Eurasia. Smi culture and nature
are intertwined, and, at Siidas exhibitions, they are
introduced to the public as one whole. The exhibitions provide a great amount of scientific information
but also visual experiences for the visitor. Beautiful
photographs, genuine objects and a rich sound world
make a visit to the exhibitions an experience that appeals to many senses. In the main exhibition of Siida,
the sections dealing with nature in Northern Lapland
and Smi culture are placed one within the other.
The exhibition focuses on survival strategies in the
extreme conditions of the north and the demands of
the cycle of seasons. The cultural section gives the
visitor an idea of the elements that the ethnicity and
the present identity of the Smi are made of. The section on nature describes the cycle of seasons and the
phenomena connected with it in Northern Lapland.

References

http://www.siida.fi and http://www.luontoon.fi

deposit (formerly known by the names Keivitsa and

Keivitsansarvi). The deposit was subsequently held
and evaluated by the Outokumpu Company (19951998). In 2000, Scandinavian Gold Prospecting AB
(subsidiary of Scandinavian Minerals Ltd) acquired
the deposit. The present holder (2008-) is the Kevitsa Mining Oy, the subsidiary of the First Quantum
Minerals and the mine is under constrution and the
mining is planned to start in 2012.

Location and exploration history

The Kevitsa mafic layered intrusion is located in
Central Lapland, some 35 km north of Sodankyl,
0.8 km from the southern margin of the 2.44 Ga old
Koitelainen intrusion. It forms the western part of
the larger Kevitsa-Satovaara Complex (Fig. 61). The
study of the Kevitsa intrusion has been done by Tapani
Mutanen from the Geological Survey of Finland and
the following description is mostly based on the
works of his (1997; 2005) unless otherwise indicated.

The Kevitsa intrusion was explored by the
Geological Survey of Finland between the years 1984
and 1995, in three phases. The presence of magmatic
sulphides within the intrusion was indicated by early
drilling in 1984 which intersected several meters of
pyrrhotite-rich sulphides with low base and precious
metal values, near the basal contact. The discovery
hole (R326) was drilled in 1987 to the western part
of the currently known mineralised domain, where it
intersected about 30 meters of disseminated sulphides. Subsequent drilling programs delineated a large,
low-grade Ni-Cu-PGE-Au occurrence, the Kevitsa

General geology
The rocks in the vicinity of the Kevitsa intrusion belong to the 2.02.2 Ga old Savukoski Group (SKG) of
Central Lapland. The Savukoski Group is subdivided into four formations; Matarakoski (MkF), Linkupalo (LpF), Sotkaselk (SoF), and Sattasvaara (SaF)
Formation, where MkF is the lowermost and SaF the
uppermost unit (Lehtonen et al. 1998). The Kevitsa
intrusion is surrounded by mica schists with graphite- and sulphide bearing interlayers, felsic volcanic
rocks, magnesian metapelites and calcareous metasediments of the Matarakoski Formation (Fig. 61).
These are overlain by komatiitic volcanic rocks intercalated with sulphide-rich Mg-pelites. Differentiated komatiitic sills occur close to the base of the
intrusion and on the northern side of the intrusion.
Pelitic rocks near the intrusion contacts were altered to
hornfels due to thermal metamorphism caused by the
intrusion. Regional metamorphism reached amphibolite facies grade and affected especially the country

65
Fig. 61. Geological map of the Kevitsa area, with excursion stops indicated by numbers. From Mutanen (2005).

rocks and the upper parts of the intrusion the central part of the intrusion being less metamorphosed.
Kevitsa intrusion, age and structure
The zircon U-Pb age of the Kevitsa intrusion is
2.0575 Ga (Huhma et al. 1996; Mutanen & Huhma
2001). This correlates well with the Sm-Nd age of
2.05 Ga determined from primary igneous minerals
(Huhma et al. 1996).

The 4x5 km sized Kevitsa intrusion is
funnel-shaped and dips to S-SW. The contacts cut
across the surrounding metasedimentary strata, with
basal contact dipping 45-50 to the S. Contacts are
commonly interfingered with the country rocks.
Igneous layering is parallel to the basal contact in
the lower parts of the intrusion, 20-30 in the upper
part of the ultramafic zone, and almost horizontal in
the gabbro and granophyre zones. The intrusion has
been divided into four zones (from base upwards): 1)
marginal zone, 2) ultramafic zone, 3) gabbro zone,
and 4) granophyre zone (Fig. 61).

The marginal (chill) zone is 08 m thick and
consists of microgabbro, contaminated quartz gabbros and quartz-rich pyroxenites which grade rapidly to olivine pyroxenites of the ultramafic zone.The
ultramafic zone is most prominent in the NE part of
the intrusion. The thickness of the zone is not known
but is at least 1000 meters, possibly 2000 meters or

more. The rocks are mostly olivine-augite mesocumulates (wehrlites and olivine websterites, here
generally named as olivine pyroxenites), locally
with plagioclase and/or orthopyroxene as cumulus
or intercumulus phases with minor hornblende and
phlogopite. Altered counterparts of olivine pyroxenites are named as metaperidotites which are composed of amphibole, serpentine, chlorite and talc.
Within the ultramafic zone, there are discontinuous
layers of pyroxenites and gabbros. Various types of
komatiitic xenoliths are common in the ultramafic
zone, especially within the mineralized part, whereas
pelitic xenoliths are common closer to the contacts
of the intrusion.

Rocks belonging to the gabbro zone are most
prominent in the SW-part of the intrusion. They consist mainly of pyroxene gabbro, ferrogabbro (with
pigeonite and fayalite), magnetite gabbro (with Vrich magnetite), and their metamorphic (hydrated)
equivalents. Discontinuous units of Fe-rich, Mg-,
Ni-, Cr-poor olivine pyroxenites occur in the upper
parts of the gabbro zone. The gabbro zone contains
large pelitic and minor komatiitic xenoliths. The
thickness of the gabbro zone is not known, but drilling indicates that it is at least 500 m thick.

66

The magnetite gabbro of the upper part of
the gabbro zone rapidly grades into the granophyre which represents the uppermost magmatic unit
of the Kevitsa intrusion. The granophyre is mainly
composed of sodic plagioclase, quartz, and secondary amphibole, with abundant magnetite, ilmenite,
fluorapatite and sulphides. The granophyre contains
small pelitic xenoliths.

As can be seen from the above, various types
of xenoliths are common and they are encountered
in various parts of the intrusion. The most common
types are komatiitic and pelitic xenoliths. Komatiitic
xenoliths occur as massive, banded, or layered rocks
that have been mechanically disintegrated to a variable degree. They are composed of variable amounts
of olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and chromite. Komatiitic xenoliths are especially common in
the ore zone and there is a 4-10 m thick xenolith-rich
layer in the upper part of the ore that has been traced
for 300 m from north to south. It is interesting to note
that komatiitic xenoliths within the ore zone contain
fine-grained disseminated sulphides, while those
from the barren parts of the intrusion do not contain
sulphides. Pelitic rocks, now pyroxene-plagioclase
hornfels, occur as large xenoliths which are often
partially digested (rotten xenoliths). Small (5-10
cm across) graphitic xenoliths indicate assimilation
of graphite-rich black schist material. Graphite-rich
pelitic hornfels xenoliths are also associated with
pyrrhotite-rich sulphides 2 km west of the Kevitsa
deposit.

Various types of dyke rocks cut the Kevitsa
intrusion. They can be broadly classified into three
categories: gabbro, diorite-felsite, and diabase. Porphyric gabbroic veins with sharp contacts represent
the earliest phase. They have been interpreted as local evolved intercumulus liquids, based on chemical
and mineralogical composition. The diorite-felsite
veins show a paragenetic and compositional continuum and, indeed, form also composite veins with
felsite occurring in the middle of diorite veins. These
rocks are made of variable amounts of plagioclase,
hornblende, and quartz. U-Pb zircon gives a comagmatic age of 2.0545 Ga (Mutanen & Huhma 2001).
Diabase and related olivine gabbro-diabase dykes
are younger than the intrusion with a Sm-Nd mineral
age of 1.916 Ga (Mutanen 2005). The ENE-striking
dykes have fine-grained chilled contacts with the intrusion rocks. A typical feature of the olivine gabbro-diabase dykes is the presence of coarse-grained
(up to 2 cm) olivine crystals in the mid-parts of the
dykes.
The Kevitsa Cu-Ni-PGE deposit
The Kevitsa deposit is a large, low-grade disseminated sulphide deposit located in the upper part of

the ultramafic zone, in the NE part of the intrusion

(Fig. 61). The surface cross-section of the ore body
is about 13.4 hectares and it extends to the depth of
>400 m. The host rocks are olivine pyroxenites and
their metamorphic equivalents (metaperidotites).
The deposit has been divided into two bodies, the
main ore body (or Main Ore) and the overlying Upper Ore. There are four main ore types, based on the
metal and sulphur contents: 1) regular ore, 2) false
ore, 3) Ni-PGE ore, and 4) transitional ore. As distribution of Cu, Ni, PGE+Au, and S within the deposit is complex and variable, the different ore types
tend to grade into another. Fig. 62 shows a section
trough the Kevitsa deposit and gives some indication
on the distribution of different ore types: Regular ore
makes up most of the main ore, whereas the false ore
mainly occurs in the eastern part of the deposit. The
Ni-PGE type mostly occurs in the upper parts of the
ore, forming N-S trending pipe-like bodies, 30-50 m
long, 10-30 m wide and extending to a depth of up
to 400 m (Gervilla et al. 2003; Kojonen et al. 2004).
The Ni-PGE ore is shown in blue in the centre of the
open pit model in Fig. 63 (by J. Parkkinen, courtesy
of Scandinavian Minerals Ltd).

The regular ore typically contains 0.4-0.6
% Cu, 0.2-0.4 % Ni, 0.015 % Co, 0.5-3.0 % S, and
about 0.5-1.0 ppm of combined Pt+Pd+Au, giving an
average Ni/Cu ratio of 0.6-0.8 and Ni/Co ratio of 1525. The Ni content of the sulphide fraction typically
is 4-7 %. Precious metals show fairly good positive
correlation with the Cu+Ni values. Compared to the
regular ore, the false ore typically is much more sulphur-rich (>5 % S) and grades locally into sulphide
vein network. However, the metal contents are much
lower, for example Ni is generally less than 0.1 % (<
4 % Ni in sulphide fraction). In the leanest false ore
(0.3-0.5 % Ni in sulphide fraction), the Ni/Co ration
is 1-2 which is similar to sulphides in the metasedimentary rocks surrounding the intrusion. The NiPGE type has a variable but generally fairly low S
content of about 0.5-1 % S, high Ni (>0.5 % Ni, 4060 % Ni in sulphide fraction), high PGE (>1 ppm, up
to 26.75 ppm (Gervilla et al. 2003)), and low copper
(<0.1 % Cu) and gold contents (max. 0.13 ppm Au).
The high Ni and low Cu contents give rise to high Ni/
Cu ratio (generally >5, up to 50-90) and Ni/Co ratio
(25-80). The transitional ore represents an intermediate ore type which is gradational in metal content
to both the regular ore and the Ni-PGE ore. Its Ni/
Cu ratio normally is 1.5-2.5 or higher and sulphide
fraction nickel content 15-23 %. The changes in precious metal and sulphur contents between the different ore types is depicted in the sulphur vs. PGE+Au
diagram, along with other data in Fig. 64.

67
Fig. 62. Cross section of the Kevitsa deposit, with different ore types indicated. DDH profile x=7512.250.
From Mutanen (2005).

Fig. 63. 3D block model of the Kevitsa deposit with Ni-PGE ore depicted in blue. Image by J. Parkkinen,
Kevitsa Mining Oy.

68

Ore mineralogy
The main sulphide minerals at Kevitsa are troilite,
hexagonal pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite, with subordinate amounts of cubanite, talnakhite and magnetite, and a number of minor to trace
mineral phases (Table 10 in Mutanen 1997). The
Ni-PGE type of ore has a somewhat different paragenesis with pentlandite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite as
the main phases, with subordinate, but locally abundant pyrrhotite, millerite, heazlewoodite, nickeline,
maucherite and gersdorffite. The Ni-PGE type also
contains graphite, whereas magnetite is rarer.

Altogether, about 40 platinum group minerals (PGM) have been identified from the deposit.
The PGE mineralogy is dominated by various Pd-PtTe-Bi phases and speryllite, whereas PGE sulphides
such as cooperite and braggite are rare. However, the
distribution of the PGMs is quite heterogeneous, as
is evident from the study of Gervilla et al. (2003).
They studied the PGE mineralogy of Ni-PGE ore
from four different drill cores which intersected the
ore at different depths. In their study, braggite was
the most abundant PGE mineral and also geversite
(Pt(Sb,Bi)2) was locally abundant, with highly variable distribution of PGMs form hole to hole. About
55 % of the PGE minerals occur as inclusions in
silicates (amphibole, serpentine, chlorite, pyroxene),
8-13 % as inclusions in sulphides, and 32-39 % are
at silicate-sulphide grain boundaries.
Contamination and ore genesis
The abundance of various supracrustal xenoliths attest to strong contamination by country rocks during
the emplacement of the intrusion. Contamination is
reflected in the isotope composition of the magma
and different ore types. The initial epsilon Nd value
of -3.5 and gamma Os value of +19.1 indicate substantial crustal contamination (Huhma et al. 1995).
The average 34S value for regular ore is +4.0 ,
for false ore it is +8.9 , and for Ni-PGE ore it is
+6.0 (Hanski et al. 1996). One analysis from a
sulphur-rich sample in the marginal zone has 34S at
+6 . Gabbroic rocks have highly variable 34S values ranging from +5 in lower gabbros to a high of
+24.4 in overlying graphite-bearing gabbros and
ferrogabbros. Dunite inclusions have 34S between
+5 to +9 , whereas various metasediments have
values between +1 to +24.4 , with most values
clustering between +17 to +20 . All the intrusion
rocks have high positive 34S values that are outside the range of values for typical mantle-derived
sulphur, indicating variable contamination by heavy
crustal sulphur. Of the different ore types, the false
ore has the highest positive 34S values indicating
the most substantial contamination by sedimentary

country rocks (Fig. 64). Contamination is also reflected in the high Cl content of all of the ore types
as well as barren ultramafic rocks and the presence
of primary Cl apatite and Cl amphibole (dashkesanite).

Two models have been proposed for the ore
genesis. Mutanen (1997) attest the formation of the
regular and false ore to contamination by variable
amounts of komatiitic material and S- and C-rich
metasediments, wherein the regular ore received
some additional sulphur from the metasediments
and additional nickel from the komatiitic material,
whereas the false ore was more heavily contaminated by S-rich metasediments, which led to dilution of the ore (Fig. 64). The Ni-PGE ore type has
many peculiar features, such as a high REE content
(Fig. 65), high Ni content both in sulphide fraction
and in olivine (about 1.5 % NiO in olivine, Fig. 66),
low S, and a very low Cu content, which make the
origin of this ore type more enigmatic. Furthermore,
the Ni-PGE ore type formed in a highly reducing,
S-poor environment caused by assimilation graphite-rich metasediments, with also some S coming
from metasedimentary material (reflected in the S
isotopes), and residual olivine from disintegrated
komatiites contributing most of the Ni in the ore.
The high olivine Ni content is explained by olivine
equilibrium with metallic Ni in a highly reducing
environment. A different kind of genetic model was
proposed by Gervilla et al. (2003), whereby the NiPGE ore type is the product of leaching of S and Cu
and/or remobilisation of PGE and Ni by metamorphic Cl-rich fluids resulting in the deposition of Nirich sulphides and, for instance, unusually Ni-rich
braggite.
Mineral resources and mining plans
Present estimated measured and indicated resources
are 240 million tonnes grading 0.30% Ni; 0.28%
NiS; 0.41% Cu; using a nickel cut-off grade of 0.1%
(www.first-quantum.com). The emphasis of the ongoing drill program has moved on to drill testing for
higher grade targets on the contacts of the Kevitsa
intrusion as well as some newly-defined targets in
the surrounding district.

Mining is planned to start with an open pit.
The stripping ratio is expected to be in the order of
3:1. At the start of operations, the annual ore production will be approximately five million tonnes
with built in expansion capabilities. Conventional
processing will produce two different concentrates;
a Ni-Co-PGE-concentrate grading close to 12% Ni
and a Cu-PGE-Au concentrate grading approximately 28% Cu. The projects deposit is estimated to
contain sufficient reserves and resources to support a
mine life of over 20 years.

69

At initial capacity, the average annual production is

planned at 10,000 t of Ni and 20,000 t of Cu. Using
price assumptions of US$6.75 per pound of nickel
and US$2.00 per pound of copper, Kevitsas unit
cash cost of production is expected to be approximately US$2.50 per pound of Ni, net of by-product
credits. Commercial production is expected in mid2012 with a regular workforce of 200 employees.
The capital requirement for development of the project is estimated at approximately US$400 million.
Fig. 65. Chondrite-normalised REE diagram for various rock types of the Kevitsa complex. From Mutanen (2005).

Acknowledgements
The paper was reviewed and improved by Dr. Tapani
Mutanen who is thanked for his help. The authors
also thank Scandinavian Minerals Ltd and Kevitsa
Mining Oy for providing material for this report.

70
Fig. 66. Kevitsa intrusion olivine NiO (%) content vs. olivine Mg/Mg+Fe (at-%) ratio. From Mutanen (2005).

References
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38, 15-16.
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