Beruflich Dokumente
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AD-783 433
A STUDY OF THE MEASUREMENT OF G/T
USING CASSIOPEIA A
D.
F.
Wait,
et al
Prepared for:
Army Communications Command
June 1974
DISTRIBU1ED BY:
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DUMENTATION PAGE
REPORTR
1.
Enteoe)#
"
EA INUETTONPG
STRUCTIzON S
BEFORE COMPLETING FORM
GVTACCE2.SSION NO.
el3.
'
ACC-ACo2-74
29/147
4.
TITLE (madW1bU1i)
6. PERFORMING
7. AUTHOR(.)
D. F. Wait
M. Kanda
S.
W. C. Daywitt
C. K. S. Miller
10.
I1.
S.
12.
14.
Arizona
REPORT DATE
June 1974
Fort Huachuca,
Project Number:
SCC-411-73
85613
_?o2 -
IS.
Unclassified
IS.
DECLASSIFICATION/OOWNGRAOING
SCHEDULE
17.
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abetroct entered In Block 20, Ift diff.reng Irom Report)
II.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
I1.
ABSTRACT (C-F.-
......
.eM. ,I
s!o
o
o..ee-,
DO ,
"M,,1473
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
IMC
Block :0 (contl-nued)
1*
I
'*
//
*rTWO~aT T1"
CASSIOPEIA A
Prepared by
SCC-411-73
S.
85613
ABSTRACT
This report describes a study intended to estimate the best possible accuracy of measuring the
ratio G/T (system gain to system noise temperature)
of a satellite communication ground station using f
the radio star Cassiopeia A (Cas A).
The concept of
G/T and its measurement using a radio star is briefly
discussed.
Results of an extensive literature search
are presented, summarizing the properties of Cas A
and its vicinity described by radio astronomers in
order to utilize this information to assess the accuracy of a G/T measurement.
Consideration is given
to atmospheric effects upon a G/T measurement using
Cas A based on information available in the litera-
ture.
/
/
ii
I
FOREWORD
An important element of the mission of the Advanced Concepts Office of Headquarters,
Communications Command,
U.S. Army
by scientific knowledge can be utilized in the solution of current or foreseen problems affecting
USACC's operational capabilities.
This report
and to
provide an overall performance test for the acceptance of new ground stations.
This study was conducted by the Noise and
Interference Section of the Electromagnetics
sion of the National Bureau of Standards,
Colorado,
Mr.
Divi-
Boulder,
iii
CONTENTS
Page
1.
1.2
1.3
The Measurement of G/T -- Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Radio Stars ----------------
1.4
1.5
2.
10
11
15
2.1
15
2.2
2.3
2.2.1
2.2.2
19
2.2.3
Cas A -----------------------------------
19
21
2.3.1
21
25
28
28
33
34
2.5.1
34
2.5.2
2.3.2
2.4
2.5
2.6
38
2.7
45
2.7.1
46
2.7.2
52
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
3.
4.
THE ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS IN VIEWING CAS A-----------THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER GAIN OF A LARGE GROUND
ANTENNA FOR CALIBRATING COSMIC RADIO STARS ---------4.1 Introduction ----------------------------------4.2 Calibration of the Standard Gain Antenna by Use
of the Generalized Three-Antenna Extrapolation
Technique -------------------------------------4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
66
66
67
Extrapolation Technique -----------------Accuracy Consideration -----------------A. Error in Mismatch Factors -----------B. Attenuator Error --------------------
77
79
81
82
D.
E.
Range Misalignment -----------------F.
Distance Inaccuracy----------------4.2.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ----------The Calibration of a Large Ground Antenna by
the Gain Comparison Method ---------------------4.3.1 Introduction ---------------------------4.3.2
4.3.3
64
64
C.
4.3
60
vi
71
82
83
83
87
87
96
96
97
102
102
102
103
103
104
1 05
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
4.3.4
4.4
5.
6.
125
THE ACCURACY OF MEASURING THE FLUX DENSITY OF CAS ATHE ACCURACY OF MEASURING G/T -----------------------
133
137
6.1
6.2
7.
8.
G/T MEASUREMENT REPEATABILITY ----------------------CONCLUSIONS -----------------------------------------8.1 The Accuracy of Measuring G/T ------------------8.2 The Accuracy of the Cas A Flux Densities Cited
in the Literature -----------------------------8.3 Proposed Future Efforts -----------------------8.3.1 Evaluation of the Literature -----------8.3.2 Stars Other than Cas A for G/T
Measurements ---------------------------8.3.3 Independent Methods for Measurement of
G/T------------------------------------8.3.4 Definitions of and Alternatives to G/T-8.3.5 Uncertainties in Antenna Gain
Measurements ---------------------------8.3.6 Radio Star Method of Measuring G and T-REFERENCES ------------------------------------------
vii
145
148
148
150
151
151
151
152
152
152
152
154
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
161
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX B:
B.1
B.2
164
176
APPENDIX C:
182
C.1
C.2
viii
185
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figuie
Page
1-1
1-2
Pictorial di, 'am for defining the carrier-tonoise density ratio --------------------------------
1-3
13
2-1
17
20
22
2-4
Z3
2-S
2-6
27
2-7
Decay curve of the Cas A flux density is calculated from the shell model ----------------------
29
31
2-2
2-3
2-3
2-9
2-10
39
41
2-11
ix
2-13
2-14
2-15
2-16
2-17
2-18
2-19
2-20
2-21
Page
Brightness temperature contour map of Cas A (Epoch
AD 1966.8, 19.4 GHz) showing (a) the brightness
temperature, (b) the linearly polarized component
of (a) amplified 20 times.
(Courtesy of Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 151, p. 56, 1968; CUEMayer and I.P. Hollinger; University of Chicago
Press) --------------------------------------------
42
43
44
47
51
53
54
55
56
58
Page
Figure
4-1
68
4-2
73
4-3
Measured data, S-term polynominal fit, and residuals for x-band standard horn (frequency - 7.25
GHz, antenna power gain 23 dB, major aperture
dimension of antenna - 23.5 cm) -------------------
80
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-11
4-12
88
89
91
92
94
9S
xi
Page
4-13
4-14
4-15
4-16
4-17
4-18
4-19
4-20
4-21
4-22
4-23
xii
98
Figure
4-24
4-25
4-26
4-27
4-28
4-29
4-30
4-31
xiii
131
.!-
Figure
5-1
Practicable and low bound errors in the measurement of the flux density of Cas A----------------- 134
6-1
6-2
Practicable and lower bound errors in the measurement of G/T using Cas A------------------------ 140
7-1
147
C-1
183
xiv
1.
INTRODUCTION
curacy of calibrating the gain of large ground station receiving antennas; an estimate of the best possible accuracy
in the flux density measurement of Cas A; and an estimate of
.rio
-'
2
ti
I
Section 4 presents a detailed analysis of errors for
the gain measurement of large ground antennas, and covers the
calibration of the standard gain horn used in the measurement,
and the transfer of this calibration to the larger antenna.
This sectidn is fairly extensive because much of the material
is new and has not been documented in the open literature.
Sections 5, 6, 7, and 8 present the results of an
analysis of the accuracy of the flux density measurement
of Cas A, the potential accuracy and precision of measuring
G/T,
1.1
090
U)J
ow
2c:
LuJ
Or
a:
4J
0u
4.
cm
'~0
U4,P4
S-4
-J&
r4J
L
ujN
I
limiting bandwidth of the system. The system noise temperature can be referred to any point in the system; T1 , T2 , and
T 3 being the system noise temperature as referred to ports
1, 2, and 3 respectively.
T1 is the sum of the antenna
noise temperature [2] and the effective input noise temperature [1] of the receiver.
GA is the on-axis power gain of
the antenna [2] and characterizes the system gain from the
far field of the antenna to the antenna output port.
G2
is the system gain from the far field of the antenna to
port 2, and is defined as GA times the available power gain
of the low noise amplifier (LNA).
G3 is similarly defined
as G2 times the available power gain (loss) of the waveguide
feed.
The ratio G/T has the same numerical value at any of
the ports 1, 2, or 3.
That is
1-
T1
= G2
C'
3
T2
T3
(1.1)
CGA
SG A
T
T1
G1
G
T1
C2
-,G2
T2
etc.
(1.2)
That is
(1.3)
to
[1] is
(ERP)
LG
(1.4)
where L is the loss in carrier power caused by the separation and the polarization mismatch between the satellite and
ground station antennas, and by the atmospheric loss.
Under the usual assumption that noise density kT is
much larger than the noise density from the satellite received by the ground station, the noise density n at the
antenna output port is given by
n - kT.
Combining eqs.
(1.4)
n
and (1.5),
(1.5)
the ratio C/n becomes:
(ci(ERP)k(1.6)L
L&U
-44
LUL
4-a
4-.
r4)
".4J
-40
LLLU
uI-
For
1.3
The Measurement
of G/T --
Advantages
and Disadvantages
explicitly measured.
It is assumed here that a radio star
is employed in this direct approach.
The main advantage of the direct approach is that ;./T
can be accurately measured using a relatively easy measurement procedure, provided the flux from the radio star is
accurately known.
The relative ease of this measurement
procedure allows G/T to be measured more often and in much
less time than with the indirect approach.
This point is
very important if the ground station is moved often or if a
minimal allotment of time is available with -%hich to assess
performance.
Althoigh the calibration of the radio star
itself is an undertaking at least as difficult as the indirect approach to the measur,-ment of G/T, once the star is
calibrated the G/T of any number of ground stations can be
accurately and easily measured.
In contrast to the direct aprroach, an accurate determination of G/T by the separate measurement of G and T is
a major measurement undertaking which includes:
21) tCe
calibration of a standard gain horn; (2) transferring this
calibration to the system antenna; and (3) the measurement
"of the system noise temperature.
Even if the system antenna
is small enough for direct calibration, such a calibration
is in itself a major job.
9
Ts is
(1.7)
10
Y
Solving eq.
(1.9)
T + GTSss/4w
P2
.9)
(1.10)
Tsa
This equation shows the basic result of a radio star measurement of G/T.
Once Ts has been established, the measurement reduces to the relatively simple noise power ratio
(or Y-factor) measurement.
Further comments on the radio star method are to be
found in appendix A.
1.5
11
the minimum preceptible level of the largest and most sophisticated antenna-receiver systems to powers easily detected
by the crudest systems.
For the purpose of this report a radio star is considered
to be a cosmic radio source whose angular extent is no larger
than a few minutes of arc. The importance of such radio
stars to the measurements of G/T stems from the fact that
their angular extent is less than the angular extent of
the main beam of the antenna currently under consideration,
allowing G/T to be measured without measuring the entire
antenna power pattern.
Radio star flux density is often expressed in flux
*
units (fu), one flux unit being equivalent to one watt
per meter squared per hertz. The curve of the flux density
as a function of frequency is known as the source spectrum.
Several spectra are shown in figure 1-3. The general shape
of the spectral curves indicate what physical mechanism is
for the radio emission. For example, from
*responsible
figure 1-3 it can be concluded that the synchrotron mechanism
(the spiraling of rapidly moving electrons around magnetic
field lines) is responsible for the radiation emanating from
Cas A, Cyg A, Tau A, and Virgo A; while radiation from the
electrons in compact ionized hydrogen clouds is responsible
for the emission from Orion A and DR 21.
Table 1-1 gives more detail concerning the radio stars
whose spectra are shown in figure 1-3.. The table includes the
common star name in column one; the type of large-scale
phenomenon believed responsible for the radio star in column
two; the position of the star in equitorial coordinates
in column three; the angular size of the star in column
four; and the star's visibility from the north to south
latitudes in column five. For the purpose of this report
I~'
12
,1*,
105
CWG
A
CAA
10o3
sVIRGO
10-
105
'
11
10
1009
FREQUENCY (GHz)
Figure 1-3.
Table 1-1.
Radio
Star
Type*
Size
RA' x Dec'
Visibility
NL to SL
Cas A
SR
23.4
58.6
4 x 4
90
11
Tan A
SR
5.5
22.0
3.3 x 4
90
48
Orion A
EN
5.5
-5.4
3.5 x 3.5
65
75
Cyg A
RG
20.0
40.6
1.6 x 1
90
29
Virgo A
RG
12.5
12.7
1 x 1.8
73
57
DR 21
EN
20.6
42.2
< 0.3
90
28
Radio Galaxy
14
2.
2.1
Early Measurements
15
is
* /
-*
Ii
CELESTIAL
NORTH POLE
70'
I0
l--!
CYG A
'
CAS A
70
50'
170'.
CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN
NP
EARTH I ZENITH.~'
-o.-:.0
.06(N
I
1or5CEL
2
023 0
LOBSERV
VERNALT
(ECLIPTIC)
TAU A
L*'-OBSERVER'S
3W
SUN'S >22
APPARENT
40'
DECLINATIO
20
\AATIC"
EQUATOR
'
130
HOUR ANGLE
TO TAU A
S
EBEFORE
MRIDANST
TRANSIT)
3
CE
-ctItIGHT
EQUINOX
PATHOUT
POLE
S:CELESTIAL
00
SPHERE
S.......SOUTH
Figure 2-1.
CELESTIAL
POLE
17
and is
31
30
For
and 6 - 21*581
18
_i
i w 3.07327 seconds
n - 1.33617 seconds of arc - 20.0426 seconds of arc.
Cas A
2.2.3
and
23 h 21m 11s
58*32'40''
of 8 Cas.
just
19
.4J
J CO
4o
v4.4
*~
LA.
40
U$.,4
C-
_(
Za6)-
U..0
Cc.
en
CA
a0
enLo
Lai
4A
41
stu
u
$
A
en0044C
cg
,-
1 .0
menW
0 4)
a. >
'.Ooo
(S393HS3)
NOIIVNI1~33
20
Brightness,
Brightness Temperature,
- B dA dQ'
This relationship
(2.1)
21
CD
z'NO
ol'..
OLL
Ol-
to
-41-
=4
cd
0
0 4
414 0>
-i
-,I4
~-4
"z
Lii
UCD
LL.
22
dA
RADIATING
F~gture 21-4 trightness B of an elemental
radiating surface dA
CELESTIAL SPHERE
RADIATING
--
do'
SURFACE
r'dfl.
(2.2)
That is
dS - rd.
(2.3)
dAl
where dS - spectral power per unit area in watts/(M2
aHz). The
area dAt and solid angle dQ' are related via the equation
dA.
Then using eqs (2.1),
to
rldfl'.
(2.4)
dS - Bdn.
(2.5)
t
Pd"
(2.6)
source
The magnitude of the flux density is often expressed in
flux units (f.u.), where one unit is 10- 26 watts/(m2 .Hz).
24
'I
SXB
TB "
(2.7)
both a
(2.8)
25
-----
IV
Table 2-1
Flux Density
AD 1965.0 Flux
Frequency
Epoch
(GHz)
(AD)
1964.4
910 [16]
905
5.68
1968.5
740 [17]
766
6.66
1965
684 [18]
684
1964
590 [19]
584
9.36
1961.5
520 [20]
502
9.375
1962.7
514 [21]
502
9.38
1968.5
510 [17]
528
Density (f.u.)
Figure 2-6 is a log-log plot of the AD 1965.0 flux denThe line drawn through the points is a
sities in table 2-1.
least squares fit to these points and conforms in the interval
from S to 10 GHz to the spectral equation
S(f) - 3604 f-0" 8 7 S
(2.9)
where the flux density is given in flux units and the frequency
is in GHz.
From this equation the flux density at 7.5 GHz
is found to be 618 f.u., with a corresponding brightness
temperature of 336 kelvins.
often
26
CC
a,)
44I
rnI
I--
91HW
SJ
n)AIN0XI
270
Secular Decay
2.4.1
Decay Rate
(2.10)
8 - 2(1-2a)
(2.11)
Based on eq. (2.10) the flux density S from Cas A should decay
The (normalized)
with time as roughly indicated in figure 2-7.
28
\
r
S-So( t/S' to?
SS
0O A.D.
Figure 2-7.
1700
EPOCH
29
"F(2.12)
-S
(2.13)
SAt
30
FLUX DENSITY
0 ;.D.
EPOC
1700
St
Figure 2-8.
DIFFERENTIAL
RATE
AVERAGE
RATE
iI
at age t to
(2.14)
r a R(l-At/t 0 )
and that the differential rate is always less than the average
rate. An estimate of the magnitude of At/to, or the relative
correction needed to reduce R to r, can be obtained by taking
the birth of the radio star to be AD 1700, to to be AD 1948,
The resulting At/to is 0.1. In other
and At to be 25 years.
words the differential decay rate is 101 less than the average
decay rate measured over the 25 year period, a difference
that should not be ignored when using the decay rate to predict the flux density of Cas A. Therefore, the model, while
not perfect, does indicate that the average decay rate CR)
used in the literature to transfer flux densities from one
epoch to another should probably be reduced, in some cases
possibly by as much as 10t. Moreover, if it is assumed that
the shell velocity has not increased since the explosion that
gave rise to Cas A, then it can be easily shown that the star
birth cannot be earlier than AD 1700 under certain simplifying
assumptions in which case it can be conjectured that the difference between the average and differential decay rates is
probably greater than 101 for a 25 year measurement period.
In any case, these results derived from the shell model do
strongly suggest that the practice of using the average decay
rate to transfer flux densities from one epoch to another
should be examined more closely if a high accuracy in the
resulting flux densities are desired.
Flux densities are deduced in the literature from known
values by use of the following equation
S
SI(l-R)At
32
(2.15)
S P Si(1-r) At
where r is
eq. (2.16)
eq. (2.10).
However, it is a sufficiently good spproximation
for even the moot accurate of today's measurements and has
the great advantage that B need not be known and only a
rough estimate of the star's birthdate need be used in calculating r from eq.
2.4.2
(2.14).
Some Measured Values of R
Epochs
Used
Year
Span
Reference
0.082
1.06
13
1948-1960
12
H5gbom [25]
0.082
1.29
1948-1969
21
Scott [26]
3.2
1.14
23
1.4
1,38
11
196S-1971
11
Findlay [28]
1-3
0.90
11
1960-1971
15
Baars [29]
1953.9-1962.7
33
that the rates used are possibly 5 to 10S high, and that
the rate possibly changes with frequency [30] and it is
easily seen that the state of knowledge concerning decay
rate is not at a very high level and that much more work
along this line needs to be done.
2.5
2.5.1
Polarization
Polarization [6]
The emission from a celestial radio source extends over
a wide frequency range and therefore within any finite bandwidth consists of the super-position of many statistically
Generally these
independent waves of various polarizations.
emissions are partially polarized, some sources tending towards
complete nonpolarization and others toward a significant
Partially polarized emission can
degree of polarization.
be decomposed into a completely random wave plus completely
The degree of polarization d is then
polarized waves.
defined as the ratio of the power contained in the polarized
It is this total
wave to the total power in all the wave.
or the power contained in both the random and polarized
that is proportional to the source flux density.
The "position angle" of the polarization of a source
is measured relative to the northerly direction from the
source on the celestial sphere, increasing in the eastwardly
The manner in which the antenna polarization
direction.
power,
waves,
34
Table 2-3
Type of Antenna
Polarization
Spectral Power at
Antenna Waveguide Port
1/2 SA (1 + d Cos Z)
e
1/2 SAe
Linear
Right or Left Circular
/0
35
2.S.2
1
3
Polarization
Position Angle
(Degree)
<1
< 1
Reference
--
32
32
--
5
8.25
10
1.4 0.5'
0.5 0.2
1.5
37 1S5
114 15
40*
14
33
32
14.5
15.25
15.75
19.4
1.2 0.5
1.9 0.2
2.2 0.3
1
41 9*
71 3P
79 3
31*
35
33
33
34
36
I--a
/4A"4
0u
IA4
0
~0.
0. x
"4.
E
06
Ico
IDC
LOqr
(S338
I3
NI0'S~
30)
39RV
0u~
00
38
II
0
II
3''
05
C
24
Figure 2-10.
Is'
06'
06
54*5
2d
39
shows
frequency S GHz)
40
or
S
%%
-6
33'
-6S
'IsI
%~0~
2?210
2441
02f'
~MOIJI.MIM30"
Figure 2-12.
S-
"
42
:I
1-7
35'
%~~
k"
"
_2
34'-
woo"=, P
I!
* I
',
0 %
% ,ee
AVERAGE PO.LARIZATION
,
,,
S '-, # POSITION ANGLE
!
I
I
I
1 .-- :L - I
Figure 2-13.
20e
,le ,it
Oe' a
5e
,f
43
7'
9L
"E
Figure 2-14.
i..
44
45
2.7.1
46
+k + k+
k_
07
--.
.0'1
10,
a-+a
g'I
0n
ANN
01..
K-
47~
descending magnitude.
Table 2-S
Brightness
Measurement
Number
1
2
3
4
S
6
Location
(Right Ascension)
23f 40m
1
1 9h 30 m
Temperature (kelvins)
at 9.375 GHz
3,.32
3.16
3.14
18h 10m
is
3.12
3.07
3.02
17
2.98
1 4h 20m
101, 10a
9
10
11
1 8 h 3 0im
2.89
4h 20m
2 0 h 30m
Average
48
2.80
2.78
2.76
3.0 0.S kelvins
49
fI
Table 2-6
Frequency
Gfz
Brightness
Temperature (kelvins)
4.08
3.1 1 1 [38]*
9.375
32.S
consists mainly of synchrotron radiation [6] lying in magnitude between that emanating from the galactic center and that
from the galactic pole, and peaking up along the galactic
equator.
Above 1 GHz the brightness consists of isotropic
black-body radiation at 3 kelvins.
Superimposed on this continuous radiation are numerous localized HII regions of thermal
radiation associated with the galaxy.
For reference the
brightness of Cas A is included in figure 2-16.
While this
picture of the continuous background seems to be consistent
with the available data and radio maps, many more measurements,
primarily in the microwave region and above, need to be
performed to adequately justify it.
It is nevertheless the
most consistent picture that can be pieced together from
the available literature.
With figure 2-16, the positions
of the contours with respect to the galactic equator in the
maps to follow can be easily understood and lend further
support to the conclusions drawn.
s0
10- 16/
RAYLEIGH-JEANS
APPROX (ac +2
10 17
CAS A
.10- 18_
CENTER RADIATION
NN
lo-
NE
-10-122
0o2
'
3K BLACKBOOYRAITO
10- 241-
/NONTHERMAL
GALACTIC POLE
RADIATION (aL -0.5)
SI
0.03
0.3
13
3~
30
FREQUENCY (
Figure 2-16.
300
3000
ATz)
52
."4
0~
14.
co0
'IC
'0000000
u
54j
100
21
53a
r4
.144
.0
oUm
0
10I
a0
1W.0
0000
O
.9
.0
0 I
14j
0.94
54
1110
--
HPBW
2I
'
?igure 2-19.
ii
551
0~
IN
IIA.
044
W04.
-
*0-14 4J 0
00
Iti
56~L
57
/I
1101
I
Figure 2-21.
3..
SR
Thus,
(2.8))
59
/I
I
3.
60
Table 3-1
Mechanisms
Attenuation:
Apparent Source Solid Angle
Atmospheric Turbulence
References
44,45
Diffusion
45
Aperture Perturbations
4S
02 and H2 0
Clouds,
Enhancement:
fog,
46947.48
rain,
snow,
etc.
fog,
etc.
(3.1)
61
IA
//
(ao0t(0+PawZw)
Sec z (dB)
(3.2)
Absorptive
Atten (dB)
Diffusive
Atten (d0)
Refractive
Atten (dB)
70
85
94
0.1
0.19
0.47
0.1
0.17
0.31
0.0
0.02
0.19
62
L/
(3.3)
63
I
4.
Introduction
64
- /---.-.
-a
and others
However,
these computations involve approximations and idealizations which limit the accuracy of
the corrections.
In tile extrapolation method of gain calibration of the
antenna [56-59] measurempnts are made at shorter distances
and lower tower heights than the more traditional methods.
In this method the measured variation in the received signal
with distance is then used to correct for errors caused by
both proximity and multiple reflections between antennas.
The extrapolation method gives the best accutacy currently
available for the power gain of an antenna.
The extrapolation method has been implemented only for relatively small
standard gain antennas primarily because of the physical
limitations of the special extrapolation antenna ranges at
NBS.
Thus it
65
In section 4.2,
Introduction
66
Antenna Scatterin
_Matrix Analysis
41
*1
41
41
N
411
I..
0
0
U
.0
41
41
----
41
@I
---
--
__
I-c
4fl
N
N
%-
U
41
41
41
u.
-1-4.
1
"4
L.
.0
I
I
41
41
L-------------'
41
Ii
"4
'a..
6R
--
Sl
S 0 1 (mK)aa(EdK
a-,2
(mvao +
+
S 1 1 (m,K;nan(q)dl,,
(4.1)
(4.2)
n- ,2
where the antenna characteristics are embodied in the four
scattering parameters S 0 0 , S 0 1 (m,'), Sl 0 (m,K) and Sll(m,_;nL,
which are respectively the input reflectio;, coefficient, and
the receiving, transmitting and scattering characteristics.
n and L play the same role as m and K. This equation is
derived on the assumption that the antenna system is a passive linear system, where the relation between the set of outgoing wave amplitudes and the set of incident amplitudes is
linear.
If the antenna is reciprocal, then the receiving characteristic S 0 1 (m,K) is related to the transmitting characteristic Sl 0 (m,K) by the reciprocity relation [60]
no0 S(m,K) a nm(_)Sl 0 (m,K_),
(4.3)
medium, y - (k'-K=)
, and k 2 -_aWIC.
69
no
directiorn
-(4.4)
no0
1 0(l,K1)1
+ IS1 0
l-ls 001 =)
(2,K)y/kl
(]
(4.5)
70
--.
the
For a reciprocal
antenna,
- "- G(-).
(4.8)
therefore,
to
71
no antenna need satisfy a reciprocity or similar known constraint. The antenna coordinate system is defined with its
Z axis in the electromagnetic boresight direction, and with
the X and Y axes referred to arbitrary marks on the antenna
structure as shown in figure 4-1.
With the above choice of references axes, let antenna
number 1 be placed at the origin and used as the transmitting
antenna. Let one of the other antennas, number two, be placed
in a receiving orientation, i.e., located at Z - d and pointing
in the-e direction. The two antennas are shown schematically
in figure 4-2 with appropriate terminal surfaces and wave
amplitudes shown. The coupling equation which relates the
received wave amplitude b' to the wave amplitude ao in terms
of the transmitting characteristic is given by [58],
bo (d)
I 2 S'l(m,E)-'Sl0(m,9exp(iyd)dK,
m
r-r2 K_
(4.9)
where
(S~lCm,!)
is the receiving characteristic for antenna
2 in the receiving orientation, 'S 1 0 (m,K) is the transmission
characteristic of antenna 1 in the transmitting orientation,
and r 2 and r. are the reflection coefficients as shown in
figure 4-2. Equation (4.9) neglects the multiple reflectiong
between antennas.
We consider only the on-axis values (K-0 and k=Y) of
the antenna characteristics and refer to these quantities as
the antenna characteristics.
The linear and circular
components of SIOC0) are referred to as X, Y, R and L. For
example
$10 (
a Xyy + Yvy
*
Rv_
+ Lv_
(4.10)
where Y +and v are unit basis vectors for linear polarizations, v and v are the unit basis vectors for right and
72
ci0
00
I.-4
0L
are defined as
;-xv
" =(4.12)
'i
v
and v
If
(4.11)
Then
assumed to be exp(-iwt).
the transformation equations between X, Y, R and L are given
where the time dependence is
by
R - X - iY
f -1
L a X + iY
(4.13)
(4.14)
exp(ikd)
(1-r, r 2)d
[XIX-YIY
(4.15)
ao2-fik
"J =s2(.6 (4.16)
YIYZ
where bo(d) is the output wave amplitude and D 2 is determinable
12
X1 Y2
X2 Y1
d ira
D-120 (4.17)
where b"(d) denotes the output wave amplitude for the second
0
is determinable from measurements.
orientation, and
74
-'I
Y 1 - Di
(4.18)
i,j - 1,2,3
and
X
DOj.
(4.19)
ai
(4.20)
2
and
(4.21)
Dij + iD'.
Then eqs.
(4.18)
a&
RR
(4.22)
and
L L
(4.23)
ij"
75
(4.24)
and
-
(4.25)
(1211131/
X1
T 13
A(~
32 T
The
(4.26)
and
i
~21 131
132
2O1
A32
(4.27)
that,
if
2
IJY
<
lX1 2 ,
>
76
4wYok
G((1
(1X1 21y1)
no(l-lS 00 12 )
or
G(0D
0(4.28)
(4.29)
PC a R "(4.30)
The axial ratio is
The tilt
+LI-L.
(4.31)
7rarg(P,)
(4.32)
IR
IRI
ILl
angle is
T -
4.2.4
Extrapolation Technique
77
ao
AP
ex1[i(2p~l)kd]
1 -r
r p-0
1
r r
q=0 dq
(d)
exp ikd(A
d
A0d 1 +
It
+
"''}'
(4.33)
is clearly shown
that eq. (4.33) includes both proximity effects (in the series
A
in dqPLq) and multiple reflection effects (in the exponential
For example, the first
series) without approximation.
series represents the directly transmitted wave, the second
78
series the first order multiple reflection between two antennas, and the third, fourth, etc. series the higher order
multiple reflections.
S-
(4.34)
13
2rik
Thus the determination of the leading coefficient in
eq.
0o
oL
ol
P-.4
".4
41
I-
".:
il
44
1.4 4)
U.
LU
(n V
_D_
dCC
r=
V.
.**
U.
:
*v
V) vi
s:
4)
Si
LIJ
"4-
b-.
2c
ILi.
00
C3
4o
0 9
uj -I
to4.)80
81
0.05,
Attenuator Error
82
Uncertainty in the atmospheric loss between a transmitting and a receiving antenna cause an error in the measured
power gain of an antenna.
This becomes particularly severe
at millimeter wavelengths where the absorption of electromagnetic power is very large and is highly dependent on frequency.
Typical atmospheric losses are shown in figure 4-5 as a
function of frequency.
Figure 4-6 shows the error due to
uncertainty in atmospheric loss in the calibration of the
power gain as a function of the uncertainty in atmospheric
loss.
In the 5 to 10 Glz frequency range the atmospheric
loss is about 0.008 dB per kilometer.
In calculating errors
in section 4.2.6 to follow, its uncertainty is assumed to be
12.5%, i.e., 0.001 dB per kilometer for the analysis of the
error estimates.
E.
Range Misalignment
83
. 20 -
0.1sV
0.10z
G = 29.6dB
- 55.6dB
10.i
LG
0.05
- 49.6dB
D a Sm
'\_G
o0
0
Figure 4-4
0.002
0.004
0.006
RECEIVER huN-LINEARITY IN dB/dB
811
VII
120
a5a
"
cmrLn
Il--~-0.5
._Line
(xygen _
416
0.21
VI
0.14
4j
*
-
0.0
v#,,,
011
___
0 4j
aOOa
,j
aW05
7.75gm/m
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
0.000
0.0001
,I
100
200
... 00
1,0
2,=0
5X0
FreqVReAOcy in MHz
A5
10.00 20,000
50,Ow
0.25- 55.6dB
AEAPERTURE DIMENSION
0 - MAJOR
G - ANTENNA POWER GAIN
0.20
: 53.7dB
<
0.15-
a.
w
I41C
L-
S0.10
{G - 51.2dB
6m
D
o
uj
0.05-
47.7dB
4.r
- 41.6dB
a 2m
G
o~~
0
0.002
35.6d8
'i"029"6dB
.006
0.004
0.0d
4-6
86
GO sinc(2.784,
0
0Ohp
),
where G is
or
87
0.05-
- 55.6dB
CoJG
0.3a
U'0LU~~~
10m
Z 0.023
3.d
Cr
2C0.01-
000
Figure 4-7
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
RANGE MISALIGNMENT IN DEGREE
I{G1
7dB
0.020
0.024
88
0.024]
0.020
-0.016
o
eLL
.3L1
S0.012
I"J
cc
o 0.008
0.004
III
0
0.02
1
0.04
0.06
DISTANCE UNCERTAINTY
Figure 4-8
I
0.10
0.08
IN PERCENT
90
0.15
D
"'z
0.10
dB/km)
"TOTAL ERRORCie
0.05ATTENUATOR
(O.002dB/dB)
ERROR (0.01
d8)
INACCURACY (0.075)
'I
II
II
o
0.00I
II
ii
C)
00
30
35
45
40
50
55
91
0.25-
0.20
.
o
a.
0.10
'0
S0.15c
10
TOTAL ERROR
/ATMOSPHERIC
- -
0.05
I'nErTT0'O5rI
REFI COEF)
I1
10
11
FREQUENCY IN GHz
Figure 4-10
92
shown in
93
*991
94 .4
m~
1.
Lh.I
goV-
0 cc 0
0$
4441
z6
a
0
oC
C:
P4
P.-
14
:3Cd4
0UO Is
W9L=
co 44
V'"D.
1 4104N
0.C
0 9.40
41
94
O.O.
--
0.05
G
"
0.04
<,
0.03
IhJ
<c
z
0.02
0.01
:CO
0
L%
"
UU
CV
Figure 4-12
C-i
I
C.
C%1
10
0%
r.
8
7
FREQUENCY IN GHz
0o
N
95
4.3
Introduction
96
Theory
B1 )" ul+kTei~i
-u
+k- (1-aul)'Tou1 .- B)
97
g1 ,
(4.35)
SATELLITE
p.
ERP
/\
LARGE GROUND
/STANDARD
ANTENNA
GAIN
ANTENNA
POWER GAIN
EFFECTIVE
AREA
Gu
POWER GAIN
EFFECTIVE
AREA
=A
Gs
A
s
i
WAVEGUIDE
SWITCH
OUTPUT PORT
RECEIVING SYSTEMI
Figure 4-13
/.
/
/
((4--
*aERPs'lL)'Mss2tkTe2B2
s k.(l-as 2 ).Tos z.BZ,
2
g
(4.36)
~(4.37)
"as4+.(l'-s
4)"Tos
]B
"g4 "
(4.38)
The subscript "u" denotes factors associated with the meas"urement when the system is connected to the ground antenna,
and the subscript "s" denotes factors associated with the
measurement when the system is connected to a standard gain
antenna.
The effective area of the ground antenna is then given
by
Au "As ...kuERPs'(l-Ls)'Ms*ts'as2
.k2ERPu.~2
(l'Lu)"Mu'tu"ul
us
Y 9
g2
g1
(1+62)
93
. XZ.
Y
(4.39)
(1+61)
g4
where
X-,
P1
y -
P1
,
P3
P2
P2
(4.40)
P4
(4.42)
-,
4 +Tas 4
(4.41)
(.3
and
[Tel+Taul ul+ (1-,ul) Tou ] B1 - [Te 3+Tau3- clu3+ ([-au3) -Tou3] B3
100
temperature,
path loss,
front-end loss,
gain of receiving
Path loss is
S.
6.
7.
SY
It
is
1 = A
1
P2 " P4
1 is
(4.45)
the signal-to-
noise ratio for the large ground antenna when receiving the
signal from the satellite.
S~milarly, Z - 1 is the signalto-noise ratio for the standard gain antenna when receiving
the signal from the satellite.
101
obtained
from
G-
4!"A ,
)2
(4.46)
Accuracy Consideration
Frequency Instability
The receiving system is assumed to be tuned to the frequency of the signal from the satellite.
The signal from the
satellite used for calibration is assumed to be CW so that
its bandwidth is much narrower than that of the receiving
102
system.
is negligible.
C.
Path Loss
103
Polarization Mismatch
104
(P.1 R2 I)
cos
+ (RIR 2 ) 2 sin 2
(q+l)(R2Z-+1)
(4.47)
+ (R 2 -1)cos
2(R2 +1).
0e
(4.48)
can be measured with 0.1i accuracy, th-e error for the gain
calibration of a ground anteana due to this source is about
0.005 dB.
Similarly, when the polarization mismatch angle
or orientation of the major axis of the polarization pattern
can be ascertained to within 1 degree, the resulting error
is 0.005 dB.
F.
Tracking Accurac;
105
exp-(-I
PM)
<
(4.49)
G(O)
(4.50)
; G sinc ( *
then
G()p(O)d
-IIT
dh .
(4.51)
106
.. . ..
.....
..
.-
-- r
'
...
...
..
...
. .
. .
S..
. ..
. .
-.. -...-- ..
. .
/7-1
1
a0h
06hp
j-e
_W sinc2
~hp
exp
2'
hp
dO. (4.52)
eOhp
where ehp is
in degrees,
of the antenna,
and A is
D is
"7oA
-F- ,I
(4.S3)
the wavelength.
an antenna is
G !
A
x2
A
2 ~rg
),
(4.54)
,.
--
In0
44
U.
P4
-P4
1.4
04
108
0.07
0.06
D u MAJOR APERTURE DIMENSION
OF ANTENNA
0.05
S0.04
S0.03
0.02
0.
S0.01
EE
Il
30
r2
40
lm
50
ANTENNA
Figure 4-15
0109
60
E[
70
80
POWER GAIN IN dB
H.
110
0.01
ERP
cc(ANTENNA
9-
EFFECTIVE
SATELLITE RADITDPWRFO
DAE
OE
Rp
Gu aPOWER GAIN
OF ANTENNA UNDER
TEST
SYSTEM NOISE TEI'iP
30K)
0.005
4f.0
UNE0Z T
Figure 4-16
INP IN dBd
X
Error In
in Y -P1/pthe anenaPweaaiiu
3 anen
~ e an
de to unlcertai
ty
0.025
0.020
/J
cc0
ze
RP
EF
EC
IV
RPOE
aE
FCTIV
Gc
DI
TE
SAATELLT
OF STANDARD
ANTENNAGAIN
(ANTENNA
SYSTEM
NOISE TEMP
30 K)
=PWER
U)
0.010
0.005
0
O.O
Figure 4-17
U-14CERTA!NTY IN Z IN dB
Error in the
antenna Power
gain due to
Z - P2/p4
0.0
.0
in
/netit
Uf c r a lt
0.025-
ac
0''I. cc
0.020
A)
CL
me
2Cb
"0.0
<0.010-
0.
0.005
ERP-FFETIvE
RADIATED POWER
SATELLITE
/FROM
00
SGs-POWER
1E-0.002
0.004
IL--
0.006
.-II
0.008
0.010
UNCERTAINTY IN 92 I1N dB
Figure 4-18
E-rror in
113
92
0.025
ERP -EFFECT;
VZ RADIATED POWER
FROMg SATELLITE
Gs *POWER GAINE
FOR STANDARD
bANTENNA
0.020
40&
Qr
CLa
INCI
aa-0.006
00
0.002
0L04
004A~~k -----.
0.006
0.008
0.010
Figue 41.9
rro inUNCERTAINTY IN 94 IN dB
Figre4-1
Erorinthe
antenna Power
gain due to Unc
ertainty
114
in 54
T(e,O)f(e,$)do,
(4-.55)
where T (e6,)
is the temperature distribution on the sphere
surrounding the antenna and f(O,O) is the antenna power
normalized to the on axis power gain Go, and qr is the antenna
radiation efficiency. The external noise consists of sky
noise (cosmic noise plus noise due to atmospheric absorption)
and ground noise (usudlly around 290K).
115
(4.56)
(K)
Bandwidth,
116
117
C;
c.4
W-
SM0
ow
b
CD
LA
a~~~4
MS
40
Nc
I.-
CD
.-=
to
>
MS
ataa
V4)
(09)
11T8WTI
Ua 4
Laa
C,
0
c4)
n "4
CO04 4J.
4~-
10C
o~C
-r
~~CW
~.a~0Q
*~~~'
M-u =
co
'A
&fl'.4
0~S
0.4-
"~~TOA
ERRR DURO
2(.O1R
EERRORDUE TO 92
(O.O02dB
0..
ERO
DU
TOX0.2-B
SERROR
DET
001B
DUE TO Z (0.O02dB)
0.1
RO
, In
I,
50
I-
I,
I-
60
70
80
Figure 4-21
120
.9:
-A
10C
a..
0w
0~
-j
in.~4
000
P-
V.
.94 the
SM9
a~
at
ca
'1
0~~
Ma ZIW
00
UV
03~
SM -~
.fl
-J
0N3N
-.05-
~
a
0s
5fl
OP NI
J.J0.
0
Na
P.-
aC
a4
MC4
U--
-,
UK
".
0w
0n
-~4
a.
a--
44OOM
CDaUW
o
MIN
C
aa.
a1a1
beS
2.0-
2D
EACH)
1.6
1.2
w
w
ERROR DUE TO X + Y
(0.002dB)
(NEGLIGIBLE)
=
TAL ERROR
0.8
0.4
Ifl
IC
U
P
50
Figure 4-23
122
I
D U MAJOR APERTURE DIMENSION OF ANTENNA
2.0
1.8
TRACKING ERROR (5 SEC OF ARC)
(NEGLIGIBLE)
RROR DUE TO g, & g 3 (0.001dB EACH)
1.6 -
(NEGLIGIBLE)
(0.001dB)
,ERROR DUE TO 9 2
4ERROR DUE TO g4 (0.001dB)
1.2
ERROR DUE TO
(0.002dB EACH)
1.0 -(NEGLIGIBLE)
ERROR
S.---TOTAL
0.8-
S~ERROR
IN Z (0.002d8)
0.4
o~
0.
.2
(INSTABILITY
AND/:;OR
4,
ETC.
NOSS,
NETIT POLAR MISMATCH
O.05dB)
30
40
Figure 4-24
so
IN d(
123
.2
S
=
S0.8
1-
0.6
0.4
KI
I0
*40d B ( 0 - 1.6m )
0Gs
Gs a SOdS (D - 5.3m)
50
70
60
80
Figure 4-25
125
"4d
9:0
;C;
0
0 "1l
464
00a00
-o
go
V4J4.U) 4.'
~~44.i"-1
-V
12
-CJ
usz-
cdC
-4
o
Ud
Jr
NI
IP
NwSVAd
o
-,126
Wa-
N1YN
US
0 0 09
$4$
k
O
o
0
C2J
* ."
Io
boca
0
a
cc
-d
I~
0"o)
W99L.n
4-4) Cd
3:
4J
0
4j
usas
4
.,4
r-
a2
00
0 0
RE
ZZ
4
.
0.
~ ~3~
N3NNINa
127
444
44-1
IVN3b
91
0
t
aC
9P~~
uUr~
$4 >u
a~$4
0~~$
r.
0
W-4
SU
*~1
*~r40
ac
r-
44 0
0 bOc
441Us
"0~4p
u
4)0
co
ca
4J 4J- IA.
4
SM-
--
dDM
-a
09
t4
4.4J
U*4.
-d
: t%- 4
4-
M5
SMg
SM*t-
~4J
N0
00 r-4~
-q
cc
a=
4) -t-4
Im
64
r4a
0~
r.
ad
0
=
SM=
0d
(0t)
128
m
00
-N
w
,V4FIRI
-P7
I9,aV"l1 0r
0.5
1MAJOR
0.4
2.
TOTAL ERROR
TRACXING ERROR (5sec OF ARC)
(NEGLIGIBLE)
ERROR DWEToX
(0. 004d8)
-E
ERROR DUETOg(.04)
0.3
ac
TO 9
ERROR DUE TO Y~
(0.004dB)
(NEGLIGIBLE)ERRDET
ac
(0 .UU04dg,
4
NGLGBE
(ELGBE
g 004B
0.2
C,
0.1
-NICERTAIN7 TNFRN
UNKNO0WN
ANIT. SIDE
0O.01dB)
M--
0O.0jB
C;
20
3040
s0
129
-1ITM.
791
T0
co
0n
Z-'
.o0"43
nu
00
00tm.j
so~b
0.0
sO t
As0
as
4)
u 41
o0
-
L-
II.a
44
93
00
0
a-
a. U
>
Pf-4
c- 0 019
r4..
-
-~r
0.
IP
NI IM
UA
YMN1
I
NIIM:
5-,
P6.
-4 0
0.20 -
0 .15
eL
0.40
I-I
.0-
S-4OdB (D-5.3m)
Iii
O.OS
-
so
Il
60
70
U
80
Figure 4-31
131
In practice, it is
distance to be varied from 0.2 to 2 -.
almost impossible to construct and maintain such a long extrapolation range with sufficiently good stability and alignment.
The planar or possibly the spherical scanning technique
promises better power gain calibration accuracy than the
extrapolation method, particularly for larger standard gain
antennas, if the necessary planar or spherical scanner is
available.
Although an error analysis has not yet been performed, it is guesstimated that the power gain of a 50 dB
standard gain antenna with major aperture dimension of
typically 5.3 m can be determined to within 0.1 dB by the
planar near-field scanning technique.
It is found from section 5 that a 60 dB ground antenna
is required for calibrating Cas A. Therefore, it is generally
necessary to use the gain comparison method to determine the
power gain of a ground antenna which is intended for flux
density measurements of Cas A. This procedure has established
a lower bound on the error in the measured power gain of a
typical, high quality antenna, in which a 3a random error
estimate has been included along with various systematic
By use of a 40 dB standard gain antenna, it is poserrors.
sible to measure the power gain of a 60 dB ground antenna
to within a linear accumulation error of 0.18 dB for 3a limits
or quadrature accumulation error of 0.06 dB for 3a limits;
this assumes use of the gain comparison method, and an ERP of
Therefore, 0.06 dB is a good estimate of the lower
30 dBW.
bound of the uncertainty within which a 60 dB ground antenna
can be calibrated.
132
S.
1.4%.
Therefore,
about 1% quoted in
clearly not
realistic.
In
sums respectively.
error contribution in
figure 4-30)
Tables
For example,
which represent
this report
A decision
It
the cal-
should be pointed
IT
..
10
9
--PRACTI CABLE
8
SATELLITE
--
---PRACTI CABLE//
S\
//-
~~SATELLITE
/i
4 ,U
-JI
10
12
14
16
FREQUENCY (GHz)
Figure 5-1
S.
Practicable and lower bound errors in
the flux density of Cas A.
134
. -
the measurement of
m1
Table S-I.
1.
Source of Error
Antenna gain (fig. 4-30)
(59 1 0.18 dB)
2.
Error Contribution
to Measuring Flux
4.141
0.20%
0.901
4.
Sky background
(6 0.3 K)
1.33%
5.
Atmospheric transmission
1.02%
6.
(.98 0.01)
Star shape correction,
(.933 0.007)
0.721
7.
Antenna pointing
( 5% HPBW)
0.6S5
Quadrature sum
4.67%
K2
135
Table 5-2.
1.
Source of Error
Antenna gain (fig. 4-31)
(59 0.06 dB)
2.
0.20%
3.
0.45%
(22.2 0.1 K)
4.
Sky background
(6 0.2 K)
0.89%
S. Atmospheric transmission
(0.98 0.001)
0.10%
6.
0.361
7.
Antenna pointing
(- 21 HPBW)
Quadratic sum
0.10%
1.73%
136
6.
137
kJ
G/T=32d
0.9
G/T=36dB
0.8
0.7
0.7
G/T-40dB
0.6
U 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
00I
0.01
2
Figure 6-1
I
4
8
10
FREQUENCY (GHz)
12
14
16
Table 6-1.
0.194
0.194
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.101
0.043
0.019
0.044
0.044
0.044
(K2 =.916)
0.040
(K2 ".807)
0.104
700 fu t 4.671
2.
3. Sky background
6 0.3 X
4.
Atmospheric transmission
0.98 t 0.01
(K2 =.965)
0.016
6.
Bandwidth effect
0.004
0.004
0.004
7.
Antenna pointing
51 HPBW
0.028
0.028
0.028
8.
Y-factor
0.089
0.043
0.025
Resolution
0.01 dB
0.089
0.043
0.025
Quadrature Sum
0.248 dB
0.218 dB
0.230 dB
1 0.001
0.01 dB
9.
139
0.6 -
///
0.5
So0.4
0.3
"
//
Sjf ,
z.
Cr
10S
PRACTICABLE
U.'
U.'
0.2
0r(0
LOWER BOUND
0.1
0 .0
Figure 6-2
10
8
FREQUENCY IN GHz
12
14
16
the measurement of
Table 6-2.
llm(37')
36 dB
56 dB
18m(581)
40 dB
28m(93')
44 dB
60 dB
64 dB
1.
Flux of Cas A
700 fu 1.73
0.075 dB
0.075 dB
0.075 dB
2.
0.004
0.004
0.004
3. Sky background
6 0.2 K
0.068
0.029
0.013
4.
At-spheric transmission
0.98 0.001
0.004
0.004
0.004
5.
(K2 .965)
(K2 .. 916)
(K2 W.807)
K2 (I-K2 )0.05
0.0138
0.020
0.052
6.
Bandwidth effect
1 0.001
0.004
0.004
0.004
7.
Antenna pointing
2t HPBW
0.005
0.005
0.005
8.
Y-factor
0.027
0.013
0.008
9.
Resolution
0.005 dB
0.045
0.022
0.013
Quadrature Sum
0.114 dB
0.086 dB
0.094 dB
0.003 dB
141
The practicable
The
The practicable accuracy of measuring Te.
basic measurement equation used to determine Te
is Te - (Thot - Y Tcold)/(Y - 1) where Y is the
ratio of power at the receiver output port when
Thot then Tcold respectively are connected to
the receiver input port.
For the measurement
of Te we assume Thot - 300 0.1K, and
Tcold - 80 0.2K, that the reflection coefficient of these standards differ from that of the
antenna such that Irant - rstd < 0.05, and that
the antenna to the receiver such that
Irt
- r*
I < 0.1 [71].
ant rec
Error Contribution to Te in K
Parameter uncertainty
causing the error
Te = 30K
Te - 70K
Thot' 0.1K
Tod,
0.2K
Y-factor, 0.01 dB
0.05 K
0.30
0.38
0.07 K
0.34
0.58
0.17
0.25
0.38
0.39
0.42
0.91
Quadrature sum
0.75 K
1.23 K
142
Table 6-4.
It
The practicable error of measuring Tant'
is assumed that a compensated radiometer with
an effective input noise temperature of 100 K
and a resolution of 0.005 dB is used to measure
TTant*.
Error Contribution to Tant in K
Tant - 70K
Tant - 30K
0.20K
0.02
0.20K
Resolution error
0.34
0.26
Quadrature sum
0.39K
0.34K
Table 6-S.
Source of Error
0.18 dB
0.017
Te-
0.09
0.033
30 0.75K
0.184 dB
Quadrature sum
143
Mm
14
144
7.
figure 7-1 which shows the repeatability for 33'- and 52'antenna ground stations as a function of frequency.
Although
a similar graph for a 60'-antenna ground station was not
generated, it can at least be inferred from figure 7-1 that
the repeatability is better than 0.1 dB for frequencies less
than 8 GHz.
Therefore, for a 60'-antenna ground station with
specifications similar to those in the example, G/T changes
greater than 0.1 dB over periods less than or equal to 6 months
can be positively identifie4.
145
Table 7-1.
The following assumptions here used in calculating the repeatthe system temperature referred to the output of the
ability:
antenna is 100 K, antenna beam efficiency is 55%, the HPBW
G=
Source of Error
1.
0.004 dB
0.004 dB
2.
Sky background
0.035
0.083
0.009
0.009
6 0.2K
3. Atmospheric transmission
0.98 0.002
4.
Antenna pointing
5% HPBW
0.028
0.028
5.
Y-factor
0.n5l
0.108
Resolution
: 0.01 dB
0.051
0,108
Quadrature sum
0.085 dB
0.176 dB
0.01 dB
6.
146
\U
0.7-
0.6-
0.5
10.1. ANTENNA
S0.4-
:0.3-
0.2
15.9. ANTENNA
0.1
FREQUENCY (C~z)
Figure 7-1
147
8.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of Cas A to measure G/T is clearly the measurement technique that should be used in certain frequency and
G/T ranges.
Listed below are some of the prospects and
problems concerning accurate G/T measurements.
8.1
*1
the
148
some
149
/i
figure
36 dB
This
antenna
150
The use of Cas A looks very promising for the measurements of G/T.
Still, other stars, the sun and the moon
should also be examined to determine their utility. Their
advantages as regards G/T, if any, should be tabulated.
Cas A is not visible from some southern hemisphere ground
stations.
For certain measurements on small antennas, the
moon and/or sun should be useful, and for larger antennas,
smaller and weaker stars look interestingly useful.
151
8.3.3
152
153
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[S]
[6]
[7]
Ryle, M. and Smith, F.G., "A New Intense Source of RadioFrequency Radiation in the Constellation of Cassiopeia,"
Nature, 162, No. 4116, 462-463 (Sept. 1948).
[8]
[9]
Symposium No.
4,
154
A--
S.
W.W.,
Preprint, 1970.
D.A.,
K.F.,
L.V.,
and
"Supernovae"
155
J.A.
and Shakeshaft,
J.R.,
Nature,
189,
561
[26] Scott, P.F., Shakeshaft, J.R., and Smith, M.A., "Ducrease of Flux Density of the Radio Source Cassiopeia A
at 81.5 MHz," Nature, 22A, No. 5211, 1139-1140 (Sept. 13,
1969).
[27] Mayer, C.H., McCullough, T.P., Sloanaker, R.M., and
Haddock, F.T., "Secular Variation of the A 9.4-cm Radio
Emission from Discrete Sources," Astrophysical Journal,
141, No. 3, 867-872 (1965).
[28] Findlay, J.W., "The Flux Density of Cassioepia A at
1440 M41z and its Rate of Decrease," Astrophysical
Journal, 174, No. 2, Pt. 1, 527-528 (June 15, 1972).
[29] Barrs, J.W.M. and Hartsuijker, A.P., "The Decrease of
Flux Density of Cassiopeia A and the Absolute Spectra
of Cassiopeia A, Cygnus A and Taurus A," Astronomy and
Astrophysics (a European Journal), 17, No. 2, 172-181
(1972).
[30] Pauliny-Toth, I.I.K. and Shakeshaft, J.R., "A Survey
of the Background Radiation at a Frequency of 404 Mc/s,"
Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices, 124, No. 1,
61-77 (May 1962).
[31] Gardner, F.F. and Davies, R.D.,
Radio Sources," Aust. J. Phys.,
"The Polarization of
19, 441 (1966).
151,
156
[43] RaghavaRao,
157
[45] Yokoi, H.M. and Yamada, T. Satoh,. "Atmospheric Attenuation and Scintillation of Microwaves from Outer Space,"
Pub. Astrn. Soc. of Japan, 22, No. 4, 511 (1970).
[46] Snider, J.B. and Westwater, Ed R., "Atmospheric Attenuation at 15, 31, and 53 Giz," ESSA Tech. Report ERL 156WPL 11, 84 pages (Dec. 1969).
[47] "Influence of the Non-Ionized Regions of the Atmosphere
on the Propagation of Waves," CCIR Plenary Assembly
Report No. 234-1 (1966).
[48] Ku%'min, A.D. and Salomonovich, A.E., "Radioastronomical
Methods of Antenna Measurements" (Academic rress, New
York, 182 pages, 1966).
[49] "U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962" (Washington, D.C.,
for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C.).
[50] Dicke, Robert H., Beringer, Robert, Kyhl, Robert, and
Vane, A.B., "Atmospheric Absorption Measurements with
a Microwave Radiometer," Physical Rev., 70, Nos. 5 & 6,
340-348 (Sept. 1 & 15, 1946).
[51] Schelkunoff, S.A.,
New York, 1943).
"Electromagnetic Waves"
(Van Nostrand,
Lab.,
Proc.
I.R.E.,
158
V.
(May 1970).
[58] Newell, A.C. and Kerns, D.M., "Determination of Both
Polarisation and Power Gain of Antennas by a Generalised
3-Antenna Measurement Method," Electronics Letters, 7,
No. 3, 68-70 (Feb. 11, 1971).
[59] Newell, A.C., Baird, R.C., and Wacker, P. F., "Accurate
Measurement of Antenna Gain and Polarization at Reduced
Distances by an Extrapolation Technique," IEEE Trans.
on Antennas and Propagation, AP-21, No. 4, 418-423
(July 1973).
[60] Wacker, Paul F., "Theory and Numerical Techniques for
Accurate Extrapolation of Near-Zone Antenna and
Scattering Measurement," NBS Report 10733, 40 pages
(April 1972).
[61] Kerns, D.M., "Correction of Near-Field Antenna Measurements Made with an Arbitrary but Known Measuring
Antenna," Electronics Letters, 6, No. 11, 346-347
(May 28, 1970).
[62] Kerns, David M., "Plane-Wave Scattering Matrix and
Generalized Reciproci*ty Relations for Antennas and
Scatterers," NBS Report 10720, 57 pages (June 1972).
[63] Kerns,
D.M.,
Private Communications.
159
A, No.
8, 24-27.
1968).
No.
9,
687-691 (Sept.
160
196R).
APPENDIX A:
Section 1.1
1.
The system as defined in section 1.1 is time varying,
and care must be taken to insure that the state of the system
At
at the time its G/T is measured is adequately specified.
least the following parameters should be specified or implied
when reporting a value for G/T: the epoch and time of day
when the measurements were taken; the longitude and latitude
of the antenna site; the measurement frequency or frequencies;
the antenna polarization;
and,
i.
its
pointing angles.
2.
The on-axis power gain of the antenna is the maximum
of the antenna power pattern which is assumed to be measured
in the far field of the antenna with all attenuation effects
of the atmosphere removed; i.e., the gain assuming no atmosphere.
3.
It should be recognized that the power gain of an
antenna is a transmitting concept, and can be used for a
Howreceiving antenna only if the antenna is reciprocal.
ever, a quantity can be defined for a non-reciprocal receiving antenna that is analogous to the power gain of a
This point needs to be expanded in a
transmitting antenna.
later phase of the G/T project, and the results should
properly be included in any formal definition of G/T.
4.
It should be noted that the system noise tempera-
S.
161
Section 1.2
It
is
insigni-
noise.
It
noise contributions
noise.
If the ground station noise does r-t predominate over the
radiated satellite
satellite
noise,
then n of section
carrier-to-noise
where ns is
satellite
ror the
C_
(G/T) (ERP) L
k + (G/T)nsL
noise.
(72]
are defined in
section
1.2.
Sectiun 1.4
1.
the
section 1.4 to
positioned in
the center
part of the
measure-
ment.
2.
thermodynamic temperature to
that
162
/I
APPENDIX B:
The error contribution to the total error in the measurement of the Cas A flux density and a ground station G/T
have been completed for various sets of parameters.
The
computer printouts for G/T are included here in appendix B.1.
Some of these computed errors have been used in section 5.
Appendix B.2 gives the basic program for the G/T error computations.
Since this program is only slightly more comprehensive than the program for the flux density error computations,
163
B.1
Heading
G/T(DB)
Y(DB)
G(D)
FLUX(FU)
+-LINE
The linear accumulation of the nine error contributions to the error in measuring the flux density.
K2
HPBW
+-QUAD
T(STAR)
DIAM
164
Meaning
E-G
E-DT
E-Kl
E-X2
E-Polzn
E-BW
E-Point
165
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
16
I1
12
QUANTITY
UNIT
VALUE
UNCERTAINTY
F.U.
3185
-. 765
1.1
6
.98
LISTED
1
LISTED
+- 0
- .15
+- .3
+" .0!
+-(X2-1)*(
+.01
+- .001
.
+- 5
.01
.0
ASSUMPTIONSJ
%/YR
K
%
% HPBW
DB
DB
DB
*
*
*
*
+-
.1
.01
T(SYST)= 100 K
DATE OF MEASUREMENT IS 1974.6
HPB'J OF CAS A- 4.3 MIN
ANT BEAM EFFICIENCY= 55 %
ANT POLARIZATION RATIO= 0
Iutllllllttlluttlgllt,.lultlu#llgiuittl,,gggglll~iugtgigtl#ggtlt
G/TCDS)+-LIN
+-QUAD
22
.-
*24
26
Y(DB)
G(DB)
K2
T(STAR)
HPB'W
DIAM
E-10
E-POINT
.02
.999
E-K2,
E-Y
E-POLZN
E-GAIN
E-B'7
E-RESOL
.194
.52
42
67.4
7.3 FT
e
.344
.028
0
.001
1.93
.004
0
0
1.587
.004
1.93
.-
3.879
2.091
.04
.998
.82
44
53.6 '
9.2 FT
.194
.044
.028
0
.001
1.223
.004
0
0
1.158
.004
1.223
.-
2.64
1.38
.06
.997
1.33
46
42.6
11.6 FT
.194
.044
0
.028
0
.002
.776
.004
0
0
.812
.004
.776
1.817
.913
.09
.994
2.06
48
33.8
14.6 FT.
.194
.044
*
.228
0
.s02
.494
.004
0
0
.551
.004
.494
1.277
.612
.14
50
26g
18.4 FT
.194
.344
.021
0
.004
.317
.034
0
0
.366
.004
.317
.-
28 44-
30
5.723
3.164
4.67 %
.-
.991
3.26
166
G/T(DB)+-LIN
+-W"AD
32 ++-
34
.929
.426
.- .707
.- .317
36
.- .569
+-
38
.258
+- .486
+- .229
40 *-
.443
.-
42
.431
.-
.-
44
.218
.217
.448
*-
.-
.23
Y= 4.67 Z
Y(DB)
K2
T(STAR)
G(D3)
!{PE.Y
DIAlM
.22
.986
5.14
52
21.3
23.2 FT
.194
,044
.328
0
o006
.204
.004
0
2
.239
a004
.204
.34
.194
.044
*
.023
3
.01
.134
.004
.155
.004
8.08
54
16.9
29.2 FT
.134
.52
.965
12.65
56
13.5 *
36.7 FT
o194
.044
.028
3
.016
.389
.004
0
0
*lei
.004
.389
.79
,946
19.64
58
.194
.044
*
.028
oe04
0
0
.065
o084
o061
1.14
o916
30.14
60
.194
.344
*
.018
,004
0
0
.043
1.63
0871
45.44
62
6.7 *
73.3 FT
.194
.004
,028
0
o364
.032
.028
o004
.032
2.22
.807
66.66
64
5.4 *
92.3 FT
.194
.044
.028
.978
10.7
46.2 FT
8.5
58.2 FT
167
.344
.025
.061
.04
s043
0
0
.O314
.104
.025
.014
.043
.019
.004
.025
'"
, / "
".
FIEQu 2 GHZ
FL'JX* 1874 F.1'.
FLUX UNCERTAINTYG/T(D3)-LIN
+-WUAD
22
.46
*-
*+ .22
4.32
CERROR CONTRIBUTIONS TO G/T IIJ DBI
E-FLUX
E-INDEX E-DECAY E-SKY
E-KI
E-K2
E-PCLZM E-3?
E-PO0IT E-Y
E-3AIzI
E-rESOL
Y(DB)
X2
T(STAI)
G(DS)
HPEN
DIAM
.73
*999
18.33
42
67.4
26.6 FT
.18
o.044
.028
0
.001
e065
.004
0
0
.07
o004
.065
24 +-
.395
*203
1.11
0998
29.02
44
53.6 #
33.4 FT
.18
.044
.028
0
.001
.044
.o04
0
0
.044
.004
.044
26 -
.354
.195
1.64
.997
45.94
46
42.e *
42.1 FT
.18
.044
.028
0
.002
.032
.004
0
0
.321
.004
.332
28 +- .328
+- .191
2.37
.994
72.66
48
33.8 '
53 FT
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0
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0
0
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30 +- .313
+- .19
3.32
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114.78
50
26.8 0
66.7 FT
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0
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0
0
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32 +- .305
+- .189
4.49
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180.97
52
21.3 1
84 FT
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0
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0
0
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34
5.85
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"284.48
54
16.9
105.8 FT
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0
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0
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0
0
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7.36
56
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445.08
13.5 '
133.1 FT
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0
0
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58
0
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*-
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0
0
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62
6.7
265.7 FT
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9
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0
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0
0
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44
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13.88
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FLUXw 1103 F.U,
FLUX UNCERTAINTY.
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22
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1.458
*- .717
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2.7
42
67.4
13.3 FT
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0
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0
0
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1.035
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4.27
44
53.6 *
16.7 FT
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0
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0
0
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26 +- .763
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46
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21.1 FT
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0
3
.185
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28 ++-
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10.69
48
33.8 '
26.5 FT
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0
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3
7
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30
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53
26.8
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3
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0
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33.4 FT
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103
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26.62
52
.ig
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42 FT
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0
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32 +-
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34 +- .369
+- .197
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21.3
1.52
54
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41.85
16.9 '
52.9 FT
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36 ++-
.347
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2.19
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65.48
56
13.5 1
56.6 FT
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3
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39
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3.05
51
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1 '1.*6 c
83.9 FT
.. 728
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FT
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169
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04
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FREQ=
FLUXU 6
809
FLUX UNCERTAINTYm 4.45
/
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+-QUAD
3.667
1.973
22 +*-
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K2
T(STAR)
G(DB)
HPB'J
DIAM
.34
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4p
67.4 *
8.9 FT
.185
.044
.328
0
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1.148
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t.1l5
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1.148
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0
0
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,004
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+-
2.r494
1.301
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1.39
44
53.6
11.1 FT
.185
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o
.028
0
.001
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26 ++-
1.716
.859
.09
46
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42.6
14 FT
.185
.044
9
.997
2.2
o002
,028
.464
.521
.004
.464
24
28 ++-
1.207
.576
.15
.994
3.48
48
33.8
17.7 FT
.185
.044
.328
0
.002
.297
.004
0
0
.344
.004
.297
30 ++-
.877
.401
.23
.991
5.5
5s
26.8 '
22.2 FT
.185
.o04
0
0
.225
.323
0
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.192
.36
.986
8.68
52
.185
e
.044
.023
0
.006
.125
.004
0
0
.145
.56
54
16.9
)3.64
35.3 FT
.185
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0
.01
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.004
0
0
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32
.-
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+-
.299
34 +.-
36
.536
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21.3
28 FT
'
.344
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.192
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.125
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+-
.455
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56
.185
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+-
.218
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21.34
13.5
44.4 FT
.044
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0
0
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1.24
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58
.185
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0
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38 ++-
.206
40 +- .39
+-
.202
33.14
10.7 '
55.9 FT
.028
.025
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0
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3
.025
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1.79
60
.916
8.5
50.87
70.3 FT
.185
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.004
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42 ++-
.393
.206
2.47
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76.69
62
6.7
88.6 FT
.185
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*
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0
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.304
0
G
.017
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.323
44
.419
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3.27
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112.49
64
5.4 '
111.5 FT
.185
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0
.104
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.004
0
0
.012
.004
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.-
+-
170
FREQ.
8 GIZ
FLUXu
649 F.U.
FLUX UNCERTAINTY=
G/TCDB)+-LIN
+-QUJAD
Y(DB)
G(DB)
K2
HPBW
T(STAR)
DIAM
E-KI
E-K2
E-POLZN
E-B!;
E-POINT
E-Y
E-GAIN
E-RESOL
22 .- 7.212
*- 4.044
.02
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42
67.4
6.6 FT
.199
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*
e028
0
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2.531
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0
0
1.87
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2.531
24 **-
4.888
2.673
.03
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.63
44
53o6
8.4 FT
.199
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0
.001
1.602
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0
0
1.404
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1.602
.-
3.319
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.997
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46
.199
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0
0
1.007
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lo
1.57
48
33.8
0
.002
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0
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13.3 FT
.199
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e
.028
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1.576
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2.48
50
26.8
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.199
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0
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0
2.413
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0004
1.125
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3.92
52
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9
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.265
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6.16
54
0
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26.4 FT
.199
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.
.172
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9.63
56
13.5
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0
0
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.114
38 .- .543
*- .24Q
.61
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14.Q6
58
10.7 '
41.9 FT
.199
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0
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0
0
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40 *- .482
*- .229
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60
8.5
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0
0
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0
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22.96
52.8 FT
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.054
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42 .- .458
*.225
1.29
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34.62
62
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66.4 FT
.199
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0
.064
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0
0
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6004
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44
1.78
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50.77
6.'
5.4 '
13.6 FT
0199
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0
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0
0
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26
*- 1.766
28
2.269
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.-
30 ..-
32
.-
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.-
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36 .-
4.79 X
.654
*-.292
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.-.235
42.6
10.5 FT
21.3
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16.9
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171
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1.016
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1.016
FnEOu 10 GHZ
FL!TXn 547 F.1'.
FLTIX L CEfTAINTYu
G/TCDB) -LI!J
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22 +-
12.206
e- 7.094
5.49
Y(DB)
K2
T(STAR)
1 (DB)
IIPB'J
DIAM
.01
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.21
42
67.4
5.3 FT
.226
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*
.028
0
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4.682
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0
0
2.535
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4.682
24 +"-
8.268
4.663
.01
.998
.34
44
53.6
6.7 FT
.226
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0
.028
0
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2.961
.0e4
0
0
2.039
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2.961
26 ++-
5.614
3.083
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46
42.6 T
8.4 F
.22t
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0
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1.874
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3
0
1.558
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1.874
28 ++-
3.821
2.041
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48
33.8 *
10.6 FT
.226
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0
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1.189
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0
8
1.134
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1.19
30 ++-
2.617
1.352
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1.34
50
26.A '
13.3 FT
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0
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3
0
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1.819
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2.11
52
21.3 *
16.8 FT
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0
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0
3
.54
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1.298
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3.32
54
16.9 '
21.2 FT
.226
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0
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0
8
.36
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34 +-
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+-
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5.P
56
13.5 '
26.6 FT
.226
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0
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0
0
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.202
38 ++-
.755
.338
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8.87
58
10.7 ' ,
33.5 FT
.226
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0
P
.156
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36
.r34
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40 ++-
.631
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12.39
63
8.5 *
42.2 FT
.226
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C
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Cl
8
.103
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42 ++-
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18.68
62
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53.1
FT
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0
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1
0
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1.05
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27.4
64
5.4
66.9 FT
.226
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C
.104
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3
0
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44 ++-
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172
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--
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FflEQ= 12 GHZ
FLUX* 476 FeU.
FLUX UNCERTAINTY=
G/TCDB)+-LIN
*-QUAD
6.7 2
Y(DB)
K2
T(STAR)
G(DB)
HPBV
DIAM
22 +- 18.88
*- 11.37
.01
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.13
42
67.4 '
4.4 FT
.273
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0
.001
7.746
24 +-
12.726
.01
44
7.393
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53.6
.2
5.6 FT
.273
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.028
26 +- 8.635
*- 4.859
.01
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46
42.6
FT
28 +- 5.882
+- 3.216
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30 +- 4.022
*- 2.135
32
34
*-
.004
0
3
3.035
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7.746
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4.895
2.581
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.273
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0
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3.096
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0
0
2.088
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3.096
48
33.8
8.8 FT
.273
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0
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1.961
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0
0
1.604
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1.961
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.81
50
26.8
11.1 FT
.273
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.028
0
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1.245
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0
0
1.174
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1.245
.2.773
*- 1.421
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.986
1.28
52
21.3
14 FT
.273
@
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0
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0
0
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1.945
*- .956
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.978
2.01
54
16.9
17.6 FT
.273
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*
.028
0
.01
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0
0
.5)5
.004
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36 +- 1.405
*- .661
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.965
3.14
56
13.5 '
22.2 FT
.273
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.028
0
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.329
.004
0
0
.379
.004
.329
38 +-
.21
.946
4.88
58
10.7
27.9 FT
.273
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0
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P
.025
.215
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0
.252
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.215
.31
.916
7.48
60
8.5 '
35.2 FT
.273
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0
.04
.144
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0
0
.167
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.144
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.112
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0
0
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+-
40
42
1.06
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*- .385
.-
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.-
.727
.46
62
.-
.337
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.273
6.7 ,
11.28
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44.3 FT
.028
0
.064
.099
.67
.807
16.55
64
5.4 '
55.7 FT
.273
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0
.104
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44 +- .676
*- .32P
173
NII
FREQ: 14 GHZ
FLUX-
423 F.U.
FLUX UNCERTAINTY-
G/TCDB)+-LIN
+-QUAD
8.8 2
Y(DB)
K2
T(STAR)
G(DB)
HPBW
DIAM
.004
0
0
3.399
.004
11.858
.004
.001
7.49
3.004
.004
7.49
.351
.044
.028
0
.002
4.737
.004
0
0
2.547
.004
4.737
7.6 FT
.351
.044
.028
0
.002
2.998
.004
0
0
2.053
.004
2.99S
.02
.991
o53
50
26.8 *
9.5 FT
.351
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.028
0
.004
1.902
.004
0
0
1.572
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1.902
32 +- 4.007
2.091
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52
21.3
12 Fl
.351
*
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0
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1.21
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0
0
1.149
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1.21
34
.-
2.797
1.406
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1.31
54
16.9 *
15.1 FT
.351
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0
.01
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0
0
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.773
36
.-
1.998
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2.05
56
13.5 *
19 FT
.351
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0
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0
0
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38
+-
1.479
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.14
58
.351
10.7 '
23.9 FT
.044
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.324
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3
0
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3.18
11.152
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.21
.916
60
8.5
.351
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0
.04
.004
0
.251
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4,89
30.1
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.215
.215
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.351
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.064
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7.37
62
6.7 '
38 FT
.- 28
.146
.146
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10.81
64
5.4 '
47.5 FT
.351
.344
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0
.104
.103
.(A4
0
1
.117
27.538
17.113
0
.999
.05
42
67.4 '
3.8 FT
.351
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.028
0
.001
11.858
18.418
1+1.017
.01
.998
.13
44
4.8 FT
o351
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.028
26 +- 12.453
+- 7.175
.01
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.21
4a6
42.6
6 FT
28 +- 8.484
.01
48
.994
33.8
.33
5.811
3.135
22
.-
+24 +-
+-
30 +-
40
42
+-
44
.-
4.724
.- .957
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.358
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53.6 *
FT
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174
*N
-:
vi
m v-,- --
-1
-~j.
MIr
/1
Ff.EQ= 16 SHZ
FLU.X= 382 F.U.
FLUX UNCERTAINTY=
G/TC(DB)+-LIN
+-Qt!AD
11.87
Y(DS)
K2
T(STAR)
2
[ERROR CONTrIBUTIONS TO G/T IN D21
E-FLUX
E-INDEx
E-DECAY
E-SCfY
E-KI
E-1C2
E-POLUJ
E-034
E-?OIIT
E-Y
E-SAIrN
E-PESOL
G(DB)
HPBD4
DIAM
22 +- 38.479
+- 24.53
0
.999
.06
42
67.4 '
3.3 FT
.461
.144
.323
0
.001
17.151
.334
0
0
3.636
.004
17.151
24 ++-
25.531
15.684
3
.998
. 9
44
53.6 '
4.2 FT
.461
.044
.029
0
.031
10.834
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(3
0
3.32
.a-34
10.-34
26 ++-
17.158
10.125
.01
.997
s15
46
42.6
5.3 FT
.461
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9
.028
0
.002
.004
2.919
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11.662
6.617
.01
.994
.23
46
33.8 *
6.6 FT
.461
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.028
3
.332
4.333
.034
0
3,
2.452
.-04
4.333
7.996
4.374
.02
0991
.37
50
26.
'
3.3 FT
.461
.044
.S?
u
.004
2.747
.04
0
0
1.958
,14
2.747
5.526
2.919
.02
.986
.58
52
21.3
10.5 FT
.461
o.244
,028
0
.006
1.746
.004
0
3
1.487
o.11,4
1.746
3.86
.04
.461
T4ii
.028
3
.31
1.3B1
,978
.91
54
16.9
13.2 FT
.30/i
1.966
1.114
6014
1.114
2.747
1.347
,36
,965
1.42
56
13.5
16.6 FT
.461
,.044
.025
,016
.716
,004*
1
0
.759
.1^14
.716
2.016
.958
.09
.946
2.2
53
10.7
21 FT
.az.
,.044
.028
0
.025
.464
,004
1
0
0521
,004
.464
40 +-
1.548
.7?8
.14
,916
3.38
60
8.5 '
26.4 FT
.461
.044
.029
3
.04
.306
.004
0
0
,354
.004
.3C6
42 ++-
1.26
.602
.22
,461
.004
.242
.304
.28
0
.064
.206
5.09
62
6.7 *
33.2 FT
.206
.31
.307
7.47
64
5.4
41.8
.461
.044
.23
.104
.144
.014
,3
0
.163
, 04
.144
28 ++-
30
+-
32
.-
+-
34 +-
36
..-
38
+-
++-
44
.871
1.101
.544
'
FT
175
.;
.K
_ ;;
. :7
.044
o 148
.'
ii
B.2
176
102
W63
106
108
110
PRINT "rM26,2 (74 JAN 12) NJBS 6514SVITC;{ 0; BYPASS RPRVI?1TOIT OF INTA1T DATA
REM
MODIFIED TO ALLOV VARIARLE FLUX ACCt'rACY PER 29.2 n6442
RE4
DIM El 123
DIM DC43
DIM S112,11
112
114
120
122
125
130
.35
140
150
155
ASS (X/.23026)+.5)I/OC.
FIJACX)" INT (t00*
DEF
DEF FNB(X)" INT (1300* LOG X/ LO C15..5)/G;0
READ 05,GS,(,AG7,Ytl Y2,T
READ N
READ AIA2oA3,AS,A6
FOR 1l1 TO A
-READ DfIl
NEXT I
"11 TO 12
FOR
READ SlI, 01,SCI,,1
160
NEXT I
162
164
172
173
175
176
177
178
179
18
185
190
195
29i6
265
267
219
215
230
248
250
260
270
286
284
PRIN'T
"MEASUREMENT OF G/T USING CAl A"
.PRINT
PRINT
QUANTITY"; TAB AI;"Pl.IIT";
PRINT "
TAB A23'"SALUIr"; TA3 A3h,"%1r:RTAI9TY'*
PRINT
PRINT
LET M9"N910
LET Iul
FLUX AT"JQ5l"GHZ(*"Y. J")"; TAB AIJ"F-'-";
PRINT - I
TAD A2;SCI, 03; TAB A3"'LISTED"
PRINT
2015
GOSUB
PRINT "SPECTRAL INDEX"z
2000
SOSUB
PRINT "SEC?'LAn DECAY"; TAB AI;"%/Yfl";
2006
GOSUB
TAB AI"K";
PRINT "SKY BACKGROJND"1
2600
GOSUJB
PRINT "KI(ATM TRANS)";
286
GOSUB
296
295
106
"9220
". -A#
336
340
2002
EFFECTS)";
358
PRINT "K3(BAND'llDTH
360
376
1l0
2600
GOSUB
PRINT "ANT POINTING"i
2610
GOSUB
TAB AI;"!
177
H"3P':"
TAB A21"
*"J
390
400
410
420
430
448
450
460
470
480
48 5
490
500
502
504
506
507
510
580
600
770
778
783
790
800
805
510
820
830
84e
550
8 6 rd
S7 0
880
890
900
920
925
930
950
961?
1000
1010
1020
1450
1060
1070
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1150
178
*"
__/
1200
1210
222
1230
1240
1250
1255
1260
1270
1275
1280
1290
1330
1310
1350
1360
1380
1399
140p,
1410
1420
1430
1443
1445
1450
1460
1470
1480
LET M9u9*+4
LET Y.=64
IF 494M8-5 GOTO
FOR I=ut9 TO '8+8
PrINT
NEXT I
GOS!Y9
NEXT G2
1600
FOR
1625
1630
2000
2005
2q10
2015
2020
2030
2040
2050
3000
3002
3003
3004
3005
3007
3009
3020
3120
3030
1500
LET Y,9=3
1490
1506
1610
/1620
3000
I='19 TO M8*8
NEXT
LET M9=3
510
GOTO
INPUJT DATA PRINT SUBRO!UTINE
REM
PRINT TAB A2;SCtI, 03;
PRINT TAB A3V"+-"'SEI, 1
REM
IF
=1-2 OTO 2050
LET 1+1.2
PRINT IW..
RETUIRT
PrINT
PRINT
LET Gal
GOS UB 5900
Pr INIT " F1 r0 19 02;'G H Z
.RINT "FLUJX" '; INT (Q3*(02/QS)'6*109(26)+.5)V"F.U."
PRINT "FLf'X 'JNCERTAINTY=";F;'%"
PMINT
TAB Dtl];"'E.ROP. CONTRIBUTIONS TO G/T IN DB'"
PrI.T
PrINT "G/T(D!3)+-LIN"J
179
./
Sr
//
--
5861
58-62
5863
5864
5867
5870
5872
5874
5975
5876
5877
5875
5VOO
5905
5910
5915
5920
5q02
5924
5926
5930
5975
59ql
5982
5984
5990
5995
7000
3046
3656
3660
3676
3680
3696
3160
3110
3120
3130
3140
3156
3160
3170
4926
5850
5851.
5852
5853
5854
5955
5856
5857
5855
//5860
180
**
7010
!H
7915
7620
7030
7035
7040
DATA
DATA
DATA
DATA
DATA
7050
REn
7055
8001
8003
8005
"8067
8009
8011
DATA
DATA
DATA
DA T A
DATA
DATA
DATA
**a G/T(DB)J
22, 44, 2
1374, 1974.6
100
.55
30, 37, 47
A5jA6,DI].vDf2].DE31,Dt4]
15. 24, 35, 44, 53,
3195, 30*-.?65, 3
1.1, .15,
6, .3
.98,
elf, 4.3, .1
1, .901 I,
.100
0, 5, 3, .01
0, 0. 3, .01
62
8106
REM
FPEtTEMCYFLTJX
8110
8120
DATA
DATA
ERTIO0
PAIRS
181
5, 4.79
(C.1)
where a 2 1 and a23 are the available power ratios for the
directional coupler and depend on r and r 3 , AZTamb is the
thermal energy originating within the three port. The
parameters aij(i a 1,2,3; i # j a 1,2,3) represent ratios
of the power available from port i to the available power
If T1 is changed
of a signal source attached to port j.
and T 3 is simultaneously adjusted so that Tb 2 remains unchanged, then
AT1
('2 31'2 1 ) AT 3
(C.2)
k82
w C-j
Lij
cc
CL
C~1
~~9A4
.0
LLS
5n
t&4
UU
W
01
18"4
(AT1 )starA.
(C.3)
Here 9 is defined by
- (X 2 /8iklkk
2 S, where S is the star
flux density at measurement wavelength X incident from outside the earth's atmosphere; k 1 and k 2 are correction factors
for atmospheric effects and for the finite extent of the star
in relation to the antenna power-gain pattern.
For example,
Sis of the order of 10-4K for Cas A at 4 GHz.
Antenna temperature can be deduced from the change in
measured noise temperature (AT1 )ant - std when the antenna
is removed from port 1 and replaced by a cold-standard
noise source Tstd;
Tant .Tstd
(AT1 )ant
-std.
(C.4)
C.2
Inverting eq.
(C.S)
1).
(C.6)
measured.
It
(AT
+ T)/T,
(C.7)
(Y - i)/.
185
(C.8)