EduLearn Feb14

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and
Mainland China
Antonia Jiewei Lu, Derong Chen
The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Azman Ismail, Michael Kho Khian Jui
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Improving the Learning Result of the Integer Number Operation Using Card Model
Andi Musriani, Mustamin
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Subject of Mathematics in Kohat Division, Pakistan
Qaiser Suleman, Ishtiaq Hussain
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Goal-Setting Learning Principles: A Lesson From Practitioner

Zainudin bin Abu Bakar, Lee Mei Yun, NG Siew Keow, Tan Hui Li
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The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy: A Case

Study of a Pre-Service Teacher with Positive Science Attitude and High Science Teaching
Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour
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Profiles Junior high School West Java in Education Learning Environment

Nahadi, Wiwi Siswaningsih, Farida Sarimaya
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User Acceptance Test of Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool

(CAPBLAT)
Muhammad Qomaruddin, Azizah Abdul Rahman, Noorminshah A.Iahad
71
The Application of Virtual Simulations using Second Life in a Foreign Language Classroom
Tecnam Yoon
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Study on Related Courses to Help Undergraduate Students Write Research Reports: A

Curriculum Evaluation
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The Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) is published by Universitas Ahmad Dahlan (UAD)
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EduLearn
Vol. 8
No. 1
pp. 1-90
Yogyakarta, February 2014
ISSN: 2089-9823
Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2014
ISSN: 2089-9823
Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) is an interdisciplinary international journal of original research and writing on
education. The EduLearn aims to provide a forum for scholarly understanding of the field of education and plays an important role
in promoting the process that accumulated knowledge, values, and skills are transmitted from one generation to another; and to
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Table of Contents

Mainland China

13
23

29

41

Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour
51

65

(CAPBLAT)
71
Tecnam Yoon
78

Eny Winarti
85
Antonia Jiewei Lu, Derong Chen. (2014). Government-Leading Student Loan

Schemes: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and Mainland China. Journal of
Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 1-12.
Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes: A

Comparative Study of Hong Kong and Mainland China
Antonia Jiewei Lu *
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Derong Chen **
No. 1 Guangfeng Senior School, China
Abstract
Having a careful examination of government-leading student loan schemes in China and Hong Kong, we can
find a lot of differences and learn something from these two counterparts which are very typical country or area
faced by challenges in financing higher education in the context of transition from elitism to mass higher
education. This research attempts to make a comparison of government-leading student loan schemes between
Hong Kong and China in the new century. Then emphasis is put on the principles or core values namely
efficiency, equity and adequacy, and determining their implications presented in student loan schemes in these
two counterparts. Finally, the paper arrives at some recommendations for improvements in them.
Keywords: government-leading loan scheme, Hong Kong, China, efficiency, equity, adequacy
Antonia Jiewei Lu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

E-mail: lvjiewei521@gmail.com
**
Derong Chen, No. 1 Guangfeng Senior School, China

E-mail: 475590309@qq.com
Introduction
Over the last half century, higher education tuition prices have been rising approximately twice
or even more as fast as the rate of inflation. Anxiety over the rising cost of college education became
widespread during the 1990s, in part due to the slow growth of family income relative to increases in
tuition prices (Ehrenberg, 2000). It has been observed that the escalating college costs all over the world
have led to direct pressure for students to seek financial aid (Cross, 1987). Students in many countries
have always borrowed from family or relatives to finance either the costs of tuition or their living
expenses, and many other students borrow from banks, their governments or other financial institutions
(Woodhall, 1983). Besides, both developed and developing countries have witnessed the spread of the
notion of education as an investment in human capital and the belief that education contributes to
economic growth have encouraged many countries to improve students access to capital markets
(Woodhall, 1983), therefore leading government to introduce various programs that grant financial
assistance to students for educational purposes.
Three main reasons can generally explain why student loan schemes are significant: Firstly,
higher education is a profitable private investment, yet many students all over the world cannot afford it
out of their own or family resources; Secondly, student loans provide money when it is needed and this
can be repaid in the future when the graduate is enjoying the financial benefits of higher life time
earnings; Thirdly, the loan system is more equitable than an education financing system in which all
costs of higher education are met from public funds, since the latter involves a transfer of income from
the average taxpayer to those who are likely to enjoy higher than average incomes as a result of their
higher education (Woodhall, 1983).
Countries at every level of development have important national policy priorities related to
higher education (UNESCO, 2009). The major issues regarding higher education financing policy
governments are facing include: who should attend college; who should pay for college education; and
how to divide the appropriate contribution in financing higher education among the family, the student
and the public (Frederick & Verma, 2001). In other words, to what extent should taxpayers subsidize
higher education? How can higher education opportunities be equalized for disadvantaged groups like
the low-income in society (Johnstone, 1986)? As such, cross-nationally comparable data are vital to
formulating policies, benchmarking progress and learning from experiences in other countries
(UNESCO, 2009). Based on universal consensus on the importance of higher education, different
governments in different countries or areas are introducing and adopting different measures with regard
to financing policy to promote its development. Among the majority of countries or areas that set high
value on higher education development, China and Hong Kong are fairly representative of developing
countries and developed areas in terms of government-leading student loan policies, and deserve
academic scrutiny to make a comparison.
Development of Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes in China
The tuition fee was not introduced in China until 1992 and ever since 1997, all regular higher
education institutions (RHEIs)1 throughout the country charged students tuition and boarding fees,
which increased significantly from mid-1990s in the context of university expansion because of
advocacy of mass education instead of elite education. From year 2000 to 2010, the enrolment of
students in Chinese higher education has dramatically increased from around 2.21 million to 6.29
million, amounting to 23 million students in higher education (National Bureau of Statistics of China,
2010). The government nevertheless has not fully covered and funded the extra costs occurred under
such expansion. Therefore, college tuition fee rises from about 2,000 RMB a year in 1997 to
approximately 5,000 RMB in 2003, which has been criticized fiercely by the public and forced to
remain the same level ever since.
From a macro perspective, college top-up fees were due to higher education enlarged
enrolment without sufficient public resources, which resulted in several years complaints about the
ever-increasing tuition from those who are not affordable to finance it. In response to such problems,
the Chinese government established a national government subsidized student loan scheme (GLSLS)
for university students in 2000. After being implemented for a decade, GLSLS became the core policy
and the most effective weapon for tackling financial aid needs for students in higher education.
Regular Higher Education Institutions in China refer to higher education institutions that do not include adult
education.
Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes
Development of Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes in Hong Kong

Higher education in Hong Kong underwent drastic expansion in the late 1980s, a period which
saw rapid changes in its economic structure and Hong Kong shift from a basically manufacture-led to a
service-led economy. That brought forth the obvious and imminent need for Hong Kong to enhance its
domestic college education capacity. Tuition fees from students only made up a minimal percentage of
the actual cost until the government decided to recover 18% of the university education cost through
tuition in the early 1990s, therefore leading to a rapid increase in university tuition and academic
expenses accompanying broadening enrolment. It was under this context of expansion and tuition hike
in college that various student financial assistances for higher education such as loan schemes either
progressed or were formally established at different phases.
In 1969, interest-free loans consisting of Local Student Finance Scheme (LSFS) were
introduced to supplement the grant distributed to needy students based on means test which acted as a
gate-keeping mechanism, while the low-interest (at a rate of 2.5% annum) loan took the place of the
interest-free in 1987. In 1994, an extended loans scheme (ELS) with an interest rate of 4%, which was
lower than the market rate at the time, was introduced to meet the unsatisfied needs of those students
who failed marginally in the means-tested loan scheme. ELS was eventually abolished in 1998 and a
new non-means-tested loan scheme (NLS) was introduced afterwards. In addition to a nominal handling
fee, the NLS charges interest at a rate which flows along with the market interest rate and covers all the
costs of the loan and its administration. Having gone through decades of progressive evolvements, the
student loan schemes in Hong Kong have by and large developed into an elaborate system.
Purpose of this Study
Having a careful examination of government-leading student loan schemes in China and Hong
Kong, we can find a lot of differences and learn something from these two counterparts which are very
typical country or area faced by challenges in financing higher education in the context of transition
from elitism to mass higher education as predicted by Trow (1974). This paper compares the
government-leading student loan schemes in Hong Kong with that in China. Then emphasis is put on
the principles or core values namely efficiency, equity and adequacy, and determining their implications
presented in student loan schemes in these two counterparts. Finally, the paper arrives at some
recommendations for improvements in them.
Research Questions
This research attempts to make a comparison of government-leading student loan schemes
between Hong Kong and China in the new century. Based on data analyses, the research tries to answer
questions as follows: What are the characteristics of government-leading student loan schemes in Hong
Kong and China in the 21st century? What are the implications for efficiency, equity and adequacy from
these two counterparts? What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages for Hong Kong and
China respectively? What improvements can be made by learning from these policies? If this paper
could convey one question, it would be: What are the implications and improvements for efficiency,
equity and adequacy in terms of different characteristics presented in government-leading student loan
schemes of Hong Kong and China in the 21st century?
Definition of Terms
Higher education is an educational level that comes after the completion of secondary
education such as high school or secondary school. Cost of higher education consists of the amount of
tuition charged which is also referred to as price of higher education, and what students pay for higher
educational services, such as living expenses and fees for books etc. Governmentleading student loan
scheme is a loan policy that is led and funded by the government aimed at facilitating education
opportunities for college students.
Literature Review
There is no consensus on the evaluation of higher education financial policy. Generally
speaking, scholars tend to focus on three main principles: efficiency, equity and adequacy.
Jiewei Lu A, Chen D. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 249-260.
Efficiency
The world has limited resources. Efficiency is the degree to which resources are used to
generate the most productive outcome (Wheelan, 2010). Efficiency means that society is getting the
maximum benefits from its scarce resources (Mankiw, 2008). A more efficient society can produce
more with the same amount of resources (Arthur, 1975). Public policy often involves redirecting
resources or changing incentives in order to achieve more efficient outcomes (Wheelan, 2010). The goal
of efficiency implies that the government wants to improve the situation for one group of citizens
without causing disadvantages to any other group. One of the most commonly advanced rationales for
public policy and government intervention in the market is the circumstances when the market does not
spontaneously reach Pareto efficiency (Weimer & Vining, 2011).
Equity
A concern for equity has long been an important aspect of economic analysis, as Adam Smith
claimed No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the greater part of the members are
poor and miserable. It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, clothe and lodge the whole body of the
people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labor as to be themselves tolerably well
fed, clothed, and lodged (Smith, 1976, p88). Equity refers to fairness and social justice as opposed to
equality which refers to sameness (Gilbert & Terrell, 2002). It enables every citizen to become an
official member of the society (Short, 2002). Fairness or justice denies that the loss of freedom for some
is made right by the greater good shared by others (Rawls, 1971). Justice as fairness should be made to
maximize freedom and opportunity for each individual within society, and to provide in some common
way for its least advantaged members (Wheeler, & Kearney, 1996).
Adequacy
The primary purpose of any student loan is to defer fees (including both tuition and
maintenance) in order to make higher education free at the time of use (Barr, 1998, 2002, 2003;
Johnstone, 2003a). In any event, the adequacy of benefits is an important factor for consideration of any
policy change (Wheeler, & Kearney, 1996). However, the level of adequacy is not easy to define; it is
difficult to distinguish between genuine basic needs, luxury needs and needs in disguise (Chung, 2003).
Methodology
Measurement
Based on literature review, several measurements and items are chosen to respectively
demonstrate different principles and implications in the two different student loan schemes.
Efficiency. In a world with a finite quantity of resources to support the development of higher
education, allocations must be rationed in one way or another. Public policy aims to be efficient,
thereby putting societys resources to the most productive use (Wheelan, 2010). The items that this
paper use to measure efficiency of GLSLS in China and LSFS, NLS in Hong Kong are listed as follows:
(1) Non-payment rate. It calculates the default rate of student loan offered, which is an important
factor of running efficiency of the schemes.
(2) Administration cost. The total cost of running such schemes is directly related to efficiency.
Equity. There is a social goal of equalization in the provision of education in most modern
societies; the purpose of student financial assistance systems is to ensure that no student is denied in a
university education because of a lack of means (Chung, 2003). Several items are adopted to measure
the equity value of these two systems:
(1) Target group. Who can benefit from the schemes is an important criterion of equity.
(2) Extent of benefit. To what extent the students can benefit and how to allocate loans according to
different needs and among different groups also implicate something important about equity.
(3) Screening criteria. It is used to decide who is eligible and can be offered the loan, thus affect
equity directly.
Adequacy. We could look at adequacy from two perspectives: the extent to which they would
provide students with a benefit that meets their genuine basic needs, and the degree of burden the loan
may impose on these students in terms of repayment. The following items are chosen to demonstrate it:
(1) Interest rate. If interest rate is high, then the student may not apply for loan because of cost
consideration. Also, high interest rate will impose heavy repayment burden on students.
(2) Coverage. What the loans will cover --tuition, academic expenses or living expenses decides
how the student can benefit from the loan.

(3) Repayment time. Short and inflexible repayment period influence student by placing burden on the
life after students graduate.
Table 1. Measurements and items of Government-leading student loan schemes

efficiency
equity
adequacy
Non-payment rate, administration cost

Target group, extent of benefit, screening criteria
Interest rate, coverage, repayment time
Data Collection
Archival data and statistics are collected from the websites of China National Center for
Student Assistance Administration (CNCSAA), Hong Kong Student Financial Assistance Agency
(HKSFAA), and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) etc. to
analyze characteristics of government-leading student loan schemes in Hong Kong and China. Besides
that, the researcher has done some preliminary survey regarding student living expenses etc. in Nankai
University, which is a typical regular higher education institution.
Characteristics in China Government-Leading Student Loan Scheme
Limited target group. The leading disadvantage of GLSLS lies in profit-driven banks acting as
administrative bodies for student loans. Whether to grant a loan under GLSLS are decided by
commercial banks largely on the basis of ones ability to repay instead of genuine need. Consequently,
student loans might be offered to students not in need but from prestigious institutions, while leaving
those in lower tier such as vocational training institutions, struggling to obtain a student loan.
Oversupply in high-ranking institutions and insufficient amount divided among lower tier institutions,
from an economic approach of higher education financial policy, is a representative case of free market
failure.
Ambiguous screening criteria. Those who are poor and apply for GLSLS loan are required to
submit s from the local Department of Civil Affairs. However, when it comes to who will receive the
loans, no clearly stated criteria such as family income level are stated in the official documents of
GLSLS in China.
Limited coverage. According to a survey carried out by the China Youth Daily and another
report from China Weekly Reading, fees officially jumped from 200 RMB (18 ) per year in 1989 to
some 5,000 RMB (450 ) nowadays (See Figure 1: Tang, 2001; Guo, 2007). The amount of loan a
student receives can only cover tuition following this trend.
Source: Tang, 2001; Guo, 2007.

Figure 1: Development of Higher Education Tuition Fee in China (1989-2007)
However, besides tuition fee hike, the living expenses of a typical college student have also
undergone the similar trend (See Table 2). This implicates that the student loan is not enough to take
these tendencies into consideration and to some extent improve the basic living needs of a poor and
needy college student-the coverage is so limited.
Table 2. General Living Expenses Level of College Students

(Example of Nankai University, China)
Pay (RMB per month)
Percent
Under 300
4.76%
300-500
14.28%
500-800
29.52%
800-1000
23.81%
1000-1500
19.05%
Above 1500
3.81%
Source: A Survey of College Students Living Expenses, 2011, done by the researcher.
Short and inflexible repayment time. According to a research study conducted by Shen & Li
(2003), students who are required to pay off their loans within four years after graduation have to set
apart on average a quarter of their annual income for repayments. Since 2008, the policy has changed
and allows students to pay the proportional amount of income and fluctuate with their income ability,
but the student still has to pay off within 6 years of graduation. Such a proportion of earnings required
as repayment is simply so much and the six-year duration so short that it could bring about debt
aversion for new recipients and stop them from considering student loans as an option to meet their
financial assistance need.
Serious sanction for default. Under the GLSLS, the students who fail to repay will get
punishment in the way either their names will be published in the media or they will have adverse credit
history that will be an obstacle for future private loans, which only harms ones reputation but cannot
ensure one to repay. Terms such as fully repay in four years after finding a job, names published in
the media for those failing to repay without taking whether ones income is high enough to repay etc
into consideration, are what those who borrow a student loan have to face. They to a large extent
threaten students to take the scheme as a resort for educational poverty.
Table 3. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in China

Implementation year
Target group
Interest rate
2000
Poor full-time students in regular higher education institutions (REHI)
Fully subsidized before graduation, 50% subsidized afterwards (before the year
2004); full subsidized before graduation, a rate based on rate policies made by
central bank after graduation (after the year 2004)
Grant size
6,000 RMB
Coverage
Tuition fee for undergraduates; living expenses for postgraduates
Repayment time
4 years after graduation (before the year 2004); 6 years after graduation (after the
year 2004)
Repayment way
Monthly installments
Guarantor
Student credit
Sanction
Publish defaulters name in the media; adverse credit history and prevention from
additional bank loan for living or investment in the following one or two decades.
Screening criteria
Not clearly stated
Administrative body
Commercial banks
Data source: China National Center for Student Assistance Administration. http://www.xszz.cee.edu.cn, 2011.
Characteristics in Hong Kong Government-Leading Student Loan Scheme

The student loans scheme in Hong Kong has evolved from completely free of interest to low
interest to its present state, including loans at the interest-bearing market rate. In total, this system is
relatively elaborate and has many characteristics.
Wide target group and coverage. LSFS is mainly aimed at needy full-time students in
Publicly-Funded Programs (PFP), while students whose financial needs for educational purposes are not
covered in LSFS can turn to NLS for tuition fees or sometimes living expenses. Besides the scholarship
and grants that can cover tuition fees for needy students, the loans aimed at purposes outside tuition are
to some extent enough to cover their basic needs. This is mainly because of the application of a Student
Expenditure Survey in the estimation of maximum grants and loans to a student, which gives a fairly
accurate estimate of what a student would actually need in order to survive (Chung, 2003). The tables as
follows show the percentage of loan approval (No. of applicants with loan offered divided by No. of
applications received) and amount of loan offered. The loan approval rate in LSFS for the academic
year 2009/2010 is 88.6% and 89.3% for 2010/2011, while NLS almost grant loans to every applicant.
All of the information has pointed out the wide target group and coverage of government-leading
student loan schemes in Hong Kong.
Table 4. Statistics of Student Loan Under LSFS

Academic Year
2009/2010
2010/2011 (as at 31.10.2011)
No. of eligible students
82,921
81,975
No. of applications received
31,932
31,185
No. of applicants with loan offered
28,290
27,869
Average amount paid
$25,101
$25,594
Total amount of loan offered
$728.40m
$725.07m
Data source: Hong Kong Student Financial Assistance Agency. http://www.info.gov.hk/sfaa, 2011.
Table 5. Statistics of Student Loan Under NLS

Academic Year
2009/2010
2010/2011 (as at 31.10.2011)
34,402
34,143
34,071
33,749
Average amount paid
$45,831
$46,480
Total amount of loan paid
$1,222.3m
$1,228.8m
Clear screening criteria. For LSFS, the level of loan is determined by a clear two-tier means
test. First, compare your Adjusted Family Income (AFI) against the "Ready Reckoner" to get the first
percentage of loan, then apply this percentage to calculate the living expenses loan (HKSFAA, 2011).
Second, compare the Net Asset Value of your family against the "Sliding Scale of Asset Value for
Discounting Financial Assistance" to get the first percentage of loan, then adjust the level of loan
calculated by the discount factor to get your final level of loan (HKSFAA, 2011). After this test, the
scheme will sort out who can actually get the loans, which is a fairly useful tool to differentiate between
the needy groups.
Long repayment time. Under LSFS, students are required to repay by 20 quarterly installments
5 years after graduation or ceasing to be a student of the institution, while those who get a loan from
NLS have 10 years after completion of the relevant course. Both of them have taken the students
ability to repay into account: the students who can get a loan from LSFS are those who study at PFP and
who have generally better jobs and higher income after graduation, while those who borrow money
under NLS have a higher burden of repayment because of a higher interest rate and thus a reasonable
extension of repayment time can ease them and activate their willingness to repay in time.
Relatively temper sanction for default and increasing default rate. Compared to Chinas
humiliating sanction, Hong Kong government take relatively temper punishment measures for delayed
repayment or default, which is criticized as an impetus for increasing default rate in the recent years and
a harm to taxpayers who are actually bearing the burdens for the immoral behaviors of those students.
Table 6. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in Hong Kong
Interest rate
LSFS
1960s
Needy full-time students in Publicly-funded
Programs (PFP)
Depend on individual average disposable
family income and per capita family asset;
maximum amount of loan of the 2011/12
academic year is $37,960
From no interest to a rate of 2.5%
Coverage
Living expenses
Repayment time
5 years after graduation or ceasing to be a

student of the institution
20 quarterly installments
Student credit
Surcharge of 5% on the quarterly installment;
serious or prolonged default are referred to
the Department of Justice for legal recovery
action
Implementation year
Target group
Grant size
Repayment way
Guarantor
Sanction
Screening criteria
Administrative body
NLS
1998
Students whose needs are not met in the
LSFS
Maximum loan is capped at the maximum
amount of tuition fees payable
A rate covering all the costs of loan and

administration
Tuition fees and sometimes living
expenses
10 years after completion of the relevant
course
40 equal quarterly installments
Repayment amount including interest in
arrears is charged at prime rate; serious or
prolonged default are referred to the
Department of Justice for legal recovery
action
None
Two-tier means test on Adjusted Family

Income (AFI) and Net Asset Value of the
family (NAV)
Hong Kong Student Financial Assistance Agency
Conclusions and recommendations

Government-Leading Student Loan Policy Learning for China
Balance different groups and needs. Obviously Chinese higher education finance policies are
lopsided to prestigious universities and REHIs. While this is important for China to face international
challenges from peer universities, it is also significant to dedicate more resources to those non-regular
higher education institutions and lower-rank universities, which may be a strategic adoption to improve
the whole higher education quality in China.
Clarify screening criteria. The GLSLS should establish clear criteria, such as family income,
net asset value of the family and regional living expenses for a typical RHEI student, to better test and
estimate the real basic needs of the student. Comprehensive survey of the necessary data is important.
Adjust repayment time. For example, the current loan repayment period should be extended.
Also, repayment requirements should be flexible giving some reasonable consideration to the
borrowers affordability to repay. To get better repayment results, deferring starting point of loan
repayment or beginning repayment only on securing employment would be a proper choice.
Broaden coverage. The grant from GLSLS is obviously so mean that it only covers tuition fees
at average level. Coverage extended to both tuition and maintenance is one of the core features in the
HK student loan scheme and should be taken into account in the next reform of student loan policy in
China.
Incrementally abolish humiliating sanction and cultivate a credit culture. Under the scheme,
students who do not repay their loan before graduation could not receive their certificates. Reserving a
diploma would not help to enhance the situation as students in debt will find it difficult to get a job
without the relevant certificates. Literature related to student loans in China usually argues that
government should do more to cultivate a credit culture among college students given the fact that
credit banking has been established only for a few years in China (Shen & Li, 2003). It would be more
human as well as effective if the government cultivate such culture and in the meantime dedicate to
abolish humiliating sanctions incrementally.
Government-Leading Student Loan Policy Learning for Hong Kong

Require credit report from mature loan borrowers. To lower default risk, it is advisable to
require mature borrowers (e.g. over 30 years old) applying for student loans the first time above a
certain amount (e.g. over $100,000) pertaining to a particular course to offer a personal credit report
from some credit reference agency. This could enable SFAA to decide whether a loan may be supplied
in part or in full to the student concerned based on ones credit history in accordance with a series of
prescribed criteria.
Improve usefulness and sustainability. Continuous financial resources from the government
should be provided to keep the scheme viable. It will be better for the NLS to become self-sustaining
through better design as the loan costs and the default risk are regarded as factors in setting the interest
rate. However, to what extent are student loans scheme useful and sustainable relys not just on the
design of the schemes. To ensure the loan to be more useful, the NLS loan should reach all the needy
students and also those who are willing to take up the offer for investment in higher education. In other
words, the loans should cover the targeted groups for the targeted purpose. To ensure the loan to be
more sustainable, repayment needs to be guaranteed and total repayment must arrive at the level of
initial loan payment for the present year to make the ends meet.
Room for participation of commercial banks. There is room for commercial banks to
participate in the student loans scheme. The Financial Secretary of the Hong Kong government
positioned himself as a proactive market facilitator in his Budget Report 2002. It will be important for
the government to make out the costs and benefits of various facilitating measures, such as subsidizing
interest and using indemnifier, for the student loans market. Including commercial banks in the interestbearing student loans scheme is advisable, whereas it should avoid the situation China has underwent.
That is, who to grant the loan should not be decided by profit-driven commercial banks. They can take
part in relevant activities such as releasing loans, taking in repayments and provide auxiliary service to
the loans scheme.
Concluding Remarks
There is high efficiency in the mobilization of the loan funds in Hong Kong due to the
effectiveness of the SFAA and the small geographic area that it has to cover (Chung, 2003). LSFS and
NLS together provide comprehensive loans to local student and ensure equity and efficiency. The wide
coverage and adequate grant size in these two schemes enable students to have adequate financial
support for their educational purposes. From all these aspects, China fall short and should learn from
Hong Kong by initiating reform incrementally. To meet increasing challenges facing higher education,
more strategic government-leading student loan policies should be developed both in Hong Kong and
China. These reforms should be designed to increase efficiency, improve equity, and raise overall
adequacy of student loan, as well as achieving greater conformance with the UNESCO goals.
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12
Azman Ismail, Michael Kho Khian Jui. (2014). The Role of Mentoring Program in
Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance. Journal of Education and Learning.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 13-22.
The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees

Academic Performance
Azman Ismail*
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Michael Kho Khian Jui **

Abstract
According to institutions of higher learning literature, mentoring program has two important features:
communication and support. The ability of mentors to appropriately implement comfortable communication and
provide adequate support may ehance positive mentee outcomes, especially academic performance. Although the
nature of this relationship is crucial, little is known about the role of mentoring program as an important
predictor of mentees academic performance in the higher education mentoring research literature. Therefore,
this study was conducted to measure the relationship between mentoring program and mentees academic
performance using self-administered questionnaires gathered from undergraduate students in Malaysian
institutions of higher learning in Sarawak. The results of SmartPLS path model showed two important outcomes:
firstly, communication positively and significantly correlated with academic performance. Secondly, support
positively and significantly correlated with academic performance. The result demonstrates that mentoring
program does act as an important predictor of mentees academic performance in the organizational sample.
Thus, discussion, implications and conclusion are elaborated.
Keywords: Communication, Support, Academic Performance
Azman Ismail, Faculty of Economics & Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 43600 Bangi, Selangor
Darul Ehsan. MALAYSIA.
E-mail: azisma08@gmail.com / azisma12@ukm.my
**
Michael Kho Khian Jui, Faculty of Economics & Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 43600 Bangi,
Selangor Darul Ehsan. MALAYSIA.
E-mail: mic6699@gmail.com
Introduction
In an ancient Greek literature, mentoring is first highlighted in the epic story of The Odyssey
written by Homer. In this story, Odysseus tells his loyal and experienced friend, namely, Mentor (a
person who has great wisdom and trustworthy) to teach his son, namely, Telemachus (a mentee or
protg who has less experience) about the tips for handling challenging lifestyles before he goes to the
Trojan War (Edlind & Haensly, 1985; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Merriam, 1993). Based on this classical
story, mentoring is often related to as an important field of education (Little et al., 2010; Johnson et al.,
1991) and/or counseling (Gregson, 1994; Zuraidah et al., 2004) whereby mentors are the elderly whom
have wisdom, experiences and can be trusted to educate young men who have little experience and
knowledge (Little et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 1991; Russell & Adams, 1997; Wanguri, 1996).
Hence, the traditional mentoring concept has been given new interpretations by contemporary
educationists, social psycologists and management scholars in order to suit it with the current
organizational development and challenges (Dennison, 2000; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Ismail &
Ridzwan, 2012; Oliver & Aggleton, 2002).
In today organizations, mentoring is often seen as a learning method where it encourages
comfortable relationship between mentors (i.e., knowledgeable and experienced person) and mentee
(i.e., less knowledgeable and experienced person) as an instrument to develop group and/or individuals
potentials in carrying out particular duties and responsibilities, familiarize with new techniques, and
care for all aspects of mentees (Cummings & Worley, 2009; Johnson et al., 1991; Long, 2002; Noe et
al., 2002). There is no one best mentoring program model to fit all organizations, but they are designed
and implemented according to the uniqueness of organizational contexts in terms of beliefs, policy,
orientations, stresses, strengths and weaknesses (Irving et al., 2003; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Santos &
Reigadas, 2002, 2005). These factors have affected organizations to design and administer the various
types of mentoring program, especially informal relationship (e.g., specific demands, spontaneous and
adhoc) and/or formal relationship (e.g., structured and coordinated relationship between mentor and
mentee, using standard norms, continuously action plans, time frame, and particular objectives). In
organizations, formal and informal mentoring programs are viewed as equally important, but informal
mentoring programs are often implemented to complement and strengthen formal mentoring programs
in order to achieve organizational strategies and goals (Friday & Friday, 2002; Hansford & Ehrich,
2006; Hansford et al., 2003: Ismail et al., 2005, 2006).
A review of current higher education student development program literature highlights that
effective mentoring programs have two salient practices, i.e., communication and support (Bernier et
al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al., 2001). In the context of university mentoring
program, communication is generally defined as mentors openly delivering information about the
procedures, content, tasks and objectives of the mentoring programs, conducting discussions about tasks
that should be learned, giving detailed explanations about the benefits of attending mentoring programs
and providing performance feedback (Allen et al., 2005; Fox et al., 2010; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006;
Santos & Reigadas, 2005; Stewart & Knowles, 2003). Conversely, support is broadly defined as
mentors provide emotional support (e.g., acquire new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and guide them
to properly apply in daily life) and instrumental support (e.g., assist mentees to adapt campus
environments) at varying times to mentees (Allen & Finkelstein, 2003; Davis, 2007; Fox et al., 2010;
Stewart & Knowles, 2003; Zuraidah et al., 2004).
Surprisingly, recent studies in university/faculty mentoring programs reveal that the ability of
mentors to appropriately implement such mentoring characteristics may have a significant impact on
positive mentee outcomes, especially academic performances (Bernier et al., 2005; Tennenbaum et al.,
2001). In an institution of higher learning context, academic performance is usually evaluated by the
students persistence rates, graduation rates, and grade-point average (Granger, 1995; Levin & Levin,
1991; Santos & Reigadas, 2005). Within a mentoring program model, many scholars think that
communication, support and academic performance are distinct, but strongly interrelated constructs. For
example, the ability of mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and provide
adequate support have been essential factors that may enhance positive mentee outcomes, especially
academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
The nature of this relationship is interesting, but not much is known the role of mentoring
program as an important predictor of mentees academic performance in the higher education mentoring
program research literature (Allen & Finkelstein, 2003; Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006;
Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012). Many scholars reveal that this situation is due to many previous studies have
much emphasized on the internal properties of mentoring program, employed a simple survey method to
explains different respondent perceptions toward the implementation of mentoring programs and used a
simple correlation analysis to measure the strength of association between mentoring program and
mentees academic performance. The findings of these studies have neglected to quantify the effect size
14
of mentoring program as an important predicting variable in the mentoring program research literature.
Consequently, it has not provided adequate information to be used as useful guidelines by practitioners
in formulating strategic action plans to improve the design and management of mentoring programs in
learning organizations (Bernier et al., 2005; Davis, 2007; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al.,
2001). Therefore, it motivates the researchers to fill in the gap of literature by measuring the
relationship between mentoring program practices and academic performance.
Literature Review
Relationship between Mentoring Program and Academic Performance
Several recent studies using a direct effects model to discover mentoring activities based on
different samples like perceptions of 189 students in 9 departments at the University of California in
Santa Cruz (Tennenbaum et al., 2001), perceptions of 110 students in Canadian colleges (Bernier et al.,
2005), and 127 students at a defence based university in Malaysia (Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012). These
studies proved that the ability of mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and
provide adequate support in formal and/or informal mentoring activities had enhanced mentees positive
outcomes, especially academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012;
Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
The empirical studies support the notion of adult learning theories. For example, Chickerings
(1969) vector theory of identity development highlights seven important vectors to develop yound adult
identities: developing competence, managing emotions, becoming autonomous, developing
interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity. Besides
that, Levinsons (1978) early adult transition model posits that an individuals life structure would face
critical situations when he/she goes through the transformation process from childhood into adulthood.
Application of these theories in institutions of higher learning shows that the essence of mentoring
program is to enhance positive young adults identities and life styles. For example, the ability of
mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and provide adequate support in formal
and/or informal mentoring activities may lead to an enhanced positive mentee outcomes, especially
academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis
The literature has been used as a foundation to establish the conceptual framework for this
study as shown in Figure 1.
Independent Variable
(Mentoring Program)
Dependent Variable
Communication
Support
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Based on the conceptual framework, it can be hypothesized that:
H1: Communication positively related to academic performance
H2: Support positively related to academic performance
Methodology
Research Design
This study used a cross-sectional research design where it allowed the researchers to integrate
the mentoring program literature, the pilot study and the actual study as a main procedure to gather data
for this study. Using such methods may gather accurate data, decrease bias and increase quality of data
being collected (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000). The location of this study is Malaysian
institutions of higher learning in Sarawak. For confidential reasons, the name of the organizations used
is kept anonymous. At the initial stage of data collection, the survey questionnaires were drafted based
on the information gathered from the mentoring program literature. After that, the pilot study was
Ismail. A, Khian Jui, M.K. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 13-22.
15
conducted involving 5 senior year students (2nd year and above) in public institutions and 5 senior year
students (2nd year and above) in private institutions to verify that all questions were importance,
relevance, clear and suitable for an actual study. Hence, a back translation technique was employed to
translate the survey questionnaires into English and Malay languages in order to increase the validity
and ensure the reliability of research findings (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000).
Measures
The survey questionnaire used in this study had three sections. Firstly, communication was
measured using 3 items that were adapted from mentoring communication system literature (Foxon,
1993; Sullivan, 2000; Yamnill & McLean, 2001; Young & Cates, 2005). The item used to measure the
construct were the importance of mentoring program, approachable and knowledge sharing. Secondly,
support was measured using 5 items that were adapted from mentoring support system literature (Tsai &
Tai, 2003; Chiaburu & Takleab, 2005; Langhout et al., 2004; Rayle et al., 2006; Vieno et al., 2007). The
items used to measure the construct were interpersonal communication skills, giving suggestions, praise
mentee performance in study, understanding the implications of actions taken, and listening. Thirdly,
academic performance was measured using 4 items that were adapted from undergraduate student
performance literature (Campbell & Campbell, 1997; Irving et al., 2003; Rayle et al., 2006). The items
used to measure the construct were able to achieve CGPA, able to identify effective study methods, and
able to improve answering skills in tests/exams. All items used in the questionnaires were measured
using a 7-item Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree/dissatisfied (1) to strongly
agree/satisfied (7). Demographic variables were used as controlling variables because this study
focused on student attitudes.
Sample
The unit of analysis for this study is undergraduate students in Malaysian institutions of higher
learning in Sarawak, Borneo. The researchers had obtained an official approval to conduct the study
from the management of the organizations and also received advices from them about the rules for
conducting the survey in the organizations. Considering the constraints of the organization rule, as well
as the duration of study and finance, the researchers had distributed 250 survey questionnaires using a
convenient sampling technique to undergraduate students in the public and private institutions of higher
learning. This sampling technique was chosen because the management of the organizations had not
given the list of undergraduate students and this situation did not allow the researchers to randomly
select respondents for this study. From the survey questionnaires distributed, 196 usable questionnaires
from the institutions of higher learning were returned to the researchers, yielding 78.4 percent of the
response rate. The survey questionnaires were answered by participants based on their consents and on
voluntarily basis. The number of this sample exceeds the minimum sample of 30 participants as
required by probability sampling technique, showing that it may be analyzed using inferential statistics
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000).
Data Analysis
The SmartPLS 2.0 was employed to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument and
thus test the research hypotheses (Henseler et al., 2009; Riggle et al., 2009). The main advantage of
using this method may deliver latent variable scores, avoid small sample size problems, estimate every
complex models with many latent and manifest variables, hassle stringent assumptions about the
distribution of variables and error terms, and handle both reflective and formative measurement models
(Henseler et al., 2009; Riggle et al., 2009). The SmartPLS path model was employed to assess the
magnitude and nature of the relationship between many independent variables and one or more
dependent variables in the structural model using standardized beta () and t statistics. The value of R2
is used as an indicator of the overall predictive strength of the model. The value of R2 are considered as
follows; 0.19 (weak), 0.33 (moderate) and 0.67 (substantial) (Chin, 1998; Henseler et al., 2009). Thus,
a global fit measure is conducted to validate the adequacy of PLS path model globally based on Wetzels
et al.s (2009) global fit measure. If the results of testing hypothesized model exceed the cut-off value of
0.36 for large effect sizes of R, showing that it adequately support the PLS path model globally
(Wetzels et al., 2009).
Results
Sample Profile
Table 1 shows the respondents characteristics. The majority of the respondents were female
(70.9 percent), their ages vary from 22 to 24 years (70.4 percent), the highest education level amongst
16
the respondents were STPM holders (51.0 percent), (68.9 percent) comprises of third year students
being the majority in the respondent group, students achieving CGPA between 3.01 to 3.50 also being
the majority amongst the respondents consists of (48.5 percent), and students who study in a public
institutions of higher learning consists of (85.7 percent).
Table 1. Respondents Characteristics (n=196)
Respondents Profile
Sub-Profile
Percentage
Gender
Male
Female
19 to 21 years old
22 to 24 years old
25 to 27 years old
29.1
70.9
25.0
70.4
4.6
SPM
STPM
Diploma
Matriculation
Second Year
Third Year
Fourth Year
Fifth Year
CGPA 2.01-2.50
CGPA 2.51-3.00
CGPA 3.01-3.50
CGPA 3.51-4.00
Public Institutions of Higher Learning
Private Institutions of Higher Learning
6.1
51.0
10.8
32.1
6.1
68.9
24.5
0.5
5.6
34.7
48.5
11.2
85.7
14.3
Age
The Highest Educational Level
Current Year of Study
Academic Achievement
Institution
Note:
SPM/MCE : Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia/ Malaysia Certificate of Education

STPM
: Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia/ Higher School Certificate
Model Measurement
The confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess the psychometric of survey
questionnaire data. Table 2 shows the results of convergent and discriminant validity analyses. All
constructs had the values of average variance extracted (AVE) larger than 0.5, indicating that they met
the acceptable standard of convergent validity (Henseler et al., 2009). Besides that, all constructs had
the values of AVE square root in diagonal were greater than the squared correlation with other
constructs in off diagonal, showing that all constructs met the acceptable standard of discriminant
validity (Henseler et al., 2009; Yang, 2009).
Table 2. The Results of Convergent and Discriminant Validity Analyses
Variable
AVE
Communication
Support
Communication
Support
0.725
0.741
0.779
.851
0.418
0.472
.861
0.437
Academic
Performance
.883
Table 3 shows the factor loadings and cross loadings for different constructs. The correlation
between items and factors had higher loadings than other items in the different constructs, as well as the
loadings of variables were greater than 0.7 in their own constructs in the model are considered adequate
(Henseler et al., 2009). In sum, the validity of measurement model met the criteria.
17
Table 3. The Results of Factor Loadings and Cross Loadings for Different Construct
Construct/ Item
Communication
Objective
Moral values
Critical thinking
Support
Motivation
Listen to suggestions
Praise
Help
Listen to problems
Cumulative grade point average
Effective study
Skills
Communication
Support
0.836673
0.897438
0.818922
0.387340
0.393681
0.287202
0.364466
0.439693
0.396970
0.405739
0.340172
0.339573
0.327694
0.384191
0.841673
0.842116
0.875203
0.868722
0.875777
0.365410
0.355063
0.389806
0.394228
0.373948
0.342061
0.458355
0.436621
0.329364
0.435010
0.380145
0.847694
0.914396
0.883913
Table 4 shows the results of reliability analysis for the instrument. The values of composite
reliability and Cronbachs Alpha were greater than 0.8, indicating that the instrument used in this study
had high internal consistency (Henseler et al., 2009; Nunally & Benstein, 1994). These statistical
analyses confirmed that the measurement scales met the acceptable standard of validity and reliability
analyses as shown in Table 2.
Table 4. Composite Reliability and Cronbachs Alpha
Construct
Composite Reliability
Cronbach Alpha
Communication
0.888
0.810
Support
0.935
0.913
0.913
0.859
Analysis of Constructs
Table 5 shows that the mean values for the variables are between 51.1 and 5.3, showing that
the levels of communication, support and academic performance are ranging from high (4) to highest
level (7). The correlation coefficients for the relationship between the independent variable (i.e.,
communication and support) and the dependent variable (i.e., academic performance) are less than 0.90,
showing the data are not affected by serious collinearity problem (Hair et al, 2006).
Table 5. Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Standard
Pearson Correlation analysis
Deviation
(r)
1
2
4
1.
Communication
5.3
.92
1
2.
Support
5.1
1.17
.42**
1
3.
5.3
.91
.47**
.43**
1
Note: Significant at **p<0.01
Reliability Estimation is Shown in a Diagonal
Variable
Outcomes of Testing Hypotheses 1 and 2

Figure 2 shows the outcomes of SmartPLS path model for testing the direct effects model. In
terms of exploratory of the model, the inclusion of communication and support in the analysis had
explained 76 percent of the variance in dependent variable. Specifically, the results of testing hypothesis
highlighted two important findings: first, communication significantly correlated with academic
performance (=0.35; t=4.396), therefore H1 was supported. Second, support significantly correlated
with academic performance (=0.29; t=3.852), therefore H2 was supported. In sum, the result confirms
that mentoring program does act as an important determinant of mentees academic performance in the
organizational sample.
18
(Mentoring Program)
Dependent Variable
R Square=0.76
H1 (=0.35; t=4.396)
Communication
H2 (=0.29; t=3.852)
Support
Note: Significant at t >1.96

Figure 3. The Outcomes of SmartPLS Path Model
In order to determine a global fit PLS path model, we carried out a global fit measure (GoF)
based on Wetzels et al.s (2009) guideline as follows: GoF=SQRT{MEAN (Communality of
Endogenous) x MEAN (R)}=0.756, signifying that it exceeds the cut-off value of 0.36 for large effect
sizes of R. This result confirms that the PLS path model has better explaining power in comparison
with the baseline values (GoF small=0.1, GoF medium=0.25, GoF large=0.36). It also provides strong
support to validate the PLS model globally (Wetzel et al., 2009).
Discussion and Implications

he findings of this study confirm that mentoring program does act as an important predictor of
mentees academic performance in the studied organizations. In the context of this study, mentors have
appropriately plan and implement mentoring activities based on the organizational policies and
procedures. Majority respondents perceived that comfortable communication, and material and moral
support are actively implemented in formal and/or informal mentoring activities. As a result, it may lead
to enhanced mentees academic performance in the higher institutions.
This study presents three major implications: theoretical contribution, robustness of research
methodology, and practical contribution. In terms of theoretical contribution, the results of this study
highlight that communication and support have beenn important predictors of mentees academic
performance. This result is consistent with studies by Tennenbaum et al. (2001), Bernier et al. (2005),
and Ismail and Ridzwan (2012).
With respect to the robustness of research methodology, the survey
questionnaires used in this study have met the acceptable standards of validity and reliability analyses.
This may lead to the production of valid and reliable findings. In regards with practical contributions,
the findings of this study may be used to improve the design and management of mentoring programs in
organizations. In order to achieve this objective, management needs to give more attention on
improving the following aspects: firstly, update training content and methods for mentors to in order to
improve their competencies in teaching, counseling and guiding students who have different ability
levels. Secondly, form mentoring groups according to students academic achievement in order to ease
mentors fulfilling their needs and expectations. Thirdly, mentors who have high teaching loads and
active in research, but can show high commitment in improving student studies need to be given a high
priority in getting better promotions. Fourthly, plan various kinds of learning activities in order to attract
students who have different interests and capabilities to actively involve in mentoring programs. Fifthly,
students who have actively participated in mentoring activities and show improvement in academic
performance need to be given better recognitions. If these suggestions are heavily considered this may
motivate undergraduate students to enhance their academic performance.
Conclusion
The study developed a conceptual framework based on the higher education mentoring
program research literature. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that the instrument used in this
study met the acceptable standards of validity and reliability analyses. Thus, the results of SmartPLS
path model showed that mentoring program does act as an important predictor of mentees academic
performance in the organizational sample. This result has also supported and extended mentoring
program research literature mostly published in Western countries. Therefore, current research and
practice within mentoring programs need to consider communication and support as crucial elements in
the higher education student development program. This study further suggests that the capability of
mentors to properly practice comfortable communication and provide adequate support will be essential
factors that may enhance subsequent positive mentee outcomes (e.g., self-efficacy, satisfaction,
19
commitment, career, leadership skills and ethics). Thus, these positive outcomes may lead to maintained
and supported the higher learning institutions strategis and goals.
The conclusions drawn from this study should consider the following limitations. First, a crosssectional research design used to gather data at one time within the period of study might not capture
the causal connections between variables of interest. Second, this study does not specify the relationship
between specific indicators for the independent variable and dependent variable. Third, the outcomes of
SmartPLS path model have only focused on the level of performance variation explained by the
regression equations, but there are still a number of unexplained factors that affect the causal
relationship among variables and their relative explanatory power. Finally, the sample for this study was
taken from one institution of higher learning that allowed the researchers to gather data via survey
questionnaires. These limitations may decrease the ability to generalize the results of this study to other
organizational settings.
The conceptual and methodological limitations of this study should be considered when
designing future research. First, several organizational and personal characteristics should be further
explored, as this may provide meaningful perspectives for understanding how individual similarities and
differences influence the mentoring program within an organization. Second, other research designs
(e.g., longitudinal studies) should be used to collect data and describe the patterns of change and the
direction and magnitude of causal relationships between variables of interest (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010;
Zikmund, 2000). Third, to fully understand the effect of mentoring program on mentee attitudes and
behaviors, more organizations need to be used in future study. Fourth, other specific theoretical
constructs of mentoring program, such as learning abilities, decision making, and assignment need to be
considered because they have widely been recognized as an important link between mentoring
relationship and many aspects of individual attitudes and behavior (Davis, 2007; Dutton, 2003). Finally,
other outcomes of mentee like self-efficacy, transfer of knowledge, skills and ability, positive change,
and career help should be considered because they are given more attention in mentoring program
research literature (Fox et al., 2010; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Ismail et al., 2006; Ismail & Ridzwan,
2012). The importance of these issues needs to be further explained in future studies.
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Andi Musriani, Mustamin. (2014). Improving the Learning Result of the Integer
Number Operation Using Card Model. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8
(1) pp. 23-28.
Improving the Learning Result of the Integer Number

Operation Using Card Model
Andi Musriani *
Maros District Education Office, South Sulawesi
Mustamin **
Abstrak
Pendidikan merupakan suatu rekayasa teaching untuk mengendalikan learning untuk mencapai tujuan secara
efektif dan efisien. Konsep tersebut menjadi asas bagi guru untuk senantiasa melakukan inovasi dalam proses
pembelajaran, khususnya mata pelajaran matematika yang dianggap sulit oleh sebagian besar siswa. Sebagai
contoh, berdasarkan hasil pretest yang dilakukan oleh penulis sebagian besar mereka salah dalam menentukan
hasil operasi dari -3 + (-2) and -3 (-2). Hasil penelitian tindakan kelas ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat
peningkatan hasil belajar operasi bilangan bulat dengan menggunakan model kartu dari siklus I dengan rata
rata 7,40 menjadi 9,30 pada siklus II. Oleh itu, metode penggunaan model kartu ini bisa menjadi satu inovasi
pembelajaran operasi bilangan bulat khususnya pada sekolah dasar.
Kata kunci:
Abstract
The education poses a teaching engineering to control learning to reach goal effectively and efficiently. This
concept is a base of teacher for frequently to do innovation in the learning process. For example, based on the
pretest result has been done of writer most of the students have wrong to determine operation result of -3 + (-2)
and -3 (-2). This result of classroom action research shows that there is an increase of the student result in the
integer number operation by using card model from cycle I to II with an average value 7.40 to 9.30. Therefore,
this using of card model metode can be one of innovation to learn about the integer number operation specially
for elementary school.
Keywords: the integer number operation, using of card model, teaching and learning mathematics innovation
Andi Musriani; mathematics teacher at SMA Negeri 4 Bantimurung Maros District

E-mail: ahmad_jaelani_ilyas@yahoo.co.id
**
Mustamin; mathematics teacher at SMA Negeri 1 Maros, Maros District

E-mail: mustamin_sman1maros@yahoo.co.id
Introduction
The education constitutes an engineering to control learning for reaching a goal that has been
planned effectively and efficiently. In the engineering process, the role of teaching is very important
because it poses the activity of the teacher for transferring the knowledge, skill and value to their
student so that what is transferred to have meaningful for student self and useful to community
(Slameto, 2003). For facing the challenges, it has been needed the high power resource and can compete
globally so that it needs the high skill of thinking, critics, systematic, logic, creative and willing to work
together effectively. This way of thinking can be developed by mathematics education, it is so possible
because the mathematics has a clear structure with the strength association to others, as well as
patterning the deductive thinking and consistent. The mathematics also poses a tool that can be clear
and simple of the condition and situation by abstraction, idealization or generalization for a study of
problem solving (Pusat Kurikulum, 2006).
The reality of using in learning media

Mathematics learning management orients to teacher readiness to provide matter subject such
as planning the various aspects that needs to be considered by the media used and its relevance with
evaluation tool. According to document of Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006) that the age of
junior students are characterized by the wide range of capabilities as the following; (1) able to
communicate actively with their friends, (2) have a wide vocabulary of verbs, adjectives, situation,
question words and conjunctions, (3) demonstrate insight and understanding about something, (4) able
to express thoughts, feeling and action by using simple sentences, and (5) able to read and express
something through pictures.
It is the other statement that Technology plays an important role in enriching the educational
process (Cenk and Sevdane, 2013).
The integer number operation is a basic and very important subject matter for elementary
school. Based on research result of Rahmiah and Mustamin (2007) have revealed that some of the
previous teaching that must be considered in developing the students the cognitive ability through
learning management is good, one of them is use of the media as a medium of meaningful learning.
Teachers should learn, explore and utilize various kinds of instruction organization and teaching
methods: inquiry learning, cooperative learning, problem-solving in daily life, role playing, simulation,
collecting information, concept mapping, constructivist (Hallak, 2000).
The method of delivery or presentation of using in learning media to their students so that the
learning is interesting and the students can pay the close attention to what the teacher teaches. Students
can ask if they dont understand. Students can answer the questions, and furthermore what the teacher
says so student can express it. In the high school learning guidelines have followed the principles of
learning as the following; the principle of appreciation, concreteness and motivation, independence,
cooperation, individualization, correlation and lifelong learning (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional,
2010).
The main task of the teacher creates in an atmosphere or climate of learning that can improve
students motivation to continue the learning spirit. According to Usman (1993) that with a challenging
learning climate in a healthy competition and student motivation for learning, will positively impact to
the achievement of optimal learning result. Contrarily, without that will not the students actively
respond. Therefore, the teachers should have an ability to choose the method and at once using an
instructional media in the learning process. As we know that the learning media is very helpful an
instructional media delivery of content matter, so that the presence of the learning media has still been
adapted at all the subject characteristics. According to author that one of media can be used to explain
the integer number operation concept is use of card models with positive and negative mark. As a logic
consequence inaccuracy by using of method and the learning media often causes problems to learn
students such as in the learning boredom, less understand of material and finally the student becomes
apathetic. Therefore, to avoid it the teacher should be quite careful, choosing and using the learning
media to teach his or her students.
The various mathematics learning strategies can be used for improving the student learning
motivation one of which is the teacher should do three things, (1) the teacher can move, develop of all
the student capabilities, (2) to become that what has been transferred be challenge for his or her self, so
that the student has intrinsic motivation to learn, (3) examine in depth of the material is transferred
resulting in linkages with other knowledge. The policy in the learning innovation currently, be aware or
not more toward addressed to a consumption with relative to the high Intellectual student. In fact, it
shows that the student has with high intellectual is more or less 10 percent, the other word that the
24
education policy and reformation have implemented only favorable for 10 percent of students were
proficient.
In the demonstration, the teacher and student demonstrate using card models then other
student. Hence, the demonstration is always followed an experiment. Using of Card models in this
research is such as a picture below:
Figure 1. Card models
Research methodology
The type of this research is classroom action research. Classroom action research poses a
design and evaluation procedure in collecting and analysing data systematically for determining value
and beneficially in a education practice at the institution. The education practice that is examined such
as process of learning management including planning, implementation, assessment of learning about
mathematics education. It develops of student cognitive capabilities with using card as a media will be
held 8 times of meeting. This research has been implemented for students class X with member of 27
students consisting of 10 males and 17 females.
This research refers to a collaborative research model is a research done together with
researcher, teacher and school principals. This research consists of four steps, namely; (1) planning, (2)
action, (3) observing, and (4) reflecting. Implementation of this action research is on two cycles, that is,
cycle 1 and 2. Each cycle performed refers with a goal will be achieved.
This matter is looked at research design based on Kemmis and Taggart (2003) as a picture
below.
Figure 2. Cycle of action research
Learning research result to aspect of daily test using instrument which is prepared such as
explained. Description of the daily test result is showed on the distribution of frequencies as below after
conducted the data conversion in three scales with using a converter by Sudjijono (1995) below:
Table 1. The formula of data conversion in three scales

Conversion method
Skor M SD
M SD Skor M + SD
Skor M + SD
Categories
Low
Middle
High
Andi Musriani, Mustamin. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 23-28.
25
where;
M = Mean of data
SD = Deviasion Standard of data
Action conduction
1.
General description on the cycle I.

Plan step in this research consists of two cycles with description of implementation on the
following; (1) on the cycle of one is conducted with explaining the sub topic of the integer number
about addition and subtraction operation and its term. Whereas, the conducted process is begun with
planning up to reflection that explained such as; planning step, the activities conducted are; (a) to
determine the matter agreed with mathematics teacher class X linkage to the curriculum of education
unity level; (b) research time provides with school time learning; (c) to make the learning plan with
implementation using card model the negative and positive sign in the learning to each class meeting;
(d) to make the test for assessing the student capabilities in solving the problem based on the researched
aspect; and (e) to make the observation sheet for recording the student activities in the learning process.
Action step. Based on the learning planning has been made with using card model as a
learning media, then in the each meeting classroom the teacher explains about matter of the integer
number operation especially about addition and subtraction operation and assesses students capabilities
to solve of the problem. Example, the teacher demonstrates how to solve -3 + (-2) and -3 (-2) of the
following. Based on the operation result, we have found that -3 + (-2) = -5 and -3 (-2) = -1.
Figure 2. Addition and subtraction operation
Observation and evaluation step. Basically the conducted observation and evaluation process
when the learning process is in the classroom with using observation sheet by teacher assistant as an
observer. The evaluation of result learning is conducted on the last of the learning process for knowing
student capabilities solving problem of addition and subtraction the integer number.
Reflection step. In this step poses analysis of result observation and evaluation was collected.
The evaluation results obtained can be used as a reference to assess how extent of success and failure,
while achieving goals and formulating a repair plan for the future learning (cycle II).
2.
General description on the cycle II.

The cycle II is a continuation of the cycle I that action procedure is similar, but in the cycle II
poses to repair of the plan till process. In this cycle makes plan for to the deep implementation of the
following; (1) on the cycle I the students activities in the learning process are not good appear yet,
because sometimes some students have a bad attitude and they do not attend the teacher lesson yet; (2)
as the caused problem of number (1) has influenced their student learning result is still low; and (3)
using card model in the learning process is not maximum yet. Therefore, strategy that used on this cycle
is planning to revise about these problems especially the learning process climate the used problem
solving method with using card models, the teacher should explain about the rule of students in the
learning process; and the teacher appreciates to his students when they have capabilities to solve of the
problems has been given.
Research result
The obtained data is analysed with qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis is
used to analyse of strength or weakness of learning method l during on the learning process.
26
Meanwhile, quantitative analysis is used to analyse of quantitative data such as an exam result on the
cycle I and cycle II. Results of this research is showed in the table 2 below.
Table 2. Distribution of student results on the cycle of I and II

Data
Skor 6
6 Skor 8,5
Skor 8,5
Cycle I
5
17
5
Cycle II
0
16
11
Categories
Low
Middle
High
Based on the table above has been obtained that student results on the cycle I is more better
than cycle II. On the cycle I exists 5 students have low categories with score is under 6 while on the
cycle II just exists 0 student. Meanwhile, on the cycle I the students have score between 6 and 8.5 exist
17 students compared on cycle II only 16 students, and the last on the cycle I the students have score
8.5 above exist 5 while on the cycle II exist 11 students. In the other aspect is average of learning
result also shows that on the cycle I has average 7.39 and 9.30 on the cycle II. So that these improving
of results is caused from many factors and one factor is the teacher has used card models in learning
process to teach material about the integer number operation.
Conclusion and Suggestion

Based on this research results, some conclusion will be made on the following; (1) the learning
process of the integer number operation can be conducted with using card models as a media; (2) using
from card models in the learning process will improve the student learning result especially the integer
number operation and it is term; and (3) using card models in the learning process will be good more of
the learning climate condition. So that, some suggestions are proposed to school principals and
especially in mathematics teacher for considerating of this method in the learning process about the
integer number operation, so for the next time can be improved of student learning result.
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Undang-Undang Nomor 14 tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen
Zamroni (2003). Paradigma Pendidikan Masa Depan. Jakarta: Biligraf Publishing
28
Qaiser Suleman, Ishtiaq Hussain. (2014). Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic
Achievement of Secondary School Students in Subject of Mathematics in Kohat
Division, Pakistan. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 29-40.
Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of

Secondary School Students in Subject of Mathematics in
Kohat Division, Pakistan
Qaiser Suleman *
Kohat University of Science & Technology Kohat,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, (Pakistan)
Ishtiaq Hussain **
Abstract
Research reveals that private or home tuition after school time plays a crucial role in strengthening and improving
students academic achievement. The purpose of the study was to explore the effects of private tuition on the
academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school level. All the students at
secondary school level in Kohat Division (Pakistan) constituted the population of the study. The study was
delimited to the students of Government High School Ahmadi Banda Karak only. Fifty students of class 09 were
selected as sample of the study. Sample students were divided into two groups i.e. control group and experimental
group by equating them on the basis of their previous knowledge in subject of mathematics as determined through a
pre-test. Each group was composed of 25 students. Students of the experimental group were engaged in tuition for
two hours after school time. The study was experimental in nature therefore, The pre-test-post-test Equivalent
Groups Design was used for the collection of data. Statistical tools i.e. the mean, standard deviation and
differences of means were computed for each group. Significance of difference between the mean scores of both
the experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test and post test scores was tested at 0.05 levels by
applying t-test. After statistical analysis of the data, the researchers concluded that there is significant positive
effect of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school
level. Based on the findings, it was recommended that parents should arrange private tuition for their children to
move up their achievement level in subject of mathematics.
Keywords: Effects; Private Tuition; Academic Achievement; Secondary School Students; Mathematics
M.Phil (Education), Institute of Eduation & Research, Kohat University of Science & Technology Kohat, Khyber
Pakhtukhwa, Pakistan
Email: look_for_reality@yahoo.com
Phone: 0092-3139043454
**
Assistatnt Professor, Institute of Eduation & Research, Kohat University of Science & Technology Kohat,
Khyber Pakhtukhwa, Pakistan
Email: dr.ishtiaqkust@gmail.com
Phone: 0092-3335161441
INTRODUCTION
In Pakistan, majority of the parents provides tuition facilities for their children to improve their
academic performance. There are some reasons for which they arrange tuition for their children. Firstly,
some parents are uneducated or illiterate and secondly some parents are educated but have no time and
remain too much busy to improve their economical position. Therefore, they come late to their homes. It
is a reality that parents spent a lot of their economy on their children education but they are not able to
look after their academic activities. Research shows that parental involvement and participations play a
fundamental role in increasing the level of educational attainment of their children. Parents engage
some tutors at home for making up the academic deficiencies and for increasing the academic abilities
of their children. For this purpose, professional tutors are appointed for tutoring the children at home
and gradually this trend of tutoring is being converted into a tradition rather an academic requirement
(Atta, et al., 2011).
Home tuition is regarded as a very important instrument for the educational achievements of
children. At secondary school level, students require guidance to compete with their class fellows and to
get admissions in the most reputed and highly ranking educational institutions. In addition, it is very
imperative to provide assistance to the students to do their homework properly which is assigned to him
by the teachers. Furthermore, at secondary school level, courses are lengthy and tough therefore, it
requires proper guidance and continuous supervision from parents. Home tuition is the best solution to
these problems. Hence home tuition facilities should be provided to children whose parents are not able
to participate with them in their academic activities. In addition, there are a lot of tuition academies,
centers and coaching centers which are available in almost every corner of the urban as well as in rural
areas of the country. These academies and centers provide teaching and guiding help in all the subject
areas. But home tuition is regarded as more effective and successful because in tuition academies,
students are put together in large group to tutoring purpose and hence individual attention is ignored
(Atta, et al., 2011).
Now-a-days, in Pakistan, trend of home or private tuition is commonly observed in almost
every corner of the rural and urban areas especially in subject of mathematics because mathematics is
tougher as compared to the other subjects. The main reasons of this trend are the poor performance of
teachers, lack of mathematics teachers in institutions, extraordinary involvement of students in cocurricular activities etc. This is why majority of the parents especially in urban areas arrange private
tuition for their children to raise the level of their academic achievement, to make up their academic
deficiencies and to keep them busy.
The current research paper was specially designed to explore whether home or private tuition is
beneficial in subject of mathematics or not. The principal researcher has been teaching mathematics at
secondary school level for several years and therefore he was interested to conduct research study to
explore the importance of tuition in subject of mathematics at secondary level. The findings of the study
is beneficial for the students at secondary level because the researchers expect that through this study,
the importance and effectiveness of the private tuition in subject of mathematics will be explored and
that is why students at secondary school level will improve their academic performance in subject of
mathematics through private or home tuition.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature is divided into two sections i.e. Section A which is about
mathematics and the section B is about tuition. So these are discussed section wise as under:
SECTION A
What is Mathematics?
Mathematics is derived from Greek word mathema which means knowledge, study and
learning. It is an area of knowledge which deals with quality, space, structure and change (Free online
Wikipedia). Mathematics is the science of measurement, quality and magnitude. According to the new
English dictionary, mathematics in a strict sense, is the obstruct science which is the basic conception of
spatial and numerical relations. Mathematics also refers to the science of number and space. Its
equivalent in Hindi or Punjabi is Ganita which refers to the science of computation or calculation.
Mathematics is a systematized, precise and organized science (Bashir, 2000). Mathematics is a
discipline of accurate, precise and logical analysis which provides us tools to describe, abstract and
deals with the world and world ideas in a logical and intelligent way (Schoenfeld, 1982).
No doubt, mathematics is playing a fundamental role in everyday life. It has affected every
aspect of society. There is no aspect of human life in which mathematics is not involved. Its knowledge
is used in banking, educational institutions, industry, accounts, homes, shops, agriculture, business,
30

science, research etc. There is a general agreement that every child has to study mathematics at school.
Mathematical education is considered very important and crucial because without the application of
mathematics, we cannot imagine a social life. Therefore, children are pressurized to succeed in
mathematics as compared to other subjects i.e. history or geography. That is why mathematics is a
subject of special importance (Sheerazi, 2000). An effective and sound education in mathematics is
essential for any modern knowledge based economy. Mathematics is now playing an important and
crucial role in many areas where it has not formerly played much of role i.e. in biology and social
sciences etc. If we fail to lay proper mathematical foundations during the formative years of childhood
and adolescence, it will become increasingly difficult to cope with this weakness in the later life. The
efforts to deal with these weaknesses and shortcomings during retraining in later life are usually
meaningless and only successful to some extent (Parveen, 2009). Iqbal (2004) stated that the progress in
science and technology is due to the knowledge of mathematics because it has enabled man to send
satellites into space, to on other planets, to communicate through information technology, to launch
guided missiles and send airships without pilots. Thus teaching and learning of mathematics occupies
the important crucial position in social needs.
According to Gall and Hicks (1964), mathematics has played a vital role in science,
technology, industry, business, and agriculture. Mathematical study has been linked with habits of
effective thinking, intellectual independence, aesthetic appreciation and creative expression. Until now
we accepted these objectives and opportunities to become stagnant until the challenges and issues of the
modern world startled as out of our satisfaction. In the contemporary world, mathematics is being
increasingly applied in science, technology, government, industry, economics and education. If a nation
wants to ensure the production of men and women able to deal with the subject of mathematics at these
higher levels, then it has to ensure the provision of proper foundations at secondary level (Farooq, et al.,
2005).
Prof. Khawaja Masud stated that when the Soviet Union threw sputnik into the space in 1957
the Americans were astonished. They found out that deficiency in mathematics had let them down.
They overhauled the entire curriculum, putting mathematics and science in its centre. Within a short
period of ten years they landed a man on the moon (Suleman & Latif, 2006). It shows that mathematics
is key subject and therefore it is imperative to pay proper attention on mathematics. Its curriculum
should be reviewed and redesigned so that it may fulfill the emerging needs and demands of the
contemporary society. In this way, soon Pakistan will also stand in the line of the most developed
nations of the world.
Goals and Objectives of Mathematics Education
The national council of teachers of mathematics (NCTM) has identified five main goals which
are essential for the fulfillment of students mathematical needs for 21st century. These are described as
under:
The first goal of mathematics education is to value mathematics. Mathematics should be taught in
such way that ensure for students that mathematics has value for them, therefore they should be
encouraged and motivated to continue studying mathematics as long as they are in school or away
from school. Students should appreciate the cultural, historical, and scientific evaluation and
importance of mathematics. A key to valuing mathematics is personal support and encouragement
for learning mathematics from valued others.
The second goal of mathematics education is to reason mathematically. Students have to learn, to
collect evidences, make assumptions, to formulate models, invent counter-examples and build
authentic arguments to clarify complex situations. In this way, they will be able to develop an
informed skepticism and sharp insight characteristic of mathematical prospective. Sound reasoning
should be valued as much as students ability to explore the accurate results.
The third goal of mathematics education is to communicate mathematics. For this purpose students
have to learn to read, write and speak about mathematics. As students try hard to communicate their
ideas therefore they learn to clarify, refine and strengthen their thinking.
The fourth goal of mathematics education is to develop confidence in students ability to reason
mathematically. Ability to deal with the mathematical demands of everyday life depends on the
attitudes which students develop toward mathematics. To learn and utilize mathematics, students
must have self-confidence and self-efficiency made on success. Students should be known that
mathematics is a common and well-known human activity.
The fifth and last goal of mathematics education is to solve problems. Students should be able to
apply a wide range of mathematical methods and techniques to solve problems. Students should be
handed over a wide range of problems which are different in context, length, complexity,
Suleman, Q., Hussain, I. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 29-40.
31
procedures and methods. Students need to recast unclear problems in a form amenable to analysis,
to select proper strategies for the solution of problems, to recognize and formulate several solutions
when that is appropriate, to work with others in getting agreement on solutions that are effective,
useful as well as logical. For productive and useful citizenship, skills in problem solving are very
important (Sheerazi, 2000).
According to Serieux (2000), the following are the main goals of mathematics education:
To build up the awareness that mathematics is useful and worth learning subject.
To provide mathematical experiences that will facilitate the students to deal with and understand
their surroundings.
To develop skills for mathematical problem-solving.
To promote a sense of achievement in mathematics.
To provide such learning experiences that stimulates interest in mathematics.
To develop the capability to think critically and reason logically.
Objectives of Teaching Mathematics at Secondary School Level
At secondary school level, following are the main objectives of teaching mathematics:
To equip students with the ability to acquire understating of concepts of Mathematics and to use
them for the solution of the problems of the world they live in.
To make up the sound base of the students in mathematics for specialization at higher levels or to
make them able to utilize it in scientific and technical fields.
To enable the students to reason consistently, to draw correct conclusions for given hypotheses; and
to inculcate in them a habit of examining any situation critically and analytically.
To equip the learners with the ability to communicate their thoughts through symbolic expressions
and graphs.
To build up sense of dissimilarity between relevant and irrelevant data.
To provide the students with the basic understanding and awareness of the power of Mathematics
in generalization and abstraction.
To promote the spirit of exploration and discovery in students (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002).
SECTION B
Concept of Tutoring and Tutor
Tutoring refers to the individuals who are not teachers professionally but they assist and
support the learning of others in an in an interactive, purposeful, systematic and efficient way.
Generally it is performed on a one-to-one basis, in a pair. These tutors can be parents; brothers and
sisters; other family members; other learners from the peer groups and a wide range of volunteers. To
assist others in learning, tutors often learn themselves (Topping, 2000). The function of tutoring is to
assist and facilitate learners. Tutors help or facilitate students to become self-sufficient and independent
learners who can perform on their own. The aim of tutoring is to improve the learning of a student in the
classroom or outside the classroom. A tutor facilitates learning for individuals or small groups. Tutors
are also role models for their learners and they possess knowledge and skills and share them with their
learners. They are expected to assist learners in clarification of concepts by using different techniques
and strategies such as evaluating class materials, discussing the text, working on sample problems, and
predicting test questions (Source: http://www.wcupa.edu).
Tutoring is a very old practice. It was commonly practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome and is
recorded in ancient texts even before them. Over the centuries it has gone up and down in popularity,
but it has never gone away. Tutors do not require to be experts in the skill or content they are teaching.
But it is generally better if they know a bit more than as compared to their tutees. However, if tutors are
much more educated and trained than the tutees, they are expected to become bored with the content the
tutee has to learn, and will not gain much themselves (Topping, 2000). Tutoring provides individualized
instruction, customized to learners own way of learning, and an environment in which students progress
at their own speed and receive praise, feedback, and encouragement over what they might receive from
one teacher. Tutoring maximizes time on task, and students see skills demonstrated instead of just
verbalized (Fager, 1996). Atta, et al (2011) conducted a study to know the effects of private home
tuition on educational attainments of students at secondary school level in Dera Ismail Khan (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa) Pakistan and concluded that there is a significant effect of private home tuition on the
educational attainments of 10th class students for rural and urban schools. They concluded that there is a
32

direct relationship between the two variables i.e. more time spent on tuition more will be the
educational attainment.
A private tutor is a private teacher who teaches a specific educational subject or skill to an
individual student or small group of students. This practice enables a student to enhance his knowledge
or skill for more rapidly than in a traditional classroom situation. These private tutors are frequently
appointed and paid by the student, the students family members or an agency. Some of these tutors are
used for remedial students or some are appointed for students who need special attention; many provide
more advanced material for extremely talented and highly motivated students, or in the context of home
schooling. Tutoring also takes place when one adult assists another adult student to study a specific
course or subject that he is taking to get an excellent result. The adult can also let the student work on
his own and can be there if the student has any questions (Free online Wikipedia Encyclopedia).
Trend of home tuition is increasingly adopted in every area of the country especially in urban
areas. In urban areas kidnapping is a common practice therefore majority of the rich parents arrange
tuition for their children at home. In addition, there are various academies and tuitions centers in every
corner of the country to promote quality education. These academies or tuitions centers play a
significant role in raising the achievement level of the students. However, home tuition is more
beneficial and effective as compared to the private tuition which takes place in academies or tuition
centers. Home tuition is safe and student is given special attention individually. Home tutoring is a type
of tutoring that takes place in the home. Tutoring is instruction or receiving guidance by a tutor.
Benefits of Tutoring
According to Ngiam (2010), following are the benefits of private tutoring:
Students get more attention as compared to the regular classroom activities.
Due to the private home tuition, the achievement level can be increased.
With the help of private home tuition, parents can improve the classroom performance of their
children.
Through private home tuition, communication and interaction between students and teachers
ensured. In this way the students can find the answer of each and every question from their tutor.
Due to private home tuition, the participation and involvement of the parents can be ensured in
each and every academic activity of their children. mental Educational Services
According to Goh (2010), as each and every child is different and performs differently at home
and in schools. Some children are very talented and some need extra attention. In order to meet this
competency, private home tuition has become essential for each and every student. A brilliant student
needs private home tuition to compete with other while weak students need it for achieving good marks.
There are a number of benefits of private home tuition for both student and parents. Some of them are
described as under:
Private home tuition causes an additional attention. In traditional classroom system, teachers are
not able to pay their attention individually to each student. In private home tuition, the teachers
provide special attention to the students.
Private home tuition improves learning styles of the students. Private home tuition assists the
students to build confidence and thus they can accelerate their learning process. That is why it can
be rightly said that private home tuition is very important and crucial for the students to explore the
most effective and useful learning styles.
Private home tuition improves academic performance of the students. Sometimes the students feel
difficulty in some tough subjects but due to private home tuition, they are able to concentrate more
attention on those difficult subjects. It is recommended that the students should take full advantage
and try different exercises to improve their performance.
Private home tuition causes personalized relationship. In private home tuition, the students are able
to share their opinions and thoughts and difficulties with their teacher and they feel closer and
inform them about the weaker subjects which are not possible in the regular classroom sessions.
Private home tuition open every communication channel for teachers and students in which they
participate and remove difficulties.
Private home tuition causes parents involvement. In private home tuition, parents are able to keep
track of the performance of their children; also they are able to get involved with the teachers to
observe the progress of their children. Through private home tuition, the parents are being well
informed about each and every activity of their child.
33
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The paper under research was specially designed to explore the effects of private tuition on the
academic achievement of secondary school students in subject of mathematics. Therefore, the statement
of the problem was entitled as Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of Secondary
School Students in Subject of Mathematics in Kohat Division, Pakistan.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study were:
1. to explore the effects of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in the subject of
Mathematics at secondary school level; and
2. to suggest workable recommendations for the enhancement of students academic achievement in
subject of mathematics at secondary school level
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

The following three null hypotheses were developed for the achievement of above mentioned
objectives:
1. There is no significant different between the performance of control & experimental groups on pretest.
2. There is no significant difference between the performance of control & experimental groups on
post-test.
retention test.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Population of the Study
All the secondary school students in Kohat Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan)
constituted the population of the study.
2. Sample & Sampling Technique
Forty students of class 09 of the Government High School Ahmadi Banda Karak were selected
as sample through simple random sampling technique. Sample students were classified into two groups
i.e. control group and experimental group. In each group, 25 students were included.
3. Delimitations of the Study
The study was delimited only to the students of Government High School Ahmadi Banda
Karak. The study was further delimited to the students of 09th class. The study was also delimited to the
following four units in subject of mathematics:
Table 1. Detail of the Units of Mathematics Studied during Experiment

S. No.
1.
2.
Set
Algebraic Expression
S. No
3.
4.
UNITS
Factorization
Matrices
4. Appointment of Teachers for Experimentation

As the study was experimental in nature, therefore, two mathematics teachers having equal
qualifications and teaching experience were selected. Provision of such teachers was a strenuous and
tiring job for the researchers but after great efforts, they succeeded in providing mathematics teachers
with equal teaching experience and qualifications. Both these teachers have been serving in elementary
and secondary education department in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa since 2005. Their qualifications were
M.Sc (Mathematics) and B.Ed.
For the students of experimental group, tuition arrangement was made after school time in
subject of mathematics by the principal researcher himself because he has a vast experience in teaching
of mathematics as he has been teaching mathematics for several years at secondary school level. In this
way, students of experimental group were engaged in tuition for two hours after school time.
34

5. Research Design
Research design is an important stage of a research study. Precise results of a research study
depend upon the effectiveness of research design and instrument. This study was experimental in
nature, therefore, The pre-test-post-test Equivalent Groups Design was carried out. According to this
design, subjects are randomly adjusted to the both groups. Following is the symbolic representation of
the design:
R
R
E
C
=
=
O1
O3
O2
O4
Where
R = Denotes for Randomly selected
E = Denotes for Experimental Group
C = Denotes for Control Group
O = Denotes for Observation or Measurement
T = Denotes for the experimental treatment
6. Instrumentation
The study was experimental type and therefore pre-test and post-test technique was used for
the collection of data. To collect data from both groups i.e. control and experimental groups, a question
paper was made in the four chapters of mathematics and then distributed among the participants of both
groups before the treatment as pr-test. Likewise, another question paper was made and distributed
among the students of both groups after treatment as post-test. These two question papers were used as
a research tool.
7. Data Collection
In order to collect data, the researchers along with other two mathematics teachers
administered a pre-test, post-test and then a retention test to the both groups. For this purpose, question
papers were developed covering the four units of the mathematics. In this way, raw data was collected
by the conduction of both tests.
8. Data Analysis
For the analysis of data, raw scores obtained from tests i.e. pre-test, post-test and retention test
were presented in tabular form. Statistical tools i.e., mean, standard deviation, and differences of means
were calculated for each group. Significance of difference between the mean scores of both the
experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test scores, post test scores and retention test
scores was tested at 0.05 levels by applying t-test.
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of private tuition on the academic
achievement of secondary school students in subject of mathematics. The study was experimental type
and pre-test and post-test technique was used as research instrument. Sample students were classified
into two groups on the basis of pre-test scores i.e., control group and experimental group. Both these
groups were taught by two mathematics teachers. For the students of experimental group, tuition
arrangement was made after school time in subject of mathematics by the principal researcher himself
because he has a vast experience in teaching of mathematics. In this way, students were engaged in
tuition for two hours. This experiment was completed in eight weeks. Then, the researchers along with
two other mathematics teachers administered a post-test immediately to investigate whether students of
experimental group have learnt well as compared to the students of control group. For this purpose the
teachers made question papers covering the four chapters of mathematics which were taught during
treatment for the both groups. After two weeks, the researchers again administered the same post-test
with slight changes in the sequences of the questions as a retention test to the students of both groups. In
this way data was collected and compared. The whole statistical process is explained as under:
Ho 1:
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental

groups on pre-test.
35
Table 2. Significance of difference between the mean scores on pre-test of control and experimental
groups
GROUPS
N
EXPERIMENTAL
25
CONTROL
25
Non-Significant (p>0.05) df = 48
Mean
43.64
43.60
SD
2.68
2.78
SE
t-value
p-value
0.77
0.052
0.96
table value of t at 0.05 = 02.01
Table 2 illustrates that the calculated value of t was found to be 0.052 which is statistically
non-significant as it is less than the critical table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on pretest is accepted. It unambiguously shows that the students of both groups showed equal performance
on pre-test. It was further explained by the followng graph:
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mean
SD
Figure 1. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Pre-Test
Ho 2:
There is no significant difference between the performance of the control and

experimental groups on post-test.
Table 3. Significance of difference between the mean scores on post-test of control group and
experimental group
GROUPS
EXPERIMENTAL
CONTROL
*Significant (p<0.05) df = 48
N
25
25
Mean
91.24
67.60
SD
1.88
3.79
SE
t-value
p-value
00.85
27.94*
0.00
Table 3 depicts that the computed value of t was found to be 27.94 which is statistically
significant as it is greater than the critical table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on posttest is rejected. It clearly indicates that the students of experimental group showed significantly
excellent performance as compared to the students of control group on post-test. It was further clarified
by the following graph:
36

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean
SD
Figure 2. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Post-Test
Ho 3:
There is no significant difference between the performance of control and experimental

groups on retention test.
Table 4. Significance of difference between the mean scores on retention test of control and
experimental groups
GROUPS
N
Mean
SD
SE
t-value
p-value
EXPERIMENTAL
25
86.04
2.51
00.63
33.23*
0.00
CONTROL
25
65.04
1.92
Table 4 indicates that the computed value of t was found to be 33.23 which is statistically
significant as it is greater than the table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that There is
no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on retention test
is rejected. It explicitly depicts that the students of experimental group showed significantly excellent
performance as compared to the students of control group on retention test. It was further clarified by
the following graph:
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean
SD
Figure 3. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Retention Test
37
CONCLUSIONS
After statistical analysis of the data, the researchers arrived at the following conclusions:
1. There is a significant positive effect of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in
subject of mathematics at secondary level. Private tuition is very effective in raising the
achievement level of students in subject of mathematics. Furthermore, tuition was found more
effective in clarifying difficult concepts of students in subject of mathematics.
2. The students of experimental group showed surprising better performance than the students of
control group. Private tuition was found to be more effective and useful because each student was
given special attention by the tutor. In addition, it was also found effective in raising the
motivational level of the students. Retention of the students of experimental group was also found
much better than that of the students of control group.
Concluding Remarks
In nutshell, it was concluded that private tuition has a significant positive effect on the
academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school level.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Keeping in view the above conclusions, the researchers make some recommendations which
are described as under:
1. As private tuition is very effective in raising the achievement level of the students in subject of
mathematics therefore, it is strongly recommended that parents should arrange home tuition for
their children to increase their achievement level in subject of mathematics.
2. Generally mathematics is considered a very difficult and complicated subject as compared to the
other science subjects therefore it is strongly recommended that educated parents should teach their
children at home or arrange private tuition after school time.
3. Homework plays a remarkable role in strengthening and enhancing students academic
performance therefore it is strongly recommended that teachers should assign homework to
students especially in subject to mathematics. In this way students will give time to study at home
to complete their homework. In addition, mathematics teachers are advised to arrange weekly test
to enhance the performance of students in subject of mathematics. In this way, students will be
bound to study at home.
4. Extraordinary involvement in co-curricular activities especially cricket and volleyball badly effects
students academic performance. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that students should not be
allowed for extraordinary involvement in co-curricular activities. Parents can play this role and they
are advised to forbid their children from playing cricket and other games like football, volleyball.
Parents are also advised to pay full attention on their children education at home. They should
develop a time table for their children regarding homework and studies.
5. Majority of our institutions at secondary school level lack of mathematics teachers. In addition,
majority of the in-service mathematics teachers are not competent and possess poor knowledge and
teaching methodologies that is why students show unsatisfactory performance in subject of
mathematics. Therefore it is strongly recommended that competent mathematics teachers should be
appointed through competitive and transparent examination.
6. Appointment of the teachers should be made according to the strength of students so that teachers
may pay proper attention to each student individually. In this way, students academic achievement
in subject of mathematics will be improved.
7. In-service mathematics teachers should be given special training in mathematics and teaching
methodologies to enhance their teaching performance.
Recommendations for Further Studies

1.
2.
3.
38
The researchers make the recommendations for future study which are described as under:
It is recommended that such type of study should be conducted at elementary, higher secondary and
tertiary level.
It is also recommended that such type of study should be conducted in other districts and provinces
of the country as well as in other subjects i.e., English, chemistry, biology, physics etc.
It is also recommended that such type of study should be conducted on female population at
elementary, secondary and higher secondary level.

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40

Zainudin Abu Bakar, Lee Mei Yun, Ng Siew Keow, Tan Hui Li. (2014). Goal-Setting
Learning Principles. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 41-50.
Goal-Setting Learning Principles: A Lesson from

Practitioner
Zainudin Abu Bakar *
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Lee Mei Yun

Ng Siew Keow
Tan Hui Li
Abstract
The concern of the classroom teaching and learning activities has long been attended by many researchers. There
are so much studies on how specific theories and principles able to enhance the effectiveness of the activities. One
of the prominent theory was the goal-setting theory which was widely been used in educational setting. It is an
approach than can enhance the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. Every educator should embark on
this theory by employing its principle in the classroom teaching activities. Regardless of how, when and where it
should be understood as a tool for educators to ensure their teaching and learning activities is effectively executed.
This is a report paper about a simple study of the implementation of the goal-setting principle in the classroom. A
single observation has been carried out for the data collection activity in accordance to the exploration of how the
goal-setting learning principle presence in the teachers classroom teaching and learning activities. One Year 5
classroom from one primary school in Johor Bahru, Malaysia was selected for the observation. A clinical data of
the teaching and learning session was then analysed to address several issues highlighted. It is found that the goalsetting principles if understood clearly by the teachers can enhance the teaching and learning activities. The session
looked more fascinating and active in terms of learning and teaching activities. Students were more motivated than
ever before because the learning was becoming more visible and clear. Failed to see the needs of the session will
revoke the students learning interest. It is suggested that goal-setting learning principles could become a powerful
aid for the teachers in the classroom.
Keywords: Goal-setting learning principle, classroom activities, teaching and learning
Zainudin Abu Bakar, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.

E-mail: p-zain@utm.my
Introduction
Most researchers indicated that goal setting is essential for achievement in learning process
(Anderman, 2011). Additionally, it also encourages students self-improvement in different aspect of
learning as it plays an essential component of decision making which related to the mental processes
that result in selection of appropriate actions to make accomplishment. Therefore, in order to promote
learning in classroom especially students goals of achievement, it is essential for the educators to
understand the concepts of goal setting theory before planning any teaching strategy.
Long-term goal and Short-term goal
Basically, goals have categorised into short-term goal and long-term goal. Short-term goals are
goals to be accomplished within a short period of time. In contrast, long-term goals are the goals that
aimed to be achieved over a long period of time such as years of time. Long-term goals are not specific
as what individuals set for their short-term goals. But, both long-term and short-goals are always related
to each other. In education setting, short term goals are set with the purpose to achieve long term goals.
For instance, students are expected to achieve shortterm goals such as learning different the oral
speaking and written skills on the chapters stated in syllabus in order to master English language.
Santrock (2011) has indicated that it is essential to set and achieve short-term goals to move
towards to long-term accomplishment. Meaning, long-term goals are always depend on individuals
efforts to define and accomplish the goals through setting particular goals efficiently.
The types of motives
There are two different conceptions in explaining achievement motives, which include
motives-as-drives and motives-as-goals. According to the concept of motive-as-drives, motivation is
viewed as a drive, which is an internal state that needed to push someone towards actions to avoid the
situation that their need is unfulfilled (Covington, 2000). Where else for motives-as-goals, motivation
has been viewed as a stimulator in achieving particular goals and as a crucial element in setting and
attaining particular goals in order to facilitate goal-oriented behaviors.
Goal-setting theory
Nowadays, the concept of Goal-Setting theory has been emphasised in educational fields to
make enhancement on students performance in academic. Locke and Latham (2006) explained that
goal is an aim of action that needs to be consciously gained and achieved. It involves the different levels
of goal difficulty, levels of performance, and amount of efforts have been putting in to obtain the
desirable outcomes. Besides, to order to obtain effective performance, some conditions should be met
which including goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance and commitment, and feedback.
There are two main cognitive components of behavior in goal setting theory: values and
intentions (goals). Individuals would create a desire to do certain actions that consistent with their value
(Locke & Latham, 2006). Meanwhile, goal plays a key role in energizes, direct, and eventually affect
particular behaviours. Meaning, individuals would become more energetic, able to develop suitable
strategies, and increase persistent efforts in order to achieve desirable outcomes or behaviors if their
goals are specific and challenging enough. Figure 1 provides a simple look about goal-setting theory.
Satisfaction and Further Motivation
Values
Emotions
and
Desires
Intentions
(Goals)
Directed
Attention
Mobilize
Effort
Persistent
Strategize
Behavior or
Performance
Outcome
Frustration and Lower Motivation

Figure 1. General Model of Goal-Setting Theory
Achievement goal theory

Achievement Goal Theory is emphasized on the impacts of the goals on students performance
in classroom settings (Pintrich, Conley & Kempler, 2003; Was, 2006). In details, the reasons for
42
Goal-Setting Learning Principles
students engage in certain learning tasks or actions and why they desire to achieve are the main
components in studying achievement goal theory. The theory has explained that students academic
performance is directly linked to the varied and complex cognitive strategies that applied by the
students in learning certain knowledge and skills (Covington, 2000).Therefore, it helps the teacher to
understand and influence the reason why students desire to learn and how to motivate students in
learning.
Achievement goal theorists also focused on the significance to decide the types of goals that
are most appropriate for the students, how the selected goals may affect to cognitive strategies and
affective responses that lead to accomplishment (Was, 2006). Based on this goal theory, there are three
main theoretical approaches have been greatly emphasized in academic settings, which are mastery
orientation and performance orientation and work-avoidant goals (Arias, 2004; Seijts et al., 2004; Was,
2006).
Types of goal orientations
Mastery goals are referred to the goals that focus on the learning and mastering the skills in
order to complete the tasks at hand (Seijts et al., 2004). Such goals have been assumed to be the
effective approach which encourage the use of effective meta-cognition and cognitive strategies for the
learning enhancement, increment of self-efficacy, effort, persistence or determination as well as the goal
orientation (Was, 2006).
The effective uses of cognitive strategies in achieving mastery goal involve with rehearsal,
elaboration, and organization or information (Was, 2006). Additionally, meta-cognition strategies are
also applied to plan, monitor, and regulate their cognition.
Mastery goals have been separated into two categories, which are approach orientation and
avoidance orientation (Elliot, 1999). Mastery approach orientation is known as the attempt to complete
the task with the sake of improvement in knowledge. Whereas, mastery avoidance orientation is known
as the avoidance of task due to the sense of incapability in completing the task successfully and the
engagement into tasks that emphasizing the avoidance of mistakes, or diminution of adapted skills.
Additionally, Elliot (1999) also further distinguished the mastery orientation into taskreferential orientation and past- referential orientation. Student with task-referential orientation tend to
measure their own competence according to their completion or understanding on task at hand.
Whereas, past-referential orientated students would apply their reviews on past performance as the
measure of achievement and the scale of new goal setting.
Individuals who have adopted performance goal orientation tend to focus on the outcome,
others comments, feedbacks and views on their performance whereby to prefer tasks which allow them
to demonstrate their capability at the expense of their learning new skills (Seijts et al., 2004).They
would explain their success or failure is due to external factors such as luck, task difficulty or the
uncontrollable or controllable ability (Was, 2006).
There are two categories of performance goal orientation. Performance-approach oriented
individuals would view themselves more capable compared to others and tend to measure themselves
against others in order to prove that they are more capable than others and to gain approval and
recognition hence to enhance their self-esteem (Was, 2006).
However, performance-avoidance oriented persons would view themselves to lack of ability
and avoid showing their low-achievement to the public and they would engage in strategies such as
weak efforts, avoid risks, setting unrealistic goals, and procrastination of works. However, their
negative behaviours are the factors that lead them to failure and they eventually perceive their failure as
the result of low ability and they can no longer avoid failure (Was, 2006).
Work-avoidant orientation has explained the concept where failure is avoided without much
effort and achievement is viewed as the result of little effort (Arias, 2004). Firstly, people will choose
the incentive which requiring least effort from them compared to the one which need to work harder but
giving the same amount of incentive too. Secondly, people will prone to the behaviours will least effort
to obtain a reinforcement compared to other behaviours which more effort is required for obtains of the
same level of reinforcement as well (Was, 2006).
According to Was (2006), work-avoidant oriented students tend to less value on hard work and
do not have the need to demonstrate their competency. They are category of people who most likely to
show procrastination of works and lack of achievement goals. They would apply defensive pessimism
strategies where they would attempt to set extreme low expectation with the purpose of minimizing
their effort, to make sure that they are success in the easy task, and minimize anxiety brought by the
sense of task is not being successful with consequences of burnout (Arias, 2004).
Zainudin Abu Bakar. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 41-50.
43
Five principles of goal-setting

Locke and Latham (1990) have extended the goal theory by listing the five main characteristics
or principles of goal-setting (as cited in Mind Tools, n.d.). For effective motivations, the presented goals
must possess clarity, challenging, the commitment from the achiever, provide constructive feedbacks,
and appropriate task complexity.
I. Clarity- the presented goals should be productive, unambiguous and measurable. Therefore, goals
should be well defined with clear deadline and less misleading information on the expectation of
the achievement. (Johnson, 2012; Mind Tools, n.d.).
II. Challenge- the goals must possess sufficient level of challenge to motivate the individuals to put in
more effort in achieving the goals (Mind Tools, n.d). The extreme low or high of task difficulty will
cause boredom or avoidance of failure while completing the tasks which affect the result of the
goals.
III. Commitment- people will show their commitment if they feel they are part of the achievement. The
most used strategy is to get the individuals to be involved in the planning, setting up the goals and
decision making process (Johnson, 2012). Additionally, there is a linkage between commitment and
task difficulty where individuals who perceive the goal is difficult and challenging would to be
driven and inspired to achieve the goals (Johnson, 2012; Mind Tools, n.d).
IV. Feedback- the contain of the feedback should be focus on the progression checking, figuring out the
current obstacles, proposal of solution and the need of additional resources (Johnson, 2012).
Feedback could serve as a clear benchmark to guide the executors for self-evaluation (Mind Tools,
n.d). The inclusion of praise and appreciation in the feedback process will be served as rewards to
motivate the executors to continue work hard in the task (Johnson, 2012).
V. Task complexity- for the goals with higher level of complexity, have to ensure the individuals do
not feel too overwhelmed (Johnson, 2012). Therefore, sufficient time, training and guidance must
be given to achieve the target (Mind Tools, n.d.).
Classroom goal structure: TARGET system
TARGET system is one of the effective strategies which emphasize on promoting mastery and
performance goals in classroom based on the concept of five principles of goal-setting. In this system,
educators use a student-report measure to assess the salience of mastery and performance goals in the
classroom. Six letters in TARGET word refers to six dimensions respectively include task design (T),
distribution of authority (A), recognition of students (R), grouping arrangements (G), evaluation
practices (E), and time allocation (T).
I. Task design (T) - pupils are encouraged to participate in variety, challenge, organization, and
interest level of learning activities. Therefore, the level of assignments should be within the zone of
proximal development of the pupils where the pupils are able to do complete tasks with guidance.
Through this, the pupils satisfactions exist and hence, they are motivated intrinsically in their
learning.
II. Distributions of authority (A) - pupils are suggested to take responsibility for their own learning, to
make decision, and take leadership role in activities. These help them to develop their sense of
personal control and strengthen their sense of responsibility. This is a key to promote masteryoriented goals. It was imperative to focus students on their current status and experiences.
III. Recognition of pupils (R) - feedback was given on pupils performance in activities or tasks were
progressing. When pupils received the feedback, they will feel that their effort and performance are
appreciated. Because of the paradoxical effects that recognition can have on some students
motivation, interest, and participation, it should be delivered in privacy with specificity and
sincerity.
IV. Grouping arrangements (G) - the types of grouping arrangements in classroom would create
different effects in learning. Students could work individually, in pair, or in small groups.
Educators should use observation on students ability and capability in different areas and then
form groups with mixing different level of students in various areas. It can promote scaffolding in
the group. Additionally, the members in group could observe each others strengths and
weaknesses and then also learn from the high ability students in completing activities or tasks.
V. Evaluation practices (E) - students are able to understand more about themselves, especially on
their level of knowledge in certain subjects through proper evaluations designed within the scope of
the syllabus. When they know their real level of knowledge, they are easier to set the objective
goal. Because of the desire to foster mastery goals, social comparison was avoided among students,
and educators should always remind the class that the evaluation focuses on individual growth and
development.
44
VI. Time allocation (T) - it is essential for students to have sense of ownership in determining the pace
and scheduling of learning activities and assignments. Therefore, the pace of instruction and the
appropriateness of the workload were discussed with students, and accommodations were made
when deemed necessary.
Study Procedure
The study utilises simple action research procedure which intention is to improve and to
enhance the current practices. However, only a single classroom observation has been executed to
collect the data. One Year 5 primary school in Johor Bahru, Malaysia was selected for the observation.
In conducting both activities, consent from the school, especially the teacher and the students has been
acquired prior to the observation. This is done to secure the full cooperation from the school, the teacher
and the students. The observation was conducted purposely to explore how the goal-setting learning
principles is been implemented in the classroom learning and teaching activities. Three types of
classroom activities for enhancing students learning performance in English language were carried out
in that class. It includes the activities of searching past tense verbs, reading sentences, rearranging
words based on structure of sentence and guessing. This classroom teaching aimed to teach students in
differentiation of present and past tenses. At the end of the lesson, the students could able to recognize
past tense verbs and master the usage of grammar of past tense in English. The data was then been
analysed to explore in what circumstances the goal-setting learning principles are relevant to the
classroom teaching and learning activities.
Results and Discussion

Goal setting process
Generally, goal setting is a major part of the successful implementation for teaching
instructions, as well as students learning performance in academic. It can be said as the process of
establishing direction and purpose. Based on the English teacher, the main purpose of setting goals for
her students is to assist them to acquire appropriate learning skills, and also enhance their learning
performance in English subject.
Goal setting involves multi-step process, for instance, teachers should define the students
needs in learning, create specific learning goals for students, prepare and implement effective pedagogy
and classroom activities, monitor students progress, and lastly determine whether the students achieve
the goals. From the observation, the English teacher determined that her students need more practices in
learning English grammar. Then, the teacher created several specific goals for her students by providing
some classroom activities in order to assist her students for better learning in past-tense verbs.
Throughout the activities, the teacher always focused on her students response and performance in
every task in order to ensure whether her students achieved the goals or not.
As we know, goals play important role in motivate students to become more energetic, able to
develop suitable learning style, and then put their persistent efforts in order to achieve specific learning
outcome and performance. Without setting appropriate goals, the drive of motivation of the learners
toward better learning performance will decrease. Setting specific goals act as a motivator in enhancing
students learning performance and also important for the teachers to plan for classroom activities.
Based on the observation, the English teacher executed a well-planned daily lesson by
conducting suitable classroom activities which emphasized on achieving specific student learning
outcomes in English language. The first task is formulating specific goals to help her students in
learning past-tense verbs. Before conducting the planned activities, the teacher identified and set some
appropriate and relevant goals for her students, so that she can assist her students to improve and master
the use of past-tense verbs in English language. To be more specific, the English teacher divided the
goals into two categories: short-term goals and long-term goals. The setting goals have been presented
as below:
Short-term goals:
i. Students are able to recognize past tense verbs.
ii. Students are able to pronounce the words and read the sentences correctly.
iii. Students are able to understand the structure of making sentence.
iv. Students are able to make simple sentence by using past tense verbs.
Long-term goals:
i. Students are able to understand and master the use of past tense verbs in English at the end of the
school semester.
45
ii. Students are able to enhance and master their knowledge of English at the end of the school
semester.
In general, both short-term and long-term goals are significant in the process of goal setting.
Achieving short-term goals is the main step towards long-term goals accomplishment (Santrock, 2011).
Based on the observation, the English teacher broke the short-term goals down into a step-by-step plan
by conducting several classroom activities in order to improve students understanding on the use of
past tense verbs. Each goal that stated above is accompanied by providing some classroom activities for
the students to meet the goals. In specifically, some interesting and appropriate classroom activities
have been provided for the grammar lesson, such as activity of differentiate between present-tense and
past-tense verbs, activity of reading sentence, activity of searching past-tense verbs, activity of making
sentences and so forth. According to the English teacher, the main objective of preparing these learning
activities is to assist and guide her students to improve their various knowledge of learning past tense
verbs (based on the short-term goals above), eventually, her students would have better understanding
on the usage of past tense verbs in order to improve their knowledge of English language (based on the
long-terms goals above).
Types of goal orientation
In addition, according to achievement goal theory, the types of goal orientations adopted by
students would influence the performance and outcome in their learning process (Pintrich, Conley &
Kempler, 2003; Was, 2006). Therefore, the current section of current classroom observation would
explain the students learning performance in the English lesson based on the perspectives of different
goal orientations.
According to Seijts and colleagues (2006), students who engage with mastery goal orientation
would show persistence on higher level difficult tasks in pursuing the goals. For example, to increase
the difficulty of the learning task, the teacher has requested for a student to be a volunteer to read the
sentences stated on the whiteboard independently. Most of the students were reluctant to raise their
hand; however, a student has raised his hand and would like to try to complete the task. The students
action could be due to his learning goal to approach himself to master the independent reading skills.
Most of the students showed reluctance to raise up their hand to be volunteer in engaging the
independent reading task. Such situation could be explained based on the concept of master goal with
avoidance orientation. According Elliot (1999), students with such orientation may have the sense of
incapability to complete the task and tend to engage with task where they can avoid mistakes.
Therefore, they would prefer to read in groups rather than independently.
During the activity of doing revision of past tense verbs, for task-referential oriented students,
they tended to measure their competence according to the completion of the tasks assigned by the
English teacher. Therefore, they would take initiative to engage to the current tasks in the lesson.
Whereas for past-referential orientation students, they might reviews their past performance in previous
lessons on whether they have mastered the understanding on simple past tense before deciding to
engage in new tasks in that current English lesson.
In contrast, students with performance goal orientation tend to focus on the outcome of the
tasks, and emphasized intensively on the feedbacks from others (Was, 2006). During the classroom
activities, there were some students who tended to make comparison on their performance with others.
For example, a female student had volunteered herself to engage with the task by pasting the answer
card onto the sentence structure boxes. She then stood still without returning to her seat and observed
others answers anxiously after she had completed the task. It seemed that she attempted to measure
herself against others who also engaged in the same task. Be more specific, the female student had
adopted the performance-approach orientation in setting her learning goal in that English lesson.
Whereas, there was another female student who reluctant to volunteer herself in engaging the
tasks and even rejected the teacher when the tasks were assigned to her throughout the lesson. Although
she had accepted the task by pasting the answer card onto the correct section of sentence structure, she
seemed to be lost and afraid with her answers until the teacher had provided her the correct answer. This
situation could be explained by the concept of performance-avoidance orientation, which indicated such
student viewed themselves as lack of competency and avoid showing their low-achievement in the
public by weak efforts, avoid risks and procrastination of works (Was, 2006).
In addition, the concept of work-avoidant goal orientation could use to explain the possibility
where the students who do not take initiative to volunteer themselves to complete the tasks that needed
to be done independently, such as reading sentences and went to the whiteboard to paste the word cards
at the appropriate boxes. They would rather prefer to engage in the tasks in group. According to Was
(2006), those students might think that the reinforcements given on every types of tasks were equally
46
same, therefore they were prone to behaviors with least efforts compared to those tasks required more
efforts.
Classroom goal structure
What the teachers plan and implement for their teaching strategies and learning activities for
their students may directly influence the students learning patterns and their motivation level in
learning. Through this classroom observation, we can look at how the teacher created different goal
structure in her classroom, which is based on TARGET system. The examples of instructional practices
that would potentially emphasize on a mastery/ learning goal structure have been explained more detail
in the following part.
The first and most important characteristic in setting goal is clarity. At the beginning of this
teaching classroom, the English teacher has explained clearly to her students on the topic she aimed for
teaching. Therefore, students would have a clear picture about what they were going to learn during that
period, and also, what they have to pay attention on. It is one of the ways that enable her students feel
motivated in completing following activities or tasks. During the teaching lesson, we observed that most
of the students could answer teachers question correctly. Therefore, it might show that instruction is
necessary to be delivered clearly if teacher wants to help students to achieve goals successfully. Based
on Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006), students can only achieve learning goals if they understand those
goals, assume some ownership of them, and can assess progress. After received the clear information
from teacher, the students have a clear idea about what they are going to learn and their interest was
stimulated, too. Hence, their selective attention was able to be activated during the whole teaching
activity was going on. If it happened, they tend to seek the understanding of the pattern of past tense
words or sentences.
In the observed teaching classroom, the teacher prepared and implemented three different types
of activities to engage her students in enhancing their knowledge of past tense. So, various and
interesting tasks or activities have been designed in motivate her students. It is because students engage
in different types of classroom activities may stimulate their interests in learning, and also kept
continuing until they achieve the goals successfully. Furthermore, it encourages the students to apply
the knowledge in the various activities and also avoids them from learning the knowledge passively.
From observation, most of the students were able to identify past tense words in sentences and then
proceed to complete the following activities successfully. Seemingly, the activities which were designed
based on the goals that are set by the teacher suited to her students learning ability.
Moreover, in this observed teaching classroom, the difficulty level of activity increased
gradually from one to another. When students are able to perform well in the first particular activity,
their self-esteem is motivated. Thus, they tended to be willing to put more effort or attention in
engaging themselves in the following activities in order to maintain their well performance in these
activities. By using these activities, teacher provided positive learning environment and is easier to
guide her pupils in gaining the designated knowledge and achieving the goals. It lead students learn the
knowledge in correct path when they participated the activities with their teachers guidance.
As mentioned in TARGET system, students are motivated when they participate in various,
challenging learning activities which are suitable to their interest level. By implementing the three types
of teaching activities, students might be motivated to learn how to differentiate past tense and present
tense. In the observation classroom, not all the students looked interested in participating in the
activities. For example, when teacher asked some questions, some of the students are looked down and
seem like being afraid to be chosen to answer questions. While, some of the pupils looked felt bored.
These might be caused by several reasons. Maybe the difficulty level of the activities is low for the
students who showed the feeling of bored. That means they already have such knowledge in their mind
and they were able to find the answer quickly. Locke and Latham (1990) assert that challenging goals
cause people to work longer on a task and they who work on easier goals are expected to complete their
goals sooner, simply because they have nothing more to do. In another reason of having the feeling of
bored, they just do not be interested of learning English.
Second, the students who are afraid to be chosen might have low self-esteem in completing the
activities. Such students feel rejected which dangerously affects the performance of the students in the
process of education (Supple, 2000). The students who have low self-esteem think themselves as failure
and do not want to show their incapability in front of their classmate. They did not focus attentively to
the activities. In the beginning stage, the students were passive in responding to the questions but after
the teachers encouragement and motivation, the students started to show their participations in the
lesson. However, not many students are passive in the teaching lesson. Majority of students looked
excited and put up their hand voluntarily to answer teachers questions or complete the given task. It
helps students achieve the goal which is set by the teacher. The combination of passive learners and
47
active learners is normal phenomenon that could be seen in every classroom because there are nearly
forty students in a classroom and their learning ability is different with each other.
Besides this, recognition of students is also important in implementing goal-setting theory in
the classroom. Latham (2004) has mentioned that students need feedback on their progress toward the
goal because feedback enables them to adjust the level or direction of their effort and the strategy
necessary for goal attainment. In the observation classroom, teacher praised her students or gave
encouragement orally, such as good, excellent, when they gave correct answers and gave some
suggestions to guide her students when they were failed to answer the questions. This is very important
because it enhances students self-esteem and led them to achieve the goal successfully. This is
supported by Labuhn and his partners findings (2010) which indicated that students who received
feedback from their teachers were more likely to accurately use strategies to achieve their goal which is
improving their mathematics scores.
For group arrangement, the students were not grouped instead they were given the
opportunities to show their understandings by putting up their hands voluntarily. They were given
opportunities to give their response to the questions and take part in every task in the activities. It is
suitable in testing their understanding on the basic knowledge of grammar of past tense. Nonetheless,
two-way feedback and discussion toward the tasks have been provided in order to create more
cooperative learning environment. Through these methods, teachers would be more understand about
her students level of learning in English subject. As a result, the evaluation about students progress
toward past tense learning can be done through applying these teaching strategies.
Concluding Remarks
It is good and encouraged for the teachers to set appropriate classroom goals in teaching
English grammar before classroom activities are conducted. Setting goals is greatly recommended in
classroom settings, because it can intrinsically motivate the students in learning English. It also creates a
continuous improvement classroom setting that benefit to both teachers and students. From the observed
teaching classroom, the English teacher set a list of concrete and achievable goals for her students and
then guides her students to engage in the activities in purpose of accomplishing the short-term and longterm goals. In the session of teaching grammar of past tense, the teacher selected several specific and
challenging classroom goals for her students in order to enhance their capacity in mastering the use of
past tense verbs. The teacher also considered with the learning ability of each student when setting the
classroom goals.
Besides, a goal without a measure is unsuccessful. So, the English teacher prepared her
teaching strategic plan and carried out several learning tasks and activities in order to assist her students
accomplish the classroom goals. The teacher has been found in focusing on helping and guiding her
students to accomplish every task in the activities that match to the goals. So every student would be
benefit with scaffolding and then mastering the tasks, especially for the less competent students. From
observation, most students in the classroom were in the zone of proximal development for successfully
complete the task that given by teacher. For instance, most students able to answer correctly for
searching the past tense verbs from the sentences, but only few students needed more scaffolding to
complete in this task.
Furthermore, the English teacher also makes sure that all her students were able to proceed to
another tasks or activities after the previous task is completed. As noted above, the short-term goals
must be achieve by the students with guidance step by step towards long-term goals accomplishment.
When the assistance was given, motivation would be stimulated which would lead the students to
achieve the classroom goals as well as their personal goals.
According to goal theory, the goal serves as a stimulator to motivate and direct the learners
towards desired learning behavior and then put their efforts to sustain that behavior. From the observed
classroom activities, the endeavor of the teacher has been seen in assisting and guiding her students to
better understanding in the grammar of past tense verbs, and also, among the students who also put their
great efforts in participating the classroom activities to enhance their own capacity in using past tense
verbs in English subject. In simple, if we do not have any specific goals, our efforts towards better
learning will not be focused.
Regardless of what level goal setting is taking place, goals should be set based on the
TARGET principle. In this case, the English teacher developed a list of goals that are specific, concrete,
understandable, challenging and so forth. Depending on the situation, the classroom goals should be
suited to the learning level of every student, and then the teacher can select more appropriate teaching
strategies and classroom activities to motivate the students in learning English.
48
Although setting classroom goals are highly motivate students intrinsically in learning and
making improvement towards academic achievement, extrinsic motivation also should be greatly
emphasized. Beside creating classroom goals for the students (as intrinsic motivation), the English
teacher also provided some teaching strategies that consist of extrinsic motivation, such as encouraged
her students engage in the learning activities, gave positive feedback and praise students who were able
to complete the tasks, and also provide for scaffolding of corrective feedback. Besides, the use of
computer projector in teaching English also can create the sense of curiosity of the students, so they
would pay full attention for taking part in the lesson. From what we observed, most students were
enjoying participate in the classroom activities and also volunteered themselves to answer the questions
with guidance. For the students who were able to complete the task, the teacher praise them (such as
you are clever, thats good) and the students seem become more energetic in participate actively in the
following activities.
Last but not least, the English teacher was able to set appropriate classroom goals for her
students and provided various types of activities for her students to learn English grammar. But, the
teacher has been suggested to guide her students to set their own learning goals in more concrete form,
especially for the less competent students. It is because they may lack of skills in setting their own goals
without guidance if compared to more competent students. For example, the English teacher can
provide more guidance by giving some cue (such as key words) or develop a simple action plan to assist
the less competent students to set short, clear and understandable learning goals. Combining both
classroom goals and students personal goals are highly motivated the students in better learning and
academic achievement, as well as create a more effective classroom environment.
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50
Mahsa Kazempour. (2014). The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs,

Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 51-64.
The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs,

Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy: A Case Study of a Pre-Service
Teacher with Positive Science Attitude and High Science
Teaching Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour *
Penn State University-Berks Campus, United States
Abstract
This qualitative case study aimed to focus on the experiences and subsequent science and science teaching beliefs,
attitudes, and self-efficacy of an elementary pre-service teacher, Heather, with extremely positive attitude and high
self-efficacy. For this particular population of pre-service teachers, possessing a high science teaching self-efficacy
alone is not sufficient to assume reform-based beliefs and teaching practices. This study was unique in that it
concurrently explored the relationship between attitude, beliefs, and self-efficacy before and after the course.
Initially, Heathers attitude and self-efficacy with respect to science and science teaching were closely interrelated
and a product of her own intrinsic interest in science and her unique K-12 experiences. Her beliefs appeared to have
been shaped by both her actual science experiences and what she had witnessed in the classrooms. Heathers course
experiences shaped her post beliefs about science and science teaching, which consequently altered her attitude and
confidence.
Keywords: Teacher Education, Science Education, Beliefs, Self-Efficacy, Attitude, Pre-Service Teachers
Mahsa Kazempour, Science Education, Penn State University-Berks Campus, United States
email: muk30@psu.edu
Introduction
Inquiry has been at the heart of science education reform initiatives (NRC, 1996; 2012; NSTA,
2002) and research during the past several decades. Engaging students in scientific inquiry practices,
which include a number of social, epistemic, and cognitive tasks (Duschl, 2008), such as posing and
refining questions, making observations, discussing data, and writing about data (Grandy & Duschl,
2007), is grounds for developing a scientific literate student population. Inquiry-based learning is
advocated for the continuum of K-16 science education, with special emphasis on the elementary
grades, which serve as the foundation for strong secondary and post-secondary science education (NRC,
1996; NSTA, 2002). Early science experiences have been identified as critical for the development of
learners scientific knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes that will carry on into their adult life as
citizens in an increasingly science and technology dependent world (King, Shumow, & Lietz, 2001).
Yet, we continue to witness that in the elementary grades science is either absent, receives
limited attention, or is taught using approaches not aligned with reform efforts (Appleton & Kindt,
2002; Fulp, 2002; Weiss, Banilower, McMahon & Smith, 2001). This begs the question: why have
reform efforts and continuous research focused on enhancing science teaching practices, and therefore
learners science experiences, not been successful in enhancing the quantity and, perhaps more
importantly, the quality of science education, in particular at the elementary level? The response to this
question is multifaceted; however, it has been argued that this phenomenon has been due, in part, to
reform efforts lack of recognition that instructional practices are influenced by a complex set of belief
systems, prior knowledge, epistemologies, attitude, knowledge, and skills and have failed to
conceptualize reform as situated within this complex system (Jones & Carter, 2007, p. 1087). Focusing
on teachers cognitive and affective features will be essential in producing long lasting positive change
in science education.
Furthermore, although research on the impact of teacher professional development, at the preand in-service levels, certainly exist, they focus on overall pictures of change rather than directing
attention to specific individual teachers personal shifts in beliefs, attitude, and sense of comfort with
science (Author, in review; Loughran, 2007). This study aims to focus on the experiences and
subsequent science and science teaching beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy of an elementary preservice teacher (PST) with extremely positive attitude and high self-efficacy. In particular, I was
interested in exploring possible (a) reasons for the initial high self-efficacy and positive attitude, (b)
impact of her prior sciences experiences on her initial epistemological beliefs, (c) relationships between
the three constructs (both before and after the course), and (d) changes in the three domains, if any,
experienced as a result of the course.
Theoretical Framework
Reform documents such as the National Science Education Standards (1996) or the most
recent A Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC, 2012) call for inquiry-based teaching in the
classrooms where students are involved in scientific practices such as posing questions, exploring ideas,
making observations and collecting data, communicating data, and formulating ideas based on their
data. There is an emphasis on students active engagement in their learning, exploration of concepts,
developing science skills, and applying their knowledge (NSTA, 2002). Consequently, the reforms have
also concurrently focused on teachers who are seen as the key to the success of reforms. Elementary
teachers role in impacting young students scientific knowledge and attitude toward the subject is
undisputable (Rennie, Goodrum, & Hacking, 2001), so it is critical to examine the underlying factors
shaping their teaching practices.
The Sociocultural Model of Embedded Belief Systems, developed by Jones & Carter (2007),
serves as a basis for framing recent research on science teacher attitudes and beliefs and as a tool for
understanding the construction and development of beliefs and attitudes (p.1074). The model suggests
that teachers epistemological beliefs (beliefs about science, students, and science teaching and
learning), attitude toward, and sense of self-efficacy with regard to science and science teaching
together influence and are in turn shaped by teachers instructional practices. Teachers epistemological
beliefs, which have been shaped by their prior formal and informal science experiences (Appleton,
2006), consequently influence their teaching practices and may serve as an impediment to the
implementation of reform-based curricula (Brickhouse, 1990; Munby et al., 2000; Tobin & McRobbie,
1996;). Hence, it is imperative for teacher educators to consider PSTs prior educational beliefs and
experiences and adapt their teaching to facilitate PSTs experiences.
Similarly, teachers attitudes toward science have been shown to affect their teaching practices
(Siegel & Ranney, 2003). Consequently, students learning experiences, attitude toward science, and
achievement in science, are all impacted by teachers instructional practices, beliefs, as well as attitudes
52
The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy
(positive or negative) toward science and teaching science (Bittner & Pajares, 2006; Simpson & Oliver,
1990). Elementary teachers negative science attitudes have been attributed mainly to their prior K-12
science experiences (Appleton, 2006; Mullholland & Wallace, 1996). Their negative past experiences
with science, and subsequent negative attitude toward science and science teaching may serve as a
major obstacle in their teaching of science or doing so effectively.
Finally, teachers science self-efficacy, which is interchangeably referred to in the literature as
confidence or comfort with science and science teaching, simply relates to the belief that one has the
ability to effectively teach science and that their students can indeed learn science (Ramey-Gassert,
Shroyer, & Staver, 1996). Prior research have indicated that teachers with low perceived science
teaching self-efficacy do not feel comfortable about their ability to practice or teach science and find
little interest in doing so. Therefore, they may resort to avoiding science or do so utilizing ineffective
approaches that are contradictory to the reforms. Conversely, teachers with high self-efficacy, have
been shown to be more inclined to teach science and apply reform-based strategies in the classroom
(Avery & Meyer, 2012; Hechter, 2011).
Teacher education reform movements have focused on improving PST education in an effort to
instigate changes in elementary teachers cognitive and affective domains and consequently their
instructional practices (Supovitz & Turner, 2000). Instigating changes in teaching practices in the
elementary grades entails a radical shift in elementary teachers attitudes, beliefs, and confidence that
should be a central focus of PST professional development (Haney, Czerniak, Lumpe, 1996; Moore,
2008). A review of prior research indicates that teacher education programs, particularly the science
methods courses, have the potential to lead to appropriate beliefs, increased confidence levels, and
positive attitude with regard to science and science teaching (Avery & Meyer, 2012; Bleicher &
Lindgren, 2005; Morrell & Caroll, 2003), which in turn, have been shown to lead to more effective and
reform-based instructional practices (Moore, 2008).
The research on these three domains has been predominantly focused on secondary teachers or
in-service elementary teachers (e.g. Beck, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 2000; King et al., 2001; Luft, 2001;
Simmons et al., 1999; Tobin & McRobbie, 1996). Studies on elementary PSTs are far fewer. Those
focusing on elementary PSTs beliefs tend to be descriptions of their existing beliefs, rather than factors
that have shaped their beliefs, changes they may experience during science methods or other teacher
education components, or the relationship of their beliefs (pre or post) with the two constructs of
attitude and self-efficacy. The studies dealing with PSTs attitude and self-efficacy utilize quantitative
methods and instruments to measure current trends or pre-post changes within whole classes or
programs, without focusing on individuals, and exploring personal shifts in their attitudes and selfefficacy. Furthermore, as evident in the previous sections, studies examining the interrelationship
between the three constructs are not readily available. Instead, most studies focus on the constructs
independently or examine the relationship between two constructs (e.g. beliefs and attitude or beliefs
and self-efficacy).
Finally, the literature mainly alludes to the low self-efficacy and negative attitudes of
elementary PSTs, but it is also necessary to focus research effort into understanding PSTs who enter
teacher education programs with positive attitude and high self-efficacy with regard to science and
science teaching. In so doing, key questions with regard to this population could be explored in order to
better recognize the underlying dynamics that may serve as lessons for K-12, as well as, post secondary
science and teacher education. For instance, are this groups initial positive attitudes and elevated sense
of comfort with science due to their prior science education experiences or are there other factors
involved? Prior research indicates that teachers with high self-efficacy tend to have beliefs that are more
aligned with reforms, but to what extent could this be assumed about PSTs who have not yet completed
teacher education programs? What, if any, impact, could a reform-based science methods course have
on their beliefs and even their attitude and self-efficacy? And what is the relationship between the three
constructs of beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy both before and after the completion of such a course?
The current case study attempts to address these questions.
Methodology
This case study is part of a larger multi-case study that took place in a science methods course
for elementary education majors at a large Midwestern university. It focuses specifically on one case, a
PST who entered the course with high self-efficacy and positive attitude toward science and science
teaching. The participant was purposefully selected based on her scores on the Science Teaching
Efficacy Beliefs Instrument for PSTs, STEBI-B (Bleicher, 2004; Enochs & Riggs, 1990) and the
Revised Science Attitude Scale for PSTs (Bittner, 1994; Thompson & Shrigley, 1986) that were
administered during the first class session as well as initial qualitative data sources described in the data
collection section. A case study approach was considered most appropriate in exploring (a) possible
Mahsa Kazempour. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 51-64.
53
reasons for this PSTs initial high self-efficacy and positive attitude, (b) possible impact of her prior
sciences experiences on her initial epistemological beliefs, (c) possible relationship between the three
constructs, and (d) changes in the three domains, if any, experienced as a result of the course. A case
study approach allowed for rich, in-depth analysis of the aforementioned items through focusing mainly
on the participants reflections, interview statements, and other artifacts (Keeves, 1998).
Course Context
The case study participant was part of a cohort of elementary PSTs simultaneously enrolled in
science methods, mathematics methods, and field observation experience and seminar. Prior to enrolling
in the science methods course, students, a majority of whom were second or third year students, were
required to enroll in an introductory science content course. Depending on where they were in the
program, students may have had already taken or were concurrently enrolled in one or two additional
science content courses required for the completion of the program. The science methods course was
taught based on the social constructivist perspective. PSTs were immersed in inquiry-based learning and
discussions that enabled them to reflect on their prior experiences and beliefs and individually and
collaboratively construct a new understanding of science and science teaching.
Data Collection and Analysis
A series of data sources was analyzed to develop an in-depth understanding of the participant
and explore patterns and themes within the data. The two quantitative instruments served dual purposes:
to initially identify the case and gauge changes in her attitude and self-efficacy by the end of the course.
The qualitative data included (a) student artifacts such as bi-weekly reflections, pre/post science
autobiography, and pre/post drawings and descriptions of scientists and science classrooms, (b) pre/post
semi-structured interviews to further probe their initial and post experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and selfefficacy and the interrelationship between them, and (c) videotaped course observations and daily logs.
The various data sources were simultaneously analyzed using the constant comparative method
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to identify recurrent patterns and emerging themes within the data (Bogden &
Biklen, 1992) and resulted in a rich description of the case. An outside reviewer was asked to review
portions of the data and corroborate the emerging themes. Finally, the full analysis of the data was
followed with member checking by the participant to ensure an accurate portrayal of her experiences
and affective and cognitive features.
Results & Discussions

Heathers Path to Teaching
Heather was a senior in the elementary education program who was set to graduate the
semester following the elementary science methods course. Her area of concentration within the
program was health and science. During her first two years at the university she had majored in biology
as a pre-Med student and made the decision to transfer to the elementary education program during her
third year. Prior to enrolling in the elementary science methods course she had enrolled in the physics
and biology course required for elementary education majors as well as six biology and chemistry
courses she had completed during here first two years.
Contrary to her peers in the course, Heather had not have any desire to become a teacher early
in life. Because of her high interest in science, she had always thought about becoming a doctor, but
during the third year in college her plans began to change as she became increasingly interested in
teaching as a result of her involvement in a series of summer and after schools programs that enabled
her to have increased interactions with children. She initially considered teaching high school biology,
especially AP biology, considering her strong science background; however, her participation in the
youth soccer camp convinced her to pursue teaching younger students at the elementary level so that
she could work with children and help them with gaining skills and knowledge and encourage them to
pursue their own dreams. Her preference was to work with K-3 grade levels, particularly second
graders whom she had worked with in camp. The only perceived disadvantage to teaching this grade,
she explained, would be their science ability. For example, she discussed how she loved to teach her
students about biological topics such as plants and animals, but felt that it would be difficult to do at
this age. Instead she felt she could concentrate on guiding their interest in science which will be a
great tradeoff.
Heathers Prior Science Experiences, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy
Table 1 summarizes Heathers initial scores on the attitude toward science instrument, which
were the highest in the class.
54
Table 1. Heathers Initial Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers
Scores
Class Average
Revised Attitude Toward Science Scale: Total Score

Revised Attitude Toward Science Scale: Mean Score
Self-rating of interest toward science (1-5 scale)
STEBI-B Total Score
STEBI-B Mean Score
Self-rating of confidence: science (1-5 scale)
Self-rating of confidence: science teaching (1-5 scale)
Heathers early reflection assignment and interview suggested that her interest in science and
passion and fascination with making discoveries about the world had blossomed beginning early in
her childhood, prior to entering a formal school setting and persisted into her adulthood.
As a child I was always outside messing around in the dirt. I liked to catch bugs and put them
in a jar and watch them interacting with other insects. I now know that I was studying them and
observing their characteristics. This fascination continued when I started school and has not let up yet.
She described her past experiences with science as positive: I have always felt the ability and
desire to try new things with science and experiment the outcomes of thoughts or ideas I have had.
Her interest in learning and being involved in science appeared to have been intrinsic in nature rather
than shaped by her K-12 science education experience or other external factors. Conversely, Heather
actually explained that because her attitude toward science was positive to begin with, she enjoyed
school science regardless of the circumstances or the type of instruction. She excelled in her grade
school and high school science courses, including honors chemistry, honors biology, and AP biology,
but made no mention of classroom instructional approaches or teacher attributes that contributed to her
success in these classes. Instead, she discussed how her rural school teachers willingness to allow her
to do independent research and pursue her own questions, rather than following the class activities that
she found little or no interest in, had further enabled her success, positive attitude, and sense of
confidence.
My elementary science experience didnt influence my interest. Up until high school I was
forced into the science classes I didnt want to take. I never really learned what the teacher told me to
learn to be honest with you. I went in my own direction and looked up whatever I wanted to. Below is
her description of her independent science experiences during the elementary grades.
I grew up loving nature and being outdoors. When I got into grade school I found the human
body to be so interesting I could not learn enough about it. I also remember the first time I learned about
cells and we were making cell models. I made a tall cake and cut out a piece, showing the inside of the
cake/cell. She also discussed her involvement with science fair projects all through grade school and
high school and her excitement about such projects.
I made a telegraph one year and taught Morse Code with it to my peers. I also did a
demonstration with liquid nitrogen. I froze a banana and later ate it showing the effects of liquid
nitrogen. I really enjoyed doing these projects. She provided an example of independent research she
embarked upon during her high school honors biology course and how that, along with other similar
experiences, provided further boost in her sense of confidence and attitude toward science.
We were dissecting cats when I found a mass in the abdomen. I was curious so I took a biopsy
and looked at it under the microscope to determine how the cells had formed. It looked like nothing I
had ever seen before and I was able to determine that it was a tumor originating off the liver. I was
really proud that I was able to determine that information and it was then that I officially thought of
myself as a successful science student.
Heather had felt comfortable asking science related questions and seeking answers to these
questions through independent research and experimentation. She indicated that she always felt that
science came easy to her and was confident in her abilities to understand scientific concepts and be
active in research. The fun and success she had with experiences, such as with the dissection example
above, allowed her to view herself as a successful science learner. Heathers interest and success in
science learning continued onto college where she enrolled in a series of science courses as a science
major and enjoyed all of her experiences. She rated her interest and confidence toward science the
highest rating of ten and explained science has always been my favorite subject because I have fun
doing experiments and finding out information and I am quite capable of doing so.
55
Her attitude and confidence toward teaching science, as reflected by the scores on the
quantitative instruments and her own self-ratings, were also remarkably far above the class average and
the highest among the group. Even as she abandoned the idea of pursuing science as a career, her
positive attitude toward learning science continued to shape her interest in teaching science. She
expressed a desire to pass on her passion for science to young students so that they would also find
excitement in this subject. She described how her interest and strong sense of ability with respect to
science made it her favorite subject to teach.
I have decided I want to get children as excited about science as I was. I hope by doing this
they will fall in love with something they have never experienced before. I have not really taught
anything before but I would assume that my favorite will be science just like my personal learning
preferences. I like to teach science best because I know more about it than any other subject. I feel
confident about the subject matter and feel like I might be someone who can help a child learn to love
science. Heather explained that although due to her lack of prior teaching experience, she felt
unprepared at that moment to teach elementary students, she felt she could easily teach science with a
little preparation and given a curriculum to teach from because I know a lot about science and have
done it so much.
Heathers Initial Epistemological Beliefs
The analysis of the data pertaining to Heathers beliefs about science and science teaching,
revealed interesting findings and insight about her epistemological beliefs and the role of her prior
science experiences in shaping her beliefs.
Beliefs about science
Heather described science as the study of all living matter and learning the explanation to
everything that surrounds us. While it is a broad definition the word is hard to narrow down to
specifics. Her concentration on living organisms may have simply been due to her own interest and
prior pursuit of biology as a major and career path. In her drawing of a scientist, she depicted a woman
wearing a lab coat and dark glasses with a ponytail, who was holding a magnifying glass and observing
something on the table. She added that scientists do their work by laying out a plan of action and
testing various questions. She highlighted the importance of making predictions and using a trial and
error method in order to make conclusions about a question. She also stressed the empirical nature of
science, science is based on observation and empirical evidence and the testability of scientific
questions. Finally she added that conclusions made in science must also be based on provable
concepts.
Surprisingly when asked to compare school science with science as practiced by scientists,
Heather referred to school science as what she normally witnessed in classrooms throughout her K-12
education, rather than what she herself was involved with in terms of independent research. She felt
there was a definite difference between the two types of sciences. Scientists, she argued, use available
information to produce new information that is then taught in classroom science. She viewed classroom
science as children learning through the textbook information that has already been discovered and
felt that it was necessary for children to learn the basics of science before they can do any testing of
their own. She described an element of teaching the concepts, and students learning the basis of
science before they can confirm what is being taught and what scientists have discovered.
She argued that school science in its reliance on textbook and direct didactic teaching is similar
to other school subjects. Its distinction from other subjects, she explained, lies in the occasional handson nature of school science. She also alluded to the changing nature of science, which sets it different
from other school subjects, such as history, which usually remain unchanged. Finally, she explained
that science depends on a set process, the scientific method, which she explained contains
components, such as the use of performing experiments to test a theory or a hypothesis one has about
something, that are absent in other subjects.
Beliefs about teaching and learning
In her initial drawing of a science classroom, Heather depicted a teacher in the front of the
class and next to a desk with a board behind it with the words Science Experiment inscribed on it.
There were also five tables of four arranged in one row across the class. She described the picture in
this way:
I am teaching students new material and allowing them to do an experiment to learn more
about the material. I believe children need to work in groups and learn from one another in order to
make school fun and interesting for them and to learn the necessary content. Heathers beliefs about
teaching and learning, as reflected in this task and other data, revolved around two central ideas: focus
56
on content mastery and increasing students interest in science. She reflected on her own childhood
experiences and expressed a yearning to pass on her desire for learning science and overall interest in
school to her students. She stressed the importance of encouraging students to become more interested
in science and not fear the subject. She wanted to be able to express some of her own interest for
science and enable the students to learn science concepts while also having fun and enjoying their
experiences, because I know kids are really interested and then it kind of dies down. To maximize
student interest and confidence in science she focused on the classroom environment and making it
comfortable and fun, mainly through what she referred to as a hands-on approach.
In doing so, she wanted students to be involved in the process of science, enjoy it, and embark
on further science learning. Heather had been allowed to research and explore topics that were of
interest to her during her K-12 education and she felt that this would be an effective means of
encouraging more students to do science and learn the content.
Children learn science by making hypothesis and exploring things. They learn by touching
things, taking them apart and exploring the possible reasons why it would work the way it does.
Therefore, I want my children to learn science through doing. She further explained, science is not
always thought of as being as important subject, so I plan on using many different activities to help
students understand the material. I am a strong believer of learning science through demonstrations and
hands-on learning.
However, on numerous occasions, Heather suggested conflicting comments about her idea of
fun and hands-on teaching. She made it clear that these investigations and hands-on learning activities
would be more teacher directed with the teacher having a central and dominating role in the
classroom. The hands-on activities were meant to be an added component to simply make the learning
environment positive and fun for the students. The teachers role would be to direct the learning
process by teaching the content and then preparing the students for the hands-on experiences.
I would hope to give my students all they need to test their scientific theories and experiment
until they find the results and draw accurate conclusions. I would show examples and to help the
children understand what theyre looking for and just keep giving them hints and keep them interested
and keep going further.
In discussing her beliefs about teaching and learning, Heather seemed to simultaneously draw
upon both the traditional classrooms she had witnessed and the independent research and activities she
had herself been involved with. Her beliefs were a mixture of the two experiences. She had elements of
the traditional classroom with the teacher directing students learning and providing all the necessary
content and procedures and the students simply passively learning. The hands-on element, which she
had personally experienced on several occasions, was simply a way to make students learning more fun
and meaningful even though it was merely done to confirm the content material taught by the teacher
or read in the book. In looking more closely at her descriptions of her own prior experiences, it seems
that even some of those may have been independent research that had involved searching in books and
asking adults, and doing step by step science investigations as in some of her science fair experiences.
Heathers beliefs about hands-on learning in a teacher-centered classroom were also reflected
in her continuous focus on content mastery. She placed great emphasis on students mastering the
appropriate content material and curriculum for each grade level in order to be able to proceed to the
next grade level. She also emphasized preparing students to be able to apply their learning to real life
problems and develop appropriate reasoning skills. She explained that the teachers role was to ensure
students would learn the necessary content by teaching them the basics of science, doing
demonstrations, and allowing students to do experiments to enhance their learning of the subject.
Heathers Post Epistemological Beliefs, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy
The analysis of the post data indicated changes in Heathers beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy
and alluded to interrelationships among her course experiences and these domains.
Beliefs about Science
Heathers definition of science became more specific at the end of the semester. She described
science as constant questioning and a way of life and explained, science is everywhere, in the book
youre reading, the computer youre using, the soda you just drank, and the oxygen you need for
survival. She utilized her own personal interest for life sciences and the study of living organism as an
example to illustrate how science is about curiosity and questioning about the world around us.
I find the most interesting topic in science to be living organisms. When I hear about
something occurring in the world I often think about what is happening to the environment around it.
That may seem to be a bit nerdy however, every organism from the one-cell organism to humans
fascinate me. In my opinion if you are a person who loves science you are always questioning what is
57
occurring around you. Her post scientist drawing also supported this view. She explained that her
drawing of a female figure with no glasses or lab coat was meant to show that anyone can be a
scientist, even me! She also depicted an outside nature scene, rather than a laboratory, where the
scientist seemed to be using a magnifying glass to observe something in the grass. She indicated that the
course had helped her realize that science is more about inquiry rather than hands-on activities.
Beliefs about Teaching and Learning
Changes that had occurred with respect to Heathers beliefs about science had in turn
influenced her beliefs about teaching and learning science. Because she now understood the centrality
of inquiry in scientific work, she had also shifted to thinking that learning science should move beyond
simple hands-on learning and involve scientific processes and practices.
I have always considered science to be a hands-on learning process. However, being in this
class has showed me that there is much more to science than taking part in hands-on activities. This
class has showed me that science involves thinking, predicting, inferring, applying, explaining, and
elaborating, all along with hands-on activities.
Consequently, she only viewed school science and science as practiced by scientists different
only in terms of the scale and scope of their practice. She explained that if students are engaged in
inquiry science learning, they are involved in the same processes as scientists.
We witnessed a great example of this in the video we watched with the male teacher working
with his students. They were acting like mini-scientists in conducting their unit about plants and
growing them in the classroom. They took an inquiry-based approach in acting like scientists. They
developed questions and predictions, tested their theories, made observations, and explained their
findings. This is much like what a scientist does when working on solving a problem or explaining a
phenomenon.
She then explained that the way science is sometimes taught in schools and the way she
experienced it in her own K-12 education, are limited and do not fully and accurately reflect science,
because while they allow for testing and research, it is only to confirm an existing knowledge. This is in
reference to her own experiences of sometimes doing independent work that simply involved searching
the literature or doing hands-on experiments using set procedures.
I think that while school students are testing and researching things that scientists have already
tested and found the answer to, students are doing this science to reinforce what is already known.
While this may not always be the case it has been true for my science experience. For instance, I
created aspirin in chemistry one year, but I was only able to synthesize this material because I had
researched how to make it according to other scientists and was simply following a given protocol.
By the end of the course, Heather remarked: I was never aware of inquiry teaching before. I
only knew of hands-on learning but now I know that its only part of the story. With inquiry teaching I
can be a more effective teacher. She discussed how inquiry teaching involves students in more than
just a hands-on experience. Students are able to explore and investigate having a larger role in the
creation of the question or procedure to investigate. They would also be involved in critical thinking and
the analyses of evidence that are primarily absent in simple confirmation activities. Her idea about the
place and role of exploration in any lesson or unit also dramatically changed: First I thought it was
more like direct teaching and then they could run wild and observe and do all that stuff, but now its
more like letting them observe first and then discuss it afterwards. This new understanding was
reflected in her post drawing of a science classroom in which she depicted five tables of four students in
the middle of the class each serving as a station with various organisms and science equipments at each.
I love biology so I plan on having tons of animals in my class basically so the kids can explore
them and enjoy. So I thought Id have fish and a bunny or a hamster or something simple. And then
have microscopes set up for some cells. And then have maybe another animal or an unknown animal
that they have to classify. I would have plants by the window that they can grow and watch as they are
growing. This would allow for constant and long term observations and explorations of things most kids
find interesting.
One type of inquiry teaching approach that was emphasized in class was the 5E learning cycle
model. Heather explained during her final interview and portfolio that she found the learning cycle to be
a very effective method of employing inquiry teaching in the classroom. Whereas she had previously
only considered hands-on activities as a critical part of science learning, she had since realized that there
are other components that she had initially ignored. The learning cycle was mentioned at the end of the
semester by Heather as a model that enables students to not only explore but also be engaged, involved
in discussions, apply their knowledge, and be evaluated and assessed throughout the entire process.
This course and my experience teaching science this semester incorporated the entire cycle of
engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. I found in applying this in
58
constructing my lesson plans and final unit to be very effective in promoting and stimulating students
learning. The learning cycle reinforced the knowledge students were taking in and allowed for engaging
them in the lesson. The elaboration allowed them to apply and further extend any information we had
discussed. It proved to be very effective. Students were building the necessary connections.
She reiterated the importance of using the inquiry approach and her own special interest in
utilizing the learning cycle model in order to promote the best environment possible for students to
learn and achieve their fullest potential. She continued:
I want my students to discover things for themselves and hope to provide them with all the
necessary tools and motivation in reaching this goal. I hope to incorporate the learning cycle with all
of my lessons, science and otherwise. The various stages ensure that the teacher is supporting students
and allowing them to take an active role in the learning process. I want my students to actively take part
in their learning.
Changes in her beliefs about learning had also led to modifications in her views of her roles as
a teacher. Rather than thinking of herself as a director of students learning, she had come to view
herself as a facilitator instead. She explained how as a future teacher she would assist her students in
becoming successful learners in the science classroom by allowing the children to ask questions,
research and explore the question, and find their own answers. She continued: While this may not be
possible at all times I would like to have my students work through problems and try to find solutions.
She further explained how the students would be actively involved in each stage of the learning process
with her serving as a facilitator of their learning. She no longer viewed herself as the source of
information and director of learning.
By allowing the students to essentially be engaged, explore, discuss their learning, and so forth
in an interactive environment, I believe they will become more interested, gain knowledge they find
interesting, sort through problems inside and outside of class, and they will take more ownership of the
material. My role would be to engage them, ask questions to drive their explorations and discussions,
evaluate their learning and modify plans when necessary, and to create that learning environment to
enrich their learning.
She discussed, extensively, the significance of assessing students learning as part of her role
as the facilitator. Her ideas for assessment included formative and summative assessment strategies that
would encourage student reflection, enhance their learning, and provide her deeper insight into their
learning and learning difficulties.
I hope to use science journals to assess where the students are in their understanding. I think
by looking through their journals regularly and having them give presentations on the material they
collected I will be able to gauge their understanding. I plan to use reflections, journals, projects,
portfolios, and other creative methods that I have learned about to assess my students knowledge.
Heather described the importance of making the classroom a safe and comfortable
environment where students feel comfortable in voicing their opinions, feelings, and questions and
confident in taking an active role in the classroom. She wanted to create a supportive, collaborative
learning environment within the classroom that would foster not only the learning of content, but also
important life lessons such as learning to work collaboratively with others. Heather continued to stress
the significance of increasing students interest and confidence in science. The teachers role, she
explained, was to make the science learning experience an active and interesting process for students, so
they leave with a more positive attitude toward it. Furthermore, Heather emphasized the importance of
preparing students to be comfortable with and yearning to continuously question and explore on their
own.
I want them to use inquiry in my classroom and become comfortable with it. I want them to
develop a desire to explore things from a scientific inquiry perspective, to ask questions, to test things,
to make inferences, and develop their skills as a scientific learner. I want them to know that sometimes
experiments and things involved in science dont always go as planned, but its ok to keep trying.
Finally, having developed a more well-rounded understanding of science and science teaching,
Heather also suggested integrating science and other school subjects in an effort to ensure allocating
class time to science, which often tends to be ignored in the hype to prepare students in mathematics
and literacy. The idea of integration had been a major component of the course and Heather had clearly
become an advocate of the idea of integrating science with other subjects while at the same time
acknowledging the distinction in the foci of these disciplines.
I believe all subjects can be linked. In the case of science, you can apply your math skills
when working with formulas or measuring out quantities. Language arts can be incorporated when
writing reflections, taking notes, or performing research. Literature is applied when reading on a topic
or performing research. These are just a few examples showing how the various disciplines can all be
linked together, specifically with science.
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Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers experiences in the course had allowed her to view science and science teaching in a
different light. These experiences and changes in her beliefs produced noticeable changes in her attitude
and self-efficacy even though that was not apparent from her STEBI-B and Revised Attitude Toward
Science scores, which remained virtually, unchanged (Table 2).
Table 2. Heathers Post Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers
Scores
Class Average

STEBI-B Total Score
STEBI-B Mean Score
Her scores and self-ratings had already been high in the beginning of the semester, thus it was
difficult, as she explained, to raise them any further. Although not reflected in her scores, Heather
repeatedly described how her attitude and self-efficacy, in particular toward teaching science, had
indeed changed. Heathers attitude toward science had peaked even more and had she had become
more determined in her passion about science as a result of the immersive and reflective nature of the
course. The same held true for her attitude toward teaching science. Science remained her favorite
subject to teach and she was even more resolute in her determination to teach science to the best of her
abilities so to raise young childrens enthusiasm for the subject. She added that her learning experiences
in the methods course and the opportunity to develop inquiry-based lessons and observe the positive
impacts on the children during the field experience had been instrumental in further augmenting her
positive attitude toward teaching science.
I love watching students explore in an attempt to understand what is taking place. I enjoy the
use of inquiry in a science lesson and find myself learning just as much about my students as they learn
about a particular aspect of science. Observing the interactions and hearing the comments made by my
students, this semester especially, has showed me how some students think and rationalize as they learn.
My interest in teaching science had certainly increased even more than before the course.
Heathers confidence toward science remained high at the end of the course. She explained how she was
further convinced and confident of her abilities in learning science and participating in scientific
inquiry. Interestingly, her rating of her confidence in teaching science at the end of the semester was an
8.5 on a 1-10 scale. Her responses on the post interview and final teaching portfolio were quite
revealing. Upon reflecting on her experiences throughout the semester, Heather indicated having
initially overestimated her confidence in teaching science. She suggested that one reason for this
overestimation was her lack of understanding about what teaching science should actually entail. She
also explained how she had inaccurately equated her strength and ability in learning science to an
equivalent strength and ability in teaching the subject. She alluded to her newly gained understanding of
effective science instructional approaches and childrens learning.
I know that I have the ability to learn science no matter what area of science; I have been able
to teach myself many scientific ideas and know that I will be able to continue to do so in the years to
come. Teaching science is a different topic though. I had indicated earlier that I thought I was very
prepared; however, I now realize that was not entirely true. When I first started this class I thought
teaching children science would be a piece of cake, but I have learned that this is not the case. Through
this class I have learned so many things I was unaware of before and things that are necessary in
effective science teaching. I learned, among other things, how to organize my lesson plans, what type of
questions were best to ask, and how to lead activities that focus on inquiry learning. I had assumed that
my interests would transfer over to the students, but I learned in this class that while my fascination
with science might help students it would not necessarily always make them love science or be
successful in it.
The course had taught her more about herself. She realized that although possessing and
displaying a positive attitude and sense of confidence toward learning science are essential in teaching
science and increasing students interest in the subject; they are not sufficient. She added that she would
60
use her strength in learning science and her positive attitude toward the subject to help her students
learn the subject more effectively, but would now be able to employ many of the numerous valuable
teaching tools in order to make her teaching more successful.
Heather was also quick to mention that despite her high confidence rating she had realized that she has
more to learn and her confidence level could be augmented even further with more time and practice.
I rated myself at an 8.5 because I know that I have many things to learn before I become a
great teacher. I will also need to learn that just because I think a topic is easy to learn my students
might not feel the same. Until I have learned to teach students in a manner they understand I will still
be striving for my best. Teaching is going to take years to become great at. I will make mistakes. My
only hope is that I will learn from them and walk away from them with a greater understanding of what
it means to be a teacher.
The Influence of Course Components on the Domains
Heather identified a number of course components that were influential in shaping her beliefs,
attitude, and self-efficacy with regard to science and science teaching (Table 3).
Table 3. Influential Course Components and Impact on Three Domains

Course
Components
Immersion in
inquiry-based
learning
Collaborative
Learning
Readings and
Videos about
Science Teaching
Journal Reflections
Developing and
Teaching
Instructional Units
Sample Excerpt
I must say that the activities we did in class served as the most memorable and beneficial for
me. One particular experiment I can remember occurred very early on in the year. We were
all in separate groups and rotated around every so often as there was a different activity at
each station. The thing I really enjoyed about this was that we were put in the roles of our
future students. I loved how we used scientific inquiry and demonstrated how students will
use this to work through an experiment. For each station, many of the group members would
come up with different interpretations of what could be done with the given materials. In
some way, this stressed to me how the mind of each child is different. This is why it is
important to make science learning a personal learning experience.
We were able to talk about topics we did not understand, how lessons went, or anything else
we were having difficultly with. Through my peers I understood the concepts, gained
confidence and learned that I was not the only one struggling through a lesson or a class, and
in some way it made me feel okay about not being on top of everything. This also benefited
my attitude, because it made me realize that I was going to school to learn and was not
expected to have all the answers and that it was okay to have a lesson go badly. All of my
experiences in the course were part of becoming a better teacher.
From these readings I have found that children learn science best through inquiry. By
allowing the children to ask their own questions and try to find the answer gives them more
ownership over what they are doing and leads to greater involvement and a feeling of
achievement. We also read how different organizations, whether it was the NSTA or a
similar organization, discussed and promoted the use of inquiry in the classroom.
We witnessed directly how inquiry stimulated students thinking. The teacher was not telling
them what to think or how to think. The students were evolving and coming up with the
appropriate concepts and responses all on their own. The students in these videos were
teaching themselves, each other, and the teacher. I watched as students took a project and
made it their own. They seemed to have learned more material than they would have if the
teacher was standing at the front and telling them what to do and ask. I have learned that in
order to get students excited about science I need to take more of a backseat and observe
how they use questions to find answers and facilitate their inquiry.
Im not a big fan of writing but I mean they made me go back over what we had learned, so
they did helped, especially at the end when I went over to see what I thought and how my
ideas had changed. I became a believer in requiring written reflections. I was never quite
sold on writing in Science Journals until I experienced the understanding I developed by
reflecting on my own experiences. Without reflection, our lives can become a series of doing
and getting done. To develop understanding, we need to think about what we did and what it
means to us or what we learned from it.
I attempted to use inquiry in my lessons, allowing my students to explore in a static
electricity activity. I found my students teaching me new ways to approach static electricity
with the balloon activity. I simply gave them a balloon and aluminum can to explore. The
students successfully explained what was occurring and how you could move the aluminum
can with the help of the balloon and the static electricity that resulted. It was a wonderful
experience and I feel the students were learning a great deal as well as teaching me.
Immersion in inquiry-based learning
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The course engaged students in first-hand experience of science inquiry by immersing them in
the process of active exploration of concepts and construction of new knowledge. The active
engagement not only allowed her to participate and think from a students perspective, but to also
reflect on them from a teachers point of view. Through such experiences she was further convinced of
the importance inquiry-based learning in which students actively explore and discuss ideas. Heather
also found this immersive experience effective in influencing her science and science teaching attitude,
confidence, and beliefs.
Collaborative Learning
Heather viewed her peers and collaborative teamwork as imperative to her learning and
development as a teacher. She discussed the importance of her peers in helping her gain further
confidence with science. She explained how collaboration had allowed her to think everything through
together and also to see everyone struggling and learning in the process. She expressed similar ideas
about the benefits of collaborating with her peers during the development of their mini units, which
enabled her to understand that science isnt just about light bulbs and ice cubes, it is about working
together and using one an others ideas to work through problems. She also found the class discussions
quite beneficial in learning about other peoples ideas and experiences. The presentations and the
microteaching allowed her to become familiar with other peoples ideas and lessons as well as effective
classroom management or questioning techniques that some may have employed in their lessons that
were missing in others. She was able to adopt and incorporate some of these effective ideas into her
own unit or remember them for the future.
Readings and videos of classroom teaching
Heather found the course readings and videos valuable components of the course. She
mentioned the case studies as particularly useful in allowing her to analyze a classroom situation and
become more aware of the significance of constantly reflecting on ones teaching. Furthermore, the
readings, some of which included practitioner articles, further convinced Heather of the importance of
inquiry-based science teaching, especially as advocated by major science education organizations and
reforms.
Heather explained how the series of videos they watched depicting inquiry-centered science
classrooms had played a major role in convincing her of the effectiveness of the approach as a tool to
teach science, because she was able to see its effectiveness in an actual classroom.
Journal reflections
Heather described herself as one who was not too interested in writing journals, because of her
lack of interest and comfort with writing. However, even though she started the semester with minimal
interest in doing the reflections, she grew to like them and especially realized its value in evaluating her
growth over the span of the semester. She also found that it was a useful tool in communicating
concerns and questions and receiving feedback and suggestions from the instructor.
Developing and teaching instructional units
Heather discussed the effectiveness of the learning cycle as a model which would allow her to
include many important components of inquiry learning such as engaging students interest, gauging
their prior knowledge, allowing them the opportunity to explore, discussion of their observations or
concepts, application of their understanding to new scenarios, and the ongoing evaluation of students
learning. Heather also discussed the importance of creating the unit plans and the discussion and peer
critiquing that accompanied it. She was fond of the coherent nature of the science lessons that were
created as a unit rather than as separate lessons. The experience of teaching in the field had also
informed her of the importance of planning ahead but also being flexible enough to adapt to the
situation and change plans if necessary. She described how teaching her inquiry-based mini-unit during
field experience had allowed her to witness her students learning from the lesson and exploring and
discussing points she had not anticipated. Heather also discussed the importance of receiving feedback
from the instructor and her peers during the presentation of the mini-units and the final portfolio units.
Conclusion
This qualitative case study revealed a number of themes with respect to Heathers experiences,
beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy, both prior to and upon completion of the course. In doing so, it not
only shed light on our understanding of this particular population of PSTs, but also allowed for certain
assertions about teacher beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy, to be examined and further scrutinized.
Prior research links positive attitude and self-efficacy to positive school science experiences and other
62
external factors. However, this case study suggests that there may be some PSTs, such as Heather,
whose interest about science may be more intrinsic in nature, although being given the opportunity to
continue asking questions and researching on her own, rather than simply following her classrooms
activities helped keep Heather motivated, interested, and confident.
An interesting theme, which has not been addressed in prior research on pre-service teachers
science teaching self-efficacy, emerged in this study. Heather had initially attributed her high
confidence in teaching science to her high confidence in learning science and high interest and positive
attitude toward science. By the end of the course, Heather had recognized that she had initially
overestimated her confidence level in teaching science because she had felt that if she were confident
with learning science she was equally confident with teaching it. Throughout the course, she had
realized her lack of understanding and weaknesses in teaching science and learned that possessing a
positive attitude is not sufficient to be able to teach science. Had only a quantitative approach been
utilized in the form of surveys and self-reports, such insight into Heathers thinking and changing
attitude and self-efficacy as a result of the course would not have been possible.
A number of studies have indicated a link between in-service teachers self-efficacy and
teaching practices. However, Heathers case study suggests that, this may not necessarily be true in the
case of PSTs who have little or no prior teacher preparation or experience. With this population,
possessing a high science teaching self-efficacy alone, as was the case with Heather early in the
semester, is not sufficient to assume reform-based beliefs and teaching practices. It must be understood
that possessing positive attitude toward science or its teaching may lead to more science instruction but
not necessarily effective science teaching. Prospective teachers who may have positive attitude toward
science may simply do more science in their classrooms, as has been suggested by prior studies,
however, their beliefs about teaching and learning science may be not aligned with reform philosophy
and they may actually utilize ineffective teaching methods. In some situations, individuals could have a
high science teaching self-efficacy because they have either (a) had positive prior science learning
experience, (b) a high science learning self-efficacy, (c) positive attitude toward learning science, and/or
(d) positive prior experiences teaching or working with children that make them believe they can also
effectively teach science. However, as witnessed in the case of Heather, this high sense of self-efficacy
might not always translate into effective teaching or reform-based beliefs if PSTs have not had prior
experiences or training to help shape their beliefs and practices.
This underscores the importance of not simply clumping all PSTs into one large group when
exploring changes in their affective and cognitive features. Each individual PST enters the program with
various prior experiences and beliefs that will influence their self-efficacy and attitude and any changes
they undergo throughout various programs or courses. We should make the effort to understand what
prior experiences PSTs have had, what types of experiences they have as part of the course, the types of
changes they go through, and the various factors that might influence them differently.
Furthermore, prior studies have often focused on these three domains separately or at best
examined the relationship between any two of these features. This study was unique in that it
concurrently explored the relationship between the constructs before and after the course. Initially,
Heathers attitude toward science and science teaching as well as her self-efficacy toward science and
science teaching were closely interrelated and a product of her own intrinsic interest in science and the
types of experiences she was able to have during K-12. Her epistemological beliefs appeared to have
been shaped by both her actual science experiences and what she had witnessed in the classrooms. This
resulted in a concoction of ideas about science and science teaching, which were either not aligned with
or indicative of an incomplete understanding of what is involved in learning and teaching science. At
the end of the course, Heathers experiences had shaped her beliefs about science and science teaching,
which consequently altered her own internal ideas about her attitude and confidence with regard to
science and science teaching.
Finally, the results of this study, stress the importance of focusing our research and practice on
all three domains concurrently. It is essential to recognize that three constructs do not operate in
isolation and should not dealt with in isolation. They are interlinked and influence one another and
ultimately PSTs science teaching practices; therefore, attempts to imporve one without focusing on the
other features will not result in enduring changes in practice. As educators, understanding the
interrelationship between all three domains and PSTs prior, as well as, course experiences will be an
essential component in our success in improving our students affective and cognitive features and their
consequent teaching practices.
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64
Nahadi, Wiwi Siswaningsih, Farida Sarimaya. (2014). Profiles Junior high School
West Java in Education Learning Environment. Journal of Education and Learning.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 65-70.
Profiles Junior high School West Java in Education

Learning Environment
Nahadi *
Indonesia University of Education
Wiwi Siswaningsih **
Farida Sarimaya ***

Abstract
Descriptive studies have been conducted on the existing junior high profile in West Java on Education Learning
Environment. The study was conducted by purposive sampling and descriptive done to get an idea about the profile
of SMP in West Java implementation of the learning environment. in junior high school in West Java. Research
conducted by distributing questionnaires, and observations based on the indicators developed. Based on this
research, it is known that, PLH learning in junior high school in West Java has been in force since 2007 after the
enactment of the Governor of West Java on environmental education for junior high school students in West Java.
Learning that lasts generally implemented in conventional teacher, and it is without any innovations. It has made
learning the essential condition runs well, but has not lasted optimally.
Keywords: Profile of Learning, PLH, West Java
Nahadi, Indonesia University of Education

E-mail: hadinahadi@yahoo.co.id
**
Wiwi Siswaningsih, Indonesia University of Education
***
Farida Sarimaya, Indonesia University of Education.

E-mail: saripudinupi@yahoo.com
Introduction
The issue concerns the environmental crisis has indeed been predicted since the postulat
Malthus that population's ability to grow in quantity is greater than the ability of natural resources to
provide food as a basic human needs. According to him, can be mathematically explained that
population growth will follow a geometric progression, while the growth of food follows arithmetically
(Todaro, 1995). In turn, natural resources can no longer support human needs, so that when it is a
tragedy of hunger, malnutrition, disease, natural disasters, etc., that could lead to prolonged suffering.
This prediction is supported by the results of the study Meadow et.al. (1972) showed that if the
consumption and abuse of human impact on natural resources in line with the exponential line, the
quality of the human environment will decrease drastically. Furthermore, that will be the Day of
Resurrection (dooms day) due to the exponential growth of the use of natural resources and
environmental degradation, environmental pollution, population growth, and the growth of food
production. The results of other studies with respect to environmental degradation proposed by Chiras
(1995) that analyzes the environmental damage stems from the nature of humans as biological
imperialism where he needs to eat and breed, regardless of the limited natural resources to provide the
necessities of life for himself and his descendants. The accumulation of this nature form a mental view
that man was created to dominate nature and existence of nature itself is unlimited. This view is further
gives color to human behavior in the use of the environment, so the damage as noted above occur
inevitably.
Thus, the environmental problems that arise can not be solved by purely technical, but more
important is to change the mental breakdown and awareness of environmental management. Although
it's a long process, and the results can not be seen immediately as well as technical solutions, but
breaking through the coaching change behavior toward more responsible environmental management is
a very strategic thing to do. This is a challenge for the development of environmental education to be
able to contribute to the formation of responsible behavior towards the environment.
However, dissatisfaction will study Environmental Education (PLH) appears when the learning
process does not support the development of reasoning power and creativity of children, and the
creation of a learning environment that is boring and uninteresting. How teachers in the delivery of less
oriented thinking level of students, and also the tendency that the learning process PLH using a
monotonous lecture method is another factor. Meanwhile, growth in the direction of creative thinking
will evolve if students always gain stimuli through learning to support the development process of
creative thinking (creative thinking), giving stock skills for life (life skills), and create a fun learning
environment (joyful learning). PLH learning conducted in West Java as development toward
responsible behavior towards the environment has not been planned and implemented in conducive and
fun, so that students have the motivation and interest to learn more.
Learning PLH in West Java

PLH is a field of study that studies unity with all things space, power, and circumstances of life
including human beings and behavior that affect the continuity of life and well-being of humans and
other living things. Philosophically, the environment itself is with respect to the earth's surface as a
reference, and any human activities (Stapp & Swan, 1974:59). Because the earth is the starting point in
a variety of human activities, the concept of environment can be classified as follows:
1. Earth as a closed system that obtain energy from the sun, have the water resources, air, and land
with a limited supply of human well-being, the capacity of natural systems and cycles, and has a
material or raw materials are limited.
2. Biosfera which includes living beings and inanimate objects.
3. Humans who have an important role in interacting with the natural environment.
4. Economic and technologies that contribute to human welfare and the environment and
sustainability.
5. Environmental policies that can determine in environmental management.
In his study, Environmental Management in West Java integrated in various fields of study that
studied the relationship between body and environment to live with the terms. This includes fields of
study science, social studies, orchestra, and language. Multiple disciplines is considered within a scope
and a broad perspective and intertwined. Basically, PLH is a forum for an interdisciplinary approach in
addressing issues regarding the particular human environment and living organisms in general. In
reviewing PLH, pressure aimed primarily to reunite all the sciences related to environmental issues into
categories related to variable energy, matter, space, time and diversity.
Learning objectives PLH itself is fostering increased knowledge, awareness, attitudes, values
and behavior of environmental responsibility. The behavior in this case is directly related to the
66
intention to act (intention to act) (Orams, 1994). However, prior to the determination to act, there are
several factors, namely: (1) the readiness to act, (2) knowledge of action strategies, (3) knowledge on
the issue, and (4 personality factors crate attitudes, locus of control, and individual responsibility. task
of teachers in the learning PLH is apart form the student to have a positive intention to act on the
environment, as well as providing conditions conducive to behavior in accordance with the intentions
earlier. This is due, to reach towards environmental sustainability, intentions alone are not enough
without behavioral support.
Approaches to Learning Approach PLH

In accordance with the purpose of learning PLH, then effective learning should use a variety of
approaches that can be fun and attract the attention of students. Its main purpose is to help students to
learn to be happy, so learning that is fun and not a burden. To help students widely used mnemonic
memory with a few symbols, songs, and poems into mnemonics. For example, adding the days in a
month with a jingle 'September, April, June and November has 30 days, the remaining 31 days, except
for February which had 28 days are exceptions to leap years, we need to add one more day. " Similarly,
in studying the names of the planets in the solar system with the mnemonic 'MOVE MY SUN' where M
is Mercury, O discarded, Venus V, E (Earth) Earth and so on (= ff.). Pluto should be added at the end.
In addition, students are invited to better help solve the problem rather than just listening. They
will learn more about the concept of PLH if they are actively involved in the experiment, talk about it,
think about it and apply it to the real world around them. Keep in mind that new scientific principles
will not be found by sitting in a classroom alone, but examined in a laboratory to experiment and be
actively engaged in learning. In addition, learning is an ongoing process, so that learning activities
should be developed based on the order in which each experience developed by previous learning
processes. If the PLH learning through joyful leaning approach to achieve the goal, then you should
consider several factors as follows:
1. Meaningfulness; understanding will increase if new information ideas and knowledge that has been
mastered by the students. In particular, the terms and concepts are often difficult to understand.
Pemhaman needs to be explored through the experiences of students themselves.
2. Strengthening; consists of repetition by the teacher and student training. Repetition and practice can
overcome the forgotten. In a joyful approach to learning, reinforcement is to be aware of.
3. Feedback; learning is effective when students receive quickly on the results of the learning task.
Simple feedback, for example, correction of students answers to the teacher during the lesson, or
correction of student work.
Several models of learning that can support the Joyful Learning approach include:
1. Discussion
Discussion has great significance in developing understanding. This is due to discussions bring
their students to use the concepts learned and turn it into a form of expression that is fun for
students. Discussions are fun to be fulfilled denagan (a) Grouping the meaning of terms and
statements, (b) Establish a shared understanding within a group, (c) Sharing of knowledge and
experience, (d) help students understand new information, (e) Identify the various opinions and
view, and (f) To cooperate in solving problems
2. Guided Inquiry Guided Inquiry learning is relevant PLH, while fun are also opportunities for
students to examine what they have learned and apply it to the real world. Guided investigations
can be done in various forms, which are to find out about the water cycle for example or figure out
the aspects that cause the water to become polluted, and so on. Guided Inquiry will be effective if
the following series of steps: (a) students choose or are given topic that needs to be investigated or
researched, (b) collect the information they need, (c) analyze the information they have collected,
and (d) present a report findings of these investigations can be shaped in a class presentation, a
series of pictures, diagrams and graphs wall, or written reports.
3. Model IODE IODE term is an acronym for the English language intake (Reception), Organization
(Settings), Demonstration (Demonstration), and Expression (Disclosure). The fourth letter indicates
that there are four types of student activities in sequence learning. The model is a natural way of
learning in acquiring new knowledge in the field of study and fun enough students. For example, in
learning PLH is the topic of climate disruption effects of El Nino which has led to widespread
drought, crop failures and forest fires in Indonesia. The application of learning in the classroom is
as follow:
a. Acceptance (intake) Listening lesson information, view photos, maps and images showing the
effects of El Nino, reading newspapers, magazines and books, listen to radio reports and
watching TV reports about El Nino, interviewing farmers whose crops have been damaged by
El Nino.
Nahadi, Wiwi S., Farida S. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 65-70.
67
b.
Settings (Organize) Mapping of the areas affected by El Nino, the report of the farmers
affected by drought, prepare charts and tables showing the losses due to the loss of agricultural
production and losses due to forest fires, combine the newspaper reports about the decline in
the number of forest due to fire forest and so on.
c. Demonstration (demonstrate) Explain how El Nino forms, illustrates the world regions affected
by the El Nino effect, and summarizes the influence of El Nino on rice production, loss of
forest, forest loss and death of animals and so on.
d. Disclosure (Express) Make a diagram illustrating the effects of El Nino, as well as presenting
talks in class about El Nino. Or also wrote a poem that describes the feelings of a drought
affected farmers and write stories about forest fires and so on.
4. Problem Solving Model
This model can be used in Joyful Learning approach because it can attract students to solve
environmental problems in the neighborhood. Such as, why floods, cholera outbreaks why, why the
forest is important to human life, and so on. In this problem-solving model, the stages in solving
problems vary according to the issue in question, but in general these stages can be sorted as
follow:
a. Problem Identification stage is recognition of existing problems or issues around students. In
this case, students can be involved to raise issues they see and feel
b. Issues Survey Considerations about different perspectives and aspects related to the issue in
order to improve the understanding of the problem.
c. Problem Definition Defining the problem properly will help children to resolve the problem.
d. Focus issue size issues need to be considered to understand because it will affect how the
settlement will be done; teachers have an important role in helping students to lead a major
issue.
e. Analysis of Factors Contributing to. The causes must be sought once the problem has been
identified and specified size. Therefore, we need to develop students' understanding of the
problem itself.
f. Solving problems as it attempts to resolve the problems often cause other problems. Students
in this case should be included.
5. Group Work Through group work the students are given the opportunity to set goals, propose and
investigate, explain the concept, and discuss the issue. Cooperation students can stimulate their
minds to share ideas. Being part of a group will foster a sense of belonging, mutual respect, and
responsibility. Attitudes and behavior as well as open-mindedness, responsibility, cooperation, and
attention to others can also be developed. That's all important features of effective group behavior.
Good teamwork requires careful preparation and use only:
a. For activities that have clear goals and that can be done better by a group rather than by
individuals.
b. For activities in which all members of the group in question can be given useful tasks to be
performed.
c. If all members of the group have the necessary skills to perform the tasks that have been given
to them.
These skills need time to be developed and practiced continuously. The following suggestions
may be useful when starting with a class group work, namely:
a. Begin group work slowly. Keep relevant groups remain small, probably no more than 5-8
children.
b. Pilihiah task is simple, concise and well defined, and may be completed successfully by the
group.
c. Pick up a leader and a recorder for the group or command that concerned children up. Explain
the responsibility-responsibility leader, registrar and other members.
d. Give students the material resources they need to complete the task in question (when they are
more experienced, they can collect their own resources).
e. Use some time with each group at the beginning and end of each work period. Give them some
help and advice on how they are to do their jobs and how to report back to the class about what
they are doing. Make sure that the group report to the whole class is really concise and
interesting.
Conclusion
Learning approaches have become PLH PLH learning strategies that support the development
of creative thinking and menciptaan enjoyable learning atmosphere. With the expected learning models
68
produced innovations that can be fun and exciting perhation student, the student is expected to feel good
and happy (enjoy) in following pelajaran PLH. Furthermore, students can develop their creativity in
developing the knowledge, attitudes, values and responsible behavior towards the environment. Thus,
PLH learning in school to achieve the target in accordance with the objectives to be achieved.
References
Bloom, B. S. 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives: Book I Cognitive domains. N.Y.: Longman
Inc.
Chiras, Daniel D. 1991. Environmental science: Action for a sustainable future. California: The
Benjamin / Cummings Pub. Co. Inc.
Fien, John. 1993. Education for the environment: critical curriculum and environmental education
theorisim, Victoria: Deakin Univ. Press.
Fishbein, Martin & Apen, leek. , 1975. Befief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to
theory and research MA: Addison-Wesley.
Good, Thomas L. & Brophy, Jere E. 1990. Educational psychology. N.Y.: Longman.
Hungerford, transmitted by & Volk, Trudi L. "Leaner Changing behavior through
environmental education". The Journal of Environmental Education Vol. 21. p. 3.1990.
Joyce, Bruce., Weil, Marsha., And Showers, Beverly. 1992. Models of teaching. London: Allyn and
Bacon.
Mark Orams. "Creative enterpretation effective for managing interaction between tourist and wildlife".
Australian Journal of Environmental Education 10. pp 21 to 34.1994.
Meadow, Dennis L. et.al. 1972. The limits to growth. N.Y: The American Library.
Soerjani, Mohamad. 1997. Development and the environment: Pursue the idea and
implementation of sustainable development. Jakarta: IPPL.
Swan, James A & Stapp, William B. 1974. Environmental education: Strategies toward a more liveble
futures, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
69
70
Qomaruddin M, Rahman A.A, Iahad N.A. (2014). User Acceptance Test of

Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT).
Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) 71-77.
User Acceptance Test of Computer-Assisted ProblemBased Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT)

Muhammad Qomaruddin*
Universitas Islam Sultan Agung, Indonesia
Azizah Abdul Rahman**

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Noorminshah A.Iahad***
Abstrak
Pembelajaran Berbasis masalah (PBL) merupakan metode desain instruksional yang digunakan oleh banyak
dosen untuk membuat pengalaman belajar lebih efisien dan bermakna. PBL menekankan dosen untuk
memfasilitasi pembelajaran kolaboratif. Mereka secara konvensional memainkan peran kecil dalam proses
penilaian secara formal. Peer-assessment dan self-assessment adalah metode yang paling sering digunakan oleh
dosen dalam penilaian di PBL. Makalah ini menyajikan penerimaan pengujian terhadap alat berbasis komputer
untuk peer-assessment dan self-assessment dalam metode pendekatan PBL, yang disebut Alat bantu Komputer
untuk Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah (CAPBLAT). Dimana alat ini dirancang untuk membantu dosen
melakukan pengajaran dengan metode PBL dan membantu menilai mahasiswa dalam proses belajarnya.
Sebanyak empat puluh mahasiswa berpartisipasi dalam uji alat ini. Selama penelitian, kuesioner diberikan
kepada mahasiswa. Hasil mengenai penerimaan alat penilaian menunjukkan bahwa menggunakan CAPBLAT
dalam proses penilaian PBL mendapat penerimaan yang lebih baik dari dosen maupun dari mahasiswa.
Kata kunci: peer-assessment, self-assessment, Assessment, Problem-Based Learning
Abstract
Problem-based Learning (PBL) is an instructional design method that is used by many lecturers to create more
efficient and meaningful learning experiences. PBL places an emphasis on assisting the lecturers in facilitating
collaborative learning. They conventionally play a small role in the formal assessment process. Peer-assessment
and self-assessment are the most frequent methods of assessment employed by lecturers when conducting PBL.
This paper presents a user acceptance test of a computer-based tool for peer-assessment and self-assessment in
PBL, known as Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT). The tool was
designed to assist lecturers in conducting the PBL teaching method and assess students learning progress. A
total of forty students participated in the testing of the tool. During the study, questionnaires were administered
to students. The results concerning the assessment tool acceptance demonstrate that students showed positive
feedback and accepted the usage of CAPBLAT for the PBL assessment process.
`
Keywords: peer-assessment, self-assessment, Assessment, Problem-Based Learning
Muhammad Qomaruddin, Department of Informatics Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology,

Universitas Sultan Agung (unissula), Semarang Indonesia.
E-mail: mqomaruddin@unissula.ac.id
**
Azizah Abdul Rahman, Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
E-mail: azizahar@utm.my
***
Noorminshah A.Iahad, Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing, Universiti

E-mail: minshah@utm.my
Introduction
Teaching and learning in the PBL approach differ from the traditional approaches. PBL
encourages students to be, specifically: active learners, self-directed learners and work together in a
group. It enables various methods of assessing students, including, for example: assessing the outcomes
of the PBL (such as a group project report) and assessing the performance of an individual student. The
most frequently used assessments in PBL are self-assessment and peer-assessment.
There are many advantages to be gained by utilizing self-assessment and peer-assessment.
Through self-assessment and peer-assessment, students are able to make judgments about how well they
have learned; rather than merely how much they have learned (Macdonald & Savin-Baden, 2004). Peerassessment helps to develop the acquisition of self-directed learning skills as students participate in the
assessment experience (Ballantyne, Hughes, & Mylonas, 2002). In addition, self-assessment and peerassessment provide valuable insights into the performance of students. It has been demonstrated that
peer ratings are a good predictor of future performance, and provide information regarding student
performance that is not measured by other traditional evaluation methods (Foreman, 2007; Sullivan,
Hitchcock, & Dunnington, 1999).
Strong support for self-assessment and peer-assessment is proven throughout literature studies;
however, difficulties have also been reported. Both types of assessments are time-consuming and thus
are regarded negatively by students. Students need to undertake the peer assessment more anonymously
and it is very difficult to assess peers within the confines of the PBL room (Papinczak, Young, &
Groves, 2006).
The use of computers in assessment in general is known as a definition of Computer-Assisted
Assessment (CAA). Through this, CAA can provide advantages for both lecturers and students to
provide them with detailed formative feedback for their learning achievements compared to
conventional assessment. It also can reduce the somewhat tedious load of lectures by automating parts
of the task of marking students work. Accordingly, the student receives an instant and objective score
together with specific and timely feedback. This is due to the detailed scoring data already being
digitized and recorded to central repositories in the students' records system (Bull & Danson, 2004).
This paper proposes an automated tool for PBL assessment by which to accomplish these
difficulties by utilising computers. In todays high technology environment, computers can play an
enormous role in the assessment process; in this case especially for peer-assessment and self-assessment
respectively. The paper will also discuss the acceptance test of the tool as received from the students.
CAPBLAT as Assessment Learning Tool

CAPBLAT (abbreviation for Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool) is
a computer-based assessment tool designed for assessing students progress in a Problem-Based
Learning (PBL) approach.
CAPBLAT serves the purpose of helping lecturers assess their students learning achievement
in the PBL approach. Moreover, CAPBLAT can also assist students to, specifically: assess their peers
contributions, assess their own performances and monitor their individual learning achievement.
The CAPBLAT method was developed based on the framework of PBL assessment, named
PBLAsF (Problem-Based Learning Assessment Framework). This consists of seven instruments of
assessment methods, namely: 1) Peer-Assessment, 2) Self-Assessment
3) Individual-Activity
Assessment, 4) Group-Report Assessment, 5) Group-Presentation Assessment, 6) Pre-test and 7) Posttest/Final-test.
During the PBL session, all students are required to enter the login information to the tool. At
this point, they should insert a valid e-mail address and secret password for their sign in to the
CAPBLAT. Figure 1 shows the CAPBLAT login page screenshots.
The CAPBLAT performs numerous learning functions, including: providing learning material,
assessment rubrics, displaying results and feedback, facilitating the creation of a PBL session, a
publishing problem, generating group members, activating assessment and sending notification to the
students.
Among those features, this paper has only concentrated on reporting the utilization of
CAPBLAT for peer-assessment and self-assessment. Accordingly, during the research, students were
asked to use only two features of CAPBLAT, namely: peer-assessment tool and self-assessment tool.
In order to achieve the outcome (the course objectives and PBL objectives), identification of
criteria for each PBL objective was required (Montemayor, 2004). The research defines process skills
and scope of criteria for each of the objectives as outlined in Table 1. The four process skills,
specifically: Knowledge building, knowledge work, communication, as well as critical analysis and
72

(CAPBLAT)
problem solving have been determined based on the process skills commonly used by the PBL
practitioners who founded the literature studies.
The CAPBLAT also provided these process skills as described in Figure 1.
Table 1. The defined proces skills and scope of criteria.
No
1
Process Skills to be assessed

Knowledge building
Collaborative work
Communication skills
Critical analysis and Problem

solving
Scope of Criteria
Application of Knowledge Base
Self-directed learning (self-study)
Demonstration of breadth and depth of knowledge
Self-contribution (Team member contribution)
Cooperation among team members
Responsibility to team members
Punctuality and Positive Influence
Responsibility and commitment in all the teams tasks
Attitude during discussion and professionalism
Ability to communicate ideas clearly
Being able to accept feedback with openness
Positive reaction to feedback and criticism
Critical analysis, reasoning and decision-making skills
Provision of input which focuses on and is relevant to the case
Self-awareness: Ability to accept and respond to criticism
gracefully
Figure 1. CAPBLAT Login Screenshots.
Research Method
The research was carried out in classrooms at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. A total of 40
students participated in this study, and they were divided into two classes (Class A for Theory of
Motivation and Class B for Behavior Disorder) and several groups. Each group consisted of four or five
members. All students involved were registered in the second semester, and this activity was their first
attempt in PBL learning and using a computer-based assessment tool for their peer-assessment and selfassessment. Quantitative analysis was then used to evaluate student technology (assessment tool)
acceptance.
Procedure
Before the commencement of the PBL class, an introduction of PBL was given to the students.
We also hosted a presentation of the use of CAPBLAT for the students, by means of a demonstration in
the classroom.
Qomaruddin M, Rahman A.A., Iahad NA. (2014). Journal of Education and Learning.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
73
Figure 2. Student page designed to view problems, assessments and group member screenshots.
During the PBL session of the semester, students presented three problems as a trigger for their
work tasks in their respective groups (please refer to Figure 2 for examples of the problems). Each
group member was encouraged to share and discuss their work on the dedicated forum that has been
provided during the program. At the end of each problem, students were required to assess the online
form for their peers and their own performance. It is anticipated that these assessments would contribute
5% of the overall percentage of the course assessment. The peer-assessment and self-assessment form
consists of four process skills as depicted in Figures 3 and 4.
Each process skill consists of three or four criteria that have been adapted from Montemayor
(Montemayor, 2004), and Uden & Beamount (Uden & Beaumont, 2006). For each criteria of question,
students are required to assess their peers based on the four rating scale. This ranges from, namely: 1Poor, 2-Fair, 3-Good and 4-Excellent. Students have been reminded to make a fair judgment of their
peers based on each of the peer contributions.
Data Collection
A quantitative method was used to collect the data, which had been gathered via a
questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to students for the purposes of examining technology
acceptance based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by Davis (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw,
1989).
74

(CAPBLAT)
Figure 3. Peer-Assessment Rubric Screenshots.
Figure 4. Peer-Assessment Screenshots.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
75
Questions posed in the questionnaire were divided into two parts. In Part A, the questions were
determined based on three factors, namely: Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEU),
and Attitude Towards Usage (ATU) with a total of 11 questions, as listed in Table 2. The 5-point Likert
scale from 5 for strongly agree to 1 for strongly disagree was used for the questions in Part A.
Meanwhile, Part B consists of open-ended questions in which students are invited to provide comments
and suggestions concerning the tool.
Result and Discussion

The result (Table 2) shows that scores for each question of PU, PEU and ATU are all (mean)
above 3,9 respectively. They range between Agree and Strongly Agree. The students generally
agreed that CAPBLAT is useful, easy to use, and they have a positive attitude toward using it.
Table 2. The Questionnaire Questions

Factor
Question
Perceived Usefulness (PU)
Q1
The tool provides a comprehensive framework for PBL assessment which can be used effectively to assess
students performance.
Q2
The tool is effective in assisting lecturers to assess their students by the PBL Method.
Q3
The tool helps lecturers save time in marking.
Q4
The tool is able to overcome the complexity and tediousness of the PBL assessment.
Q5
The tool effectively monitors student progress through more frequent assessments
Q6
The tool provides quick and specific feedback to students during problem sessions.
Perceived Ease Of Use (PEU)
Q7
Q8
Q9
The tool is easy to use.

It's easy to understand the contents of the tool.
The whole tool is well-developed & user friendly.
Attitude Towards Usage (ATU)

Q10
Q11
I like to use the application because it is easy and it is also quick to find and access information concerning
assessment.
I hope the application can provide more features for assessment and learning, so that other learning methods
can also use it.
Table 3. Statistics of Questionnaire Questions

Question
PU
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
PEU
Q7
Q8
Q9
ATU
Q10
Q11
Mean
Percentage (%)
SD
DA
SA
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
2,5
2,5
2,5
5
7,5
10
20
20
20
57,5
42,5
32,5
55
55
55
37,5
50
52,5
22,5
22,5
22,5
4,33
4,33
4,33
3,98
4,35
4,45
2,5
0
0
0
2,5
0
0
10
10
60
55
40
37,5
32,5
50
4,30
4,18
4,40
0
0
2,5
2,5
15
20
45
55
37,5
22,5
4,18
4,20
1=SD: Strongly disagree, 2=DA: Disagree, 3=N: Neutral, 4=A: Agree, 5=SA:
Strongly agree
76

(CAPBLAT)
Responses to question Q1 indicated that 95 % of students were in agreement that the tool
provides a comprehensive framework for PBL assessment by which to efficiently assess students
performances; while just 5% of them indicated a neutral position to this question. Responses to Q2
indicated that 92. 5% of students showed their agreement that the tool is effective in assisting lecturers
to assess their students by the PBL Method; while only 7.5% of them were shown as having a neutral
attitude to this question. Regarding responses from other questions in factor PU (Q3-Q6), more than 75
% of students showed their agreement, while the remainder chose neutral and disagreement stances.
According to the results of open-ended questions, it can be seen that most of the students gave
positive comments on their experiences with using the tool. Some of the comments included: the
system is good and accessible. It is user-friendly and gives students continuous feedback on their
progress throughout the course. Assessment is more reliable because each student was assessed by the
lecturer, peers and even themselves.
Conclusion
In this study, a computer-based tool for PBL assessment (CAPBLAT) was developed. The tool
has been designed to assist the lecturer conduct the PBL teaching process and assess their students
learning progress accordingly. The study involved students using the CAPBLAT for the purpose of,
specifically: reading the problem trigger, checking their progress, and assessing the online form for their
peers and their own performance respectively.
Reflecting upon the case study, the answers to the questionnaire as provided by the students
showed very positive feedback on the use of the tool. The students were in agreement that CAPBLAT is
useful, easy to use, and they displayed a positive attitude towards using it.
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Tutorial Session Using a Criterion-Referenced System. The International Association of
Medical Science Educators (IAMSE), 14.
Papinczak, T., Young, L., & Groves, M. (2006). Peer Assessment in Problem-Based Learning: A
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Sullivan, M. E., Hitchcock, M. A., & Dunnington, G. L. (1999). Peer and Self Assessment during
Problem-based Tutorials. The American Journal of Surgery, 177(3 March 1999), 266-269.
Uden, L., & Beaumont, C. (2006). Technology and Problem-Based Learning: Hershey, PA :
Information Science Publishing.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
77
Tecnam Yoon. (2014). The Application of Virtual Simulations using Second Life in a
Foreign Language Classroom. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 7884.
The Application of Virtual Simulations using Second Life in

a Foreign Language Classroom
Tecnam Yoon *
Department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies
School of Education
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of virtual simulation-based language learning in a foreign
language class in Korea. Total 35 1st-year university students in Korea participated in this research to figure out the
effect of simulations. A virtual English learning community, Cypris Chat in Second Life was selected as a
learning tool. For the data collection, a survey questionnaire was distributed and analysed quantitatively. The result
shows that the majority of the students had a positive attitude toward using a virtual simulation in English learning
and had better understanding in learning English by experiencing an authentic practice. The first section of this
paper provides a general overview of simulations in educational settings through an insightful literature review of
the current research in the area. The review includes a comprehensive outlook on simulations, an example of
successful classroom integration and some of the considerations researchers have found for their implementation.
The latter section addresses the research method, results and conclusions.
Keywords: Simulation; Simulation-based teaching; Simulation for Language Classroom; Language Learning &
Teaching
Tecnam Yoon, Doctoral Candidate, Language, Literacy, Culture Concentration, Department of Teacher Education
and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
E-mail: tyoon@umasss.edu
Introduction
Under the flag of the globalization in the 21st century, hundreds and thousands of students of
all ages in the world are learning a second, third or foreign language. In particular, the language of
English is now even called, Globish(global+English), or Worldlish(world+English), since it has
become an international language with global significance. Depending on each individuals need and
objective, although there may exist a variety of reasons to learn English, one of the main obejctives to
learn English is because of its significance as an international standard for the language. For a long
time, language has been considered as the vehicle of communication by which human beings live,
share, and build ideas and understandings of the present, reflect on the past, and imagine the future.
(MDE, 1996). More recently, as the ICT (information and communication technology) skills are rapidly
developed, the use of English has became much widely spreaded. Surpringly, the advent of the Internet,
and social network media such as Facebook or Twitter made this phenamenon contributed English to
become a dominant language in the world. In other words, English becomes a language to learn to live
in a global era. Although educators in Korea put an emphasis on the importance of learning English, the
way teaching and learning English today does not differ from 1980s or 1990s. English is still taught
focused on the grammatical rules, syntactic structures, and rote memorization of vocabulary.
The main purpose of this paper is therefore, to explore how EFL college students in Korea
consider virtual simulations using Second life as a learning tool in English class, and how they perceive
such simulations can practically help them to engage in English learning, and to promote motivation.
So, this paper will provide a general overview of simulations in educational settings through an
insightful literature review of the current research in the area. The review includes a comprehensive
outlook on simulations, an example of successful classroom integration, and some of the considerations
researchers have found for their implementation. It also contains a revision of online simulations and
gaming in educational settings as people in general are spending an increasing amount of time engaging
in these types of activities. The final section views the results of survey questionnaires and students
feedback on the use of simluations in English class.
What is Simulation?
Terminology in general, in the area of education can be somewhat of a slippery slope as the
same word can be defined by different authors in many diverse ways. The following section aims to
clear some of the most important terms related to simulations. Generally speaking, a simulation can be
defined as an operating model or representation of a real-world system that may or may not take on
certain aspects of reality for participants; they contain rules that allow users to make the simulation
activity flexible and variable and most importantly, the cost of errors for those involved is always low,
protecting them from harsh consequences of mistakes (Garris, et al, 2002). Jones (1995) furthers this
definition by adding that the participants have (functional) roles, duties and sufficient key information
about the problem, to carry out these duties without play acting or inventing key facts (p. 18).
Simulations have been used in language classes for decades and differ from role-plays in that
in role-plays the participant acts a part with minimum background information, while inventing a great
deal of the scenario and without an explicit reference system (Garca-Carbonell, et al, 2001; Naidu &
Linser, 2000). Peregoy & Boyle (2009) give an example of a simulation in a classroom where students
are playing the role of senators and Congress men and women. The task is to recreate the bill passing
process by writing a bill from the ground up, taking it through the various committees and finally,
voting on it. This is a clear representation of the difference between a role play and a simulation in the
sense that the former would not follow such a structured format and students would not be taking part in
the actual reality of Congress. This simulation results not only in the practice of target language, but it
provides learners with background knowledge in how bills are passed for further classroom activities,
especially if they will be reading abstract or complicated texts (Davis, 1996; Peregoy & Boyle, 2009).
Simulations in Education
Peregoy & Boyle (2009) mention that simulations are particularly useful for language learners
because they provide direct experience for learning; this is due to the fact that they are considering
and taking into account different channels of information, including the nonverbal one (p. 334). The
authors further say that this activity allows students to develop vocabulary as it is presented in context
through the background information they are receiving, making these new words meaningful.
Additionally to the benefits proposed by Peregoy & Boyle (2009), Ranalli (2008) presents a
more comprehensive list that researchers and teachers have found for the use of simulations in language
learning. Simulations are said to encourage language use in specific contexts, such as is promoted in
situated cognition; they foster metacognition and strategy use as they help students think of the
Tecnam Yoon. (2013). Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 319-326.
79
language they need for the situation, set attainable communicative goals and the evaluation of the action
plan. Simulations also stimulate cross cultural communication and aid the reduction of fear of making
mistakes by lowering affective filters to facilitate language acquisition (Krashen, 1987). Ranalli (2008)
adds that simulations are learner centered and give students the chance to solve problems with minimal
teacher intervention. He closes by mentioning that coursework is made much more appealing as
instrumental motivation arises by the function, the duties, the responsibilities and circumstances in
which the participants find themselves (Jones, 1982, p. 10 as cited in Ranalli, 2008).
Computer-Based Simulations and Gaming

Aldrich (2004) defines computer based simulations or online simulations as computergenerated versions of real-world objects, processes or situations/contexts. These simulations can take
many formats such as two dimensional, text-driven, or three dimensional. Online simulations contrast to
games in that the latter tend to follow rules that differ from real life and have a competitive component
that allows the player to attain a challenging goal. Caillois (1961 as cited in Garris, et al, 2002) adds that
a characteristic of a game is that it is done voluntarily and is enjoyable. He supplements this information
by mentioning that games are completely separated from the real world, that is to say they do not aim to
represent any real life system and that although the costs of mistakes can have consequences, they can
be contained in the gaming arena. Garris, et al. (2002) add that it is not incorrect to consider simulations
and games similar in some respects, but that the key difference is that the former represents reality and
the later does not.
In addition to the benefits of simulations, adding the technological component brings additional
advantages. A characteristic that both gaming and simulations share is that they provide meaningful and
realistic contexts that allow language learners to make rich associations (Puroshtoma, 2005). These
simulations and games can even be considered as bridges between the students and the target-language
culture through accurate socio-cultural contexts and as the voice of students who are regularly shy
through synchronous chats (Brooks, 2007; Schwienhorst, 2002). Tsai, et al (2012) complement this by
mentioning that in general, educational games and simulations enhance leaning motivation and social
interaction.
When it comes to actually incorporating computer based simulations and games into the
curriculum, many authors suggest that briefing sessions (e.g. planning, linguistic preparation, role and
task familiarization) should take place before the simulations and debriefing afterwards (e.g. consolidate
student learning though the discussion of their experience) (Bambrough, 1994; Gaudart, 1999;
Waniganayake, et al, 2006). In fact, Garris, et al. (2005) mention that debriefing should be considered
as the most critical part of utilizing a game or a simulation in a language classroom. They state that is
the actual moment when students can review and analyze what happened or did not happen, if there
were difficulties and how they resolved them, and how this all connects to their own context and
learning process. They add that through debriefing, students can draw parallels between the game or
simulation, the learning experience and their lives (p. 455).
Research Methods
Simulations at Second Life
Second Life is the name of the virtual world in which online users can do about anything that
they can imagine, that is, a world without physical boundaries. The most common activities in Second
Life are talking, sharing, exploring, studying, playing, singing, dancing, building or more. In 2007,
Second Life launched a service used for a foreign language teaching and learning. Both Second Life and
real life language educators have started to utilize this virtual world for language teaching. As a result of
that, English as a foreign language has gotten a presence through several educational institutions, such
as the British Council. Through joining of British Councils the Second Life virtual environment
(http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/second-life), learners from all over can experience interactive
English activities and quests. In this research, the Cypris Chat Group (http://www.cyprischat.org) was
selected, which was a virtual English language learning community located in Second Life, because it is
one of the most popular islands in terms of language teaching and learning.
School
With a 40-year history, it is a Private University with 11,150 enrolled students in which is
located in the suburban area of Seoul, Korea. The school offers 39 study areas, and fresh students of
each department should take basic, intermediate and advanced English courses in the first year. There is
a 6:1 student-faculty ratio with around 200 faculty members.
80
Class
It was an intermediate English class that met twice a week for 50 minutes. There was
homework to be turned in every class; it mainly comprised of reading assigned pages on the textbook
and answering exercises based on the grammatical points covered or watching videos. A typical lecture
began right on time with the teacher presenting the daily program and immediately beginning the
lesson. The teacher used a Power Point presentation in every single class. The presentations had lots of
images and very few words.
Participants
The class was comprised of 35 EFL students. Their average age was 20 years old at the time of
2011, and they all were enrolled in different academic programs. Based on the university curriculum,
students were required to take English courses, regardless of their majors or minors. In this class, there
were diverse students from different department of economics, education, music, chemistry, history,
communication and more. Before the first class started, they were asked whether they had any previous
experience to simulations, and the result was none of them had participated in any virtual simulation
based lecture before.
Classroom setting
The class was held in a computer-equipped classroom. There was a large whiteboard and a
screen in front, connected to the lecturers computer. The room was equipped with a surround sound
system, a state of the art computer station and a projector. For the class, first, students were required to
register on Second Life, and then to download and install it on each computer. After setting up Second
Life,
all
the
students
joined
the
Cypris
Chat
(http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Wellston/166/87/23).
Figure 1. A Screenshot of the Cypris Chat in Second Life
Procedures
In each class, 35 participants followed the learning steps within the given timeframe, advised
by Merryman (2012). First 10 minutes were assigned for warm-up when students had a little time
getting to know each other that is even from outside the class, and to navigate the learning content. For
the rest of the class, students were presented the topic, new vocabulary, expressions, or related material
to be learned. After that, they were encouraged to perform what they have learned. At the end of the
session, wrap-up with a little feedback to the group and questions were provided.
81
Figure 2. A Screenshot of Participating a Conversation in the Cypris Chat

A survey questionnaire was administered to participants who enrolled in the intermediate
English class. All of them in this research spent 10 hours using the Cypris Chat in Second Life. As
shown in Table 1 below, a total number of 12 survey questionnaires for these participants were
distributed after the all class sessions were over, and the survey consisted of 1-5 likert scale (strongly
disagree strongly agree). The gathered data were analysed using SPSS 10.
Table 1. A Survey Questionnaire on a Simulation using the Cypris Chat

Questionnaire
1 2
1. Simulations (Cypris Chat) provided me with an opportunity to enjoy learning.
2. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me a learning activity more interesting.
3. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made my interest for English learning deepened.
4. Simulations (Cypris Chat) helped me to have an authentic learning experience.
5. Simulations (Cypris Chat) were helpful to me in learning English.
6. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me have a cooperative learning by interacting with
classmates.
7. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made English learning fun and pleasant.
8. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me more engaged in the lesson.
9. Simulations (Cypris Chat) boosted me to study English more.
10. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made the class atmosphere more enjoyable.
11. Simulations (Cypris Chat) helped me like English study more.
12. Simulations (Cypris Chat) offered me an authentic opportunity to practice L2.
* Note: 5-point likert scale (strongly disagree=1, disagree=2, neutral=3, agree=4, strongly agree=5)
Findings
Students Response on English Learning using the Cypris Chat
In order to figure out students response on general English learning, 12-item questionnaire
was administered, and as shown below in Table 2, overall results (item #1, #2, #5, #10) show a pretty
high mean ranging from 3.689 to 3.844. Based on the given results, it can be interpreted that the Cypris
Chat simulation offered the meaningfully effective learning experience to students, and made student
engaged in further learning. In other words, by having a meaningful learning experience, students were
able to gain more interest and zeal for English learning which was considered difficult and stressful to
study.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on English Learning

Item #
1. It provided an opportunity to enjoy learning.
2. It made a learning activity more interesting.
5. It was helpful in learning English.
10. It made the class atmosphere more enjoyable.
82
No.
35
35
35
35
M
3.832
3.844
3.689
3.806
SD
.581
.572
.651
.614
t
-.125
2.56
-.132
.301
Students Response on Understanding the Learning Content

Next Table 3 shows students response on the degree of understanding the learning content
which they learned. The results represent how the Cypris Chat helped them to have better understand
for real-world English communication. Items (#4, #6, #8, #12) also show a very high mean ranging
from 3.756 to 3.882. Most of the students strongly agreed that they were able to have an authentic
learning experience by using the Cypris Chat on Second Life.
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on Understanding the Learning Content

Item #
4. It helped to have an authentic learning experience.
6. It made me have a cooperative learning by interacting with
classmates.
8. It made me more engaged in the lesson.
12. It offered an authentic opportunity to practice L2.
No.
35
35
M
3.786
3.872
SD
.508
.597
t
.366
-.474
35
35
3.756
3.882
.470
.850
-.128
1.53
Students Response on Motivation

Below Table 4 shows students response on the change of motivation towards simulations. As
addressed previously in Table 2 & 3, the result of descriptive statistics (item #3, #7, #9, #11) here also
shows a high mean score from 3.872 to 4.000. Generally speaking, it is not always fun and easy to learn
English, but students expressed their strong willingness and interest towards learning English through
this research using simulations. In terms of the change of the affective filters, it is clear that simulations
using the Cypris Chat boosted students learning experience, and made their motivation level changed
into an enjoyable stage.
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on Motivation

Item #
3. It made my interest for English learning deepened.
7. It made English learning fun and pleasant.
9. It boosted me to study English more.
11. It helped me like English study more.
No.
35
35
35
35
M
4.000
3.921
3.872
3.925
SD
1.02
.655
.592
.721
t
.386
.366
-.128
.954
Conclusions
This paper addresses an overview of what a simulation is, how it has been used in language
classroom. As the research findings show above, the simulations using Second Life provided an
educational and interesting atmosphere for English learning. Besides, simulations provided learners
with a strong sense of motivation for general English learning. To sum up, one of the greatest
advantages to be gained from the use of simulations in English class is that students have more interest
and motivation in their study of English by experiencing the language in an authentic environment.
Therefore, it is concluded that the use of simulations in the English language classroom is promising
because it offers learners an opportunity to practice the target language practically. It is also expected
that students can enhance their communicative competence through activities using simulations.
References
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Bambrough, P. (1994). Simulations in English teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press.
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Brooks, R. (2007). Using microsimulations to bridge theory and practice in the first year composition
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Peregoy, S., & Boyle, O. (2009). Reading, writing, & learning in ESL. (5th ed). NY: Longman.
Puroshtoma, R. (2005). Commentary: Youre not studying, youre just Language Learning &
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Ranalli, J. (2008). Learning English with the Sims: exploiting authentic computer simulation games for
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Schwienhorst, K. (2002). Why virtual, why environments? Implementing virtual reality concepts in
computer-assisted language learning. Simulation & Gaming, 33(2): 196-209.
Tsai, F. H., Yu, K. C., & Hsiao, H. S. (2012). Exploring the factors influencing learning effectiveness in
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Waniganayake, M., Wilks, S., & Linser, R. (2006). Creating thinking professionals: teaching and
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84

Mainland China

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23

29

41

Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour
51

65

(CAPBLAT)
71
Tecnam Yoon
78

Eny Winarti
85
The Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) is published by Universitas Ahmad Dahlan (UAD)
in collaboration with Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science (IAES).
Responsibility of the contents rests upon the authors and not upon the publisher or editors.
EduLearn
Vol. 8
No. 1
pp. 1-90
Yogyakarta, February 2014
ISSN: 2302-9277
Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2014
ISSN: 2089-9823
Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) is an interdisciplinary international journal of original research and writing on
education. The EduLearn aims to provide a forum for scholarly understanding of the field of education and plays an important role
in promoting the process that accumulated knowledge, values, and skills are transmitted from one generation to another; and to
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Editorial Board Members

Editor-in-Chief:
Dwi Sulisworo, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Co-Editor-in-Chief:
Sagini Keengwe, University of North Dakota, United States
Managing Editor:
Lina Handayani, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Editors:
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Table of Contents

Mainland China

13
23

29

41

Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour
51

65

(CAPBLAT)
71
Tecnam Yoon
78

Eny Winarti
85
Antonia Jiewei Lu, Derong Chen. (2014). Government-Leading Student Loan

Schemes: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and Mainland China. Journal of
Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 1-12.
Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes: A

Comparative Study of Hong Kong and Mainland China
Antonia Jiewei Lu *
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Derong Chen **
No. 1 Guangfeng Senior School, China
Abstract
Having a careful examination of government-leading student loan schemes in China and Hong Kong, we can
find a lot of differences and learn something from these two counterparts which are very typical country or area
faced by challenges in financing higher education in the context of transition from elitism to mass higher
education. This research attempts to make a comparison of government-leading student loan schemes between
Hong Kong and China in the new century. Then emphasis is put on the principles or core values namely
efficiency, equity and adequacy, and determining their implications presented in student loan schemes in these
two counterparts. Finally, the paper arrives at some recommendations for improvements in them.
Keywords: government-leading loan scheme, Hong Kong, China, efficiency, equity, adequacy
Antonia Jiewei Lu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

E-mail: lvjiewei521@gmail.com
**
Derong Chen, No. 1 Guangfeng Senior School, China

E-mail: 475590309@qq.com
Introduction
Over the last half century, higher education tuition prices have been rising approximately twice
or even more as fast as the rate of inflation. Anxiety over the rising cost of college education became
widespread during the 1990s, in part due to the slow growth of family income relative to increases in
tuition prices (Ehrenberg, 2000). It has been observed that the escalating college costs all over the world
have led to direct pressure for students to seek financial aid (Cross, 1987). Students in many countries
have always borrowed from family or relatives to finance either the costs of tuition or their living
expenses, and many other students borrow from banks, their governments or other financial institutions
(Woodhall, 1983). Besides, both developed and developing countries have witnessed the spread of the
notion of education as an investment in human capital and the belief that education contributes to
economic growth have encouraged many countries to improve students access to capital markets
(Woodhall, 1983), therefore leading government to introduce various programs that grant financial
assistance to students for educational purposes.
Three main reasons can generally explain why student loan schemes are significant: Firstly,
higher education is a profitable private investment, yet many students all over the world cannot afford it
out of their own or family resources; Secondly, student loans provide money when it is needed and this
can be repaid in the future when the graduate is enjoying the financial benefits of higher life time
earnings; Thirdly, the loan system is more equitable than an education financing system in which all
costs of higher education are met from public funds, since the latter involves a transfer of income from
the average taxpayer to those who are likely to enjoy higher than average incomes as a result of their
higher education (Woodhall, 1983).
Countries at every level of development have important national policy priorities related to
higher education (UNESCO, 2009). The major issues regarding higher education financing policy
governments are facing include: who should attend college; who should pay for college education; and
how to divide the appropriate contribution in financing higher education among the family, the student
and the public (Frederick & Verma, 2001). In other words, to what extent should taxpayers subsidize
higher education? How can higher education opportunities be equalized for disadvantaged groups like
the low-income in society (Johnstone, 1986)? As such, cross-nationally comparable data are vital to
formulating policies, benchmarking progress and learning from experiences in other countries
(UNESCO, 2009). Based on universal consensus on the importance of higher education, different
governments in different countries or areas are introducing and adopting different measures with regard
to financing policy to promote its development. Among the majority of countries or areas that set high
value on higher education development, China and Hong Kong are fairly representative of developing
countries and developed areas in terms of government-leading student loan policies, and deserve
academic scrutiny to make a comparison.
Development of Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes in China
The tuition fee was not introduced in China until 1992 and ever since 1997, all regular higher
education institutions (RHEIs)1 throughout the country charged students tuition and boarding fees,
which increased significantly from mid-1990s in the context of university expansion because of
advocacy of mass education instead of elite education. From year 2000 to 2010, the enrolment of
students in Chinese higher education has dramatically increased from around 2.21 million to 6.29
million, amounting to 23 million students in higher education (National Bureau of Statistics of China,
2010). The government nevertheless has not fully covered and funded the extra costs occurred under
such expansion. Therefore, college tuition fee rises from about 2,000 RMB a year in 1997 to
approximately 5,000 RMB in 2003, which has been criticized fiercely by the public and forced to
remain the same level ever since.
From a macro perspective, college top-up fees were due to higher education enlarged
enrolment without sufficient public resources, which resulted in several years complaints about the
ever-increasing tuition from those who are not affordable to finance it. In response to such problems,
the Chinese government established a national government subsidized student loan scheme (GLSLS)
for university students in 2000. After being implemented for a decade, GLSLS became the core policy
and the most effective weapon for tackling financial aid needs for students in higher education.
Regular Higher Education Institutions in China refer to higher education institutions that do not include adult
education.
Development of Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes in Hong Kong

Higher education in Hong Kong underwent drastic expansion in the late 1980s, a period which
saw rapid changes in its economic structure and Hong Kong shift from a basically manufacture-led to a
service-led economy. That brought forth the obvious and imminent need for Hong Kong to enhance its
domestic college education capacity. Tuition fees from students only made up a minimal percentage of
the actual cost until the government decided to recover 18% of the university education cost through
tuition in the early 1990s, therefore leading to a rapid increase in university tuition and academic
expenses accompanying broadening enrolment. It was under this context of expansion and tuition hike
in college that various student financial assistances for higher education such as loan schemes either
progressed or were formally established at different phases.
In 1969, interest-free loans consisting of Local Student Finance Scheme (LSFS) were
introduced to supplement the grant distributed to needy students based on means test which acted as a
gate-keeping mechanism, while the low-interest (at a rate of 2.5% annum) loan took the place of the
interest-free in 1987. In 1994, an extended loans scheme (ELS) with an interest rate of 4%, which was
lower than the market rate at the time, was introduced to meet the unsatisfied needs of those students
who failed marginally in the means-tested loan scheme. ELS was eventually abolished in 1998 and a
new non-means-tested loan scheme (NLS) was introduced afterwards. In addition to a nominal handling
fee, the NLS charges interest at a rate which flows along with the market interest rate and covers all the
costs of the loan and its administration. Having gone through decades of progressive evolvements, the
student loan schemes in Hong Kong have by and large developed into an elaborate system.
Purpose of this Study
Having a careful examination of government-leading student loan schemes in China and Hong
Kong, we can find a lot of differences and learn something from these two counterparts which are very
typical country or area faced by challenges in financing higher education in the context of transition
from elitism to mass higher education as predicted by Trow (1974). This paper compares the
government-leading student loan schemes in Hong Kong with that in China. Then emphasis is put on
the principles or core values namely efficiency, equity and adequacy, and determining their implications
presented in student loan schemes in these two counterparts. Finally, the paper arrives at some
recommendations for improvements in them.
Research Questions
This research attempts to make a comparison of government-leading student loan schemes
between Hong Kong and China in the new century. Based on data analyses, the research tries to answer
questions as follows: What are the characteristics of government-leading student loan schemes in Hong
Kong and China in the 21st century? What are the implications for efficiency, equity and adequacy from
these two counterparts? What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages for Hong Kong and
China respectively? What improvements can be made by learning from these policies? If this paper
could convey one question, it would be: What are the implications and improvements for efficiency,
equity and adequacy in terms of different characteristics presented in government-leading student loan
schemes of Hong Kong and China in the 21st century?
Definition of Terms
Higher education is an educational level that comes after the completion of secondary
education such as high school or secondary school. Cost of higher education consists of the amount of
tuition charged which is also referred to as price of higher education, and what students pay for higher
educational services, such as living expenses and fees for books etc. Governmentleading student loan
scheme is a loan policy that is led and funded by the government aimed at facilitating education
opportunities for college students.
Literature Review
There is no consensus on the evaluation of higher education financial policy. Generally
speaking, scholars tend to focus on three main principles: efficiency, equity and adequacy.
Efficiency
The world has limited resources. Efficiency is the degree to which resources are used to
generate the most productive outcome (Wheelan, 2010). Efficiency means that society is getting the
maximum benefits from its scarce resources (Mankiw, 2008). A more efficient society can produce
more with the same amount of resources (Arthur, 1975). Public policy often involves redirecting
resources or changing incentives in order to achieve more efficient outcomes (Wheelan, 2010). The goal
of efficiency implies that the government wants to improve the situation for one group of citizens
without causing disadvantages to any other group. One of the most commonly advanced rationales for
public policy and government intervention in the market is the circumstances when the market does not
spontaneously reach Pareto efficiency (Weimer & Vining, 2011).
Equity
A concern for equity has long been an important aspect of economic analysis, as Adam Smith
claimed No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the greater part of the members are
poor and miserable. It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, clothe and lodge the whole body of the
people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labor as to be themselves tolerably well
fed, clothed, and lodged (Smith, 1976, p88). Equity refers to fairness and social justice as opposed to
equality which refers to sameness (Gilbert & Terrell, 2002). It enables every citizen to become an
official member of the society (Short, 2002). Fairness or justice denies that the loss of freedom for some
is made right by the greater good shared by others (Rawls, 1971). Justice as fairness should be made to
maximize freedom and opportunity for each individual within society, and to provide in some common
way for its least advantaged members (Wheeler, & Kearney, 1996).
Adequacy
The primary purpose of any student loan is to defer fees (including both tuition and
maintenance) in order to make higher education free at the time of use (Barr, 1998, 2002, 2003;
Johnstone, 2003a). In any event, the adequacy of benefits is an important factor for consideration of any
policy change (Wheeler, & Kearney, 1996). However, the level of adequacy is not easy to define; it is
difficult to distinguish between genuine basic needs, luxury needs and needs in disguise (Chung, 2003).
Methodology
Measurement
Based on literature review, several measurements and items are chosen to respectively
demonstrate different principles and implications in the two different student loan schemes.
Efficiency. In a world with a finite quantity of resources to support the development of higher
education, allocations must be rationed in one way or another. Public policy aims to be efficient,
thereby putting societys resources to the most productive use (Wheelan, 2010). The items that this
paper use to measure efficiency of GLSLS in China and LSFS, NLS in Hong Kong are listed as follows:
(1) Non-payment rate. It calculates the default rate of student loan offered, which is an important
factor of running efficiency of the schemes.
(2) Administration cost. The total cost of running such schemes is directly related to efficiency.
Equity. There is a social goal of equalization in the provision of education in most modern
societies; the purpose of student financial assistance systems is to ensure that no student is denied in a
university education because of a lack of means (Chung, 2003). Several items are adopted to measure
the equity value of these two systems:
(1) Target group. Who can benefit from the schemes is an important criterion of equity.
(2) Extent of benefit. To what extent the students can benefit and how to allocate loans according to
different needs and among different groups also implicate something important about equity.
(3) Screening criteria. It is used to decide who is eligible and can be offered the loan, thus affect
equity directly.
Adequacy. We could look at adequacy from two perspectives: the extent to which they would
provide students with a benefit that meets their genuine basic needs, and the degree of burden the loan
may impose on these students in terms of repayment. The following items are chosen to demonstrate it:
(1) Interest rate. If interest rate is high, then the student may not apply for loan because of cost
consideration. Also, high interest rate will impose heavy repayment burden on students.
(2) Coverage. What the loans will cover --tuition, academic expenses or living expenses decides
how the student can benefit from the loan.
(3) Repayment time. Short and inflexible repayment period influence student by placing burden on the
life after students graduate.
Table 1. Measurements and items of Government-leading student loan schemes

efficiency
equity
adequacy
Non-payment rate, administration cost

Target group, extent of benefit, screening criteria
Interest rate, coverage, repayment time
Data Collection
Archival data and statistics are collected from the websites of China National Center for
Student Assistance Administration (CNCSAA), Hong Kong Student Financial Assistance Agency
(HKSFAA), and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) etc. to
analyze characteristics of government-leading student loan schemes in Hong Kong and China. Besides
that, the researcher has done some preliminary survey regarding student living expenses etc. in Nankai
University, which is a typical regular higher education institution.
Characteristics in China Government-Leading Student Loan Scheme
Limited target group. The leading disadvantage of GLSLS lies in profit-driven banks acting as
administrative bodies for student loans. Whether to grant a loan under GLSLS are decided by
commercial banks largely on the basis of ones ability to repay instead of genuine need. Consequently,
student loans might be offered to students not in need but from prestigious institutions, while leaving
those in lower tier such as vocational training institutions, struggling to obtain a student loan.
Oversupply in high-ranking institutions and insufficient amount divided among lower tier institutions,
from an economic approach of higher education financial policy, is a representative case of free market
failure.
Ambiguous screening criteria. Those who are poor and apply for GLSLS loan are required to
submit s from the local Department of Civil Affairs. However, when it comes to who will receive the
loans, no clearly stated criteria such as family income level are stated in the official documents of
GLSLS in China.
Limited coverage. According to a survey carried out by the China Youth Daily and another
report from China Weekly Reading, fees officially jumped from 200 RMB (18 ) per year in 1989 to
some 5,000 RMB (450 ) nowadays (See Chart 1: Tang, 2001; Guo, 2007). The amount of loan a
student receives can only cover tuition following this trend.
Chart 1: Development of Higher Education Tuition Fee in China (1989-2007)
Source: Tang, 2001; Guo, 2007.
However, besides tuition fee hike, the living expenses of a typical college student have also
undergone the similar trend (See Table 2). This implicates that the student loan is not enough to take
these tendencies into consideration and to some extent improve the basic living needs of a poor and
needy college student the coverage is so limited.
Table 2. General Living Expenses Level of College Students

(Example of Nankai University, China)
Pay (RMB per month)
Percent
Under 300
4.76%
300-500
14.28%
500-800
29.52%
800-1000
23.81%
1000-1500
19.05%
Above 1500
3.81%
Source: A Survey of College Students Living Expenses, 2011, done by the researcher.
Short and inflexible repayment time. According to a research study conducted by Shen & Li
(2003), students who are required to pay off their loans within four years after graduation have to set
apart on average a quarter of their annual income for repayments. Since 2008, the policy has changed
and allows students to pay the proportional amount of income and fluctuate with their income ability,
but the student still has to pay off within 6 years of graduation. Such a proportion of earnings required
as repayment is simply so much and the six-year duration so short that it could bring about debt
aversion for new recipients and stop them from considering student loans as an option to meet their
financial assistance need.
Serious sanction for default. Under the GLSLS, the students who fail to repay will get
punishment in the way either their names will be published in the media or they will have adverse credit
history that will be an obstacle for future private loans, which only harms ones reputation but cannot
ensure one to repay. Terms such as fully repay in four years after finding a job, names published in
the media for those failing to repay without taking whether ones income is high enough to repay etc
into consideration, are what those who borrow a student loan have to face. They to a large extent
threaten students to take the scheme as a resort for educational poverty.
Table 3. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in China

Implementation year
Target group
Interest rate
2000
Poor full-time students in regular higher education institutions (REHI)
Fully subsidized before graduation, 50% subsidized afterwards (before the year
2004); full subsidized before graduation, a rate based on rate policies made by
central bank after graduation (after the year 2004)
Grant size
6,000 RMB
Coverage
Tuition fee for undergraduates; living expenses for postgraduates
Repayment time
4 years after graduation (before the year 2004); 6 years after graduation (after the
year 2004)
Repayment way
Monthly installments
Guarantor
Student credit
Sanction
Publish defaulters name in the media; adverse credit history and prevention from
additional bank loan for living or investment in the following one or two decades.
Screening criteria
Not clearly stated
Administrative body
Commercial banks
Data source: China National Center for Student Assistance Administration. http://www.xszz.cee.edu.cn, 2011.
Characteristics in Hong Kong Government-Leading Student Loan Scheme

The student loans scheme in Hong Kong has evolved from completely free of interest to low
interest to its present state, including loans at the interest-bearing market rate. In total, this system is
relatively elaborate and has many characteristics.
Wide target group and coverage. LSFS is mainly aimed at needy full-time students in
Publicly-Funded Programs (PFP), while students whose financial needs for educational purposes are not
covered in LSFS can turn to NLS for tuition fees or sometimes living expenses. Besides the scholarship
and grants that can cover tuition fees for needy students, the loans aimed at purposes outside tuition are
to some extent enough to cover their basic needs. This is mainly because of the application of a Student
Expenditure Survey in the estimation of maximum grants and loans to a student, which gives a fairly
accurate estimate of what a student would actually need in order to survive (Chung, 2003). The tables as
follows show the percentage of loan approval (No. of applicants with loan offered divided by No. of
applications received) and amount of loan offered. The loan approval rate in LSFS for the academic
year 2009/2010 is 88.6% and 89.3% for 2010/2011, while NLS almost grant loans to every applicant.
All of the information has pointed out the wide target group and coverage of government-leading
student loan schemes in Hong Kong.
Table 4. Statistics of Student Loan Under LSFS
Academic Year
2009/2010
2010/2011 (as at 31.10.2011)
No. of eligible students
82,921
81,975
31,932
31,185
28,290
27,869
Average amount paid
$25,101
$25,594
Total amount of loan offered
$728.40m
$725.07m
Table 5. Statistics of Student Loan Under NLS

Academic Year
2009/2010
2010/2011 (as at 31.10.2011)
34,402
34,143
34,071
33,749
Average amount paid
$45,831
$46,480
Total amount of loan paid
$1,222.3m
$1,228.8m
Clear screening criteria. For LSFS, the level of loan is determined by a clear two-tier means
test. First, compare your Adjusted Family Income (AFI) against the "Ready Reckoner" to get the first
percentage of loan, then apply this percentage to calculate the living expenses loan (HKSFAA, 2011).
Second, compare the Net Asset Value of your family against the "Sliding Scale of Asset Value for
Discounting Financial Assistance" to get the first percentage of loan, then adjust the level of loan
calculated by the discount factor to get your final level of loan (HKSFAA, 2011). After this test, the
scheme will sort out who can actually get the loans, which is a fairly useful tool to differentiate between
the needy groups.
Long repayment time. Under LSFS, students are required to repay by 20 quarterly installments
5 years after graduation or ceasing to be a student of the institution, while those who get a loan from
NLS have 10 years after completion of the relevant course. Both of them have taken the students
ability to repay into account: the students who can get a loan from LSFS are those who study at PFP and
who have generally better jobs and higher income after graduation, while those who borrow money
under NLS have a higher burden of repayment because of a higher interest rate and thus a reasonable
extension of repayment time can ease them and activate their willingness to repay in time.
Relatively temper sanction for default and increasing default rate. Compared to Chinas
humiliating sanction, Hong Kong government take relatively temper punishment measures for delayed
repayment or default, which is criticized as an impetus for increasing default rate in the recent years and
a harm to taxpayers who are actually bearing the burdens for the immoral behaviors of those students.
Table 6. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in Hong Kong
Interest rate
LSFS
1960s
Needy full-time students in Publicly-funded
Programs (PFP)
Depend on individual average disposable
family income and per capita family asset;
maximum amount of loan of the 2011/12
academic year is $37,960
From no interest to a rate of 2.5%
Coverage
Living expenses
Repayment time
5 years after graduation or ceasing to be a

student of the institution
20 quarterly installments
Student credit
Surcharge of 5% on the quarterly installment;
serious or prolonged default are referred to
the Department of Justice for legal recovery
action
Implementation year
Target group
Grant size
Repayment way
Guarantor
Sanction
Screening criteria
NLS
1998
Students whose needs are not met in the
LSFS
Maximum loan is capped at the maximum
amount of tuition fees payable
A rate covering all the costs of loan and

administration
Tuition fees and sometimes living
expenses
10 years after completion of the relevant
course
40 equal quarterly installments
Repayment amount including interest in
arrears is charged at prime rate; serious or
prolonged default are referred to the
Department of Justice for legal recovery
action
None
Two-tier means test on Adjusted Family

Income (AFI) and Net Asset Value of the
family (NAV)
Administrative body
Hong Kong Student Financial Assistance Agency
Conclusions and recommendations

Government-Leading Student Loan Policy Learning for China
Balance different groups and needs. Obviously Chinese higher education finance policies are
lopsided to prestigious universities and REHIs. While this is important for China to face international
challenges from peer universities, it is also significant to dedicate more resources to those non-regular
higher education institutions and lower-rank universities, which may be a strategic adoption to improve
the whole higher education quality in China.
Clarify screening criteria. The GLSLS should establish clear criteria, such as family income,
net asset value of the family and regional living expenses for a typical RHEI student, to better test and
estimate the real basic needs of the student. Comprehensive survey of the necessary data is important.
Adjust repayment time. For example, the current loan repayment period should be extended.
Also, repayment requirements should be flexible giving some reasonable consideration to the
borrowers affordability to repay. To get better repayment results, deferring starting point of loan
repayment or beginning repayment only on securing employment would be a proper choice.
Broaden coverage. The grant from GLSLS is obviously so mean that it only covers tuition fees
at average level. Coverage extended to both tuition and maintenance is one of the core features in the
HK student loan scheme and should be taken into account in the next reform of student loan policy in
China.
Incrementally abolish humiliating sanction and cultivate a credit culture. Under the scheme,
students who do not repay their loan before graduation could not receive their certificates. Reserving a
diploma would not help to enhance the situation as students in debt will find it difficult to get a job
without the relevant certificates. Literature related to student loans in China usually argues that
government should do more to cultivate a credit culture among college students given the fact that
credit banking has been established only for a few years in China (Shen & Li, 2003). It would be more
human as well as effective if the government cultivate such culture and in the meantime dedicate to
abolish humiliating sanctions incrementally.
Government-Leading Student Loan Policy Learning for Hong Kong
Require credit report from mature loan borrowers. To lower default risk, it is advisable to
require mature borrowers (e.g. over 30 years old) applying for student loans the first time above a
certain amount (e.g. over $100,000) pertaining to a particular course to offer a personal credit report
from some credit reference agency. This could enable SFAA to decide whether a loan may be supplied
in part or in full to the student concerned based on ones credit history in accordance with a series of
prescribed criteria.
Improve usefulness and sustainability. Continuous financial resources from the government
should be provided to keep the scheme viable. It will be better for the NLS to become self-sustaining
through better design as the loan costs and the default risk are regarded as factors in setting the interest
rate. However, to what extent are student loans scheme useful and sustainable relys not just on the
design of the schemes. To ensure the loan to be more useful, the NLS loan should reach all the needy
students and also those who are willing to take up the offer for investment in higher education. In other
words, the loans should cover the targeted groups for the targeted purpose. To ensure the loan to be
more sustainable, repayment needs to be guaranteed and total repayment must arrive at the level of
initial loan payment for the present year to make the ends meet.
Room for participation of commercial banks. There is room for commercial banks to
participate in the student loans scheme. The Financial Secretary of the Hong Kong government
positioned himself as a proactive market facilitator in his Budget Report 2002. It will be important for
the government to make out the costs and benefits of various facilitating measures, such as subsidizing
interest and using indemnifier, for the student loans market. Including commercial banks in the interestbearing student loans scheme is advisable, whereas it should avoid the situation China has underwent.
That is, who to grant the loan should not be decided by profit-driven commercial banks. They can take
part in relevant activities such as releasing loans, taking in repayments and provide auxiliary service to
the loans scheme.
Concluding Remarks
There is high efficiency in the mobilization of the loan funds in Hong Kong due to the
effectiveness of the SFAA and the small geographic area that it has to cover (Chung, 2003). LSFS and
NLS together provide comprehensive loans to local student and ensure equity and efficiency. The wide
coverage and adequate grant size in these two schemes enable students to have adequate financial
support for their educational purposes. From all these aspects, China fall short and should learn from
Hong Kong by initiating reform incrementally. To meet increasing challenges facing higher education,
more strategic government-leading student loan policies should be developed both in Hong Kong and
China. These reforms should be designed to increase efficiency, improve equity, and raise overall
adequacy of student loan, as well as achieving greater conformance with the UNESCO goals.
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11
12
Azman Ismail, Michael Kho Khian Jui. (2014). The Role of Mentoring Program in
Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance. Journal of Education and Learning.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 13-22.
The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees

Azman Ismail*
Michael Kho Khian Jui **

Abstract
According to institutions of higher learning literature, mentoring program has two important features:
communication and support. The ability of mentors to appropriately implement comfortable communication and
provide adequate support may ehance positive mentee outcomes, especially academic performance. Although the
nature of this relationship is crucial, little is known about the role of mentoring program as an important
predictor of mentees academic performance in the higher education mentoring research literature. Therefore,
this study was conducted to measure the relationship between mentoring program and mentees academic
performance using self-administered questionnaires gathered from undergraduate students in Malaysian
institutions of higher learning in Sarawak. The results of SmartPLS path model showed two important outcomes:
firstly, communication positively and significantly correlated with academic performance. Secondly, support
positively and significantly correlated with academic performance. The result demonstrates that mentoring
program does act as an important predictor of mentees academic performance in the organizational sample.
Thus, discussion, implications and conclusion are elaborated.
Keywords: Communication, Support, Academic Performance
Azman Ismail, Faculty of Economics & Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 43600 Bangi, Selangor
Darul Ehsan. MALAYSIA.
E-mail: azisma08@gmail.com / azisma12@ukm.my
**
Michael Kho Khian Jui, Faculty of Economics & Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 43600 Bangi,
Selangor Darul Ehsan. MALAYSIA.
E-mail: mic6699@gmail.com
Introduction
In an ancient Greek literature, mentoring is first highlighted in the epic story of The Odyssey
written by Homer. In this story, Odysseus tells his loyal and experienced friend, namely, Mentor (a
person who has great wisdom and trustworthy) to teach his son, namely, Telemachus (a mentee or
protg who has less experience) about the tips for handling challenging lifestyles before he goes to the
Trojan War (Edlind & Haensly, 1985; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Merriam, 1993). Based on this classical
story, mentoring is often related to as an important field of education (Little et al., 2010; Johnson et al.,
1991) and/or counseling (Gregson, 1994; Zuraidah et al., 2004) whereby mentors are the elderly whom
have wisdom, experiences and can be trusted to educate young men who have little experience and
knowledge (Little et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 1991; Russell & Adams, 1997; Wanguri, 1996).
Hence, the traditional mentoring concept has been given new interpretations by contemporary
educationists, social psycologists and management scholars in order to suit it with the current
organizational development and challenges (Dennison, 2000; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Ismail &
Ridzwan, 2012; Oliver & Aggleton, 2002).
In today organizations, mentoring is often seen as a learning method where it encourages
comfortable relationship between mentors (i.e., knowledgeable and experienced person) and mentee
(i.e., less knowledgeable and experienced person) as an instrument to develop group and/or individuals
potentials in carrying out particular duties and responsibilities, familiarize with new techniques, and
care for all aspects of mentees (Cummings & Worley, 2009; Johnson et al., 1991; Long, 2002; Noe et
al., 2002). There is no one best mentoring program model to fit all organizations, but they are designed
and implemented according to the uniqueness of organizational contexts in terms of beliefs, policy,
orientations, stresses, strengths and weaknesses (Irving et al., 2003; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006; Santos &
Reigadas, 2002, 2005). These factors have affected organizations to design and administer the various
types of mentoring program, especially informal relationship (e.g., specific demands, spontaneous and
adhoc) and/or formal relationship (e.g., structured and coordinated relationship between mentor and
mentee, using standard norms, continuously action plans, time frame, and particular objectives). In
organizations, formal and informal mentoring programs are viewed as equally important, but informal
mentoring programs are often implemented to complement and strengthen formal mentoring programs
in order to achieve organizational strategies and goals (Friday & Friday, 2002; Hansford & Ehrich,
2006; Hansford et al., 2003: Ismail et al., 2005, 2006).
A review of current higher education student development program literature highlights that
effective mentoring programs have two salient practices, i.e., communication and support (Bernier et
al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al., 2001). In the context of university mentoring
program, communication is generally defined as mentors openly delivering information about the
procedures, content, tasks and objectives of the mentoring programs, conducting discussions about tasks
that should be learned, giving detailed explanations about the benefits of attending mentoring programs
and providing performance feedback (Allen et al., 2005; Fox et al., 2010; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006;
Santos & Reigadas, 2005; Stewart & Knowles, 2003). Conversely, support is broadly defined as
mentors provide emotional support (e.g., acquire new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and guide them
to properly apply in daily life) and instrumental support (e.g., assist mentees to adapt campus
environments) at varying times to mentees (Allen & Finkelstein, 2003; Davis, 2007; Fox et al., 2010;
Stewart & Knowles, 2003; Zuraidah et al., 2004).
Surprisingly, recent studies in university/faculty mentoring programs reveal that the ability of
mentors to appropriately implement such mentoring characteristics may have a significant impact on
positive mentee outcomes, especially academic performances (Bernier et al., 2005; Tennenbaum et al.,
2001). In an institution of higher learning context, academic performance is usually evaluated by the
students persistence rates, graduation rates, and grade-point average (Granger, 1995; Levin & Levin,
1991; Santos & Reigadas, 2005). Within a mentoring program model, many scholars think that
communication, support and academic performance are distinct, but strongly interrelated constructs. For
example, the ability of mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and provide
adequate support have been essential factors that may enhance positive mentee outcomes, especially
academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
The nature of this relationship is interesting, but not much is known the role of mentoring
program as an important predictor of mentees academic performance in the higher education mentoring
program research literature (Allen & Finkelstein, 2003; Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail et al., 2005, 2006;
Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012). Many scholars reveal that this situation is due to many previous studies have
much emphasized on the internal properties of mentoring program, employed a simple survey method to
explains different respondent perceptions toward the implementation of mentoring programs and used a
simple correlation analysis to measure the strength of association between mentoring program and
mentees academic performance. The findings of these studies have neglected to quantify the effect size
14
of mentoring program as an important predicting variable in the mentoring program research literature.
Consequently, it has not provided adequate information to be used as useful guidelines by practitioners
in formulating strategic action plans to improve the design and management of mentoring programs in
learning organizations (Bernier et al., 2005; Davis, 2007; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al.,
2001). Therefore, it motivates the researchers to fill in the gap of literature by measuring the
relationship between mentoring program practices and academic performance.
Literature Review
Relationship between Mentoring Program and Academic Performance
Several recent studies using a direct effects model to discover mentoring activities based on
different samples like perceptions of 189 students in 9 departments at the University of California in
Santa Cruz (Tennenbaum et al., 2001), perceptions of 110 students in Canadian colleges (Bernier et al.,
2005), and 127 students at a defence based university in Malaysia (Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012). These
studies proved that the ability of mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and
provide adequate support in formal and/or informal mentoring activities had enhanced mentees positive
outcomes, especially academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012;
Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
The empirical studies support the notion of adult learning theories. For example, Chickerings
(1969) vector theory of identity development highlights seven important vectors to develop yound adult
identities: developing competence, managing emotions, becoming autonomous, developing
interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity. Besides
that, Levinsons (1978) early adult transition model posits that an individuals life structure would face
critical situations when he/she goes through the transformation process from childhood into adulthood.
Application of these theories in institutions of higher learning shows that the essence of mentoring
program is to enhance positive young adults identities and life styles. For example, the ability of
mentors to properly implement comfortable communication and provide adequate support in formal
and/or informal mentoring activities may lead to an enhanced positive mentee outcomes, especially
academic performance (Bernier et al., 2005; Ismail & Ridzwan, 2012; Tennenbaum et al., 2001).
Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis
The literature has been used as a foundation to establish the conceptual framework for this
study as shown in Figure 1.
(Mentoring Program)
Dependent Variable
Communication
Support
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Based on the conceptual framework, it can be hypothesized that:
H1: Communication positively related to academic performance
H2: Support positively related to academic performance
Methodology
Research Design
This study used a cross-sectional research design where it allowed the researchers to integrate
the mentoring program literature, the pilot study and the actual study as a main procedure to gather data
for this study. Using such methods may gather accurate data, decrease bias and increase quality of data
being collected (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000). The location of this study is Malaysian
institutions of higher learning in Sarawak. For confidential reasons, the name of the organizations used
is kept anonymous. At the initial stage of data collection, the survey questionnaires were drafted based
on the information gathered from the mentoring program literature. After that, the pilot study was
15
conducted involving 5 senior year students (2nd year and above) in public institutions and 5 senior year
students (2nd year and above) in private institutions to verify that all questions were importance,
relevance, clear and suitable for an actual study. Hence, a back translation technique was employed to
translate the survey questionnaires into English and Malay languages in order to increase the validity
and ensure the reliability of research findings (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000).
Measures
The survey questionnaire used in this study had three sections. Firstly, communication was
measured using 3 items that were adapted from mentoring communication system literature (Foxon,
1993; Sullivan, 2000; Yamnill & McLean, 2001; Young & Cates, 2005). The item used to measure the
construct were the importance of mentoring program, approachable and knowledge sharing. Secondly,
support was measured using 5 items that were adapted from mentoring support system literature (Tsai &
Tai, 2003; Chiaburu & Takleab, 2005; Langhout et al., 2004; Rayle et al., 2006; Vieno et al., 2007). The
items used to measure the construct were interpersonal communication skills, giving suggestions, praise
mentee performance in study, understanding the implications of actions taken, and listening. Thirdly,
academic performance was measured using 4 items that were adapted from undergraduate student
performance literature (Campbell & Campbell, 1997; Irving et al., 2003; Rayle et al., 2006). The items
used to measure the construct were able to achieve CGPA, able to identify effective study methods, and
able to improve answering skills in tests/exams. All items used in the questionnaires were measured
using a 7-item Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree/dissatisfied (1) to strongly
agree/satisfied (7). Demographic variables were used as controlling variables because this study
focused on student attitudes.
Sample
The unit of analysis for this study is undergraduate students in Malaysian institutions of higher
learning in Sarawak, Borneo. The researchers had obtained an official approval to conduct the study
from the management of the organizations and also received advices from them about the rules for
conducting the survey in the organizations. Considering the constraints of the organization rule, as well
as the duration of study and finance, the researchers had distributed 250 survey questionnaires using a
convenient sampling technique to undergraduate students in the public and private institutions of higher
learning. This sampling technique was chosen because the management of the organizations had not
given the list of undergraduate students and this situation did not allow the researchers to randomly
select respondents for this study. From the survey questionnaires distributed, 196 usable questionnaires
from the institutions of higher learning were returned to the researchers, yielding 78.4 percent of the
response rate. The survey questionnaires were answered by participants based on their consents and on
voluntarily basis. The number of this sample exceeds the minimum sample of 30 participants as
required by probability sampling technique, showing that it may be analyzed using inferential statistics
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Zikmund, 2000).
Data Analysis
The SmartPLS 2.0 was employed to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument and
thus test the research hypotheses (Henseler et al., 2009; Riggle et al., 2009). The main advantage of
using this method may deliver latent variable scores, avoid small sample size problems, estimate every
complex models with many latent and manifest variables, hassle stringent assumptions about the
distribution of variables and error terms, and handle both reflective and formative measurement models
(Henseler et al., 2009; Riggle et al., 2009). The SmartPLS path model was employed to assess the
magnitude and nature of the relationship between many independent variables and one or more
dependent variables in the structural model using standardized beta () and t statistics. The value of R2
is used as an indicator of the overall predictive strength of the model. The value of R2 are considered as
follows; 0.19 (weak), 0.33 (moderate) and 0.67 (substantial) (Chin, 1998; Henseler et al., 2009). Thus,
a global fit measure is conducted to validate the adequacy of PLS path model globally based on Wetzels
et al.s (2009) global fit measure. If the results of testing hypothesized model exceed the cut-off value of
0.36 for large effect sizes of R, showing that it adequately support the PLS path model globally
(Wetzels et al., 2009).
Results
Sample Profile
Table 1 shows the respondents characteristics. The majority of the respondents were female
(70.9 percent), their ages vary from 22 to 24 years (70.4 percent), the highest education level amongst
16
the respondents were STPM holders (51.0 percent), (68.9 percent) comprises of third year students
being the majority in the respondent group, students achieving CGPA between 3.01 to 3.50 also being
the majority amongst the respondents consists of (48.5 percent), and students who study in a public
institutions of higher learning consists of (85.7 percent).
Table 1. Respondents Characteristics (n=196)
Respondents Profile
Sub-Profile
Percentage
Gender
Male
Female
19 to 21 years old
22 to 24 years old
25 to 27 years old
29.1
70.9
25.0
70.4
4.6
SPM
STPM
Diploma
Matriculation
Second Year
Third Year
Fourth Year
Fifth Year
CGPA 2.01-2.50
CGPA 2.51-3.00
CGPA 3.01-3.50
CGPA 3.51-4.00
Public Institutions of Higher Learning
Private Institutions of Higher Learning
6.1
51.0
10.8
32.1
6.1
68.9
24.5
0.5
5.6
34.7
48.5
11.2
85.7
14.3
Age
The Highest Educational Level
Current Year of Study
Academic Achievement
Institution
Note:
SPM/MCE : Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia/ Malaysia Certificate of Education

STPM
: Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia/ Higher School Certificate
Model Measurement
The confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess the psychometric of survey
questionnaire data. Table 2 shows the results of convergent and discriminant validity analyses. All
constructs had the values of average variance extracted (AVE) larger than 0.5, indicating that they met
the acceptable standard of convergent validity (Henseler et al., 2009). Besides that, all constructs had
the values of AVE square root in diagonal were greater than the squared correlation with other
constructs in off diagonal, showing that all constructs met the acceptable standard of discriminant
validity (Henseler et al., 2009; Yang, 2009).
Table 2. The Results of Convergent and Discriminant Validity Analyses
Variable
AVE
Communication
Support
Communication
Support
0.725
0.741
0.779
.851
0.418
0.472
.861
0.437
Academic
Performance
.883
Table 3 shows the factor loadings and cross loadings for different constructs. The correlation
between items and factors had higher loadings than other items in the different constructs, as well as the
loadings of variables were greater than 0.7 in their own constructs in the model are considered adequate
(Henseler et al., 2009). In sum, the validity of measurement model met the criteria.
17
Table 3. The Results of Factor Loadings and Cross Loadings for Different Construct
Construct/ Item
Communication
Objective
Moral values
Critical thinking
Support
Motivation
Listen to suggestions
Praise
Help
Listen to problems
Cumulative grade point average
Effective study
Skills
Communication
Support
0.836673
0.897438
0.818922
0.387340
0.393681
0.287202
0.364466
0.439693
0.396970
0.405739
0.340172
0.339573
0.327694
0.384191
0.841673
0.842116
0.875203
0.868722
0.875777
0.365410
0.355063
0.389806
0.394228
0.373948
0.342061
0.458355
0.436621
0.329364
0.435010
0.380145
0.847694
0.914396
0.883913
Table 4 shows the results of reliability analysis for the instrument. The values of composite
reliability and Cronbachs Alpha were greater than 0.8, indicating that the instrument used in this study
had high internal consistency (Henseler et al., 2009; Nunally & Benstein, 1994). These statistical
analyses confirmed that the measurement scales met the acceptable standard of validity and reliability
analyses as shown in Table 2.
Table 4. Composite Reliability and Cronbachs Alpha
Construct
Composite Reliability
Cronbach Alpha
Communication
0.888
0.810
Support
0.935
0.913
0.913
0.859
Analysis of Constructs
Table 5 shows that the mean values for the variables are between 51.1 and 5.3, showing that
the levels of communication, support and academic performance are ranging from high (4) to highest
level (7). The correlation coefficients for the relationship between the independent variable (i.e.,
communication and support) and the dependent variable (i.e., academic performance) are less than 0.90,
showing the data are not affected by serious collinearity problem (Hair et al, 2006).
Table 5. Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Standard
Pearson Correlation analysis
Deviation
(r)
1
2
4
1.
Communication
5.3
.92
1
2.
Support
5.1
1.17
.42**
1
3.
5.3
.91
.47**
.43**
1
Note: Significant at **p<0.01
Reliability Estimation is Shown in a Diagonal
Variable
Outcomes of Testing Hypotheses 1 and 2

Figure 2 shows the outcomes of SmartPLS path model for testing the direct effects model. In
terms of exploratory of the model, the inclusion of communication and support in the analysis had
explained 76 percent of the variance in dependent variable. Specifically, the results of testing hypothesis
highlighted two important findings: first, communication significantly correlated with academic
performance (=0.35; t=4.396), therefore H1 was supported. Second, support significantly correlated
with academic performance (=0.29; t=3.852), therefore H2 was supported. In sum, the result confirms
that mentoring program does act as an important determinant of mentees academic performance in the
organizational sample.
18
(Mentoring Program)
Dependent Variable
R Square=0.76
H1 (=0.35; t=4.396)
Communication
H2 (=0.29; t=3.852)
Support
Note: Significant at t >1.96

Figure 3. The Outcomes of SmartPLS Path Model
In order to determine a global fit PLS path model, we carried out a global fit measure (GoF)
based on Wetzels et al.s (2009) guideline as follows: GoF=SQRT{MEAN (Communality of
Endogenous) x MEAN (R)}=0.756, signifying that it exceeds the cut-off value of 0.36 for large effect
sizes of R. This result confirms that the PLS path model has better explaining power in comparison
with the baseline values (GoF small=0.1, GoF medium=0.25, GoF large=0.36). It also provides strong
support to validate the PLS model globally (Wetzel et al., 2009).
Discussion and Implications

he findings of this study confirm that mentoring program does act as an important predictor of
mentees academic performance in the studied organizations. In the context of this study, mentors have
appropriately plan and implement mentoring activities based on the organizational policies and
procedures. Majority respondents perceived that comfortable communication, and material and moral
support are actively implemented in formal and/or informal mentoring activities. As a result, it may lead
to enhanced mentees academic performance in the higher institutions.
This study presents three major implications: theoretical contribution, robustness of research
methodology, and practical contribution. In terms of theoretical contribution, the results of this study
highlight that communication and support have beenn important predictors of mentees academic
performance. This result is consistent with studies by Tennenbaum et al. (2001), Bernier et al. (2005),
and Ismail and Ridzwan (2012).
With respect to the robustness of research methodology, the survey
questionnaires used in this study have met the acceptable standards of validity and reliability analyses.
This may lead to the production of valid and reliable findings. In regards with practical contributions,
the findings of this study may be used to improve the design and management of mentoring programs in
organizations. In order to achieve this objective, management needs to give more attention on
improving the following aspects: firstly, update training content and methods for mentors to in order to
improve their competencies in teaching, counseling and guiding students who have different ability
levels. Secondly, form mentoring groups according to students academic achievement in order to ease
mentors fulfilling their needs and expectations. Thirdly, mentors who have high teaching loads and
active in research, but can show high commitment in improving student studies need to be given a high
priority in getting better promotions. Fourthly, plan various kinds of learning activities in order to attract
students who have different interests and capabilities to actively involve in mentoring programs. Fifthly,
students who have actively participated in mentoring activities and show improvement in academic
performance need to be given better recognitions. If these suggestions are heavily considered this may
motivate undergraduate students to enhance their academic performance.
Conclusion
The study developed a conceptual framework based on the higher education mentoring
program research literature. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that the instrument used in this
study met the acceptable standards of validity and reliability analyses. Thus, the results of SmartPLS
path model showed that mentoring program does act as an important predictor of mentees academic
performance in the organizational sample. This result has also supported and extended mentoring
program research literature mostly published in Western countries. Therefore, current research and
practice within mentoring programs need to consider communication and support as crucial elements in
the higher education student development program. This study further suggests that the capability of
mentors to properly practice comfortable communication and provide adequate support will be essential
factors that may enhance subsequent positive mentee outcomes (e.g., self-efficacy, satisfaction,
19
commitment, career, leadership skills and ethics). Thus, these positive outcomes may lead to maintained
and supported the higher learning institutions strategis and goals.
The conclusions drawn from this study should consider the following limitations. First, a crosssectional research design used to gather data at one time within the period of study might not capture
the causal connections between variables of interest. Second, this study does not specify the relationship
between specific indicators for the independent variable and dependent variable. Third, the outcomes of
SmartPLS path model have only focused on the level of performance variation explained by the
regression equations, but there are still a number of unexplained factors that affect the causal
relationship among variables and their relative explanatory power. Finally, the sample for this study was
taken from one institution of higher learning that allowed the researchers to gather data via survey
questionnaires. These limitations may decrease the ability to generalize the results of this study to other
organizational settings.
The conceptual and methodological limitations of this study should be considered when
designing future research. First, several organizational and personal characteristics should be further
explored, as this may provide meaningful perspectives for understanding how individual similarities and
differences influence the mentoring program within an organization. Second, other research designs
(e.g., longitudinal studies) should be used to collect data and describe the patterns of change and the
direction and magnitude of causal relationships between variables of interest (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010;
Zikmund, 2000). Third, to fully understand the effect of mentoring program on mentee attitudes and
behaviors, more organizations need to be used in future study. Fourth, other specific theoretical
constructs of mentoring program, such as learning abilities, decision making, and assignment need to be
considered because they have widely been recognized as an important link between mentoring
relationship and many aspects of individual attitudes and behavior (Davis, 2007; Dutton, 2003). Finally,
other outcomes of mentee like self-efficacy, transfer of knowledge, skills and ability, positive change,
and career help should be considered because they are given more attention in mentoring program
research literature (Fox et al., 2010; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Ismail et al., 2006; Ismail & Ridzwan,
2012). The importance of these issues needs to be further explained in future studies.
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22
Andi Musriani, Mustamin. (2014). Improving the Learning Result of the Integer
Number Operation Using Card Model. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8
(1) pp. 23-28.
Improving the Learning Result of the Integer Number

Operation Using Card Model
Andi Musriani *
Mustamin **
Abstrak
Pendidikan merupakan suatu rekayasa teaching untuk mengendalikan learning untuk mencapai tujuan secara
efektif dan efisien. Konsep tersebut menjadi asas bagi guru untuk senantiasa melakukan inovasi dalam proses
pembelajaran, khususnya mata pelajaran matematika yang dianggap sulit oleh sebagian besar siswa. Sebagai
contoh, berdasarkan hasil pretest yang dilakukan oleh penulis sebagian besar mereka salah dalam menentukan
hasil operasi dari -3 + (-2) and -3 (-2). Hasil penelitian tindakan kelas ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat
peningkatan hasil belajar operasi bilangan bulat dengan menggunakan model kartu dari siklus I dengan rata
rata 7,40 menjadi 9,30 pada siklus II. Oleh itu, metode penggunaan model kartu ini bisa menjadi satu inovasi
pembelajaran operasi bilangan bulat khususnya pada sekolah dasar.
Kata kunci:
Abstract
The education poses a teaching engineering to control learning to reach goal effectively and efficiently. This
concept is a base of teacher for frequently to do innovation in the learning process. For example, based on the
pretest result has been done of writer most of the students have wrong to determine operation result of -3 + (-2)
and -3 (-2). This result of classroom action research shows that there is an increase of the student result in the
integer number operation by using card model from cycle I to II with an average value 7.40 to 9.30. Therefore,
this using of card model metode can be one of innovation to learn about the integer number operation specially
for elementary school.
Keywords: the integer number operation, using of card model, teaching and learning mathematics innovation
Andi Musriani; mathematics teacher at SMA Negeri 4 Bantimurung Maros District

E-mail: ahmad_jaelani_ilyas@yahoo.co.id
**
Mustamin; mathematics teacher at SMA Negeri 1 Maros, Maros District

E-mail: mustamin_sman1maros@yahoo.co.id
Introduction
The education constitutes an engineering to control learning for reaching a goal that has been
planned effectively and efficiently. In the engineering process, the role of teaching is very important
because it poses the activity of the teacher for transferring the knowledge, skill and value to their
student so that what is transferred to have meaningful for student self and useful to community
(Slameto, 2003). For facing the challenges, it has been needed the high power resource and can compete
globally so that it needs the high skill of thinking, critics, systematic, logic, creative and willing to work
together effectively. This way of thinking can be developed by mathematics education, it is so possible
because the mathematics has a clear structure with the strength association to others, as well as
patterning the deductive thinking and consistent. The mathematics also poses a tool that can be clear
and simple of the condition and situation by abstraction, idealization or generalization for a study of
problem solving (Pusat Kurikulum, 2006).
The reality of using in learning media

Mathematics learning management orients to teacher readiness to provide matter subject such
as planning the various aspects that needs to be considered by the media used and its relevance with
evaluation tool. According to document of Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006) that the age of
junior students are characterized by the wide range of capabilities as the following; (1) able to
communicate actively with their friends, (2) have a wide vocabulary of verbs, adjectives, situation,
question words and conjunctions, (3) demonstrate insight and understanding about something, (4) able
to express thoughts, feeling and action by using simple sentences, and (5) able to read and express
something through pictures.
It is the other statement that Technology plays an important role in enriching the educational
process (Cenk and Sevdane, 2013).
The integer number operation is a basic and very important subject matter for elementary
school. Based on research result of Rahmiah and Mustamin (2007) have revealed that some of the
previous teaching that must be considered in developing the students the cognitive ability through
learning management is good, one of them is use of the media as a medium of meaningful learning.
Teachers should learn, explore and utilize various kinds of instruction organization and teaching
methods: inquiry learning, cooperative learning, problem-solving in daily life, role playing, simulation,
collecting information, concept mapping, constructivist (Hallak, 2000).
The method of delivery or presentation of using in learning media to their students so that the
learning is interesting and the students can pay the close attention to what the teacher teaches. Students
can ask if they dont understand. Students can answer the questions, and furthermore what the teacher
says so student can express it. In the high school learning guidelines have followed the principles of
learning as the following; the principle of appreciation, concreteness and motivation, independence,
cooperation, individualization, correlation and lifelong learning (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional,
2010).
The main task of the teacher creates in an atmosphere or climate of learning that can improve
students motivation to continue the learning spirit. According to Usman (1993) that with a challenging
learning climate in a healthy competition and student motivation for learning, will positively impact to
the achievement of optimal learning result. Contrarily, without that will not the students actively
respond. Therefore, the teachers should have an ability to choose the method and at once using an
instructional media in the learning process. As we know that the learning media is very helpful an
instructional media delivery of content matter, so that the presence of the learning media has still been
adapted at all the subject characteristics. According to author that one of media can be used to explain
the integer number operation concept is use of card models with positive and negative mark. As a logic
consequence inaccuracy by using of method and the learning media often causes problems to learn
students such as in the learning boredom, less understand of material and finally the student becomes
apathetic. Therefore, to avoid it the teacher should be quite careful, choosing and using the learning
media to teach his or her students.
The various mathematics learning strategies can be used for improving the student learning
motivation one of which is the teacher should do three things, (1) the teacher can move, develop of all
the student capabilities, (2) to become that what has been transferred be challenge for his or her self, so
that the student has intrinsic motivation to learn, (3) examine in depth of the material is transferred
resulting in linkages with other knowledge. The policy in the learning innovation currently, be aware or
not more toward addressed to a consumption with relative to the high Intellectual student. In fact, it
shows that the student has with high intellectual is more or less 10 percent, the other word that the
24
education policy and reformation have implemented only favorable for 10 percent of students were
proficient.
In the demonstration, the teacher and student demonstrate using card models then other
student. Hence, the demonstration is always followed an experiment. Using of Card models in this
research is such as a picture below:
Figure 1. Card models
Research methodology
The type of this research is classroom action research. Classroom action research poses a
design and evaluation procedure in collecting and analysing data systematically for determining value
and beneficially in a education practice at the institution. The education practice that is examined such
as process of learning management including planning, implementation, assessment of learning about
mathematics education. It develops of student cognitive capabilities with using card as a media will be
held 8 times of meeting. This research has been implemented for students class X with member of 27
students consisting of 10 males and 17 females.
This research refers to a collaborative research model is a research done together with
researcher, teacher and school principals. This research consists of four steps, namely; (1) planning, (2)
action, (3) observing, and (4) reflecting. Implementation of this action research is on two cycles, that is,
cycle 1 and 2. Each cycle performed refers with a goal will be achieved.
This matter is looked at research design based on Kemmis and Taggart (2003) as a picture
below.
Figure 2. Cycle of action research
Learning research result to aspect of daily test using instrument which is prepared such as
explained. Description of the daily test result is showed on the distribution of frequencies as below after
conducted the data conversion in three scales with using a converter by Sudjijono (1995) below:
Table 1. The formula of data conversion in three scales

Conversion method
Skor M SD
M SD Skor M + SD
Skor M + SD
Categories
Low
Middle
High
25
where;
M = Mean of data
SD = Deviasion Standard of data
Action conduction
1.
General description on the cycle I.

Plan step in this research consists of two cycles with description of implementation on the
following; (1) on the cycle of one is conducted with explaining the sub topic of the integer number
about addition and subtraction operation and its term. Whereas, the conducted process is begun with
planning up to reflection that explained such as; planning step, the activities conducted are; (a) to
determine the matter agreed with mathematics teacher class X linkage to the curriculum of education
unity level; (b) research time provides with school time learning; (c) to make the learning plan with
implementation using card model the negative and positive sign in the learning to each class meeting;
(d) to make the test for assessing the student capabilities in solving the problem based on the researched
aspect; and (e) to make the observation sheet for recording the student activities in the learning process.
Action step. Based on the learning planning has been made with using card model as a
learning media, then in the each meeting classroom the teacher explains about matter of the integer
number operation especially about addition and subtraction operation and assesses students capabilities
to solve of the problem. Example, the teacher demonstrates how to solve -3 + (-2) and -3 (-2) of the
following. Based on the operation result, we have found that -3 + (-2) = -5 and -3 (-2) = -1.
Figure 2. Addition and subtraction operation
Observation and evaluation step. Basically the conducted observation and evaluation process
when the learning process is in the classroom with using observation sheet by teacher assistant as an
observer. The evaluation of result learning is conducted on the last of the learning process for knowing
student capabilities solving problem of addition and subtraction the integer number.
Reflection step. In this step poses analysis of result observation and evaluation was collected.
The evaluation results obtained can be used as a reference to assess how extent of success and failure,
while achieving goals and formulating a repair plan for the future learning (cycle II).
2.
General description on the cycle II.

The cycle II is a continuation of the cycle I that action procedure is similar, but in the cycle II
poses to repair of the plan till process. In this cycle makes plan for to the deep implementation of the
following; (1) on the cycle I the students activities in the learning process are not good appear yet,
because sometimes some students have a bad attitude and they do not attend the teacher lesson yet; (2)
as the caused problem of number (1) has influenced their student learning result is still low; and (3)
using card model in the learning process is not maximum yet. Therefore, strategy that used on this cycle
is planning to revise about these problems especially the learning process climate the used problem
solving method with using card models, the teacher should explain about the rule of students in the
learning process; and the teacher appreciates to his students when they have capabilities to solve of the
problems has been given.
Research result
The obtained data is analysed with qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis is
used to analyse of strength or weakness of learning method l during on the learning process.
26
Meanwhile, quantitative analysis is used to analyse of quantitative data such as an exam result on the
cycle I and cycle II. Results of this research is showed in the table 2 below.
Table 2. Distribution of student results on the cycle of I and II

Data
Skor 6
6 Skor 8,5
Skor 8,5
Cycle I
5
17
5
Cycle II
0
16
11
Categories
Low
Middle
High
Based on the table above has been obtained that student results on the cycle I is more better
than cycle II. On the cycle I exists 5 students have low categories with score is under 6 while on the
cycle II just exists 0 student. Meanwhile, on the cycle I the students have score between 6 and 8.5 exist
17 students compared on cycle II only 16 students, and the last on the cycle I the students have score
8.5 above exist 5 while on the cycle II exist 11 students. In the other aspect is average of learning
result also shows that on the cycle I has average 7.39 and 9.30 on the cycle II. So that these improving
of results is caused from many factors and one factor is the teacher has used card models in learning
process to teach material about the integer number operation.
Conclusion and Suggestion

Based on this research results, some conclusion will be made on the following; (1) the learning
process of the integer number operation can be conducted with using card models as a media; (2) using
from card models in the learning process will improve the student learning result especially the integer
number operation and it is term; and (3) using card models in the learning process will be good more of
the learning climate condition. So that, some suggestions are proposed to school principals and
especially in mathematics teacher for considerating of this method in the learning process about the
integer number operation, so for the next time can be improved of student learning result.
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Balitbang Depdiknas
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Rahmiah dan Mustamin (2012). Upaya Peningkatan Efektivitas Proses Belajar Sistem Koordinat
Cartesius dengan Penggunaan Peta Buatan. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.6 (2) pp.
99-108
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Sudjijono, Anas (1995). Pengantar Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Grafindo Persada
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28
Qaiser Suleman, Ishtiaq Hussain. (2014). Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic
Achievement of Secondary School Students in Subject of Mathematics in Kohat
Division, Pakistan. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 29-40.
Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of

Secondary School Students in Subject of Mathematics in
Kohat Division, Pakistan
Qaiser Suleman *
Ishtiaq Hussain **
Abstract
Research reveals that private or home tuition after school time plays a crucial role in strengthening and improving
students academic achievement. The purpose of the study was to explore the effects of private tuition on the
academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school level. All the students at
secondary school level in Kohat Division (Pakistan) constituted the population of the study. The study was
delimited to the students of Government High School Ahmadi Banda Karak only. Fifty students of class 09 were
selected as sample of the study. Sample students were divided into two groups i.e. control group and experimental
group by equating them on the basis of their previous knowledge in subject of mathematics as determined through a
pre-test. Each group was composed of 25 students. Students of the experimental group were engaged in tuition for
two hours after school time. The study was experimental in nature therefore, The pre-test-post-test Equivalent
Groups Design was used for the collection of data. Statistical tools i.e. the mean, standard deviation and
differences of means were computed for each group. Significance of difference between the mean scores of both
the experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test and post test scores was tested at 0.05 levels by
applying t-test. After statistical analysis of the data, the researchers concluded that there is significant positive
effect of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school
level. Based on the findings, it was recommended that parents should arrange private tuition for their children to
move up their achievement level in subject of mathematics.
Keywords: Effects; Private Tuition; Academic Achievement; Secondary School Students; Mathematics
M.Phil (Education), Institute of Eduation & Research, Kohat University of Science & Technology Kohat, Khyber
Pakhtukhwa, Pakistan
Email: look_for_reality@yahoo.com
Phone: 0092-3139043454
**
Assistatnt Professor, Institute of Eduation & Research, Kohat University of Science & Technology Kohat,
Khyber Pakhtukhwa, Pakistan
Email: dr.ishtiaqkust@gmail.com
Phone: 0092-3335161441
INTRODUCTION
In Pakistan, majority of the parents provides tuition facilities for their children to improve their
academic performance. There are some reasons for which they arrange tuition for their children. Firstly,
some parents are uneducated or illiterate and secondly some parents are educated but have no time and
remain too much busy to improve their economical position. Therefore, they come late to their homes. It
is a reality that parents spent a lot of their economy on their children education but they are not able to
look after their academic activities. Research shows that parental involvement and participations play a
fundamental role in increasing the level of educational attainment of their children. Parents engage
some tutors at home for making up the academic deficiencies and for increasing the academic abilities
of their children. For this purpose, professional tutors are appointed for tutoring the children at home
and gradually this trend of tutoring is being converted into a tradition rather an academic requirement
(Atta, et al., 2011).
Home tuition is regarded as a very important instrument for the educational achievements of
children. At secondary school level, students require guidance to compete with their class fellows and to
get admissions in the most reputed and highly ranking educational institutions. In addition, it is very
imperative to provide assistance to the students to do their homework properly which is assigned to him
by the teachers. Furthermore, at secondary school level, courses are lengthy and tough therefore, it
requires proper guidance and continuous supervision from parents. Home tuition is the best solution to
these problems. Hence home tuition facilities should be provided to children whose parents are not able
to participate with them in their academic activities. In addition, there are a lot of tuition academies,
centers and coaching centers which are available in almost every corner of the urban as well as in rural
areas of the country. These academies and centers provide teaching and guiding help in all the subject
areas. But home tuition is regarded as more effective and successful because in tuition academies,
students are put together in large group to tutoring purpose and hence individual attention is ignored
(Atta, et al., 2011).
Now-a-days, in Pakistan, trend of home or private tuition is commonly observed in almost
every corner of the rural and urban areas especially in subject of mathematics because mathematics is
tougher as compared to the other subjects. The main reasons of this trend are the poor performance of
teachers, lack of mathematics teachers in institutions, extraordinary involvement of students in cocurricular activities etc. This is why majority of the parents especially in urban areas arrange private
tuition for their children to raise the level of their academic achievement, to make up their academic
deficiencies and to keep them busy.
The current research paper was specially designed to explore whether home or private tuition is
beneficial in subject of mathematics or not. The principal researcher has been teaching mathematics at
secondary school level for several years and therefore he was interested to conduct research study to
explore the importance of tuition in subject of mathematics at secondary level. The findings of the study
is beneficial for the students at secondary level because the researchers expect that through this study,
the importance and effectiveness of the private tuition in subject of mathematics will be explored and
that is why students at secondary school level will improve their academic performance in subject of
mathematics through private or home tuition.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature is divided into two sections i.e. Section A which is about
mathematics and the section B is about tuition. So these are discussed section wise as under:
SECTION A
What is Mathematics?
Mathematics is derived from Greek word mathema which means knowledge, study and
learning. It is an area of knowledge which deals with quality, space, structure and change (Free online
Wikipedia). Mathematics is the science of measurement, quality and magnitude. According to the new
English dictionary, mathematics in a strict sense, is the obstruct science which is the basic conception of
spatial and numerical relations. Mathematics also refers to the science of number and space. Its
equivalent in Hindi or Punjabi is Ganita which refers to the science of computation or calculation.
Mathematics is a systematized, precise and organized science (Bashir, 2000). Mathematics is a
discipline of accurate, precise and logical analysis which provides us tools to describe, abstract and
deals with the world and world ideas in a logical and intelligent way (Schoenfeld, 1982).
No doubt, mathematics is playing a fundamental role in everyday life. It has affected every
aspect of society. There is no aspect of human life in which mathematics is not involved. Its knowledge
is used in banking, educational institutions, industry, accounts, homes, shops, agriculture, business,
30

science, research etc. There is a general agreement that every child has to study mathematics at school.
Mathematical education is considered very important and crucial because without the application of
mathematics, we cannot imagine a social life. Therefore, children are pressurized to succeed in
mathematics as compared to other subjects i.e. history or geography. That is why mathematics is a
subject of special importance (Sheerazi, 2000). An effective and sound education in mathematics is
essential for any modern knowledge based economy. Mathematics is now playing an important and
crucial role in many areas where it has not formerly played much of role i.e. in biology and social
sciences etc. If we fail to lay proper mathematical foundations during the formative years of childhood
and adolescence, it will become increasingly difficult to cope with this weakness in the later life. The
efforts to deal with these weaknesses and shortcomings during retraining in later life are usually
meaningless and only successful to some extent (Parveen, 2009). Iqbal (2004) stated that the progress in
science and technology is due to the knowledge of mathematics because it has enabled man to send
satellites into space, to on other planets, to communicate through information technology, to launch
guided missiles and send airships without pilots. Thus teaching and learning of mathematics occupies
the important crucial position in social needs.
According to Gall and Hicks (1964), mathematics has played a vital role in science,
technology, industry, business, and agriculture. Mathematical study has been linked with habits of
effective thinking, intellectual independence, aesthetic appreciation and creative expression. Until now
we accepted these objectives and opportunities to become stagnant until the challenges and issues of the
modern world startled as out of our satisfaction. In the contemporary world, mathematics is being
increasingly applied in science, technology, government, industry, economics and education. If a nation
wants to ensure the production of men and women able to deal with the subject of mathematics at these
higher levels, then it has to ensure the provision of proper foundations at secondary level (Farooq, et al.,
2005).
Prof. Khawaja Masud stated that when the Soviet Union threw sputnik into the space in 1957
the Americans were astonished. They found out that deficiency in mathematics had let them down.
They overhauled the entire curriculum, putting mathematics and science in its centre. Within a short
period of ten years they landed a man on the moon (Suleman & Latif, 2006). It shows that mathematics
is key subject and therefore it is imperative to pay proper attention on mathematics. Its curriculum
should be reviewed and redesigned so that it may fulfill the emerging needs and demands of the
contemporary society. In this way, soon Pakistan will also stand in the line of the most developed
nations of the world.
Goals and Objectives of Mathematics Education
The national council of teachers of mathematics (NCTM) has identified five main goals which
are essential for the fulfillment of students mathematical needs for 21st century. These are described as
under:
The first goal of mathematics education is to value mathematics. Mathematics should be taught in
such way that ensure for students that mathematics has value for them, therefore they should be
encouraged and motivated to continue studying mathematics as long as they are in school or away
from school. Students should appreciate the cultural, historical, and scientific evaluation and
importance of mathematics. A key to valuing mathematics is personal support and encouragement
for learning mathematics from valued others.
The second goal of mathematics education is to reason mathematically. Students have to learn, to
collect evidences, make assumptions, to formulate models, invent counter-examples and build
authentic arguments to clarify complex situations. In this way, they will be able to develop an
informed skepticism and sharp insight characteristic of mathematical prospective. Sound reasoning
should be valued as much as students ability to explore the accurate results.
The third goal of mathematics education is to communicate mathematics. For this purpose students
have to learn to read, write and speak about mathematics. As students try hard to communicate their
ideas therefore they learn to clarify, refine and strengthen their thinking.
The fourth goal of mathematics education is to develop confidence in students ability to reason
mathematically. Ability to deal with the mathematical demands of everyday life depends on the
attitudes which students develop toward mathematics. To learn and utilize mathematics, students
must have self-confidence and self-efficiency made on success. Students should be known that
mathematics is a common and well-known human activity.
The fifth and last goal of mathematics education is to solve problems. Students should be able to
apply a wide range of mathematical methods and techniques to solve problems. Students should be
handed over a wide range of problems which are different in context, length, complexity,
31
procedures and methods. Students need to recast unclear problems in a form amenable to analysis,
to select proper strategies for the solution of problems, to recognize and formulate several solutions
when that is appropriate, to work with others in getting agreement on solutions that are effective,
useful as well as logical. For productive and useful citizenship, skills in problem solving are very
important (Sheerazi, 2000).
According to Serieux (2000), the following are the main goals of mathematics education:
To build up the awareness that mathematics is useful and worth learning subject.
To provide mathematical experiences that will facilitate the students to deal with and understand
their surroundings.
To develop skills for mathematical problem-solving.
To promote a sense of achievement in mathematics.
To provide such learning experiences that stimulates interest in mathematics.
To develop the capability to think critically and reason logically.
Objectives of Teaching Mathematics at Secondary School Level
At secondary school level, following are the main objectives of teaching mathematics:
To equip students with the ability to acquire understating of concepts of Mathematics and to use
them for the solution of the problems of the world they live in.
To make up the sound base of the students in mathematics for specialization at higher levels or to
make them able to utilize it in scientific and technical fields.
To enable the students to reason consistently, to draw correct conclusions for given hypotheses; and
to inculcate in them a habit of examining any situation critically and analytically.
To equip the learners with the ability to communicate their thoughts through symbolic expressions
and graphs.
To build up sense of dissimilarity between relevant and irrelevant data.
To provide the students with the basic understanding and awareness of the power of Mathematics
in generalization and abstraction.
To promote the spirit of exploration and discovery in students (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002).
SECTION B
Concept of Tutoring and Tutor
Tutoring refers to the individuals who are not teachers professionally but they assist and
support the learning of others in an in an interactive, purposeful, systematic and efficient way.
Generally it is performed on a one-to-one basis, in a pair. These tutors can be parents; brothers and
sisters; other family members; other learners from the peer groups and a wide range of volunteers. To
assist others in learning, tutors often learn themselves (Topping, 2000). The function of tutoring is to
assist and facilitate learners. Tutors help or facilitate students to become self-sufficient and independent
learners who can perform on their own. The aim of tutoring is to improve the learning of a student in the
classroom or outside the classroom. A tutor facilitates learning for individuals or small groups. Tutors
are also role models for their learners and they possess knowledge and skills and share them with their
learners. They are expected to assist learners in clarification of concepts by using different techniques
and strategies such as evaluating class materials, discussing the text, working on sample problems, and
predicting test questions (Source: http://www.wcupa.edu).
Tutoring is a very old practice. It was commonly practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome and is
recorded in ancient texts even before them. Over the centuries it has gone up and down in popularity,
but it has never gone away. Tutors do not require to be experts in the skill or content they are teaching.
But it is generally better if they know a bit more than as compared to their tutees. However, if tutors are
much more educated and trained than the tutees, they are expected to become bored with the content the
tutee has to learn, and will not gain much themselves (Topping, 2000). Tutoring provides individualized
instruction, customized to learners own way of learning, and an environment in which students progress
at their own speed and receive praise, feedback, and encouragement over what they might receive from
one teacher. Tutoring maximizes time on task, and students see skills demonstrated instead of just
verbalized (Fager, 1996). Atta, et al (2011) conducted a study to know the effects of private home
tuition on educational attainments of students at secondary school level in Dera Ismail Khan (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa) Pakistan and concluded that there is a significant effect of private home tuition on the
educational attainments of 10th class students for rural and urban schools. They concluded that there is a
32

direct relationship between the two variables i.e. more time spent on tuition more will be the
educational attainment.
A private tutor is a private teacher who teaches a specific educational subject or skill to an
individual student or small group of students. This practice enables a student to enhance his knowledge
or skill for more rapidly than in a traditional classroom situation. These private tutors are frequently
appointed and paid by the student, the students family members or an agency. Some of these tutors are
used for remedial students or some are appointed for students who need special attention; many provide
more advanced material for extremely talented and highly motivated students, or in the context of home
schooling. Tutoring also takes place when one adult assists another adult student to study a specific
course or subject that he is taking to get an excellent result. The adult can also let the student work on
his own and can be there if the student has any questions (Free online Wikipedia Encyclopedia).
Trend of home tuition is increasingly adopted in every area of the country especially in urban
areas. In urban areas kidnapping is a common practice therefore majority of the rich parents arrange
tuition for their children at home. In addition, there are various academies and tuitions centers in every
corner of the country to promote quality education. These academies or tuitions centers play a
significant role in raising the achievement level of the students. However, home tuition is more
beneficial and effective as compared to the private tuition which takes place in academies or tuition
centers. Home tuition is safe and student is given special attention individually. Home tutoring is a type
of tutoring that takes place in the home. Tutoring is instruction or receiving guidance by a tutor.
Benefits of Tutoring
According to Ngiam (2010), following are the benefits of private tutoring:
Students get more attention as compared to the regular classroom activities.
Due to the private home tuition, the achievement level can be increased.
With the help of private home tuition, parents can improve the classroom performance of their
children.
Through private home tuition, communication and interaction between students and teachers
ensured. In this way the students can find the answer of each and every question from their tutor.
Due to private home tuition, the participation and involvement of the parents can be ensured in
each and every academic activity of their children. mental Educational Services
According to Goh (2010), as each and every child is different and performs differently at home
and in schools. Some children are very talented and some need extra attention. In order to meet this
competency, private home tuition has become essential for each and every student. A brilliant student
needs private home tuition to compete with other while weak students need it for achieving good marks.
There are a number of benefits of private home tuition for both student and parents. Some of them are
described as under:
Private home tuition causes an additional attention. In traditional classroom system, teachers are
not able to pay their attention individually to each student. In private home tuition, the teachers
provide special attention to the students.
Private home tuition improves learning styles of the students. Private home tuition assists the
students to build confidence and thus they can accelerate their learning process. That is why it can
be rightly said that private home tuition is very important and crucial for the students to explore the
most effective and useful learning styles.
Private home tuition improves academic performance of the students. Sometimes the students feel
difficulty in some tough subjects but due to private home tuition, they are able to concentrate more
attention on those difficult subjects. It is recommended that the students should take full advantage
and try different exercises to improve their performance.
Private home tuition causes personalized relationship. In private home tuition, the students are able
to share their opinions and thoughts and difficulties with their teacher and they feel closer and
inform them about the weaker subjects which are not possible in the regular classroom sessions.
Private home tuition open every communication channel for teachers and students in which they
participate and remove difficulties.
Private home tuition causes parents involvement. In private home tuition, parents are able to keep
track of the performance of their children; also they are able to get involved with the teachers to
observe the progress of their children. Through private home tuition, the parents are being well
informed about each and every activity of their child.
33
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The paper under research was specially designed to explore the effects of private tuition on the
academic achievement of secondary school students in subject of mathematics. Therefore, the statement
of the problem was entitled as Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of Secondary
School Students in Subject of Mathematics in Kohat Division, Pakistan.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study were:
1. to explore the effects of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in the subject of
Mathematics at secondary school level; and
2. to suggest workable recommendations for the enhancement of students academic achievement in
subject of mathematics at secondary school level
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

The following three null hypotheses were developed for the achievement of above mentioned
objectives:
1. There is no significant different between the performance of control & experimental groups on pretest.
post-test.
retention test.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Population of the Study
All the secondary school students in Kohat Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan)
constituted the population of the study.
2. Sample & Sampling Technique
Forty students of class 09 of the Government High School Ahmadi Banda Karak were selected
as sample through simple random sampling technique. Sample students were classified into two groups
i.e. control group and experimental group. In each group, 25 students were included.
3. Delimitations of the Study
The study was delimited only to the students of Government High School Ahmadi Banda
Karak. The study was further delimited to the students of 09th class. The study was also delimited to the
following four units in subject of mathematics:
Table 1. Detail of the Units of Mathematics Studied during Experiment

S. No.
1.
2.
Set
Algebraic Expression
S. No
3.
4.
UNITS
Factorization
Matrices
4. Appointment of Teachers for Experimentation

As the study was experimental in nature, therefore, two mathematics teachers having equal
qualifications and teaching experience were selected. Provision of such teachers was a strenuous and
tiring job for the researchers but after great efforts, they succeeded in providing mathematics teachers
with equal teaching experience and qualifications. Both these teachers have been serving in elementary
and secondary education department in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa since 2005. Their qualifications were
M.Sc (Mathematics) and B.Ed.
For the students of experimental group, tuition arrangement was made after school time in
subject of mathematics by the principal researcher himself because he has a vast experience in teaching
of mathematics as he has been teaching mathematics for several years at secondary school level. In this
way, students of experimental group were engaged in tuition for two hours after school time.
34

5. Research Design
Research design is an important stage of a research study. Precise results of a research study
depend upon the effectiveness of research design and instrument. This study was experimental in
nature, therefore, The pre-test-post-test Equivalent Groups Design was carried out. According to this
design, subjects are randomly adjusted to the both groups. Following is the symbolic representation of
the design:
R
R
E
C
=
=
O1
O3
O2
O4
Where
R = Denotes for Randomly selected
E = Denotes for Experimental Group
C = Denotes for Control Group
O = Denotes for Observation or Measurement
T = Denotes for the experimental treatment
6. Instrumentation
The study was experimental type and therefore pre-test and post-test technique was used for
the collection of data. To collect data from both groups i.e. control and experimental groups, a question
paper was made in the four chapters of mathematics and then distributed among the participants of both
groups before the treatment as pr-test. Likewise, another question paper was made and distributed
among the students of both groups after treatment as post-test. These two question papers were used as
a research tool.
7. Data Collection
In order to collect data, the researchers along with other two mathematics teachers
administered a pre-test, post-test and then a retention test to the both groups. For this purpose, question
papers were developed covering the four units of the mathematics. In this way, raw data was collected
by the conduction of both tests.
8. Data Analysis
For the analysis of data, raw scores obtained from tests i.e. pre-test, post-test and retention test
were presented in tabular form. Statistical tools i.e., mean, standard deviation, and differences of means
were calculated for each group. Significance of difference between the mean scores of both the
experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test scores, post test scores and retention test
scores was tested at 0.05 levels by applying t-test.
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of private tuition on the academic
achievement of secondary school students in subject of mathematics. The study was experimental type
and pre-test and post-test technique was used as research instrument. Sample students were classified
into two groups on the basis of pre-test scores i.e., control group and experimental group. Both these
groups were taught by two mathematics teachers. For the students of experimental group, tuition
arrangement was made after school time in subject of mathematics by the principal researcher himself
because he has a vast experience in teaching of mathematics. In this way, students were engaged in
tuition for two hours. This experiment was completed in eight weeks. Then, the researchers along with
two other mathematics teachers administered a post-test immediately to investigate whether students of
experimental group have learnt well as compared to the students of control group. For this purpose the
teachers made question papers covering the four chapters of mathematics which were taught during
treatment for the both groups. After two weeks, the researchers again administered the same post-test
with slight changes in the sequences of the questions as a retention test to the students of both groups. In
this way data was collected and compared. The whole statistical process is explained as under:
Ho 1:
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental

groups on pre-test.
35
Table 2. Significance of difference between the mean scores on pre-test of control and experimental
groups
GROUPS
N
EXPERIMENTAL
25
CONTROL
25
Non-Significant (p>0.05) df = 48
Mean
43.64
43.60
SD
2.68
2.78
SE
t-value
p-value
0.77
0.052
0.96
Table 2 illustrates that the calculated value of t was found to be 0.052 which is statistically
non-significant as it is less than the critical table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on pretest is accepted. It unambiguously shows that the students of both groups showed equal performance
on pre-test. It was further explained by the followng graph:
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mean
SD
Figure 1. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Pre-Test
Ho 2:
There is no significant difference between the performance of the control and

experimental groups on post-test.
Table 3. Significance of difference between the mean scores on post-test of control group and
experimental group
GROUPS
EXPERIMENTAL
CONTROL
N
25
25
Mean
91.24
67.60
SD
1.88
3.79
SE
t-value
p-value
00.85
27.94*
0.00
Table 3 depicts that the computed value of t was found to be 27.94 which is statistically
significant as it is greater than the critical table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that
There is no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on posttest is rejected. It clearly indicates that the students of experimental group showed significantly
excellent performance as compared to the students of control group on post-test. It was further clarified
by the following graph:
36

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean
SD
Figure 2. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Post-Test
Ho 3:
There is no significant difference between the performance of control and experimental

groups on retention test.
Table 4. Significance of difference between the mean scores on retention test of control and
experimental groups
GROUPS
N
Mean
SD
SE
t-value
p-value
EXPERIMENTAL
25
86.04
2.51
00.63
33.23*
0.00
CONTROL
25
65.04
1.92
Table 4 indicates that the computed value of t was found to be 33.23 which is statistically
significant as it is greater than the table value of t at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis that There is
no significant different between the performance of control and experimental groups on retention test
is rejected. It explicitly depicts that the students of experimental group showed significantly excellent
performance as compared to the students of control group on retention test. It was further clarified by
the following graph:
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean
SD
Figure 3. Showing the Mean and SD of Experimetnal and Control Groups on Retention Test
37
CONCLUSIONS
After statistical analysis of the data, the researchers arrived at the following conclusions:
1. There is a significant positive effect of private tuition on the academic achievement of students in
subject of mathematics at secondary level. Private tuition is very effective in raising the
achievement level of students in subject of mathematics. Furthermore, tuition was found more
effective in clarifying difficult concepts of students in subject of mathematics.
2. The students of experimental group showed surprising better performance than the students of
control group. Private tuition was found to be more effective and useful because each student was
given special attention by the tutor. In addition, it was also found effective in raising the
motivational level of the students. Retention of the students of experimental group was also found
much better than that of the students of control group.
Concluding Remarks
In nutshell, it was concluded that private tuition has a significant positive effect on the
academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school level.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Keeping in view the above conclusions, the researchers make some recommendations which
are described as under:
1. As private tuition is very effective in raising the achievement level of the students in subject of
mathematics therefore, it is strongly recommended that parents should arrange home tuition for
their children to increase their achievement level in subject of mathematics.
2. Generally mathematics is considered a very difficult and complicated subject as compared to the
other science subjects therefore it is strongly recommended that educated parents should teach their
children at home or arrange private tuition after school time.
3. Homework plays a remarkable role in strengthening and enhancing students academic
performance therefore it is strongly recommended that teachers should assign homework to
students especially in subject to mathematics. In this way students will give time to study at home
to complete their homework. In addition, mathematics teachers are advised to arrange weekly test
to enhance the performance of students in subject of mathematics. In this way, students will be
bound to study at home.
4. Extraordinary involvement in co-curricular activities especially cricket and volleyball badly effects
students academic performance. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that students should not be
allowed for extraordinary involvement in co-curricular activities. Parents can play this role and they
are advised to forbid their children from playing cricket and other games like football, volleyball.
Parents are also advised to pay full attention on their children education at home. They should
develop a time table for their children regarding homework and studies.
5. Majority of our institutions at secondary school level lack of mathematics teachers. In addition,
majority of the in-service mathematics teachers are not competent and possess poor knowledge and
teaching methodologies that is why students show unsatisfactory performance in subject of
mathematics. Therefore it is strongly recommended that competent mathematics teachers should be
appointed through competitive and transparent examination.
6. Appointment of the teachers should be made according to the strength of students so that teachers
may pay proper attention to each student individually. In this way, students academic achievement
in subject of mathematics will be improved.
7. In-service mathematics teachers should be given special training in mathematics and teaching
methodologies to enhance their teaching performance.
Recommendations for Further Studies

1.
2.
3.
38
The researchers make the recommendations for future study which are described as under:
It is recommended that such type of study should be conducted at elementary, higher secondary and
tertiary level.
It is also recommended that such type of study should be conducted in other districts and provinces
of the country as well as in other subjects i.e., English, chemistry, biology, physics etc.
It is also recommended that such type of study should be conducted on female population at
elementary, secondary and higher secondary level.

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p. 58.59
Gall, M. and Hicks, W.V. (1964). Modern Secondary Education American Book Company, New York,
p. 184.
Govt. of Pakistan (2002). National Curriculum Mathematics for IX-X. Islamabad: Ministry of
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Countries (Vols. 1&2) New York: John Wiley.
Iqbal, M. (2004). Effect of Cooperative Learning in Academic Achievement of Secondary School
Students in Mathematics (Unpublished P.hD. thesis) University of Arid Agriculture
Rawalpindi (Pakistan), pp. 2-3
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Mathematics Education (p. 356). Reston, V.A: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
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www.eduactiongov./c/edu.com/mathematics.htmal
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Thesis, Hamdard Institute of Education & Social Sciences, Hamdard University Karachi
(Pakistan). p. 16-17: 99
Suleman, Q. & Latif, S. (2005). A-One Mathematics Guide/Class Notes for Class 10. Latif Brothers
Publishers Qissa Khawani Peshawar, Pakistan. p. 366
Topping, K. (2000). Tutoring: by the International Academy of Education (IAE), Palais des Academies,
1, rue Ducale, 1000 Brussels, Belgium, and the International Bureau of Education (IBE), P.O.
Box 199, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. UNESCO
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McCoy. (2005). Extra Classes and Learning Outcomes of Eight-year-old Children in Vietnam.
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Websites Used:
*
Goh, C. 2010. http://www.hometuitionsinsingaprore.net
Ngiam, F. 2010. http://www.articlesbase.com/homeschooling-articles/the-advantages-of-hometuition-for-your-childs-growth-1123558.html#ixzzlERxiYmN
http://webhome.crk.umn.edu/students/ubar002/tutortraining/tutorMod1.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-home_tutoring
39
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor
http://www.wcupa.edu/ussss/larc/tutoring.asp
40

Zainudin Abu Bakar, Lee Mei Yun, Ng Siew Keow, Tan Hui Li. (2014). Goal-Setting
Learning Principles. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 41-50.
Goal-Setting Learning Principles: A Lesson from

Practitioner
Zainudin Abu Bakar *
Lee Mei Yun

Ng Siew Keow
Tan Hui Li
Abstract
The concern of the classroom teaching and learning activities has long been attended by many researchers. There
are so much studies on how specific theories and principles able to enhance the effectiveness of the activities. One
of the prominent theory was the goal-setting theory which was widely been used in educational setting. It is an
approach than can enhance the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. Every educator should embark on
this theory by employing its principle in the classroom teaching activities. Regardless of how, when and where it
should be understood as a tool for educators to ensure their teaching and learning activities is effectively executed.
This is a report paper about a simple study of the implementation of the goal-setting principle in the classroom. A
single observation has been carried out for the data collection activity in accordance to the exploration of how the
goal-setting learning principle presence in the teachers classroom teaching and learning activities. One Year 5
classroom from one primary school in Johor Bahru, Malaysia was selected for the observation. A clinical data of
the teaching and learning session was then analysed to address several issues highlighted. It is found that the goalsetting principles if understood clearly by the teachers can enhance the teaching and learning activities. The session
looked more fascinating and active in terms of learning and teaching activities. Students were more motivated than
ever before because the learning was becoming more visible and clear. Failed to see the needs of the session will
revoke the students learning interest. It is suggested that goal-setting learning principles could become a powerful
aid for the teachers in the classroom.
Keywords: Goal-setting learning principle, classroom activities, teaching and learning
Zainudin Abu Bakar, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.

E-mail: p-zain@utm.my
Introduction
Most researchers indicated that goal setting is essential for achievement in learning process
(Anderman, 2011). Additionally, it also encourages students self-improvement in different aspect of
learning as it plays an essential component of decision making which related to the mental processes
that result in selection of appropriate actions to make accomplishment. Therefore, in order to promote
learning in classroom especially students goals of achievement, it is essential for the educators to
understand the concepts of goal setting theory before planning any teaching strategy.
Long-term goal and Short-term goal
Basically, goals have categorised into short-term goal and long-term goal. Short-term goals are
goals to be accomplished within a short period of time. In contrast, long-term goals are the goals that
aimed to be achieved over a long period of time such as years of time. Long-term goals are not specific
as what individuals set for their short-term goals. But, both long-term and short-goals are always related
to each other. In education setting, short term goals are set with the purpose to achieve long term goals.
For instance, students are expected to achieve shortterm goals such as learning different the oral
speaking and written skills on the chapters stated in syllabus in order to master English language.
Santrock (2011) has indicated that it is essential to set and achieve short-term goals to move
towards to long-term accomplishment. Meaning, long-term goals are always depend on individuals
efforts to define and accomplish the goals through setting particular goals efficiently.
The types of motives
There are two different conceptions in explaining achievement motives, which include
motives-as-drives and motives-as-goals. According to the concept of motive-as-drives, motivation is
viewed as a drive, which is an internal state that needed to push someone towards actions to avoid the
situation that their need is unfulfilled (Covington, 2000). Where else for motives-as-goals, motivation
has been viewed as a stimulator in achieving particular goals and as a crucial element in setting and
attaining particular goals in order to facilitate goal-oriented behaviors.
Goal-setting theory
Nowadays, the concept of Goal-Setting theory has been emphasised in educational fields to
make enhancement on students performance in academic. Locke and Latham (2006) explained that
goal is an aim of action that needs to be consciously gained and achieved. It involves the different levels
of goal difficulty, levels of performance, and amount of efforts have been putting in to obtain the
desirable outcomes. Besides, to order to obtain effective performance, some conditions should be met
which including goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance and commitment, and feedback.
There are two main cognitive components of behavior in goal setting theory: values and
intentions (goals). Individuals would create a desire to do certain actions that consistent with their value
(Locke & Latham, 2006). Meanwhile, goal plays a key role in energizes, direct, and eventually affect
particular behaviours. Meaning, individuals would become more energetic, able to develop suitable
strategies, and increase persistent efforts in order to achieve desirable outcomes or behaviors if their
goals are specific and challenging enough. Figure 1 provides a simple look about goal-setting theory.
Satisfaction and Further Motivation
Values
Emotions
and
Desires
Intentions
(Goals)
Directed
Attention
Mobilize
Effort
Persistent
Strategize
Behavior or
Performance
Outcome
Frustration and Lower Motivation

Figure 1. General Model of Goal-Setting Theory
Achievement goal theory

Achievement Goal Theory is emphasized on the impacts of the goals on students performance
in classroom settings (Pintrich, Conley & Kempler, 2003; Was, 2006). In details, the reasons for
42
students engage in certain learning tasks or actions and why they desire to achieve are the main
components in studying achievement goal theory. The theory has explained that students academic
performance is directly linked to the varied and complex cognitive strategies that applied by the
students in learning certain knowledge and skills (Covington, 2000).Therefore, it helps the teacher to
understand and influence the reason why students desire to learn and how to motivate students in
learning.
Achievement goal theorists also focused on the significance to decide the types of goals that
are most appropriate for the students, how the selected goals may affect to cognitive strategies and
affective responses that lead to accomplishment (Was, 2006). Based on this goal theory, there are three
main theoretical approaches have been greatly emphasized in academic settings, which are mastery
orientation and performance orientation and work-avoidant goals (Arias, 2004; Seijts et al., 2004; Was,
2006).
Types of goal orientations
Mastery goals are referred to the goals that focus on the learning and mastering the skills in
order to complete the tasks at hand (Seijts et al., 2004). Such goals have been assumed to be the
effective approach which encourage the use of effective meta-cognition and cognitive strategies for the
learning enhancement, increment of self-efficacy, effort, persistence or determination as well as the goal
orientation (Was, 2006).
The effective uses of cognitive strategies in achieving mastery goal involve with rehearsal,
elaboration, and organization or information (Was, 2006). Additionally, meta-cognition strategies are
also applied to plan, monitor, and regulate their cognition.
Mastery goals have been separated into two categories, which are approach orientation and
avoidance orientation (Elliot, 1999). Mastery approach orientation is known as the attempt to complete
the task with the sake of improvement in knowledge. Whereas, mastery avoidance orientation is known
as the avoidance of task due to the sense of incapability in completing the task successfully and the
engagement into tasks that emphasizing the avoidance of mistakes, or diminution of adapted skills.
Additionally, Elliot (1999) also further distinguished the mastery orientation into taskreferential orientation and past- referential orientation. Student with task-referential orientation tend to
measure their own competence according to their completion or understanding on task at hand.
Whereas, past-referential orientated students would apply their reviews on past performance as the
measure of achievement and the scale of new goal setting.
Individuals who have adopted performance goal orientation tend to focus on the outcome,
others comments, feedbacks and views on their performance whereby to prefer tasks which allow them
to demonstrate their capability at the expense of their learning new skills (Seijts et al., 2004).They
would explain their success or failure is due to external factors such as luck, task difficulty or the
uncontrollable or controllable ability (Was, 2006).
There are two categories of performance goal orientation. Performance-approach oriented
individuals would view themselves more capable compared to others and tend to measure themselves
against others in order to prove that they are more capable than others and to gain approval and
recognition hence to enhance their self-esteem (Was, 2006).
However, performance-avoidance oriented persons would view themselves to lack of ability
and avoid showing their low-achievement to the public and they would engage in strategies such as
weak efforts, avoid risks, setting unrealistic goals, and procrastination of works. However, their
negative behaviours are the factors that lead them to failure and they eventually perceive their failure as
the result of low ability and they can no longer avoid failure (Was, 2006).
Work-avoidant orientation has explained the concept where failure is avoided without much
effort and achievement is viewed as the result of little effort (Arias, 2004). Firstly, people will choose
the incentive which requiring least effort from them compared to the one which need to work harder but
giving the same amount of incentive too. Secondly, people will prone to the behaviours will least effort
to obtain a reinforcement compared to other behaviours which more effort is required for obtains of the
same level of reinforcement as well (Was, 2006).
According to Was (2006), work-avoidant oriented students tend to less value on hard work and
do not have the need to demonstrate their competency. They are category of people who most likely to
show procrastination of works and lack of achievement goals. They would apply defensive pessimism
strategies where they would attempt to set extreme low expectation with the purpose of minimizing
their effort, to make sure that they are success in the easy task, and minimize anxiety brought by the
sense of task is not being successful with consequences of burnout (Arias, 2004).
43
Five principles of goal-setting

Locke and Latham (1990) have extended the goal theory by listing the five main characteristics
or principles of goal-setting (as cited in Mind Tools, n.d.). For effective motivations, the presented goals
must possess clarity, challenging, the commitment from the achiever, provide constructive feedbacks,
and appropriate task complexity.
I. Clarity- the presented goals should be productive, unambiguous and measurable. Therefore, goals
should be well defined with clear deadline and less misleading information on the expectation of
the achievement. (Johnson, 2012; Mind Tools, n.d.).
II. Challenge- the goals must possess sufficient level of challenge to motivate the individuals to put in
more effort in achieving the goals (Mind Tools, n.d). The extreme low or high of task difficulty will
cause boredom or avoidance of failure while completing the tasks which affect the result of the
goals.
III. Commitment- people will show their commitment if they feel they are part of the achievement. The
most used strategy is to get the individuals to be involved in the planning, setting up the goals and
decision making process (Johnson, 2012). Additionally, there is a linkage between commitment and
task difficulty where individuals who perceive the goal is difficult and challenging would to be
driven and inspired to achieve the goals (Johnson, 2012; Mind Tools, n.d).
IV. Feedback- the contain of the feedback should be focus on the progression checking, figuring out the
current obstacles, proposal of solution and the need of additional resources (Johnson, 2012).
Feedback could serve as a clear benchmark to guide the executors for self-evaluation (Mind Tools,
n.d). The inclusion of praise and appreciation in the feedback process will be served as rewards to
motivate the executors to continue work hard in the task (Johnson, 2012).
V. Task complexity- for the goals with higher level of complexity, have to ensure the individuals do
not feel too overwhelmed (Johnson, 2012). Therefore, sufficient time, training and guidance must
be given to achieve the target (Mind Tools, n.d.).
Classroom goal structure: TARGET system
TARGET system is one of the effective strategies which emphasize on promoting mastery and
performance goals in classroom based on the concept of five principles of goal-setting. In this system,
educators use a student-report measure to assess the salience of mastery and performance goals in the
classroom. Six letters in TARGET word refers to six dimensions respectively include task design (T),
distribution of authority (A), recognition of students (R), grouping arrangements (G), evaluation
practices (E), and time allocation (T).
I. Task design (T) - pupils are encouraged to participate in variety, challenge, organization, and
interest level of learning activities. Therefore, the level of assignments should be within the zone of
proximal development of the pupils where the pupils are able to do complete tasks with guidance.
Through this, the pupils satisfactions exist and hence, they are motivated intrinsically in their
learning.
II. Distributions of authority (A) - pupils are suggested to take responsibility for their own learning, to
make decision, and take leadership role in activities. These help them to develop their sense of
personal control and strengthen their sense of responsibility. This is a key to promote masteryoriented goals. It was imperative to focus students on their current status and experiences.
III. Recognition of pupils (R) - feedback was given on pupils performance in activities or tasks were
progressing. When pupils received the feedback, they will feel that their effort and performance are
appreciated. Because of the paradoxical effects that recognition can have on some students
motivation, interest, and participation, it should be delivered in privacy with specificity and
sincerity.
IV. Grouping arrangements (G) - the types of grouping arrangements in classroom would create
different effects in learning. Students could work individually, in pair, or in small groups.
Educators should use observation on students ability and capability in different areas and then
form groups with mixing different level of students in various areas. It can promote scaffolding in
the group. Additionally, the members in group could observe each others strengths and
weaknesses and then also learn from the high ability students in completing activities or tasks.
V. Evaluation practices (E) - students are able to understand more about themselves, especially on
their level of knowledge in certain subjects through proper evaluations designed within the scope of
the syllabus. When they know their real level of knowledge, they are easier to set the objective
goal. Because of the desire to foster mastery goals, social comparison was avoided among students,
and educators should always remind the class that the evaluation focuses on individual growth and
development.
44
VI. Time allocation (T) - it is essential for students to have sense of ownership in determining the pace
and scheduling of learning activities and assignments. Therefore, the pace of instruction and the
appropriateness of the workload were discussed with students, and accommodations were made
when deemed necessary.
Study Procedure
The study utilises simple action research procedure which intention is to improve and to
enhance the current practices. However, only a single classroom observation has been executed to
collect the data. One Year 5 primary school in Johor Bahru, Malaysia was selected for the observation.
In conducting both activities, consent from the school, especially the teacher and the students has been
acquired prior to the observation. This is done to secure the full cooperation from the school, the teacher
and the students. The observation was conducted purposely to explore how the goal-setting learning
principles is been implemented in the classroom learning and teaching activities. Three types of
classroom activities for enhancing students learning performance in English language were carried out
in that class. It includes the activities of searching past tense verbs, reading sentences, rearranging
words based on structure of sentence and guessing. This classroom teaching aimed to teach students in
differentiation of present and past tenses. At the end of the lesson, the students could able to recognize
past tense verbs and master the usage of grammar of past tense in English. The data was then been
analysed to explore in what circumstances the goal-setting learning principles are relevant to the
classroom teaching and learning activities.
Results and Discussion

Goal setting process
Generally, goal setting is a major part of the successful implementation for teaching
instructions, as well as students learning performance in academic. It can be said as the process of
establishing direction and purpose. Based on the English teacher, the main purpose of setting goals for
her students is to assist them to acquire appropriate learning skills, and also enhance their learning
performance in English subject.
Goal setting involves multi-step process, for instance, teachers should define the students
needs in learning, create specific learning goals for students, prepare and implement effective pedagogy
and classroom activities, monitor students progress, and lastly determine whether the students achieve
the goals. From the observation, the English teacher determined that her students need more practices in
learning English grammar. Then, the teacher created several specific goals for her students by providing
some classroom activities in order to assist her students for better learning in past-tense verbs.
Throughout the activities, the teacher always focused on her students response and performance in
every task in order to ensure whether her students achieved the goals or not.
As we know, goals play important role in motivate students to become more energetic, able to
develop suitable learning style, and then put their persistent efforts in order to achieve specific learning
outcome and performance. Without setting appropriate goals, the drive of motivation of the learners
toward better learning performance will decrease. Setting specific goals act as a motivator in enhancing
students learning performance and also important for the teachers to plan for classroom activities.
Based on the observation, the English teacher executed a well-planned daily lesson by
conducting suitable classroom activities which emphasized on achieving specific student learning
outcomes in English language. The first task is formulating specific goals to help her students in
learning past-tense verbs. Before conducting the planned activities, the teacher identified and set some
appropriate and relevant goals for her students, so that she can assist her students to improve and master
the use of past-tense verbs in English language. To be more specific, the English teacher divided the
goals into two categories: short-term goals and long-term goals. The setting goals have been presented
as below:
Short-term goals:
i. Students are able to recognize past tense verbs.
ii. Students are able to pronounce the words and read the sentences correctly.
iii. Students are able to understand the structure of making sentence.
iv. Students are able to make simple sentence by using past tense verbs.
Long-term goals:
i. Students are able to understand and master the use of past tense verbs in English at the end of the
school semester.
45
ii. Students are able to enhance and master their knowledge of English at the end of the school
semester.
In general, both short-term and long-term goals are significant in the process of goal setting.
Achieving short-term goals is the main step towards long-term goals accomplishment (Santrock, 2011).
Based on the observation, the English teacher broke the short-term goals down into a step-by-step plan
by conducting several classroom activities in order to improve students understanding on the use of
past tense verbs. Each goal that stated above is accompanied by providing some classroom activities for
the students to meet the goals. In specifically, some interesting and appropriate classroom activities
have been provided for the grammar lesson, such as activity of differentiate between present-tense and
past-tense verbs, activity of reading sentence, activity of searching past-tense verbs, activity of making
sentences and so forth. According to the English teacher, the main objective of preparing these learning
activities is to assist and guide her students to improve their various knowledge of learning past tense
verbs (based on the short-term goals above), eventually, her students would have better understanding
on the usage of past tense verbs in order to improve their knowledge of English language (based on the
long-terms goals above).
Types of goal orientation
In addition, according to achievement goal theory, the types of goal orientations adopted by
students would influence the performance and outcome in their learning process (Pintrich, Conley &
Kempler, 2003; Was, 2006). Therefore, the current section of current classroom observation would
explain the students learning performance in the English lesson based on the perspectives of different
goal orientations.
According to Seijts and colleagues (2006), students who engage with mastery goal orientation
would show persistence on higher level difficult tasks in pursuing the goals. For example, to increase
the difficulty of the learning task, the teacher has requested for a student to be a volunteer to read the
sentences stated on the whiteboard independently. Most of the students were reluctant to raise their
hand; however, a student has raised his hand and would like to try to complete the task. The students
action could be due to his learning goal to approach himself to master the independent reading skills.
Most of the students showed reluctance to raise up their hand to be volunteer in engaging the
independent reading task. Such situation could be explained based on the concept of master goal with
avoidance orientation. According Elliot (1999), students with such orientation may have the sense of
incapability to complete the task and tend to engage with task where they can avoid mistakes.
Therefore, they would prefer to read in groups rather than independently.
During the activity of doing revision of past tense verbs, for task-referential oriented students,
they tended to measure their competence according to the completion of the tasks assigned by the
English teacher. Therefore, they would take initiative to engage to the current tasks in the lesson.
Whereas for past-referential orientation students, they might reviews their past performance in previous
lessons on whether they have mastered the understanding on simple past tense before deciding to
engage in new tasks in that current English lesson.
In contrast, students with performance goal orientation tend to focus on the outcome of the
tasks, and emphasized intensively on the feedbacks from others (Was, 2006). During the classroom
activities, there were some students who tended to make comparison on their performance with others.
For example, a female student had volunteered herself to engage with the task by pasting the answer
card onto the sentence structure boxes. She then stood still without returning to her seat and observed
others answers anxiously after she had completed the task. It seemed that she attempted to measure
herself against others who also engaged in the same task. Be more specific, the female student had
adopted the performance-approach orientation in setting her learning goal in that English lesson.
Whereas, there was another female student who reluctant to volunteer herself in engaging the
tasks and even rejected the teacher when the tasks were assigned to her throughout the lesson. Although
she had accepted the task by pasting the answer card onto the correct section of sentence structure, she
seemed to be lost and afraid with her answers until the teacher had provided her the correct answer. This
situation could be explained by the concept of performance-avoidance orientation, which indicated such
student viewed themselves as lack of competency and avoid showing their low-achievement in the
public by weak efforts, avoid risks and procrastination of works (Was, 2006).
In addition, the concept of work-avoidant goal orientation could use to explain the possibility
where the students who do not take initiative to volunteer themselves to complete the tasks that needed
to be done independently, such as reading sentences and went to the whiteboard to paste the word cards
at the appropriate boxes. They would rather prefer to engage in the tasks in group. According to Was
(2006), those students might think that the reinforcements given on every types of tasks were equally
46
same, therefore they were prone to behaviors with least efforts compared to those tasks required more
efforts.
Classroom goal structure
What the teachers plan and implement for their teaching strategies and learning activities for
their students may directly influence the students learning patterns and their motivation level in
learning. Through this classroom observation, we can look at how the teacher created different goal
structure in her classroom, which is based on TARGET system. The examples of instructional practices
that would potentially emphasize on a mastery/ learning goal structure have been explained more detail
in the following part.
The first and most important characteristic in setting goal is clarity. At the beginning of this
teaching classroom, the English teacher has explained clearly to her students on the topic she aimed for
teaching. Therefore, students would have a clear picture about what they were going to learn during that
period, and also, what they have to pay attention on. It is one of the ways that enable her students feel
motivated in completing following activities or tasks. During the teaching lesson, we observed that most
of the students could answer teachers question correctly. Therefore, it might show that instruction is
necessary to be delivered clearly if teacher wants to help students to achieve goals successfully. Based
on Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006), students can only achieve learning goals if they understand those
goals, assume some ownership of them, and can assess progress. After received the clear information
from teacher, the students have a clear idea about what they are going to learn and their interest was
stimulated, too. Hence, their selective attention was able to be activated during the whole teaching
activity was going on. If it happened, they tend to seek the understanding of the pattern of past tense
words or sentences.
In the observed teaching classroom, the teacher prepared and implemented three different types
of activities to engage her students in enhancing their knowledge of past tense. So, various and
interesting tasks or activities have been designed in motivate her students. It is because students engage
in different types of classroom activities may stimulate their interests in learning, and also kept
continuing until they achieve the goals successfully. Furthermore, it encourages the students to apply
the knowledge in the various activities and also avoids them from learning the knowledge passively.
From observation, most of the students were able to identify past tense words in sentences and then
proceed to complete the following activities successfully. Seemingly, the activities which were designed
based on the goals that are set by the teacher suited to her students learning ability.
Moreover, in this observed teaching classroom, the difficulty level of activity increased
gradually from one to another. When students are able to perform well in the first particular activity,
their self-esteem is motivated. Thus, they tended to be willing to put more effort or attention in
engaging themselves in the following activities in order to maintain their well performance in these
activities. By using these activities, teacher provided positive learning environment and is easier to
guide her pupils in gaining the designated knowledge and achieving the goals. It lead students learn the
knowledge in correct path when they participated the activities with their teachers guidance.
As mentioned in TARGET system, students are motivated when they participate in various,
challenging learning activities which are suitable to their interest level. By implementing the three types
of teaching activities, students might be motivated to learn how to differentiate past tense and present
tense. In the observation classroom, not all the students looked interested in participating in the
activities. For example, when teacher asked some questions, some of the students are looked down and
seem like being afraid to be chosen to answer questions. While, some of the pupils looked felt bored.
These might be caused by several reasons. Maybe the difficulty level of the activities is low for the
students who showed the feeling of bored. That means they already have such knowledge in their mind
and they were able to find the answer quickly. Locke and Latham (1990) assert that challenging goals
cause people to work longer on a task and they who work on easier goals are expected to complete their
goals sooner, simply because they have nothing more to do. In another reason of having the feeling of
bored, they just do not be interested of learning English.
Second, the students who are afraid to be chosen might have low self-esteem in completing the
activities. Such students feel rejected which dangerously affects the performance of the students in the
process of education (Supple, 2000). The students who have low self-esteem think themselves as failure
and do not want to show their incapability in front of their classmate. They did not focus attentively to
the activities. In the beginning stage, the students were passive in responding to the questions but after
the teachers encouragement and motivation, the students started to show their participations in the
lesson. However, not many students are passive in the teaching lesson. Majority of students looked
excited and put up their hand voluntarily to answer teachers questions or complete the given task. It
helps students achieve the goal which is set by the teacher. The combination of passive learners and
47
active learners is normal phenomenon that could be seen in every classroom because there are nearly
forty students in a classroom and their learning ability is different with each other.
Besides this, recognition of students is also important in implementing goal-setting theory in
the classroom. Latham (2004) has mentioned that students need feedback on their progress toward the
goal because feedback enables them to adjust the level or direction of their effort and the strategy
necessary for goal attainment. In the observation classroom, teacher praised her students or gave
encouragement orally, such as good, excellent, when they gave correct answers and gave some
suggestions to guide her students when they were failed to answer the questions. This is very important
because it enhances students self-esteem and led them to achieve the goal successfully. This is
supported by Labuhn and his partners findings (2010) which indicated that students who received
feedback from their teachers were more likely to accurately use strategies to achieve their goal which is
improving their mathematics scores.
For group arrangement, the students were not grouped instead they were given the
opportunities to show their understandings by putting up their hands voluntarily. They were given
opportunities to give their response to the questions and take part in every task in the activities. It is
suitable in testing their understanding on the basic knowledge of grammar of past tense. Nonetheless,
two-way feedback and discussion toward the tasks have been provided in order to create more
cooperative learning environment. Through these methods, teachers would be more understand about
her students level of learning in English subject. As a result, the evaluation about students progress
toward past tense learning can be done through applying these teaching strategies.
Concluding Remarks
It is good and encouraged for the teachers to set appropriate classroom goals in teaching
English grammar before classroom activities are conducted. Setting goals is greatly recommended in
classroom settings, because it can intrinsically motivate the students in learning English. It also creates a
continuous improvement classroom setting that benefit to both teachers and students. From the observed
teaching classroom, the English teacher set a list of concrete and achievable goals for her students and
then guides her students to engage in the activities in purpose of accomplishing the short-term and longterm goals. In the session of teaching grammar of past tense, the teacher selected several specific and
challenging classroom goals for her students in order to enhance their capacity in mastering the use of
past tense verbs. The teacher also considered with the learning ability of each student when setting the
classroom goals.
Besides, a goal without a measure is unsuccessful. So, the English teacher prepared her
teaching strategic plan and carried out several learning tasks and activities in order to assist her students
accomplish the classroom goals. The teacher has been found in focusing on helping and guiding her
students to accomplish every task in the activities that match to the goals. So every student would be
benefit with scaffolding and then mastering the tasks, especially for the less competent students. From
observation, most students in the classroom were in the zone of proximal development for successfully
complete the task that given by teacher. For instance, most students able to answer correctly for
searching the past tense verbs from the sentences, but only few students needed more scaffolding to
complete in this task.
Furthermore, the English teacher also makes sure that all her students were able to proceed to
another tasks or activities after the previous task is completed. As noted above, the short-term goals
must be achieve by the students with guidance step by step towards long-term goals accomplishment.
When the assistance was given, motivation would be stimulated which would lead the students to
achieve the classroom goals as well as their personal goals.
According to goal theory, the goal serves as a stimulator to motivate and direct the learners
towards desired learning behavior and then put their efforts to sustain that behavior. From the observed
classroom activities, the endeavor of the teacher has been seen in assisting and guiding her students to
better understanding in the grammar of past tense verbs, and also, among the students who also put their
great efforts in participating the classroom activities to enhance their own capacity in using past tense
verbs in English subject. In simple, if we do not have any specific goals, our efforts towards better
learning will not be focused.
Regardless of what level goal setting is taking place, goals should be set based on the
TARGET principle. In this case, the English teacher developed a list of goals that are specific, concrete,
understandable, challenging and so forth. Depending on the situation, the classroom goals should be
suited to the learning level of every student, and then the teacher can select more appropriate teaching
strategies and classroom activities to motivate the students in learning English.
48
Although setting classroom goals are highly motivate students intrinsically in learning and
making improvement towards academic achievement, extrinsic motivation also should be greatly
emphasized. Beside creating classroom goals for the students (as intrinsic motivation), the English
teacher also provided some teaching strategies that consist of extrinsic motivation, such as encouraged
her students engage in the learning activities, gave positive feedback and praise students who were able
to complete the tasks, and also provide for scaffolding of corrective feedback. Besides, the use of
computer projector in teaching English also can create the sense of curiosity of the students, so they
would pay full attention for taking part in the lesson. From what we observed, most students were
enjoying participate in the classroom activities and also volunteered themselves to answer the questions
with guidance. For the students who were able to complete the task, the teacher praise them (such as
you are clever, thats good) and the students seem become more energetic in participate actively in the
following activities.
Last but not least, the English teacher was able to set appropriate classroom goals for her
students and provided various types of activities for her students to learn English grammar. But, the
teacher has been suggested to guide her students to set their own learning goals in more concrete form,
especially for the less competent students. It is because they may lack of skills in setting their own goals
without guidance if compared to more competent students. For example, the English teacher can
provide more guidance by giving some cue (such as key words) or develop a simple action plan to assist
the less competent students to set short, clear and understandable learning goals. Combining both
classroom goals and students personal goals are highly motivated the students in better learning and
academic achievement, as well as create a more effective classroom environment.
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Mahsa Kazempour. (2014). The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs,

Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 51-64.
The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs,

Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy: A Case Study of a Pre-Service
Teacher with Positive Science Attitude and High Science
Teaching Self-Efficacy
Mahsa Kazempour *
Penn State University-Berks Campus, United States
Abstract
This qualitative case study aimed to focus on the experiences and subsequent science and science teaching beliefs,
attitudes, and self-efficacy of an elementary pre-service teacher, Heather, with extremely positive attitude and high
self-efficacy. For this particular population of pre-service teachers, possessing a high science teaching self-efficacy
alone is not sufficient to assume reform-based beliefs and teaching practices. This study was unique in that it
concurrently explored the relationship between attitude, beliefs, and self-efficacy before and after the course.
Initially, Heathers attitude and self-efficacy with respect to science and science teaching were closely interrelated
and a product of her own intrinsic interest in science and her unique K-12 experiences. Her beliefs appeared to have
been shaped by both her actual science experiences and what she had witnessed in the classrooms. Heathers course
experiences shaped her post beliefs about science and science teaching, which consequently altered her attitude and
confidence.
Keywords: Teacher Education, Science Education, Beliefs, Self-Efficacy, Attitude, Pre-Service Teachers
Mahsa Kazempour, Science Education, Penn State University-Berks Campus, United States
email: muk30@psu.edu
Introduction
Inquiry has been at the heart of science education reform initiatives (NRC, 1996; 2012; NSTA,
2002) and research during the past several decades. Engaging students in scientific inquiry practices,
which include a number of social, epistemic, and cognitive tasks (Duschl, 2008), such as posing and
refining questions, making observations, discussing data, and writing about data (Grandy & Duschl,
2007), is grounds for developing a scientific literate student population. Inquiry-based learning is
advocated for the continuum of K-16 science education, with special emphasis on the elementary
grades, which serve as the foundation for strong secondary and post-secondary science education (NRC,
1996; NSTA, 2002). Early science experiences have been identified as critical for the development of
learners scientific knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes that will carry on into their adult life as
citizens in an increasingly science and technology dependent world (King, Shumow, & Lietz, 2001).
Yet, we continue to witness that in the elementary grades science is either absent, receives
limited attention, or is taught using approaches not aligned with reform efforts (Appleton & Kindt,
2002; Fulp, 2002; Weiss, Banilower, McMahon & Smith, 2001). This begs the question: why have
reform efforts and continuous research focused on enhancing science teaching practices, and therefore
learners science experiences, not been successful in enhancing the quantity and, perhaps more
importantly, the quality of science education, in particular at the elementary level? The response to this
question is multifaceted; however, it has been argued that this phenomenon has been due, in part, to
reform efforts lack of recognition that instructional practices are influenced by a complex set of belief
systems, prior knowledge, epistemologies, attitude, knowledge, and skills and have failed to
conceptualize reform as situated within this complex system (Jones & Carter, 2007, p. 1087). Focusing
on teachers cognitive and affective features will be essential in producing long lasting positive change
in science education.
Furthermore, although research on the impact of teacher professional development, at the preand in-service levels, certainly exist, they focus on overall pictures of change rather than directing
attention to specific individual teachers personal shifts in beliefs, attitude, and sense of comfort with
science (Author, in review; Loughran, 2007). This study aims to focus on the experiences and
subsequent science and science teaching beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy of an elementary preservice teacher (PST) with extremely positive attitude and high self-efficacy. In particular, I was
interested in exploring possible (a) reasons for the initial high self-efficacy and positive attitude, (b)
impact of her prior sciences experiences on her initial epistemological beliefs, (c) relationships between
the three constructs (both before and after the course), and (d) changes in the three domains, if any,
experienced as a result of the course.
Theoretical Framework
Reform documents such as the National Science Education Standards (1996) or the most
recent A Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC, 2012) call for inquiry-based teaching in the
classrooms where students are involved in scientific practices such as posing questions, exploring ideas,
making observations and collecting data, communicating data, and formulating ideas based on their
data. There is an emphasis on students active engagement in their learning, exploration of concepts,
developing science skills, and applying their knowledge (NSTA, 2002). Consequently, the reforms have
also concurrently focused on teachers who are seen as the key to the success of reforms. Elementary
teachers role in impacting young students scientific knowledge and attitude toward the subject is
undisputable (Rennie, Goodrum, & Hacking, 2001), so it is critical to examine the underlying factors
shaping their teaching practices.
The Sociocultural Model of Embedded Belief Systems, developed by Jones & Carter (2007),
serves as a basis for framing recent research on science teacher attitudes and beliefs and as a tool for
understanding the construction and development of beliefs and attitudes (p.1074). The model suggests
that teachers epistemological beliefs (beliefs about science, students, and science teaching and
learning), attitude toward, and sense of self-efficacy with regard to science and science teaching
together influence and are in turn shaped by teachers instructional practices. Teachers epistemological
beliefs, which have been shaped by their prior formal and informal science experiences (Appleton,
2006), consequently influence their teaching practices and may serve as an impediment to the
implementation of reform-based curricula (Brickhouse, 1990; Munby et al., 2000; Tobin & McRobbie,
1996;). Hence, it is imperative for teacher educators to consider PSTs prior educational beliefs and
experiences and adapt their teaching to facilitate PSTs experiences.
Similarly, teachers attitudes toward science have been shown to affect their teaching practices
(Siegel & Ranney, 2003). Consequently, students learning experiences, attitude toward science, and
achievement in science, are all impacted by teachers instructional practices, beliefs, as well as attitudes
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(positive or negative) toward science and teaching science (Bittner & Pajares, 2006; Simpson & Oliver,
1990). Elementary teachers negative science attitudes have been attributed mainly to their prior K-12
science experiences (Appleton, 2006; Mullholland & Wallace, 1996). Their negative past experiences
with science, and subsequent negative attitude toward science and science teaching may serve as a
major obstacle in their teaching of science or doing so effectively.
Finally, teachers science self-efficacy, which is interchangeably referred to in the literature as
confidence or comfort with science and science teaching, simply relates to the belief that one has the
ability to effectively teach science and that their students can indeed learn science (Ramey-Gassert,
Shroyer, & Staver, 1996). Prior research have indicated that teachers with low perceived science
teaching self-efficacy do not feel comfortable about their ability to practice or teach science and find
little interest in doing so. Therefore, they may resort to avoiding science or do so utilizing ineffective
approaches that are contradictory to the reforms. Conversely, teachers with high self-efficacy, have
been shown to be more inclined to teach science and apply reform-based strategies in the classroom
(Avery & Meyer, 2012; Hechter, 2011).
Teacher education reform movements have focused on improving PST education in an effort to
instigate changes in elementary teachers cognitive and affective domains and consequently their
instructional practices (Supovitz & Turner, 2000). Instigating changes in teaching practices in the
elementary grades entails a radical shift in elementary teachers attitudes, beliefs, and confidence that
should be a central focus of PST professional development (Haney, Czerniak, Lumpe, 1996; Moore,
2008). A review of prior research indicates that teacher education programs, particularly the science
methods courses, have the potential to lead to appropriate beliefs, increased confidence levels, and
positive attitude with regard to science and science teaching (Avery & Meyer, 2012; Bleicher &
Lindgren, 2005; Morrell & Caroll, 2003), which in turn, have been shown to lead to more effective and
reform-based instructional practices (Moore, 2008).
The research on these three domains has been predominantly focused on secondary teachers or
in-service elementary teachers (e.g. Beck, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 2000; King et al., 2001; Luft, 2001;
Simmons et al., 1999; Tobin & McRobbie, 1996). Studies on elementary PSTs are far fewer. Those
focusing on elementary PSTs beliefs tend to be descriptions of their existing beliefs, rather than factors
that have shaped their beliefs, changes they may experience during science methods or other teacher
education components, or the relationship of their beliefs (pre or post) with the two constructs of
attitude and self-efficacy. The studies dealing with PSTs attitude and self-efficacy utilize quantitative
methods and instruments to measure current trends or pre-post changes within whole classes or
programs, without focusing on individuals, and exploring personal shifts in their attitudes and selfefficacy. Furthermore, as evident in the previous sections, studies examining the interrelationship
between the three constructs are not readily available. Instead, most studies focus on the constructs
independently or examine the relationship between two constructs (e.g. beliefs and attitude or beliefs
and self-efficacy).
Finally, the literature mainly alludes to the low self-efficacy and negative attitudes of
elementary PSTs, but it is also necessary to focus research effort into understanding PSTs who enter
teacher education programs with positive attitude and high self-efficacy with regard to science and
science teaching. In so doing, key questions with regard to this population could be explored in order to
better recognize the underlying dynamics that may serve as lessons for K-12, as well as, post secondary
science and teacher education. For instance, are this groups initial positive attitudes and elevated sense
of comfort with science due to their prior science education experiences or are there other factors
involved? Prior research indicates that teachers with high self-efficacy tend to have beliefs that are more
aligned with reforms, but to what extent could this be assumed about PSTs who have not yet completed
teacher education programs? What, if any, impact, could a reform-based science methods course have
on their beliefs and even their attitude and self-efficacy? And what is the relationship between the three
constructs of beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy both before and after the completion of such a course?
The current case study attempts to address these questions.
Methodology
This case study is part of a larger multi-case study that took place in a science methods course
for elementary education majors at a large Midwestern university. It focuses specifically on one case, a
PST who entered the course with high self-efficacy and positive attitude toward science and science
teaching. The participant was purposefully selected based on her scores on the Science Teaching
Efficacy Beliefs Instrument for PSTs, STEBI-B (Bleicher, 2004; Enochs & Riggs, 1990) and the
Revised Science Attitude Scale for PSTs (Bittner, 1994; Thompson & Shrigley, 1986) that were
administered during the first class session as well as initial qualitative data sources described in the data
collection section. A case study approach was considered most appropriate in exploring (a) possible
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reasons for this PSTs initial high self-efficacy and positive attitude, (b) possible impact of her prior
sciences experiences on her initial epistemological beliefs, (c) possible relationship between the three
constructs, and (d) changes in the three domains, if any, experienced as a result of the course. A case
study approach allowed for rich, in-depth analysis of the aforementioned items through focusing mainly
on the participants reflections, interview statements, and other artifacts (Keeves, 1998).
Course Context
The case study participant was part of a cohort of elementary PSTs simultaneously enrolled in
science methods, mathematics methods, and field observation experience and seminar. Prior to enrolling
in the science methods course, students, a majority of whom were second or third year students, were
required to enroll in an introductory science content course. Depending on where they were in the
program, students may have had already taken or were concurrently enrolled in one or two additional
science content courses required for the completion of the program. The science methods course was
taught based on the social constructivist perspective. PSTs were immersed in inquiry-based learning and
discussions that enabled them to reflect on their prior experiences and beliefs and individually and
collaboratively construct a new understanding of science and science teaching.
A series of data sources was analyzed to develop an in-depth understanding of the participant
and explore patterns and themes within the data. The two quantitative instruments served dual purposes:
to initially identify the case and gauge changes in her attitude and self-efficacy by the end of the course.
The qualitative data included (a) student artifacts such as bi-weekly reflections, pre/post science
autobiography, and pre/post drawings and descriptions of scientists and science classrooms, (b) pre/post
semi-structured interviews to further probe their initial and post experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and selfefficacy and the interrelationship between them, and (c) videotaped course observations and daily logs.
The various data sources were simultaneously analyzed using the constant comparative method
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to identify recurrent patterns and emerging themes within the data (Bogden &
Biklen, 1992) and resulted in a rich description of the case. An outside reviewer was asked to review
portions of the data and corroborate the emerging themes. Finally, the full analysis of the data was
followed with member checking by the participant to ensure an accurate portrayal of her experiences
and affective and cognitive features.
Results & Discussions

Heathers Path to Teaching
Heather was a senior in the elementary education program who was set to graduate the
semester following the elementary science methods course. Her area of concentration within the
program was health and science. During her first two years at the university she had majored in biology
as a pre-Med student and made the decision to transfer to the elementary education program during her
third year. Prior to enrolling in the elementary science methods course she had enrolled in the physics
and biology course required for elementary education majors as well as six biology and chemistry
courses she had completed during here first two years.
Contrary to her peers in the course, Heather had not have any desire to become a teacher early
in life. Because of her high interest in science, she had always thought about becoming a doctor, but
during the third year in college her plans began to change as she became increasingly interested in
teaching as a result of her involvement in a series of summer and after schools programs that enabled
her to have increased interactions with children. She initially considered teaching high school biology,
especially AP biology, considering her strong science background; however, her participation in the
youth soccer camp convinced her to pursue teaching younger students at the elementary level so that
she could work with children and help them with gaining skills and knowledge and encourage them to
pursue their own dreams. Her preference was to work with K-3 grade levels, particularly second
graders whom she had worked with in camp. The only perceived disadvantage to teaching this grade,
she explained, would be their science ability. For example, she discussed how she loved to teach her
students about biological topics such as plants and animals, but felt that it would be difficult to do at
this age. Instead she felt she could concentrate on guiding their interest in science which will be a
great tradeoff.
Heathers Prior Science Experiences, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy
Table 1 summarizes Heathers initial scores on the attitude toward science instrument, which
were the highest in the class.
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Table 1. Heathers Initial Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers
Scores
Class Average

STEBI-B Total Score
STEBI-B Mean Score
Heathers early reflection assignment and interview suggested that her interest in science and
passion and fascination with making discoveries about the world had blossomed beginning early in
her childhood, prior to entering a formal school setting and persisted into her adulthood.
As a child I was always outside messing around in the dirt. I liked to catch bugs and put them
in a jar and watch them interacting with other insects. I now know that I was studying them and
observing their characteristics. This fascination continued when I started school and has not let up yet.
She described her past experiences with science as positive: I have always felt the ability and
desire to try new things with science and experiment the outcomes of thoughts or ideas I have had.
Her interest in learning and being involved in science appeared to have been intrinsic in nature rather
than shaped by her K-12 science education experience or other external factors. Conversely, Heather
actually explained that because her attitude toward science was positive to begin with, she enjoyed
school science regardless of the circumstances or the type of instruction. She excelled in her grade
school and high school science courses, including honors chemistry, honors biology, and AP biology,
but made no mention of classroom instructional approaches or teacher attributes that contributed to her
success in these classes. Instead, she discussed how her rural school teachers willingness to allow her
to do independent research and pursue her own questions, rather than following the class activities that
she found little or no interest in, had further enabled her success, positive attitude, and sense of
confidence.
My elementary science experience didnt influence my interest. Up until high school I was
forced into the science classes I didnt want to take. I never really learned what the teacher told me to
learn to be honest with you. I went in my own direction and looked up whatever I wanted to. Below is
her description of her independent science experiences during the elementary grades.
I grew up loving nature and being outdoors. When I got into grade school I found the human
body to be so interesting I could not learn enough about it. I also remember the first time I learned about
cells and we were making cell models. I made a tall cake and cut out a piece, showing the inside of the
cake/cell. She also discussed her involvement with science fair projects all through grade school and
high school and her excitement about such projects.
I made a telegraph one year and taught Morse Code with it to my peers. I also did a
demonstration with liquid nitrogen. I froze a banana and later ate it showing the effects of liquid
nitrogen. I really enjoyed doing these projects. She provided an example of independent research she
embarked upon during her high school honors biology course and how that, along with other similar
experiences, provided further boost in her sense of confidence and attitude toward science.
We were dissecting cats when I found a mass in the abdomen. I was curious so I took a biopsy
and looked at it under the microscope to determine how the cells had formed. It looked like nothing I
had ever seen before and I was able to determine that it was a tumor originating off the liver. I was
really proud that I was able to determine that information and it was then that I officially thought of
myself as a successful science student.
Heather had felt comfortable asking science related questions and seeking answers to these
questions through independent research and experimentation. She indicated that she always felt that
science came easy to her and was confident in her abilities to understand scientific concepts and be
active in research. The fun and success she had with experiences, such as with the dissection example
above, allowed her to view herself as a successful science learner. Heathers interest and success in
science learning continued onto college where she enrolled in a series of science courses as a science
major and enjoyed all of her experiences. She rated her interest and confidence toward science the
highest rating of ten and explained science has always been my favorite subject because I have fun
doing experiments and finding out information and I am quite capable of doing so.
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Her attitude and confidence toward teaching science, as reflected by the scores on the
quantitative instruments and her own self-ratings, were also remarkably far above the class average and
the highest among the group. Even as she abandoned the idea of pursuing science as a career, her
positive attitude toward learning science continued to shape her interest in teaching science. She
expressed a desire to pass on her passion for science to young students so that they would also find
excitement in this subject. She described how her interest and strong sense of ability with respect to
science made it her favorite subject to teach.
I have decided I want to get children as excited about science as I was. I hope by doing this
they will fall in love with something they have never experienced before. I have not really taught
anything before but I would assume that my favorite will be science just like my personal learning
preferences. I like to teach science best because I know more about it than any other subject. I feel
confident about the subject matter and feel like I might be someone who can help a child learn to love
science. Heather explained that although due to her lack of prior teaching experience, she felt
unprepared at that moment to teach elementary students, she felt she could easily teach science with a
little preparation and given a curriculum to teach from because I know a lot about science and have
done it so much.
Heathers Initial Epistemological Beliefs
The analysis of the data pertaining to Heathers beliefs about science and science teaching,
revealed interesting findings and insight about her epistemological beliefs and the role of her prior
science experiences in shaping her beliefs.
Beliefs about science
Heather described science as the study of all living matter and learning the explanation to
everything that surrounds us. While it is a broad definition the word is hard to narrow down to
specifics. Her concentration on living organisms may have simply been due to her own interest and
prior pursuit of biology as a major and career path. In her drawing of a scientist, she depicted a woman
wearing a lab coat and dark glasses with a ponytail, who was holding a magnifying glass and observing
something on the table. She added that scientists do their work by laying out a plan of action and
testing various questions. She highlighted the importance of making predictions and using a trial and
error method in order to make conclusions about a question. She also stressed the empirical nature of
science, science is based on observation and empirical evidence and the testability of scientific
questions. Finally she added that conclusions made in science must also be based on provable
concepts.
Surprisingly when asked to compare school science with science as practiced by scientists,
Heather referred to school science as what she normally witnessed in classrooms throughout her K-12
education, rather than what she herself was involved with in terms of independent research. She felt
there was a definite difference between the two types of sciences. Scientists, she argued, use available
information to produce new information that is then taught in classroom science. She viewed classroom
science as children learning through the textbook information that has already been discovered and
felt that it was necessary for children to learn the basics of science before they can do any testing of
their own. She described an element of teaching the concepts, and students learning the basis of
science before they can confirm what is being taught and what scientists have discovered.
She argued that school science in its reliance on textbook and direct didactic teaching is similar
to other school subjects. Its distinction from other subjects, she explained, lies in the occasional handson nature of school science. She also alluded to the changing nature of science, which sets it different
from other school subjects, such as history, which usually remain unchanged. Finally, she explained
that science depends on a set process, the scientific method, which she explained contains
components, such as the use of performing experiments to test a theory or a hypothesis one has about
something, that are absent in other subjects.
Beliefs about teaching and learning
In her initial drawing of a science classroom, Heather depicted a teacher in the front of the
class and next to a desk with a board behind it with the words Science Experiment inscribed on it.
There were also five tables of four arranged in one row across the class. She described the picture in
this way:
I am teaching students new material and allowing them to do an experiment to learn more
about the material. I believe children need to work in groups and learn from one another in order to
make school fun and interesting for them and to learn the necessary content. Heathers beliefs about
teaching and learning, as reflected in this task and other data, revolved around two central ideas: focus
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on content mastery and increasing students interest in science. She reflected on her own childhood
experiences and expressed a yearning to pass on her desire for learning science and overall interest in
school to her students. She stressed the importance of encouraging students to become more interested
in science and not fear the subject. She wanted to be able to express some of her own interest for
science and enable the students to learn science concepts while also having fun and enjoying their
experiences, because I know kids are really interested and then it kind of dies down. To maximize
student interest and confidence in science she focused on the classroom environment and making it
comfortable and fun, mainly through what she referred to as a hands-on approach.
In doing so, she wanted students to be involved in the process of science, enjoy it, and embark
on further science learning. Heather had been allowed to research and explore topics that were of
interest to her during her K-12 education and she felt that this would be an effective means of
encouraging more students to do science and learn the content.
Children learn science by making hypothesis and exploring things. They learn by touching
things, taking them apart and exploring the possible reasons why it would work the way it does.
Therefore, I want my children to learn science through doing. She further explained, science is not
always thought of as being as important subject, so I plan on using many different activities to help
students understand the material. I am a strong believer of learning science through demonstrations and
hands-on learning.
However, on numerous occasions, Heather suggested conflicting comments about her idea of
fun and hands-on teaching. She made it clear that these investigations and hands-on learning activities
would be more teacher directed with the teacher having a central and dominating role in the
classroom. The hands-on activities were meant to be an added component to simply make the learning
environment positive and fun for the students. The teachers role would be to direct the learning
process by teaching the content and then preparing the students for the hands-on experiences.
I would hope to give my students all they need to test their scientific theories and experiment
until they find the results and draw accurate conclusions. I would show examples and to help the
children understand what theyre looking for and just keep giving them hints and keep them interested
and keep going further.
In discussing her beliefs about teaching and learning, Heather seemed to simultaneously draw
upon both the traditional classrooms she had witnessed and the independent research and activities she
had herself been involved with. Her beliefs were a mixture of the two experiences. She had elements of
the traditional classroom with the teacher directing students learning and providing all the necessary
content and procedures and the students simply passively learning. The hands-on element, which she
had personally experienced on several occasions, was simply a way to make students learning more fun
and meaningful even though it was merely done to confirm the content material taught by the teacher
or read in the book. In looking more closely at her descriptions of her own prior experiences, it seems
that even some of those may have been independent research that had involved searching in books and
asking adults, and doing step by step science investigations as in some of her science fair experiences.
Heathers beliefs about hands-on learning in a teacher-centered classroom were also reflected
in her continuous focus on content mastery. She placed great emphasis on students mastering the
appropriate content material and curriculum for each grade level in order to be able to proceed to the
next grade level. She also emphasized preparing students to be able to apply their learning to real life
problems and develop appropriate reasoning skills. She explained that the teachers role was to ensure
students would learn the necessary content by teaching them the basics of science, doing
demonstrations, and allowing students to do experiments to enhance their learning of the subject.
Heathers Post Epistemological Beliefs, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy
The analysis of the post data indicated changes in Heathers beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy
and alluded to interrelationships among her course experiences and these domains.
Beliefs about Science
Heathers definition of science became more specific at the end of the semester. She described
science as constant questioning and a way of life and explained, science is everywhere, in the book
youre reading, the computer youre using, the soda you just drank, and the oxygen you need for
survival. She utilized her own personal interest for life sciences and the study of living organism as an
example to illustrate how science is about curiosity and questioning about the world around us.
I find the most interesting topic in science to be living organisms. When I hear about
something occurring in the world I often think about what is happening to the environment around it.
That may seem to be a bit nerdy however, every organism from the one-cell organism to humans
fascinate me. In my opinion if you are a person who loves science you are always questioning what is
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occurring around you. Her post scientist drawing also supported this view. She explained that her
drawing of a female figure with no glasses or lab coat was meant to show that anyone can be a
scientist, even me! She also depicted an outside nature scene, rather than a laboratory, where the
scientist seemed to be using a magnifying glass to observe something in the grass. She indicated that the
course had helped her realize that science is more about inquiry rather than hands-on activities.
Beliefs about Teaching and Learning
Changes that had occurred with respect to Heathers beliefs about science had in turn
influenced her beliefs about teaching and learning science. Because she now understood the centrality
of inquiry in scientific work, she had also shifted to thinking that learning science should move beyond
simple hands-on learning and involve scientific processes and practices.
I have always considered science to be a hands-on learning process. However, being in this
class has showed me that there is much more to science than taking part in hands-on activities. This
class has showed me that science involves thinking, predicting, inferring, applying, explaining, and
elaborating, all along with hands-on activities.
Consequently, she only viewed school science and science as practiced by scientists different
only in terms of the scale and scope of their practice. She explained that if students are engaged in
inquiry science learning, they are involved in the same processes as scientists.
We witnessed a great example of this in the video we watched with the male teacher working
with his students. They were acting like mini-scientists in conducting their unit about plants and
growing them in the classroom. They took an inquiry-based approach in acting like scientists. They
developed questions and predictions, tested their theories, made observations, and explained their
findings. This is much like what a scientist does when working on solving a problem or explaining a
phenomenon.
She then explained that the way science is sometimes taught in schools and the way she
experienced it in her own K-12 education, are limited and do not fully and accurately reflect science,
because while they allow for testing and research, it is only to confirm an existing knowledge. This is in
reference to her own experiences of sometimes doing independent work that simply involved searching
the literature or doing hands-on experiments using set procedures.
I think that while school students are testing and researching things that scientists have already
tested and found the answer to, students are doing this science to reinforce what is already known.
While this may not always be the case it has been true for my science experience. For instance, I
created aspirin in chemistry one year, but I was only able to synthesize this material because I had
researched how to make it according to other scientists and was simply following a given protocol.
By the end of the course, Heather remarked: I was never aware of inquiry teaching before. I
only knew of hands-on learning but now I know that its only part of the story. With inquiry teaching I
can be a more effective teacher. She discussed how inquiry teaching involves students in more than
just a hands-on experience. Students are able to explore and investigate having a larger role in the
creation of the question or procedure to investigate. They would also be involved in critical thinking and
the analyses of evidence that are primarily absent in simple confirmation activities. Her idea about the
place and role of exploration in any lesson or unit also dramatically changed: First I thought it was
more like direct teaching and then they could run wild and observe and do all that stuff, but now its
more like letting them observe first and then discuss it afterwards. This new understanding was
reflected in her post drawing of a science classroom in which she depicted five tables of four students in
the middle of the class each serving as a station with various organisms and science equipments at each.
I love biology so I plan on having tons of animals in my class basically so the kids can explore
them and enjoy. So I thought Id have fish and a bunny or a hamster or something simple. And then
have microscopes set up for some cells. And then have maybe another animal or an unknown animal
that they have to classify. I would have plants by the window that they can grow and watch as they are
growing. This would allow for constant and long term observations and explorations of things most kids
find interesting.
One type of inquiry teaching approach that was emphasized in class was the 5E learning cycle
model. Heather explained during her final interview and portfolio that she found the learning cycle to be
a very effective method of employing inquiry teaching in the classroom. Whereas she had previously
only considered hands-on activities as a critical part of science learning, she had since realized that there
are other components that she had initially ignored. The learning cycle was mentioned at the end of the
semester by Heather as a model that enables students to not only explore but also be engaged, involved
in discussions, apply their knowledge, and be evaluated and assessed throughout the entire process.
This course and my experience teaching science this semester incorporated the entire cycle of
engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. I found in applying this in
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constructing my lesson plans and final unit to be very effective in promoting and stimulating students
learning. The learning cycle reinforced the knowledge students were taking in and allowed for engaging
them in the lesson. The elaboration allowed them to apply and further extend any information we had
discussed. It proved to be very effective. Students were building the necessary connections.
She reiterated the importance of using the inquiry approach and her own special interest in
utilizing the learning cycle model in order to promote the best environment possible for students to
learn and achieve their fullest potential. She continued:
I want my students to discover things for themselves and hope to provide them with all the
necessary tools and motivation in reaching this goal. I hope to incorporate the learning cycle with all
of my lessons, science and otherwise. The various stages ensure that the teacher is supporting students
and allowing them to take an active role in the learning process. I want my students to actively take part
in their learning.
Changes in her beliefs about learning had also led to modifications in her views of her roles as
a teacher. Rather than thinking of herself as a director of students learning, she had come to view
herself as a facilitator instead. She explained how as a future teacher she would assist her students in
becoming successful learners in the science classroom by allowing the children to ask questions,
research and explore the question, and find their own answers. She continued: While this may not be
possible at all times I would like to have my students work through problems and try to find solutions.
She further explained how the students would be actively involved in each stage of the learning process
with her serving as a facilitator of their learning. She no longer viewed herself as the source of
information and director of learning.
By allowing the students to essentially be engaged, explore, discuss their learning, and so forth
in an interactive environment, I believe they will become more interested, gain knowledge they find
interesting, sort through problems inside and outside of class, and they will take more ownership of the
material. My role would be to engage them, ask questions to drive their explorations and discussions,
evaluate their learning and modify plans when necessary, and to create that learning environment to
enrich their learning.
She discussed, extensively, the significance of assessing students learning as part of her role
as the facilitator. Her ideas for assessment included formative and summative assessment strategies that
would encourage student reflection, enhance their learning, and provide her deeper insight into their
learning and learning difficulties.
I hope to use science journals to assess where the students are in their understanding. I think
by looking through their journals regularly and having them give presentations on the material they
collected I will be able to gauge their understanding. I plan to use reflections, journals, projects,
portfolios, and other creative methods that I have learned about to assess my students knowledge.
Heather described the importance of making the classroom a safe and comfortable
environment where students feel comfortable in voicing their opinions, feelings, and questions and
confident in taking an active role in the classroom. She wanted to create a supportive, collaborative
learning environment within the classroom that would foster not only the learning of content, but also
important life lessons such as learning to work collaboratively with others. Heather continued to stress
the significance of increasing students interest and confidence in science. The teachers role, she
explained, was to make the science learning experience an active and interesting process for students, so
they leave with a more positive attitude toward it. Furthermore, Heather emphasized the importance of
preparing students to be comfortable with and yearning to continuously question and explore on their
own.
I want them to use inquiry in my classroom and become comfortable with it. I want them to
develop a desire to explore things from a scientific inquiry perspective, to ask questions, to test things,
to make inferences, and develop their skills as a scientific learner. I want them to know that sometimes
experiments and things involved in science dont always go as planned, but its ok to keep trying.
Finally, having developed a more well-rounded understanding of science and science teaching,
Heather also suggested integrating science and other school subjects in an effort to ensure allocating
class time to science, which often tends to be ignored in the hype to prepare students in mathematics
and literacy. The idea of integration had been a major component of the course and Heather had clearly
become an advocate of the idea of integrating science with other subjects while at the same time
acknowledging the distinction in the foci of these disciplines.
I believe all subjects can be linked. In the case of science, you can apply your math skills
when working with formulas or measuring out quantities. Language arts can be incorporated when
writing reflections, taking notes, or performing research. Literature is applied when reading on a topic
or performing research. These are just a few examples showing how the various disciplines can all be
linked together, specifically with science.
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Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers experiences in the course had allowed her to view science and science teaching in a
different light. These experiences and changes in her beliefs produced noticeable changes in her attitude
and self-efficacy even though that was not apparent from her STEBI-B and Revised Attitude Toward
Science scores, which remained virtually, unchanged (Table 2).
Table 2. Heathers Post Attitude and Self-Efficacy

Heathers
Scores
Class Average

STEBI-B Total Score
STEBI-B Mean Score
Her scores and self-ratings had already been high in the beginning of the semester, thus it was
difficult, as she explained, to raise them any further. Although not reflected in her scores, Heather
repeatedly described how her attitude and self-efficacy, in particular toward teaching science, had
indeed changed. Heathers attitude toward science had peaked even more and had she had become
more determined in her passion about science as a result of the immersive and reflective nature of the
course. The same held true for her attitude toward teaching science. Science remained her favorite
subject to teach and she was even more resolute in her determination to teach science to the best of her
abilities so to raise young childrens enthusiasm for the subject. She added that her learning experiences
in the methods course and the opportunity to develop inquiry-based lessons and observe the positive
impacts on the children during the field experience had been instrumental in further augmenting her
positive attitude toward teaching science.
I love watching students explore in an attempt to understand what is taking place. I enjoy the
use of inquiry in a science lesson and find myself learning just as much about my students as they learn
about a particular aspect of science. Observing the interactions and hearing the comments made by my
students, this semester especially, has showed me how some students think and rationalize as they learn.
My interest in teaching science had certainly increased even more than before the course.
Heathers confidence toward science remained high at the end of the course. She explained how she was
further convinced and confident of her abilities in learning science and participating in scientific
inquiry. Interestingly, her rating of her confidence in teaching science at the end of the semester was an
8.5 on a 1-10 scale. Her responses on the post interview and final teaching portfolio were quite
revealing. Upon reflecting on her experiences throughout the semester, Heather indicated having
initially overestimated her confidence in teaching science. She suggested that one reason for this
overestimation was her lack of understanding about what teaching science should actually entail. She
also explained how she had inaccurately equated her strength and ability in learning science to an
equivalent strength and ability in teaching the subject. She alluded to her newly gained understanding of
effective science instructional approaches and childrens learning.
I know that I have the ability to learn science no matter what area of science; I have been able
to teach myself many scientific ideas and know that I will be able to continue to do so in the years to
come. Teaching science is a different topic though. I had indicated earlier that I thought I was very
prepared; however, I now realize that was not entirely true. When I first started this class I thought
teaching children science would be a piece of cake, but I have learned that this is not the case. Through
this class I have learned so many things I was unaware of before and things that are necessary in
effective science teaching. I learned, among other things, how to organize my lesson plans, what type of
questions were best to ask, and how to lead activities that focus on inquiry learning. I had assumed that
my interests would transfer over to the students, but I learned in this class that while my fascination
with science might help students it would not necessarily always make them love science or be
successful in it.
The course had taught her more about herself. She realized that although possessing and
displaying a positive attitude and sense of confidence toward learning science are essential in teaching
science and increasing students interest in the subject; they are not sufficient. She added that she would
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use her strength in learning science and her positive attitude toward the subject to help her students
learn the subject more effectively, but would now be able to employ many of the numerous valuable
teaching tools in order to make her teaching more successful.
Heather was also quick to mention that despite her high confidence rating she had realized that she has
more to learn and her confidence level could be augmented even further with more time and practice.
I rated myself at an 8.5 because I know that I have many things to learn before I become a
great teacher. I will also need to learn that just because I think a topic is easy to learn my students
might not feel the same. Until I have learned to teach students in a manner they understand I will still
be striving for my best. Teaching is going to take years to become great at. I will make mistakes. My
only hope is that I will learn from them and walk away from them with a greater understanding of what
it means to be a teacher.
The Influence of Course Components on the Domains
Heather identified a number of course components that were influential in shaping her beliefs,
attitude, and self-efficacy with regard to science and science teaching (Table 3).
Table 3. Influential Course Components and Impact on Three Domains

Course
Components
Immersion in
inquiry-based
learning
Collaborative
Learning
Readings and
Videos about
Science Teaching
Journal Reflections
Developing and
Teaching
Instructional Units
Sample Excerpt
I must say that the activities we did in class served as the most memorable and beneficial for
me. One particular experiment I can remember occurred very early on in the year. We were
all in separate groups and rotated around every so often as there was a different activity at
each station. The thing I really enjoyed about this was that we were put in the roles of our
future students. I loved how we used scientific inquiry and demonstrated how students will
use this to work through an experiment. For each station, many of the group members would
come up with different interpretations of what could be done with the given materials. In
some way, this stressed to me how the mind of each child is different. This is why it is
important to make science learning a personal learning experience.
We were able to talk about topics we did not understand, how lessons went, or anything else
we were having difficultly with. Through my peers I understood the concepts, gained
confidence and learned that I was not the only one struggling through a lesson or a class, and
in some way it made me feel okay about not being on top of everything. This also benefited
my attitude, because it made me realize that I was going to school to learn and was not
expected to have all the answers and that it was okay to have a lesson go badly. All of my
experiences in the course were part of becoming a better teacher.
From these readings I have found that children learn science best through inquiry. By
allowing the children to ask their own questions and try to find the answer gives them more
ownership over what they are doing and leads to greater involvement and a feeling of
achievement. We also read how different organizations, whether it was the NSTA or a
similar organization, discussed and promoted the use of inquiry in the classroom.
We witnessed directly how inquiry stimulated students thinking. The teacher was not telling
them what to think or how to think. The students were evolving and coming up with the
appropriate concepts and responses all on their own. The students in these videos were
teaching themselves, each other, and the teacher. I watched as students took a project and
made it their own. They seemed to have learned more material than they would have if the
teacher was standing at the front and telling them what to do and ask. I have learned that in
order to get students excited about science I need to take more of a backseat and observe
how they use questions to find answers and facilitate their inquiry.
Im not a big fan of writing but I mean they made me go back over what we had learned, so
they did helped, especially at the end when I went over to see what I thought and how my
ideas had changed. I became a believer in requiring written reflections. I was never quite
sold on writing in Science Journals until I experienced the understanding I developed by
reflecting on my own experiences. Without reflection, our lives can become a series of doing
and getting done. To develop understanding, we need to think about what we did and what it
means to us or what we learned from it.
I attempted to use inquiry in my lessons, allowing my students to explore in a static
electricity activity. I found my students teaching me new ways to approach static electricity
with the balloon activity. I simply gave them a balloon and aluminum can to explore. The
students successfully explained what was occurring and how you could move the aluminum
can with the help of the balloon and the static electricity that resulted. It was a wonderful
experience and I feel the students were learning a great deal as well as teaching me.
Immersion in inquiry-based learning
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The course engaged students in first-hand experience of science inquiry by immersing them in
the process of active exploration of concepts and construction of new knowledge. The active
engagement not only allowed her to participate and think from a students perspective, but to also
reflect on them from a teachers point of view. Through such experiences she was further convinced of
the importance inquiry-based learning in which students actively explore and discuss ideas. Heather
also found this immersive experience effective in influencing her science and science teaching attitude,
confidence, and beliefs.
Collaborative Learning
Heather viewed her peers and collaborative teamwork as imperative to her learning and
development as a teacher. She discussed the importance of her peers in helping her gain further
confidence with science. She explained how collaboration had allowed her to think everything through
together and also to see everyone struggling and learning in the process. She expressed similar ideas
about the benefits of collaborating with her peers during the development of their mini units, which
enabled her to understand that science isnt just about light bulbs and ice cubes, it is about working
together and using one an others ideas to work through problems. She also found the class discussions
quite beneficial in learning about other peoples ideas and experiences. The presentations and the
microteaching allowed her to become familiar with other peoples ideas and lessons as well as effective
classroom management or questioning techniques that some may have employed in their lessons that
were missing in others. She was able to adopt and incorporate some of these effective ideas into her
own unit or remember them for the future.
Readings and videos of classroom teaching
Heather found the course readings and videos valuable components of the course. She
mentioned the case studies as particularly useful in allowing her to analyze a classroom situation and
become more aware of the significance of constantly reflecting on ones teaching. Furthermore, the
readings, some of which included practitioner articles, further convinced Heather of the importance of
inquiry-based science teaching, especially as advocated by major science education organizations and
reforms.
Heather explained how the series of videos they watched depicting inquiry-centered science
classrooms had played a major role in convincing her of the effectiveness of the approach as a tool to
teach science, because she was able to see its effectiveness in an actual classroom.
Journal reflections
Heather described herself as one who was not too interested in writing journals, because of her
lack of interest and comfort with writing. However, even though she started the semester with minimal
interest in doing the reflections, she grew to like them and especially realized its value in evaluating her
growth over the span of the semester. She also found that it was a useful tool in communicating
concerns and questions and receiving feedback and suggestions from the instructor.
Developing and teaching instructional units
Heather discussed the effectiveness of the learning cycle as a model which would allow her to
include many important components of inquiry learning such as engaging students interest, gauging
their prior knowledge, allowing them the opportunity to explore, discussion of their observations or
concepts, application of their understanding to new scenarios, and the ongoing evaluation of students
learning. Heather also discussed the importance of creating the unit plans and the discussion and peer
critiquing that accompanied it. She was fond of the coherent nature of the science lessons that were
created as a unit rather than as separate lessons. The experience of teaching in the field had also
informed her of the importance of planning ahead but also being flexible enough to adapt to the
situation and change plans if necessary. She described how teaching her inquiry-based mini-unit during
field experience had allowed her to witness her students learning from the lesson and exploring and
discussing points she had not anticipated. Heather also discussed the importance of receiving feedback
from the instructor and her peers during the presentation of the mini-units and the final portfolio units.
Conclusion
This qualitative case study revealed a number of themes with respect to Heathers experiences,
beliefs, attitude, and self-efficacy, both prior to and upon completion of the course. In doing so, it not
only shed light on our understanding of this particular population of PSTs, but also allowed for certain
assertions about teacher beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy, to be examined and further scrutinized.
Prior research links positive attitude and self-efficacy to positive school science experiences and other
62
external factors. However, this case study suggests that there may be some PSTs, such as Heather,
whose interest about science may be more intrinsic in nature, although being given the opportunity to
continue asking questions and researching on her own, rather than simply following her classrooms
activities helped keep Heather motivated, interested, and confident.
An interesting theme, which has not been addressed in prior research on pre-service teachers
science teaching self-efficacy, emerged in this study. Heather had initially attributed her high
confidence in teaching science to her high confidence in learning science and high interest and positive
attitude toward science. By the end of the course, Heather had recognized that she had initially
overestimated her confidence level in teaching science because she had felt that if she were confident
with learning science she was equally confident with teaching it. Throughout the course, she had
realized her lack of understanding and weaknesses in teaching science and learned that possessing a
positive attitude is not sufficient to be able to teach science. Had only a quantitative approach been
utilized in the form of surveys and self-reports, such insight into Heathers thinking and changing
attitude and self-efficacy as a result of the course would not have been possible.
A number of studies have indicated a link between in-service teachers self-efficacy and
teaching practices. However, Heathers case study suggests that, this may not necessarily be true in the
case of PSTs who have little or no prior teacher preparation or experience. With this population,
possessing a high science teaching self-efficacy alone, as was the case with Heather early in the
semester, is not sufficient to assume reform-based beliefs and teaching practices. It must be understood
that possessing positive attitude toward science or its teaching may lead to more science instruction but
not necessarily effective science teaching. Prospective teachers who may have positive attitude toward
science may simply do more science in their classrooms, as has been suggested by prior studies,
however, their beliefs about teaching and learning science may be not aligned with reform philosophy
and they may actually utilize ineffective teaching methods. In some situations, individuals could have a
high science teaching self-efficacy because they have either (a) had positive prior science learning
experience, (b) a high science learning self-efficacy, (c) positive attitude toward learning science, and/or
(d) positive prior experiences teaching or working with children that make them believe they can also
effectively teach science. However, as witnessed in the case of Heather, this high sense of self-efficacy
might not always translate into effective teaching or reform-based beliefs if PSTs have not had prior
experiences or training to help shape their beliefs and practices.
This underscores the importance of not simply clumping all PSTs into one large group when
exploring changes in their affective and cognitive features. Each individual PST enters the program with
various prior experiences and beliefs that will influence their self-efficacy and attitude and any changes
they undergo throughout various programs or courses. We should make the effort to understand what
prior experiences PSTs have had, what types of experiences they have as part of the course, the types of
changes they go through, and the various factors that might influence them differently.
Furthermore, prior studies have often focused on these three domains separately or at best
examined the relationship between any two of these features. This study was unique in that it
concurrently explored the relationship between the constructs before and after the course. Initially,
Heathers attitude toward science and science teaching as well as her self-efficacy toward science and
science teaching were closely interrelated and a product of her own intrinsic interest in science and the
types of experiences she was able to have during K-12. Her epistemological beliefs appeared to have
been shaped by both her actual science experiences and what she had witnessed in the classrooms. This
resulted in a concoction of ideas about science and science teaching, which were either not aligned with
or indicative of an incomplete understanding of what is involved in learning and teaching science. At
the end of the course, Heathers experiences had shaped her beliefs about science and science teaching,
which consequently altered her own internal ideas about her attitude and confidence with regard to
science and science teaching.
Finally, the results of this study, stress the importance of focusing our research and practice on
all three domains concurrently. It is essential to recognize that three constructs do not operate in
isolation and should not dealt with in isolation. They are interlinked and influence one another and
ultimately PSTs science teaching practices; therefore, attempts to imporve one without focusing on the
other features will not result in enduring changes in practice. As educators, understanding the
interrelationship between all three domains and PSTs prior, as well as, course experiences will be an
essential component in our success in improving our students affective and cognitive features and their
consequent teaching practices.
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64
Nahadi, Wiwi Siswaningsih, Farida Sarimaya. (2014). Profiles Junior high School
West Java in Education Learning Environment. Journal of Education and Learning.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 65-70.
Profiles Junior high School West Java in Education

Learning Environment
Nahadi *
Wiwi Siswaningsih **
Farida Sarimaya ***

Abstract
Descriptive studies have been conducted on the existing junior high profile in West Java on Education Learning
Environment. The study was conducted by purposive sampling and descriptive done to get an idea about the profile
of SMP in West Java implementation of the learning environment. in junior high school in West Java. Research
conducted by distributing questionnaires, and observations based on the indicators developed. Based on this
research, it is known that, PLH learning in junior high school in West Java has been in force since 2007 after the
enactment of the Governor of West Java on environmental education for junior high school students in West Java.
Learning that lasts generally implemented in conventional teacher, and it is without any innovations. It has made
learning the essential condition runs well, but has not lasted optimally.
Keywords: Profile of Learning, PLH, West Java
Nahadi, Indonesia University of Education

E-mail: hadinahadi@yahoo.co.id
**
Wiwi Siswaningsih, Indonesia University of Education
***
Farida Sarimaya, Indonesia University of Education.

E-mail: saripudinupi@yahoo.com
Introduction
The issue concerns the environmental crisis has indeed been predicted since the postulat
Malthus that population's ability to grow in quantity is greater than the ability of natural resources to
provide food as a basic human needs. According to him, can be mathematically explained that
population growth will follow a geometric progression, while the growth of food follows arithmetically
(Todaro, 1995). In turn, natural resources can no longer support human needs, so that when it is a
tragedy of hunger, malnutrition, disease, natural disasters, etc., that could lead to prolonged suffering.
This prediction is supported by the results of the study Meadow et.al. (1972) showed that if the
consumption and abuse of human impact on natural resources in line with the exponential line, the
quality of the human environment will decrease drastically. Furthermore, that will be the Day of
Resurrection (dooms day) due to the exponential growth of the use of natural resources and
environmental degradation, environmental pollution, population growth, and the growth of food
production. The results of other studies with respect to environmental degradation proposed by Chiras
(1995) that analyzes the environmental damage stems from the nature of humans as biological
imperialism where he needs to eat and breed, regardless of the limited natural resources to provide the
necessities of life for himself and his descendants. The accumulation of this nature form a mental view
that man was created to dominate nature and existence of nature itself is unlimited. This view is further
gives color to human behavior in the use of the environment, so the damage as noted above occur
inevitably.
Thus, the environmental problems that arise can not be solved by purely technical, but more
important is to change the mental breakdown and awareness of environmental management. Although
it's a long process, and the results can not be seen immediately as well as technical solutions, but
breaking through the coaching change behavior toward more responsible environmental management is
a very strategic thing to do. This is a challenge for the development of environmental education to be
able to contribute to the formation of responsible behavior towards the environment.
However, dissatisfaction will study Environmental Education (PLH) appears when the learning
process does not support the development of reasoning power and creativity of children, and the
creation of a learning environment that is boring and uninteresting. How teachers in the delivery of less
oriented thinking level of students, and also the tendency that the learning process PLH using a
monotonous lecture method is another factor. Meanwhile, growth in the direction of creative thinking
will evolve if students always gain stimuli through learning to support the development process of
creative thinking (creative thinking), giving stock skills for life (life skills), and create a fun learning
environment (joyful learning). PLH learning conducted in West Java as development toward
responsible behavior towards the environment has not been planned and implemented in conducive and
fun, so that students have the motivation and interest to learn more.
Learning PLH in West Java

PLH is a field of study that studies unity with all things space, power, and circumstances of life
including human beings and behavior that affect the continuity of life and well-being of humans and
other living things. Philosophically, the environment itself is with respect to the earth's surface as a
reference, and any human activities (Stapp & Swan, 1974:59). Because the earth is the starting point in
a variety of human activities, the concept of environment can be classified as follows:
1. Earth as a closed system that obtain energy from the sun, have the water resources, air, and land
with a limited supply of human well-being, the capacity of natural systems and cycles, and has a
material or raw materials are limited.
2. Biosfera which includes living beings and inanimate objects.
3. Humans who have an important role in interacting with the natural environment.
4. Economic and technologies that contribute to human welfare and the environment and
sustainability.
5. Environmental policies that can determine in environmental management.
In his study, Environmental Management in West Java integrated in various fields of study that
studied the relationship between body and environment to live with the terms. This includes fields of
study science, social studies, orchestra, and language. Multiple disciplines is considered within a scope
and a broad perspective and intertwined. Basically, PLH is a forum for an interdisciplinary approach in
addressing issues regarding the particular human environment and living organisms in general. In
reviewing PLH, pressure aimed primarily to reunite all the sciences related to environmental issues into
categories related to variable energy, matter, space, time and diversity.
Learning objectives PLH itself is fostering increased knowledge, awareness, attitudes, values
and behavior of environmental responsibility. The behavior in this case is directly related to the
66
intention to act (intention to act) (Orams, 1994). However, prior to the determination to act, there are
several factors, namely: (1) the readiness to act, (2) knowledge of action strategies, (3) knowledge on
the issue, and (4 personality factors crate attitudes, locus of control, and individual responsibility. task
of teachers in the learning PLH is apart form the student to have a positive intention to act on the
environment, as well as providing conditions conducive to behavior in accordance with the intentions
earlier. This is due, to reach towards environmental sustainability, intentions alone are not enough
without behavioral support.
Approaches to Learning Approach PLH

In accordance with the purpose of learning PLH, then effective learning should use a variety of
approaches that can be fun and attract the attention of students. Its main purpose is to help students to
learn to be happy, so learning that is fun and not a burden. To help students widely used mnemonic
memory with a few symbols, songs, and poems into mnemonics. For example, adding the days in a
month with a jingle 'September, April, June and November has 30 days, the remaining 31 days, except
for February which had 28 days are exceptions to leap years, we need to add one more day. " Similarly,
in studying the names of the planets in the solar system with the mnemonic 'MOVE MY SUN' where M
is Mercury, O discarded, Venus V, E (Earth) Earth and so on (= ff.). Pluto should be added at the end.
In addition, students are invited to better help solve the problem rather than just listening. They
will learn more about the concept of PLH if they are actively involved in the experiment, talk about it,
think about it and apply it to the real world around them. Keep in mind that new scientific principles
will not be found by sitting in a classroom alone, but examined in a laboratory to experiment and be
actively engaged in learning. In addition, learning is an ongoing process, so that learning activities
should be developed based on the order in which each experience developed by previous learning
processes. If the PLH learning through joyful leaning approach to achieve the goal, then you should
consider several factors as follows:
1. Meaningfulness; understanding will increase if new information ideas and knowledge that has been
mastered by the students. In particular, the terms and concepts are often difficult to understand.
Pemhaman needs to be explored through the experiences of students themselves.
2. Strengthening; consists of repetition by the teacher and student training. Repetition and practice can
overcome the forgotten. In a joyful approach to learning, reinforcement is to be aware of.
3. Feedback; learning is effective when students receive quickly on the results of the learning task.
Simple feedback, for example, correction of students answers to the teacher during the lesson, or
correction of student work.
Several models of learning that can support the Joyful Learning approach include:
1. Discussion
Discussion has great significance in developing understanding. This is due to discussions bring
their students to use the concepts learned and turn it into a form of expression that is fun for
students. Discussions are fun to be fulfilled denagan (a) Grouping the meaning of terms and
statements, (b) Establish a shared understanding within a group, (c) Sharing of knowledge and
experience, (d) help students understand new information, (e) Identify the various opinions and
view, and (f) To cooperate in solving problems
2. Guided Inquiry Guided Inquiry learning is relevant PLH, while fun are also opportunities for
students to examine what they have learned and apply it to the real world. Guided investigations
can be done in various forms, which are to find out about the water cycle for example or figure out
the aspects that cause the water to become polluted, and so on. Guided Inquiry will be effective if
the following series of steps: (a) students choose or are given topic that needs to be investigated or
researched, (b) collect the information they need, (c) analyze the information they have collected,
and (d) present a report findings of these investigations can be shaped in a class presentation, a
series of pictures, diagrams and graphs wall, or written reports.
3. Model IODE IODE term is an acronym for the English language intake (Reception), Organization
(Settings), Demonstration (Demonstration), and Expression (Disclosure). The fourth letter indicates
that there are four types of student activities in sequence learning. The model is a natural way of
learning in acquiring new knowledge in the field of study and fun enough students. For example, in
learning PLH is the topic of climate disruption effects of El Nino which has led to widespread
drought, crop failures and forest fires in Indonesia. The application of learning in the classroom is
as follow:
a. Acceptance (intake) Listening lesson information, view photos, maps and images showing the
effects of El Nino, reading newspapers, magazines and books, listen to radio reports and
watching TV reports about El Nino, interviewing farmers whose crops have been damaged by
El Nino.
67
b.
Settings (Organize) Mapping of the areas affected by El Nino, the report of the farmers
affected by drought, prepare charts and tables showing the losses due to the loss of agricultural
production and losses due to forest fires, combine the newspaper reports about the decline in
the number of forest due to fire forest and so on.
c. Demonstration (demonstrate) Explain how El Nino forms, illustrates the world regions affected
by the El Nino effect, and summarizes the influence of El Nino on rice production, loss of
forest, forest loss and death of animals and so on.
d. Disclosure (Express) Make a diagram illustrating the effects of El Nino, as well as presenting
talks in class about El Nino. Or also wrote a poem that describes the feelings of a drought
affected farmers and write stories about forest fires and so on.
4. Problem Solving Model
This model can be used in Joyful Learning approach because it can attract students to solve
environmental problems in the neighborhood. Such as, why floods, cholera outbreaks why, why the
forest is important to human life, and so on. In this problem-solving model, the stages in solving
problems vary according to the issue in question, but in general these stages can be sorted as
follow:
a. Problem Identification stage is recognition of existing problems or issues around students. In
this case, students can be involved to raise issues they see and feel
b. Issues Survey Considerations about different perspectives and aspects related to the issue in
order to improve the understanding of the problem.
c. Problem Definition Defining the problem properly will help children to resolve the problem.
d. Focus issue size issues need to be considered to understand because it will affect how the
settlement will be done; teachers have an important role in helping students to lead a major
issue.
e. Analysis of Factors Contributing to. The causes must be sought once the problem has been
identified and specified size. Therefore, we need to develop students' understanding of the
problem itself.
f. Solving problems as it attempts to resolve the problems often cause other problems. Students
in this case should be included.
5. Group Work Through group work the students are given the opportunity to set goals, propose and
investigate, explain the concept, and discuss the issue. Cooperation students can stimulate their
minds to share ideas. Being part of a group will foster a sense of belonging, mutual respect, and
responsibility. Attitudes and behavior as well as open-mindedness, responsibility, cooperation, and
attention to others can also be developed. That's all important features of effective group behavior.
Good teamwork requires careful preparation and use only:
a. For activities that have clear goals and that can be done better by a group rather than by
individuals.
b. For activities in which all members of the group in question can be given useful tasks to be
performed.
c. If all members of the group have the necessary skills to perform the tasks that have been given
to them.
These skills need time to be developed and practiced continuously. The following suggestions
may be useful when starting with a class group work, namely:
a. Begin group work slowly. Keep relevant groups remain small, probably no more than 5-8
children.
b. Pilihiah task is simple, concise and well defined, and may be completed successfully by the
group.
c. Pick up a leader and a recorder for the group or command that concerned children up. Explain
the responsibility-responsibility leader, registrar and other members.
d. Give students the material resources they need to complete the task in question (when they are
more experienced, they can collect their own resources).
e. Use some time with each group at the beginning and end of each work period. Give them some
help and advice on how they are to do their jobs and how to report back to the class about what
they are doing. Make sure that the group report to the whole class is really concise and
interesting.
Conclusion
Learning approaches have become PLH PLH learning strategies that support the development
of creative thinking and menciptaan enjoyable learning atmosphere. With the expected learning models
68
produced innovations that can be fun and exciting perhation student, the student is expected to feel good
and happy (enjoy) in following pelajaran PLH. Furthermore, students can develop their creativity in
developing the knowledge, attitudes, values and responsible behavior towards the environment. Thus,
PLH learning in school to achieve the target in accordance with the objectives to be achieved.
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implementation of sustainable development. Jakarta: IPPL.
Swan, James A & Stapp, William B. 1974. Environmental education: Strategies toward a more liveble
futures, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
69
70
Qomaruddin M, Rahman A.A, Iahad N.A. (2014). User Acceptance Test of

Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT).
Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) 71-77.
User Acceptance Test of Computer-Assisted ProblemBased Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT)

Muhammad Qomaruddin*
Universitas Islam Sultan Agung, Indonesia
Azizah Abdul Rahman**

Noorminshah A.Iahad***
Abstrak
Pembelajaran Berbasis masalah (PBL) merupakan metode desain instruksional yang digunakan oleh banyak
dosen untuk membuat pengalaman belajar lebih efisien dan bermakna. PBL menekankan dosen untuk
memfasilitasi pembelajaran kolaboratif. Mereka secara konvensional memainkan peran kecil dalam proses
penilaian secara formal. Peer-assessment dan self-assessment adalah metode yang paling sering digunakan oleh
dosen dalam penilaian di PBL. Makalah ini menyajikan penerimaan pengujian terhadap alat berbasis komputer
untuk peer-assessment dan self-assessment dalam metode pendekatan PBL, yang disebut Alat bantu Komputer
untuk Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah (CAPBLAT). Dimana alat ini dirancang untuk membantu dosen
melakukan pengajaran dengan metode PBL dan membantu menilai mahasiswa dalam proses belajarnya.
Sebanyak empat puluh mahasiswa berpartisipasi dalam uji alat ini. Selama penelitian, kuesioner diberikan
kepada mahasiswa. Hasil mengenai penerimaan alat penilaian menunjukkan bahwa menggunakan CAPBLAT
dalam proses penilaian PBL mendapat penerimaan yang lebih baik dari dosen maupun dari mahasiswa.
Kata kunci: peer-assessment, self-assessment, Assessment, Problem-Based Learning
Abstract
Problem-based Learning (PBL) is an instructional design method that is used by many lecturers to create more
efficient and meaningful learning experiences. PBL places an emphasis on assisting the lecturers in facilitating
collaborative learning. They conventionally play a small role in the formal assessment process. Peer-assessment
and self-assessment are the most frequent methods of assessment employed by lecturers when conducting PBL.
This paper presents a user acceptance test of a computer-based tool for peer-assessment and self-assessment in
PBL, known as Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool (CAPBLAT). The tool was
designed to assist lecturers in conducting the PBL teaching method and assess students learning progress. A
total of forty students participated in the testing of the tool. During the study, questionnaires were administered
to students. The results concerning the assessment tool acceptance demonstrate that students showed positive
feedback and accepted the usage of CAPBLAT for the PBL assessment process.
`
Keywords: peer-assessment, self-assessment, Assessment, Problem-Based Learning
Muhammad Qomaruddin, Department of Informatics Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology,

Universitas Sultan Agung (unissula), Semarang Indonesia.
E-mail: mqomaruddin@unissula.ac.id
**
Azizah Abdul Rahman, Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing, Universiti

E-mail: azizahar@utm.my
***
Noorminshah A.Iahad, Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing, Universiti

E-mail: minshah@utm.my
Introduction
Teaching and learning in the PBL approach differ from the traditional approaches. PBL
encourages students to be, specifically: active learners, self-directed learners and work together in a
group. It enables various methods of assessing students, including, for example: assessing the outcomes
of the PBL (such as a group project report) and assessing the performance of an individual student. The
most frequently used assessments in PBL are self-assessment and peer-assessment.
There are many advantages to be gained by utilizing self-assessment and peer-assessment.
Through self-assessment and peer-assessment, students are able to make judgments about how well they
have learned; rather than merely how much they have learned (Macdonald & Savin-Baden, 2004). Peerassessment helps to develop the acquisition of self-directed learning skills as students participate in the
assessment experience (Ballantyne, Hughes, & Mylonas, 2002). In addition, self-assessment and peerassessment provide valuable insights into the performance of students. It has been demonstrated that
peer ratings are a good predictor of future performance, and provide information regarding student
performance that is not measured by other traditional evaluation methods (Foreman, 2007; Sullivan,
Hitchcock, & Dunnington, 1999).
Strong support for self-assessment and peer-assessment is proven throughout literature studies;
however, difficulties have also been reported. Both types of assessments are time-consuming and thus
are regarded negatively by students. Students need to undertake the peer assessment more anonymously
and it is very difficult to assess peers within the confines of the PBL room (Papinczak, Young, &
Groves, 2006).
The use of computers in assessment in general is known as a definition of Computer-Assisted
Assessment (CAA). Through this, CAA can provide advantages for both lecturers and students to
provide them with detailed formative feedback for their learning achievements compared to
conventional assessment. It also can reduce the somewhat tedious load of lectures by automating parts
of the task of marking students work. Accordingly, the student receives an instant and objective score
together with specific and timely feedback. This is due to the detailed scoring data already being
digitized and recorded to central repositories in the students' records system (Bull & Danson, 2004).
This paper proposes an automated tool for PBL assessment by which to accomplish these
difficulties by utilising computers. In todays high technology environment, computers can play an
enormous role in the assessment process; in this case especially for peer-assessment and self-assessment
respectively. The paper will also discuss the acceptance test of the tool as received from the students.
CAPBLAT as Assessment Learning Tool

CAPBLAT (abbreviation for Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool) is
a computer-based assessment tool designed for assessing students progress in a Problem-Based
Learning (PBL) approach.
CAPBLAT serves the purpose of helping lecturers assess their students learning achievement
in the PBL approach. Moreover, CAPBLAT can also assist students to, specifically: assess their peers
contributions, assess their own performances and monitor their individual learning achievement.
The CAPBLAT method was developed based on the framework of PBL assessment, named
PBLAsF (Problem-Based Learning Assessment Framework). This consists of seven instruments of
assessment methods, namely: 1) Peer-Assessment, 2) Self-Assessment
3) Individual-Activity
Assessment, 4) Group-Report Assessment, 5) Group-Presentation Assessment, 6) Pre-test and 7) Posttest/Final-test.
During the PBL session, all students are required to enter the login information to the tool. At
this point, they should insert a valid e-mail address and secret password for their sign in to the
CAPBLAT. Figure 1 shows the CAPBLAT login page screenshots.
The CAPBLAT performs numerous learning functions, including: providing learning material,
assessment rubrics, displaying results and feedback, facilitating the creation of a PBL session, a
publishing problem, generating group members, activating assessment and sending notification to the
students.
Among those features, this paper has only concentrated on reporting the utilization of
CAPBLAT for peer-assessment and self-assessment. Accordingly, during the research, students were
asked to use only two features of CAPBLAT, namely: peer-assessment tool and self-assessment tool.
In order to achieve the outcome (the course objectives and PBL objectives), identification of
criteria for each PBL objective was required (Montemayor, 2004). The research defines process skills
and scope of criteria for each of the objectives as outlined in Table 1. The four process skills,
specifically: Knowledge building, knowledge work, communication, as well as critical analysis and
72

(CAPBLAT)
problem solving have been determined based on the process skills commonly used by the PBL
practitioners who founded the literature studies.
The CAPBLAT also provided these process skills as described in Figure 1.
Table 1. The defined proces skills and scope of criteria.
No
1
Process Skills to be assessed

Knowledge building
Collaborative work
Communication skills
Critical analysis and Problem

solving
Scope of Criteria
Application of Knowledge Base
Self-directed learning (self-study)
Demonstration of breadth and depth of knowledge
Self-contribution (Team member contribution)
Cooperation among team members
Responsibility to team members
Punctuality and Positive Influence
Responsibility and commitment in all the teams tasks
Attitude during discussion and professionalism
Ability to communicate ideas clearly
Being able to accept feedback with openness
Positive reaction to feedback and criticism
Critical analysis, reasoning and decision-making skills
Provision of input which focuses on and is relevant to the case
Self-awareness: Ability to accept and respond to criticism
gracefully
Figure 1. CAPBLAT Login Screenshots.
Research Method
The research was carried out in classrooms at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. A total of 40
students participated in this study, and they were divided into two classes (Class A for Theory of
Motivation and Class B for Behavior Disorder) and several groups. Each group consisted of four or five
members. All students involved were registered in the second semester, and this activity was their first
attempt in PBL learning and using a computer-based assessment tool for their peer-assessment and selfassessment. Quantitative analysis was then used to evaluate student technology (assessment tool)
acceptance.
Procedure
Before the commencement of the PBL class, an introduction of PBL was given to the students.
We also hosted a presentation of the use of CAPBLAT for the students, by means of a demonstration in
the classroom.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
73
Figure 2. Student page designed to view problems, assessments and group member screenshots.
During the PBL session of the semester, students presented three problems as a trigger for their
work tasks in their respective groups (please refer to Figure 2 for examples of the problems). Each
group member was encouraged to share and discuss their work on the dedicated forum that has been
provided during the program. At the end of each problem, students were required to assess the online
form for their peers and their own performance. It is anticipated that these assessments would contribute
5% of the overall percentage of the course assessment. The peer-assessment and self-assessment form
consists of four process skills as depicted in Figures 3 and 4.
Each process skill consists of three or four criteria that have been adapted from Montemayor
(Montemayor, 2004), and Uden & Beamount (Uden & Beaumont, 2006). For each criteria of question,
students are required to assess their peers based on the four rating scale. This ranges from, namely: 1Poor, 2-Fair, 3-Good and 4-Excellent. Students have been reminded to make a fair judgment of their
peers based on each of the peer contributions.
Data Collection
A quantitative method was used to collect the data, which had been gathered via a
questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to students for the purposes of examining technology
acceptance based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by Davis (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw,
1989).
74

(CAPBLAT)
Figure 3. Peer-Assessment Rubric Screenshots.
Figure 4. Peer-Assessment Screenshots.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
75
Questions posed in the questionnaire were divided into two parts. In Part A, the questions were
determined based on three factors, namely: Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEU),
and Attitude Towards Usage (ATU) with a total of 11 questions, as listed in Table 2. The 5-point Likert
scale from 5 for strongly agree to 1 for strongly disagree was used for the questions in Part A.
Meanwhile, Part B consists of open-ended questions in which students are invited to provide comments
and suggestions concerning the tool.
Result and Discussion

The result (Table 2) shows that scores for each question of PU, PEU and ATU are all (mean)
above 3,9 respectively. They range between Agree and Strongly Agree. The students generally
agreed that CAPBLAT is useful, easy to use, and they have a positive attitude toward using it.
Table 2. The Questionnaire Questions

Factor
Question
Perceived Usefulness (PU)
Q1
The tool provides a comprehensive framework for PBL assessment which can be used effectively to assess
students performance.
Q2
The tool is effective in assisting lecturers to assess their students by the PBL Method.
Q3
The tool helps lecturers save time in marking.
Q4
The tool is able to overcome the complexity and tediousness of the PBL assessment.
Q5
The tool effectively monitors student progress through more frequent assessments
Q6
The tool provides quick and specific feedback to students during problem sessions.
Perceived Ease Of Use (PEU)
Q7
Q8
Q9
The tool is easy to use.

It's easy to understand the contents of the tool.
The whole tool is well-developed & user friendly.
Attitude Towards Usage (ATU)

Q10
Q11
I like to use the application because it is easy and it is also quick to find and access information concerning
assessment.
I hope the application can provide more features for assessment and learning, so that other learning methods
can also use it.
Table 3. Statistics of Questionnaire Questions

Question
PU
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
PEU
Q7
Q8
Q9
ATU
Q10
Q11
Mean
Percentage (%)
SD
DA
SA
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
2,5
2,5
2,5
5
7,5
10
20
20
20
57,5
42,5
32,5
55
55
55
37,5
50
52,5
22,5
22,5
22,5
4,33
4,33
4,33
3,98
4,35
4,45
2,5
0
0
0
2,5
0
0
10
10
60
55
40
37,5
32,5
50
4,30
4,18
4,40
0
0
2,5
2,5
15
20
45
55
37,5
22,5
4,18
4,20
1=SD: Strongly disagree, 2=DA: Disagree, 3=N: Neutral, 4=A: Agree, 5=SA:
Strongly agree
76

(CAPBLAT)
Responses to question Q1 indicated that 95 % of students were in agreement that the tool
provides a comprehensive framework for PBL assessment by which to efficiently assess students
performances; while just 5% of them indicated a neutral position to this question. Responses to Q2
indicated that 92. 5% of students showed their agreement that the tool is effective in assisting lecturers
to assess their students by the PBL Method; while only 7.5% of them were shown as having a neutral
attitude to this question. Regarding responses from other questions in factor PU (Q3-Q6), more than 75
% of students showed their agreement, while the remainder chose neutral and disagreement stances.
According to the results of open-ended questions, it can be seen that most of the students gave
positive comments on their experiences with using the tool. Some of the comments included: the
system is good and accessible. It is user-friendly and gives students continuous feedback on their
progress throughout the course. Assessment is more reliable because each student was assessed by the
lecturer, peers and even themselves.
Conclusion
In this study, a computer-based tool for PBL assessment (CAPBLAT) was developed. The tool
has been designed to assist the lecturer conduct the PBL teaching process and assess their students
learning progress accordingly. The study involved students using the CAPBLAT for the purpose of,
specifically: reading the problem trigger, checking their progress, and assessing the online form for their
peers and their own performance respectively.
Reflecting upon the case study, the answers to the questionnaire as provided by the students
showed very positive feedback on the use of the tool. The students were in agreement that CAPBLAT is
useful, easy to use, and they displayed a positive attitude towards using it.
References
Ballantyne, R., Hughes, K., & Mylonas, A. (2002). Developing Procedures for Implementing Peer
Assessment in Large Classes Using an Action Research Process Assessment & Evaluation in
Higher Education: Routledge.
Bull, J., & Danson, M. (2004). A Briefing on Computer-assisted Assessment. Series 14,
Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A
Comparison of Two Theoretical Models. Management Science, 35, No. 8, 982-1003.
Foreman, M. (2007). Peer Assessment of Problem Based LearningFostering Reflective Practice in
SocialWork Students. Retrieved from www.aishe.org/readings/2007-1/
Macdonald, R., & Savin-Baden, M. (2004). A Briefing on Assessment in Problem-based Learning
Assessment Series No. 13. York Science Park, Heslington York YO10 5ZF: Learning and
Teaching Support Network (LTSN).
Montemayor, L. L. E. (2004). Formative and Summative Assessment of the Problem-Based Learning
Tutorial Session Using a Criterion-Referenced System. The International Association of
Medical Science Educators (IAMSE), 14.
Papinczak, T., Young, L., & Groves, M. (2006). Peer Assessment in Problem-Based Learning: A
Qualitative Study. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 12(2), 169-186.
Sullivan, M. E., Hitchcock, M. A., & Dunnington, G. L. (1999). Peer and Self Assessment during
Problem-based Tutorials. The American Journal of Surgery, 177(3 March 1999), 266-269.
Uden, L., & Beaumont, C. (2006). Technology and Problem-Based Learning: Hershey, PA :
Information Science Publishing.
Vol.8 (1) pp. 71-77.
77
Tecnam Yoon. (2014). The Application of Virtual Simulations using Second Life in a
Foreign Language Classroom. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol.8 (1) pp. 7884.
The Application of Virtual Simulations using Second Life in

a Foreign Language Classroom
Tecnam Yoon *
Department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies
School of Education
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of virtual simulation-based language learning in a foreign
language class in Korea. Total 35 1st-year university students in Korea participated in this research to figure out the
effect of simulations. A virtual English learning community, Cypris Chat in Second Life was selected as a
learning tool. For the data collection, a survey questionnaire was distributed and analysed quantitatively. The result
shows that the majority of the students had a positive attitude toward using a virtual simulation in English learning
and had better understanding in learning English by experiencing an authentic practice. The first section of this
paper provides a general overview of simulations in educational settings through an insightful literature review of
the current research in the area. The review includes a comprehensive outlook on simulations, an example of
successful classroom integration and some of the considerations researchers have found for their implementation.
The latter section addresses the research method, results and conclusions.
Keywords: Simulation; Simulation-based teaching; Simulation for Language Classroom; Language Learning &
Teaching
Tecnam Yoon, Doctoral Candidate, Language, Literacy, Culture Concentration, Department of Teacher Education
and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
E-mail: tyoon@umasss.edu
Introduction
Under the flag of the globalization in the 21st century, hundreds and thousands of students of
all ages in the world are learning a second, third or foreign language. In particular, the language of
English is now even called, Globish(global+English), or Worldlish(world+English), since it has
become an international language with global significance. Depending on each individuals need and
objective, although there may exist a variety of reasons to learn English, one of the main obejctives to
learn English is because of its significance as an international standard for the language. For a long
time, language has been considered as the vehicle of communication by which human beings live,
share, and build ideas and understandings of the present, reflect on the past, and imagine the future.
(MDE, 1996). More recently, as the ICT (information and communication technology) skills are rapidly
developed, the use of English has became much widely spreaded. Surpringly, the advent of the Internet,
and social network media such as Facebook or Twitter made this phenamenon contributed English to
become a dominant language in the world. In other words, English becomes a language to learn to live
in a global era. Although educators in Korea put an emphasis on the importance of learning English, the
way teaching and learning English today does not differ from 1980s or 1990s. English is still taught
focused on the grammatical rules, syntactic structures, and rote memorization of vocabulary.
The main purpose of this paper is therefore, to explore how EFL college students in Korea
consider virtual simulations using Second life as a learning tool in English class, and how they perceive
such simulations can practically help them to engage in English learning, and to promote motivation.
So, this paper will provide a general overview of simulations in educational settings through an
insightful literature review of the current research in the area. The review includes a comprehensive
outlook on simulations, an example of successful classroom integration, and some of the considerations
researchers have found for their implementation. It also contains a revision of online simulations and
gaming in educational settings as people in general are spending an increasing amount of time engaging
in these types of activities. The final section views the results of survey questionnaires and students
feedback on the use of simluations in English class.
What is Simulation?
Terminology in general, in the area of education can be somewhat of a slippery slope as the
same word can be defined by different authors in many diverse ways. The following section aims to
clear some of the most important terms related to simulations. Generally speaking, a simulation can be
defined as an operating model or representation of a real-world system that may or may not take on
certain aspects of reality for participants; they contain rules that allow users to make the simulation
activity flexible and variable and most importantly, the cost of errors for those involved is always low,
protecting them from harsh consequences of mistakes (Garris, et al, 2002). Jones (1995) furthers this
definition by adding that the participants have (functional) roles, duties and sufficient key information
about the problem, to carry out these duties without play acting or inventing key facts (p. 18).
Simulations have been used in language classes for decades and differ from role-plays in that
in role-plays the participant acts a part with minimum background information, while inventing a great
deal of the scenario and without an explicit reference system (Garca-Carbonell, et al, 2001; Naidu &
Linser, 2000). Peregoy & Boyle (2009) give an example of a simulation in a classroom where students
are playing the role of senators and Congress men and women. The task is to recreate the bill passing
process by writing a bill from the ground up, taking it through the various committees and finally,
voting on it. This is a clear representation of the difference between a role play and a simulation in the
sense that the former would not follow such a structured format and students would not be taking part in
the actual reality of Congress. This simulation results not only in the practice of target language, but it
provides learners with background knowledge in how bills are passed for further classroom activities,
especially if they will be reading abstract or complicated texts (Davis, 1996; Peregoy & Boyle, 2009).
Simulations in Education
Peregoy & Boyle (2009) mention that simulations are particularly useful for language learners
because they provide direct experience for learning; this is due to the fact that they are considering
and taking into account different channels of information, including the nonverbal one (p. 334). The
authors further say that this activity allows students to develop vocabulary as it is presented in context
through the background information they are receiving, making these new words meaningful.
Additionally to the benefits proposed by Peregoy & Boyle (2009), Ranalli (2008) presents a
more comprehensive list that researchers and teachers have found for the use of simulations in language
learning. Simulations are said to encourage language use in specific contexts, such as is promoted in
situated cognition; they foster metacognition and strategy use as they help students think of the
79
language they need for the situation, set attainable communicative goals and the evaluation of the action
plan. Simulations also stimulate cross cultural communication and aid the reduction of fear of making
mistakes by lowering affective filters to facilitate language acquisition (Krashen, 1987). Ranalli (2008)
adds that simulations are learner centered and give students the chance to solve problems with minimal
teacher intervention. He closes by mentioning that coursework is made much more appealing as
instrumental motivation arises by the function, the duties, the responsibilities and circumstances in
which the participants find themselves (Jones, 1982, p. 10 as cited in Ranalli, 2008).
Computer-Based Simulations and Gaming

Aldrich (2004) defines computer based simulations or online simulations as computergenerated versions of real-world objects, processes or situations/contexts. These simulations can take
many formats such as two dimensional, text-driven, or three dimensional. Online simulations contrast to
games in that the latter tend to follow rules that differ from real life and have a competitive component
that allows the player to attain a challenging goal. Caillois (1961 as cited in Garris, et al, 2002) adds that
a characteristic of a game is that it is done voluntarily and is enjoyable. He supplements this information
by mentioning that games are completely separated from the real world, that is to say they do not aim to
represent any real life system and that although the costs of mistakes can have consequences, they can
be contained in the gaming arena. Garris, et al. (2002) add that it is not incorrect to consider simulations
and games similar in some respects, but that the key difference is that the former represents reality and
the later does not.
In addition to the benefits of simulations, adding the technological component brings additional
advantages. A characteristic that both gaming and simulations share is that they provide meaningful and
realistic contexts that allow language learners to make rich associations (Puroshtoma, 2005). These
simulations and games can even be considered as bridges between the students and the target-language
culture through accurate socio-cultural contexts and as the voice of students who are regularly shy
through synchronous chats (Brooks, 2007; Schwienhorst, 2002). Tsai, et al (2012) complement this by
mentioning that in general, educational games and simulations enhance leaning motivation and social
interaction.
When it comes to actually incorporating computer based simulations and games into the
curriculum, many authors suggest that briefing sessions (e.g. planning, linguistic preparation, role and
task familiarization) should take place before the simulations and debriefing afterwards (e.g. consolidate
student learning though the discussion of their experience) (Bambrough, 1994; Gaudart, 1999;
Waniganayake, et al, 2006). In fact, Garris, et al. (2005) mention that debriefing should be considered
as the most critical part of utilizing a game or a simulation in a language classroom. They state that is
the actual moment when students can review and analyze what happened or did not happen, if there
were difficulties and how they resolved them, and how this all connects to their own context and
learning process. They add that through debriefing, students can draw parallels between the game or
simulation, the learning experience and their lives (p. 455).
Research Methods
Simulations at Second Life
Second Life is the name of the virtual world in which online users can do about anything that
they can imagine, that is, a world without physical boundaries. The most common activities in Second
Life are talking, sharing, exploring, studying, playing, singing, dancing, building or more. In 2007,
Second Life launched a service used for a foreign language teaching and learning. Both Second Life and
real life language educators have started to utilize this virtual world for language teaching. As a result of
that, English as a foreign language has gotten a presence through several educational institutions, such
as the British Council. Through joining of British Councils the Second Life virtual environment
(http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/second-life), learners from all over can experience interactive
English activities and quests. In this research, the Cypris Chat Group (http://www.cyprischat.org) was
selected, which was a virtual English language learning community located in Second Life, because it is
one of the most popular islands in terms of language teaching and learning.
School
With a 40-year history, it is a Private University with 11,150 enrolled students in which is
located in the suburban area of Seoul, Korea. The school offers 39 study areas, and fresh students of
each department should take basic, intermediate and advanced English courses in the first year. There is
a 6:1 student-faculty ratio with around 200 faculty members.
80
Class
It was an intermediate English class that met twice a week for 50 minutes. There was
homework to be turned in every class; it mainly comprised of reading assigned pages on the textbook
and answering exercises based on the grammatical points covered or watching videos. A typical lecture
began right on time with the teacher presenting the daily program and immediately beginning the
lesson. The teacher used a Power Point presentation in every single class. The presentations had lots of
images and very few words.
Participants
The class was comprised of 35 EFL students. Their average age was 20 years old at the time of
2011, and they all were enrolled in different academic programs. Based on the university curriculum,
students were required to take English courses, regardless of their majors or minors. In this class, there
were diverse students from different department of economics, education, music, chemistry, history,
communication and more. Before the first class started, they were asked whether they had any previous
experience to simulations, and the result was none of them had participated in any virtual simulation
based lecture before.
Classroom setting
The class was held in a computer-equipped classroom. There was a large whiteboard and a
screen in front, connected to the lecturers computer. The room was equipped with a surround sound
system, a state of the art computer station and a projector. For the class, first, students were required to
register on Second Life, and then to download and install it on each computer. After setting up Second
Life,
all
the
students
joined
the
Cypris
Chat
(http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Wellston/166/87/23).
Figure 1. A Screenshot of the Cypris Chat in Second Life
Procedures
In each class, 35 participants followed the learning steps within the given timeframe, advised
by Merryman (2012). First 10 minutes were assigned for warm-up when students had a little time
getting to know each other that is even from outside the class, and to navigate the learning content. For
the rest of the class, students were presented the topic, new vocabulary, expressions, or related material
to be learned. After that, they were encouraged to perform what they have learned. At the end of the
session, wrap-up with a little feedback to the group and questions were provided.
81
Figure 2. A Screenshot of Participating a Conversation in the Cypris Chat

A survey questionnaire was administered to participants who enrolled in the intermediate
English class. All of them in this research spent 10 hours using the Cypris Chat in Second Life. As
shown in Table 1 below, a total number of 12 survey questionnaires for these participants were
distributed after the all class sessions were over, and the survey consisted of 1-5 likert scale (strongly
disagree strongly agree). The gathered data were analysed using SPSS 10.
Table 1. A Survey Questionnaire on a Simulation using the Cypris Chat

Questionnaire
1 2
1. Simulations (Cypris Chat) provided me with an opportunity to enjoy learning.
2. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me a learning activity more interesting.
3. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made my interest for English learning deepened.
4. Simulations (Cypris Chat) helped me to have an authentic learning experience.
5. Simulations (Cypris Chat) were helpful to me in learning English.
6. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me have a cooperative learning by interacting with
classmates.
7. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made English learning fun and pleasant.
8. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made me more engaged in the lesson.
9. Simulations (Cypris Chat) boosted me to study English more.
10. Simulations (Cypris Chat) made the class atmosphere more enjoyable.
11. Simulations (Cypris Chat) helped me like English study more.
12. Simulations (Cypris Chat) offered me an authentic opportunity to practice L2.
* Note: 5-point likert scale (strongly disagree=1, disagree=2, neutral=3, agree=4, strongly agree=5)
Findings
Students Response on English Learning using the Cypris Chat
In order to figure out students response on general English learning, 12-item questionnaire
was administered, and as shown below in Table 2, overall results (item #1, #2, #5, #10) show a pretty
high mean ranging from 3.689 to 3.844. Based on the given results, it can be interpreted that the Cypris
Chat simulation offered the meaningfully effective learning experience to students, and made student
engaged in further learning. In other words, by having a meaningful learning experience, students were
able to gain more interest and zeal for English learning which was considered difficult and stressful to
study.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on English Learning

Item #
1. It provided an opportunity to enjoy learning.
2. It made a learning activity more interesting.
5. It was helpful in learning English.
10. It made the class atmosphere more enjoyable.
82
No.
35
35
35
35
M
3.832
3.844
3.689
3.806
SD
.581
.572
.651
.614
t
-.125
2.56
-.132
.301
Students Response on Understanding the Learning Content

Next Table 3 shows students response on the degree of understanding the learning content
which they learned. The results represent how the Cypris Chat helped them to have better understand
for real-world English communication. Items (#4, #6, #8, #12) also show a very high mean ranging
from 3.756 to 3.882. Most of the students strongly agreed that they were able to have an authentic
learning experience by using the Cypris Chat on Second Life.
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on Understanding the Learning Content

Item #
4. It helped to have an authentic learning experience.
6. It made me have a cooperative learning by interacting with
classmates.
8. It made me more engaged in the lesson.
12. It offered an authentic opportunity to practice L2.
No.
35
35
M
3.786
3.872
SD
.508
.597
t
.366
-.474
35
35
3.756
3.882
.470
.850
-.128
1.53
Students Response on Motivation

Below Table 4 shows students response on the change of motivation towards simulations. As
addressed previously in Table 2 & 3, the result of descriptive statistics (item #3, #7, #9, #11) here also
shows a high mean score from 3.872 to 4.000. Generally speaking, it is not always fun and easy to learn
English, but students expressed their strong willingness and interest towards learning English through
this research using simulations. In terms of the change of the affective filters, it is clear that simulations
using the Cypris Chat boosted students learning experience, and made their motivation level changed
into an enjoyable stage.
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics on Students Response on Motivation

Item #
3. It made my interest for English learning deepened.
7. It made English learning fun and pleasant.
9. It boosted me to study English more.
11. It helped me like English study more.
No.
35
35
35
35
M
4.000
3.921
3.872
3.925
SD
1.02
.655
.592
.721
t
.386
.366
-.128
.954
Conclusions
This paper addresses an overview of what a simulation is, how it has been used in language
classroom. As the research findings show above, the simulations using Second Life provided an
educational and interesting atmosphere for English learning. Besides, simulations provided learners
with a strong sense of motivation for general English learning. To sum up, one of the greatest
advantages to be gained from the use of simulations in English class is that students have more interest
and motivation in their study of English by experiencing the language in an authentic environment.
Therefore, it is concluded that the use of simulations in the English language classroom is promising
because it offers learners an opportunity to practice the target language practically. It is also expected
that students can enhance their communicative competence through activities using simulations.
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Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in

Goal-Setting Learning Principles: A Lesson From Practitioner

The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy: A Case

Profiles Junior high School West Java in Education Learning Environment

User Acceptance Test of Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool

Study on Related Courses to Help Undergraduate Students Write Research Reports: A

Yogyakarta, February 2014

Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2014

Editorial Board Members

Executive Director & Chief Operating Officer:

Vice Executive Director and Treasurer:

Publications and Technical Activities:

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Effects of Private Tuition on the Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in

Goal-Setting Learning Principles: A Lesson From Practitioner

The Interrelationship of Science Experiences, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy: A Case

Profiles Junior high School West Java in Education Learning Environment

User Acceptance Test of Computer-Assisted Problem-Based Learning Assessment Tool

Study on Related Courses to Help Undergraduate Students Write Research Reports: A

Antonia Jiewei Lu, Derong Chen. (2014). Government-Leading Student Loan

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes: A

Antonia Jiewei Lu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Derong Chen, No. 1 Guangfeng Senior School, China

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

Development of Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes in Hong Kong

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

how the student can benefit from the loan.

Table 1. Measurements and items of Government-leading student loan schemes

Non-payment rate, administration cost

Source: Tang, 2001; Guo, 2007.

Table 2. General Living Expenses Level of College Students

Table 3. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in China

Characteristics in Hong Kong Government-Leading Student Loan Scheme

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

Table 4. Statistics of Student Loan Under LSFS

Table 5. Statistics of Student Loan Under NLS

Table 6. Features of government-leading student loan scheme in Hong Kong

5 years after graduation or ceasing to be a

A rate covering all the costs of loan and

Two-tier means test on Adjusted Family

Conclusions and recommendations

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

Government-Leading Student Loan Policy Learning for Hong Kong

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

Johnstone, D. B. & Shroff-mehta, P. (2000). Higher Education Finance and Accessibility: An

Government-Leading Student Loan Schemes

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees

Michael Kho Khian Jui **

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

The Highest Educational Level

Current Year of Study

SPM/MCE : Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia/ Malaysia Certificate of Education

Outcomes of Testing Hypotheses 1 and 2

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Note: Significant at t >1.96

Discussion and Implications

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

The Role of Mentoring Program in Enhancing Mentees Academic Performance

Improving the Learning Result of the Integer Number