Articol-Conferinta Brasov Nov 2014

PROCEEDINGS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL
SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE
CIBv 2014
7th-8th of NOVEMBER
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING HOUSE

BRAOV
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRAOV

CIVIL ENGINEERING FACULTY
and
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SERVICES ENGINEERS (AIIR)
under the high patronage of the
ROMANIAN ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL

SCIENCES
Section of
CIVIL ENGINEERING AND URBANISM
CIBv 2014
Proceedings of the
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE
7th-8th of NOVEMBER 2014

Braov
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING HOUSE
2014
3
2013 EDITURA UNIVERSITII TRANSILVANIA BRAOV

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EDITORS:
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ioan.tuns@unitbv.ro
Conf.dr.ing. Valentin-Vasile UNGUREANU
vvungureanu@unitbv.ro
ef lucr.dr.ing. Florin-Lucian TMA,
florin_tamas@yahoo.com
ISSN 2285-7656
ISSN-L 2248-7648
INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. PhD. Eng. Ioan TUNS Chairman U. Transilvania Braov, Romania
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Eva KORMANKOV
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Kamila KOTRASOV
Prof. Dr. Eng. Danijel KUKARAS
Prof. Dr. Eng. Gheorghe LUCACI
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Ctlin LUNGU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Aurora-Carmen MANCIA
Prof. Dr. Eng. James R. MARTIN, II
Prof. Dr. Eng. Teodor MATEESCU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Carmen MRZA
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Gavril MUNTEAN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Guney OLGUN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Eduard PETZEK
Dr. Eng. Victor POPA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Augustin POPESCU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Marcela PRADA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Dan PRECUPANU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Daniela PREDA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Vlastimir RADONJANIN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Constantin RADU
Dr. Eng. Andrei RMNICEANU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Wolfgang REITMEIER
Prof. Dr. Eng. Adrian RETEZAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Horea SANDI
Prof. Dr. Eng. Aleksandar SEDMAK
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mike SIEDER
Prof. Dr. Eng. Dan STEMATIU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Bratislav STIPANICI
Prof. Dr. Eng. Alexandru ERBAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae RANU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Kostadin Hristev TOPUROV
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Valentin-Vasile UNGUREANU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Marina VERDE
Prof. Dr. Eng. Horst WERKLE
Prof. Dr. Eng. Thomas WUNDERLICH
Prof. Dr. Eng. Nesrin YARDIMCI
Prof. Dr. Eng. Eberhard ZOLLER
Prof. Dr. Eng. Miroslav IVKOVIC
Prof. Dr. Eng. Gheorghe BADEA

Prof. Dr. Eng. Radu BNCIL
Prof. Dr. Eng. Miroslav BEEVI
Dr. Eng. Peter BLOOMFIELD
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan BOIAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan BORZA
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Marius Florin BOTI
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mihai BUDESCU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Jan BUJNAK
Prof. Dr. Eng. Sorin BURCHIU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Mircea Ion BUZDUGAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Sorin CALUIANU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Vasilic CIOCAN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Lucian CRSTOLOVEAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Fulvio CHIMISSO
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae CHIRA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Florea CHIRIAC
Prof. Dr. Eng. Vasile CIOFOAIA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan CURTU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mircea Radu DAMIAN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae DSCLESCU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mihai DICU
Dr. Eng. Ioan Silviu DOBOI
Prof. Dr. Eng. Victor DOGARU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Gheorghe Viorel DRAGO
Prof. Dr. Eng. Liviu DRUGHEAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Liviu DUMITRESCU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Josef FINK
Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae FLOREA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Radomir FOLIC
Prof. Dr. Eng. Wolfgang FRANCKE
Prof. Dr. Eng. Rodica FRUNZULIC
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Ionel GOSAV
Prof. Dr. Eng. Liviu GROLL
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Mircea HORNE
Prof. Dr. Eng. Jan IGNAT
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mihai ILIESCU
Prof. Dr. Eng. Mikls IVNYI
HONORARY COMMITTEE:
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan Vasile ABRUDAN
Rector of Transilvania University Braov
Prof. Dr. Eng. Dan STEMATIU
President of Civil Engineering and Urbanism section of the
Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences and
Professor of Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
Prof. Dr. Eng. Horea SANDI
Honorary professor and
Doctor Honoris Causa of Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
Eng. Michel COUILLARD
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE:
Chairman:
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan TUNS
Dean of Civil Engineering Faculty of Braov
Members:
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan BOIAN
Prof. Dr. Eng. Math. Vasile CIOFOAIA
Prof. Dr. Eng. Alexandru ERBAN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Marius Florin BOTI
Ass. Prof. Dr. Lucian CRSTOLOVEAN
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae DSCLESCU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Adam DSA
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Mircea HORNE
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Marius MNTULESCU
Ass. Prof. Dr. Eng. Gavril MUNTEAN
Ass Prof. Dr. Eng. Valentin-Vasile UNGUREANU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Lucia BOERIU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Christiana-Emilia CAZACU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Dumitru CHISALI
Lecturer Dr. Arh. Cristina CHIONU
Lecturer Eng. Marius COMNICI
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Ovidiu DEACONU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Mariana FRATU

Lecturer Dr. Eng. Teofil-Florin GLANU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Nicolae IORDAN
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Sorin LEOVEANU
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Paraschiva MIZGAN
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Radu MUNTEAN
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Florin-Lucian TMA
Assist. Eng. Ciprian CISMA
Assist. Eng. George DRAGOMIR
Assist. Eng. Petre IOSUB
Assist. Eng. Cristian NSTAC
Assist. Eng. Lucian POPA
Assist. Eng. Dorin RADU
Assist. Dr. Eng. Daniel TAUS
Tutor Eng. Sorin BOLOCAN
Tutor Dr. Eng. Gabriel NSTASE
TOPICS
1. Structural analysis and optimization
2. Reinforced concrete structures
3. Steel structures
4. Wood structures
5. Computer aided design of structures
6. Railways, roads and bridges
7. Geotechnics and foundations
8. Consolidation of buildings
9. Experimental methods in investigation of structures
10. Advanced energy design for HVAC installations
11. Energy performance of buildings and installations
12. Efficient buildings based on renewable energy
13. High performance lighting systems for buildings
14. New materials and technologies in building industry
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE CIBv 2014

7-8 November 2014, Braov
SUMMARY
BUILDING SERVICES
S. BOLOCAN, A. SERBAN, F. CHIRIAC, I. BOIAN, V. CIOFOAIA Performance evaluation of a small capacity solar cooling ARS..............................1
B. BRNITEANU, D. M. ERBAN, D. D. SOLOMON - Analisys of
predicted sprinkler activation time in automated car parkings ................................9
M. BUZDUGAN, H. BLAN - On electrical energy efficiency in buildings .....15
T. V. CHIRA - Faults found in sewer pipes, causes and remedies.......................23
G. CORSIUC, C. MRZA, R. FELSEGHI, T. OIMOAN,
M. ROMAN - Analysis of using stand-alone solar-wind power
system in rural areas ..............................................................................................31
G. DRAGOMIR, A. BREZEANU, V. CIOFOAIA - Experimental research
on the temperature distribution of thermally activated building systems (tabs)....39
G. DRAGOMIR, G. NASTASE, V. CIOFOAIA, I. BOIAN,
A. SERBAN, A. BREZEANU - The impact of design parameters on
the cooling performance of TABS.........................................................................45
G. DRAGO, R. MOLDOVAN - Efficient ways of providing thermal
energy to passive houses........................................................................................53
V. S. HUDISTEANU, A. I. BARAN, M. BALAN, N. C. CHERECHES,
T. MATEESCU, M. VERDES, V. CIOCAN - Improvement of the indoor
climate conditions inside orthodox churches.........................................................61
V. IACOB - The impact of the site organization on the environment ..................67
C. MRZA, G. CORSIUC, D. ILUIU-VARVARA - Consideration
on biomass valorization .........................................................................................73
R. MOLDOVAN, G. DRAGO - The influence of enveloping on
energetic and ecological efficiency of passive houses...........................................81
G. NSTASE, A. ERBAN - Comsol Multiphysicstm as an educational
resource for students ..............................................................................................89
M. PROFIRE, A. BURLACU - Efficient management of the drinking
water distribution system in the city of Iasi...........................................................93
M. PROFIRE, A. BURLACU - Water loss reduction through on-line
monitoring of physical and chemical parameters ..................................................99
A. RETEZAN, S. Z. GEYER EHRENBERG, C. PCURAR - Solutions

of energy optimisation in industrial plants ..........................................................103
D.S. RUSU - Prediction of energy consumption in residential buildings
before and after retrofiting using artificial neural networks ................................111
G. TARLEA, M. VINCERIUC, A. TARLEA - Theoretical ecological
study -refrigerant comparison-.............................................................................117
CIVIL ENGINEERING,
RAILWAYS, ROADS AND BRIDGES
I. BADEA, D. BADEA - Infrastructure behavior of existing steel
bridges in operation .............................................................................................121
R. BNCIL, D. BOLDU, A. FEIER, S. HERNEA, M. MALIA Deflection and precambering of steel beams .................................................... 127
R. BNCIL, A. FEIER, D. RADU - Rehabilitation of existing
steel structures, an integral part of the sustainable development....................... 137
A.D. BERINDEAN, C.A. BERINDEAN - Experimental study regarding
the behavior of glue laminated beams double reinforced with rectangular
metal pipes (RMP) ...............................................................................................143
V. BOBOC, A. BOBOC - Modernization solutions for local roads ..................149
A.C. BOJAN, A. CHIRA - Numerical and experimental investigations
on the behavior of thermosystem subjected to wind loads .................................155
C. CAZACU - A few aspects about the national building code .........................161
D. M. COSTEA, M. N. GMAN, G. DUMITRU - On the structure
of molded steel thermic........................................................................................167
D. M. COSTEA, M. N. GMAN, G. DUMITRU - The weld
aluminothermic optimization of rail track by microalloyed ................................173
D. COVATARIU, R.G. ARAN, D. COVATARIU - The influence to
the impact strength of the recycled rubber granules addition on the
concrete structural elements.................................................................................177
D. COVATARIU, D.T. BABOR, R.G. ARAN - Multicriteria
comparative analysis on the effectiveness use of various materials
for thermal insulation in romanian residential buildings .....................................185
G. DAE, M. CARABINEANU, G. DUMITRU - The stages of

authorization for placing in service .....................................................................195
O. DEACONU - Conditions of the constructions sustainability in
natural environments............................................................................................205
G. DIMA, V. V. UNGUREANU - Design and verification of a testing
interface for axial and bending loading of the structural T joints........................209
C. F. DOBRESCU, E. A. CALARASU, V.V. UNGUREANU - Similarity
topics of soils with sensitivity to wetting based upon data gathered from
laboratory tests.....................................................................................................217
G. DUMITRU, V. TEFAN, M. LITR, E. CRCIUN BOJE,
C. N. BADEA, G. M. DRAGNE - Dynamic study on safety against the
derailment to the six axle locomotives ................................................................223
G. DUMITRU, L. BLAGA, G. A. BADEA, E. CRCIUN BOJE,
C. N. BADEA, G. M. DRAGNE, V. TEFAN - The vertical loads
variations study and the guidance capacity of six axle locomotives
at curves circulation .............................................................................................231
N. URI - Analysis of geotechnical conditions for construction of
desulphurization of thermal power plant Ugljevik 1 ...........................................247
M. FETEA - Application of the Galerkin-Vlasov variational method
in the study of free vibrations of the square plate C-C-SF-F...............................255
A. FIRUS, H. WERKLE, W. FRANCKE, C. CLAUSNER - Evaluation
of footfall-induced vibrations and their importance in a biomechanics
laboratory .............................................................................................................263
Z. C. GRIGORA - Analysing the human behavior in a fire drill.
comparison between two evacuation software: FDS+EVAC and Pathfinder .....273
Z. C. GRIGORA, D. DIACONU-OTROPA - Fire resistance assessment
according to the thermal insulation criterion an engineering approach............281
E. KORMANKOV, K. KOTRASOV - Dynamic response of
a composite beam.................................................................................................289
D. KUKARAS, M. BEEVI, A. PROKI, D. NADAKI - Testing
and numerical modeling - steel truss of the sports hall........................................295
A. LANDOVI, M. BEEVI - Analysis of ultimate load capacity
of short RC and composite columns ....................................................................301
D.F. LIMAN - Wireless sensor network used for structural health
monitoring of civil infrastructure.........................................................................307
M. MNTULESCU, I. TUNS, F-L. TMA - Correlation of some

parameters in situ determined during executions of
Ghimbav-Braov runway airport .........................................................................317
T. MILCHI, I. BOR - Behaviour of elevated concrete water tower
under dynamic loads ............................................................................................323
R. NERIANU, D. DRGAN, M. SUCIU - Study of effects of
vibrations caused by railway traffic to buildings.................................................329
D. OANEA (FEDIUC), M. BUDESCU, V. M. VENGHIAC - Conditions
regarding the use of elastomeric bearings in base isolation.................................337
E-L. PLESCAN, C. PLESCAN - Implementation of mechanistic empirical
pavement design guide Me-Pdg in Romania .......................................................345
C. POPA - Integrated design, the solution for saving time, energy,
resources and CO2 ................................................................................................351
G. POPA, C.N. BADEA, A. BADEA - Pneumatic air springs for
railway vehicles ...................................................................................................359
D. PREDA, S.I. MINEA - Bolted connections on circular end plates ...............365
A. PROKIC, M. VOJNIC PURCAR, D. LUKIC - A new finite element
considering shear lag ...........................................................................................371
D. RADU, A. SEDMAK - Failure modes and designing procedures
of the tubular truss beams welded joints according with en 1993-1-8 ................379
B. ROSCA, Z. KISS, V. COROBCEANU - Adherence study between
anchoring mortar and concrete for post-installed rebars in hardened concrete ...385
B. ROSCA, Z. KISS, P. MIHAI - Portland limestone cement-based
mortar for post-installed rebars in hardened concrete .........................................393
M. RUJANU, M. BARBUTA - Influence of fly ash addition on the
compressive strength of concrete.........................................................................401
H. SANDI, I. S. BORCIA - Some implications of strong motion
accelerograms obtained in Romania ....................................................................405
M. SOLONARU, M. BUDESCU, I. LUNGU, D. OANEA (FEDIUC) - Case
study regarding evaluation and consolidation of buildings infrastructure...........413
D. STOICA - Towards the influence of the local collapse of structural
elements to generate progressive collapse ...........................................................419
R.G. ARAN, M. BUDESCU, D. COVATARIU - A concept for
using recycled rubber granules in noise reduction concretes panels ..................431
C. TODUT, V. STOIAN, D. DAN, T. NAGY-GYORGY - Seismic

strengthening of a precast reinforced concrete wall panel using NSM-CFRP ....437
I. TUNS, T.F. GALATANU, M. MANTULESCU, V. ASUENCEI - The
settlement of a building on a slope soil susceptible to slide ................................443
S. ZVENIGORODSCHI - Some particularities of standard grooved
rail turnout used on Romanian tramway networks ..............................................449
D. ALUPOAE, V. AUENCEI, I. TUNS - Landslides, a direct result of human
activities and environmental factors ....................................................................457
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE CIBV 2014

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A
SMALL CAPACITY SOLAR COOLING ARS
S. BOLOCAN 1
A. SERBAN1
F. CHIRIAC1
V. CIOFOAIA 2
I. BOIAN1
Abstract: Air conditioning systems has known a steady grow in recent
decades which has a major impact on energy demand and environment.
Systems using solar energy as fuel have been developed more than 100 years
ago. The paper present such an alternative system, ammonia-water
absorption refrigeration system (ARS) powered by low temperature energy,
using renewable sources for cooling. A short numerical calculation is made
for determine the performance of the machine. The results obtained using
EES program are also presented and first measurements on prototype
machine.
Key words: absorption, cooling, performance.
1. Introduction
Currently, space heating and cooling
together with water heating are estimated to
account for nearly 60% of global energy
consumption in buildings. They therefore
represent the largest opportunity to reduce
buildings energy consumption, improve
energy security and reduce CO 2 emissions,
particularly due to the fact that space and
water heating provision in some countries is
dominated by fossil fuels. Meanwhile,
cooling demand is growing rapidly in
countries with highly carbon-intensive
electricity systems such as Association of
Southeast Asian Nations, China and the
United States [8].
Due to the negative impact on the
environment as a result of the intensive use
1
2
of fossil fuels, effects felt across the planet

through global warming, the scientific
community has shifted research towards a
clean energy source and accessible all over
the world, solar energy. Solar refrigeration
systems has been evolved over 100 years
and become more efficient. However, they
still have to be improved in order to become
competitive.
In Figure 1 are reviewed and classified
the most popular and advanced processes
for obtaining artificial cold that can use
solar renewable energy. We will elaborate
more on the use of one, namely the
ammonia-water absorption system.
In Figure 2 many of the technologies
reviewed are compared in terms of
performance and initial cost based on ideal
assumptions by Kim and Ferreira 2008.
Building Services Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.

Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.
Proceedings of The International Scientific Conference CIBv 2014
Fig.1. Classification of the main processes that use solar energy for obtaining artificial cold
[1, 2, 9, 12, 15].
Fig. 2. Cost-efficiency for different solar cooling systems. [9]

Artificial cooling with solar energy
involves the use of solar radiation converted
by thermal solar panels or using solar
photovoltaic
panels
and
different
thermodynamic cycles or electric process.
As can be see absorption and adsorption are

comparable in terms of performance but an
adsorption chiller is more expensive
because of the bigger components required
for the same capacity. The biggest
S.BOLOCAN et al.: Performance evaluation of a small capacity solar cooling ARS
disadvantage for absorption refrigeration

system is high initial investment at about
1000/kW [9] of which the biggest portion
is for solar collectors.
The developments in cooling systems
programs show a growing interest in the
application of absorption systems. The first
important European project SACE (Solar
Air Conditioning in Europe) with more
than 60 case studies, was initiated in 2002
and was supported by the European
Commission. Then followed programs
from IEA (International Energy Agency)
Task series (25, 30, 32, 38 and 48), IEASHC, Solair, Solera, SolarCombi+,
Medisco, Climasol. Together, Green
Chiller and Tecsol projects reached at
almost
1000
absorption
systems
documented in 2012. Now days probably
the number is higher as can be seen the
trend line in Figure 3.
Fig.3. Market development of solar cooling

small capacity machine
(Green Chiller, Tecsol, IEA SHC Task 38)
Optimization of energy conversion
systems becomes more important due to
limitations of fossil fuels and the
environmental impact during their use.
Opportunities for improving solar ARS
can came from cheaper solar collector,

chiller COP increased, lower driving
temperature to work with actual solar
heating systems, use of air for dissipation of
heat instead of cooling towers. Two types of
absorption air-conditioning systems are
widely used, LiBr-H 2 0 and H 2 O-NH 3 . New
working pairs have also been developed [5,
10, 14, 16] and their performance studied
but there seems not to be a choice that
supersedes the characteristics of the already
mentioned common two [13].
Both LiBr and NH 3 systems have their
advantages and disadvantages. NH3
systems can work at low temperatures and
air cooled condenser and absorber make
them suitable for heat pump operation. NH3
is accessible and inexpensive not like LiBr
which is more expensive. NH3 have high
latent heat of vaporization but they have to
work at high pressure and have a high grade
of toxicity but have no environmental
impact such as global warming potential
and greenhouse effect. It is lighter than air
and the leak of ammonia can easily detect
smell at a concentration below a dangerous
level. NH 3 is corrosive to Cu and its alloys
but not to steel. LiBr systems are limited to
work over 5C, can be used as heat pumps.
Also most operate in vacuum condition and
at high concentrations may cristalize if are
not used substance for solubility like ZnBr 2 .
The biggest advantage of LiBr is that it does
not need rectifier like NH 3 system but it
must be kept leak free that can affect the
capacity of the machine and can became
corrosive in presence of O 2 .
Theoretical and experimental works have
been done on different systems with single,
half, double, triple effect cycles and have
been extensive reported [Gosney, Herold,
Henning, Kim, Grossman, Ziegler, Jakob,
Chiriac, Serban, Boian, Gomri, Kaynakly,
Sencan, Sosen, etc] but for low temperature
grade the single effect was find to be best
suitable.
2. Solar powered single effect solar

ammonia - water absorption
refrigeration system prototype.
An absorption chiller uses heat as driving
energy, as compared to vapour compression
chiller (VCC) that use electricity. For a solar
absorption cooling system, this heat is taken
from sun energy. The absorption cooling
system (single effect) has a coefficient of
performance, COP, somewhere between 0.6 0.8 according to literature. The solar-powered
cooling system, Figure 4, generally comprises
three main parts: the solar energy conversion
equipment, the refrigeration system, and the
consumer.
Fig. 4. Solar cooling [10]

G generator; C condenser; VL 1 , VL 2
control valves 1,2; V evaporator; E 1
economizer; A absorber; LS liquid
separator; CS solar collectors; Ps
solution pump; Co consumer.
The main components of a single effect
absorption cooling system are the generator
(G), the absorber (A), the condenser (C), the
evaporator (E=0), the pump (Ps), the
expansion valve (VL1), the reducing valve
(VL2) and the solution heat exchanger (E1 ).
The generator is a plate heat exchanger with
2.5 mm minichanels. After boiling, is
resulting a biphasic solution, constituted by
poor solution and ammonia vapors, which are
separated in the liquid separator LS, from
where they go to the condenser, consisting in
2 mm minichanels, fined heat exchanger, and
air cooled with a fan. Ammonia condenses in

the condenser by removing the heat from the
refrigerant vapor and the resulting liquid is
laminated by the control valve VL2 where its
pressure is reduced to the low pressure, after
which the liquid enters the evaporator which
is also a plate heat exchanger with 2.5 mm
minichanels. Here, the liquid ammonia
vaporizes, by taking the heat from the cooled
water, which comes with 12oC. Vapors are
then being absorbed in the absorber, by weak
ammonia solution come from liquid separator.
The absorber is an original construction,
consisting of mini/micro channels, arranged in
two vertical rows and have efficient finned
outer surface, with superior distributor for the
poor solution and lower collector for the
strong solution; ammonia vapor injection, to
be absorbed is done through the median
distributor, connected to the mini/micro
channels by individual connections [4]. The
result is a strong ammonia solution, which is
heated in the economizer then being pumped
into the generator by the solution pump. The
solution pump is a pulse pump having a
reciprocating motion. It discharges strong
solution to the generator by means of a
flexible sealing diaphragm The weak solution,
poor in ammonia resulting in the generator, is
separated in liquid separator is cooled in the
economizer E 1 , then laminated by the control
valve VL 1 and finally absorbed in absorber,
where a strong ammonia-water solution is
formed. With the preheated strong solution
returning to the generator the cycle is
completed.[4]
The absorber is the most important
component of absorption machines, in
general, its performance impacts directly in
the size and energy supply of all absorption
devices. Absorption cooling and heating
cycles have different absorber design
requirements: in absorption cooling systems,
the absorber works near to ambient
temperature, therefore, the mass transfer is the
most important phenomenon in order to
reduce the generator size and power of
pumps; in the other hand, in heating

absorption systems, it is important to recover
the heat delivery by the exothermic reactions
produced in the absorber, for this reason, the
absorber heat transfer coefficient is an
important parameter.[7]
3. Energy analysis
A mathematical model is developed to
analyze
the
performance
of
the
experimental system ARS based on the
mass
and
energy
balances
[6].
Temperatures and pressures of working
fluid are based on designed values. Water
and ammonia properties are obtained from
standard properties of pure substances
table in the ASHRAE [18], Refrigerating
Plants [3] and Dhring plot. Figure 6
represent the schematic components and
cycle for better state point identification in
EES simulation.
- The minimum temperature difference in the

heat and mass exchangers = 3-5C
- Concentration of vapors leaving G-LS =
0.998.
The output data are:
- The pressures (p), temperatures (T), mass
flows ( m ), concentrations ( ), enthalpies
(h), of each state point.
- The thermal or, in the case of the solution
pump, mechanical power of the main
components.
Q o
- The COP
where Q is the
Q W
g
thermal power (kW), Wp the pump power

(kW), 0 the evaporator, G the generator and
P the pump.
Assumptions:
It is a steady state cycle
There are no heat and pressure losses
The
refrigerant
leaving
the
condenser is saturated liquid
The
refrigerant
leaving
the
evaporator
is
evaporated
completely as saturated vapor.
The strong solution leaves the
absorber at the absorbent
temperature as saturated liquid.
The solution and refrigerant valves
are adiabatic.
Pump is isentropic.
Fig. 6. EES schematic

The theoretical model use input data, main
assumptions and operating conditions that
are presented below.
The input data (operating conditions) are:
- The cooling power of the evaporator, which
is fixed in all calculations Q 0 5,0 [kW ]
- The inlet and outlet temperatures of the
external fluids, air, water: hot water = 90C,
cold water = 7-12C, air = 35C.
Fig. 5. Thermodynamic cycle of the

installation processes in p-- diagram
First the pressures are determined:
p 0 =f(T 0 )= p A
(1)
p C =f(T C )= p G
(2)
Then we must check the degassing
breath which is the difference between the
strong and weak concentrations. This must
be bigger than 5% otherwise circulation
factor f will be larger than 13 which means
a bigger mass flow of solution.
(3)
ss 3 f ( pG , TG T3 )
sb 7 f ( p A , T A T7 )
(4)
Circulation coefficient f, evaporator

specific capacity qo and mass flow of
0 are stated below:

refrigerant m
f 2 ss / sb ss
qo h6 h5 [kJ / kg]
m 0 Q 0 q 0 [kg / s]
Mass balance is:
m ss m sb m 0 [kg / s]
A thermal balance exists:
Q Q W Q Q
g
(6)
(8)
(9)
Where generator capacity is:

Q g [h2 ( f 1) h3 f h1 ] m 0 [kW ] (10)
Absorber capacity is:
Q a [h6 ( f 1) h10 f h7 ] m 0 [kW ] (11)
Condenser capacity is:
Q c [h2 ( f 1) h3 f h1 ] m 0 [kW ] (12)
Economizer capacity is:
Q [h ( f 1) h f h ] m [kW ] (13)
c
And finally the solution pump:

W p [ f (h8 h7 ] m 0 [kW ]
Q o
(14)
Efficiency of ARS is described in the term

of coefficient of performance COP which is
desired output (Q0 ) divided by required input
(Q g + Wp ).
(15)
Q g W p
To be more precise same equations were

used to EES which contains procedures for
thermodynamic properties of ammoniawater solution.
In Table 1 characteristics of every state
point are presented and in Table 2 heat
transfer of components and performance
parameters of the system. Also the the
properties for all states points, COP for the
ammoniawater ARS are obtained using the
Engineering Equation Solver (EES)[11],
Table 3 and 4.
Thermodynamic properties of the
absorption system - Table 1
CALCULATION
(5)
(7)
COP
State point
p
[bar]
T
[C]
h
[kj/kg]
x
[kg/kg]
13.5
68
90
0.53
13.5
80
1410
0.998
13.5
85
150
0.44
13.5
35
95
0.998
4.97
95
0.998
4.97
1200
0.998
4.97
35
-90
0.53
13.5
36
-85
0.53
13.5
46
-58.65
0.44
10
4.97
43
-58.65
0.44
Heat transfer of components and

performance parameters - Table 2
CALCULATION
Component
Heat transfer
rate(kW)
Evaporator
Absorber
Generator
Condenser
Solution pump
Solution heat exchanger
5
6.57
7.38
5.95
0.14
4.91
Performance parameters of ARS

Circulation ratio
Coeficient of performance
6.20
0.66
Thermodynamic properties of the

absorption system Table 3
EES
State point
p
[bar]
T
[C]
h
[kj/kg]
x
[kg/kg]
13.51
71.1
84.39
0.53
13.51
80
1433
0.99
13.51
85
146.3
0.44
13.51
35
158.9
0.99
4,97
4.4
158.9
0.99
4,97
7.4
1176
0.99
4,97
35
-81.39
0.53
13.51
36
-76.18
0.53
13.51
42.5
-45.66
0.44
10
4,97
42.7
-45.66
0.44
key parameters on the overall system

performance. Experiments will be used to
perform the parametric study, effects of one
key parameter on the overall system
performance will be monitored. Generator
inlet temperature of the chiller is still the
most important parameter in the design and
fabrication of a solar powered airconditioning system.
Heat transfer of components and

performance parameters Table 4
EES
Component
Heat transfer
rate(kW)
Evaporator
Absorber
7.08
Generator
8.19
Condenser
6.26
Solution pump
0.15
Solution heat exchanger
4.80
Fig.9. Temperatures measured versus EES

calculated for all state points
Conclusion
Performance parameters
of ARS
Circulation ratio
6.11
Coeficient of performance
0.59
4. Measurements.
A data acquisition system and a set of

transducers have been used to monitor the
operation of this prototype plant. Errors
between 10 to 20% have been noticed.
Figure 9 shows the temperatures recorded
for every state point compared with the
results from EES. The first result are not
satisfactory but new adjustment will be
made until we get closer to the
calculations. In order to improve the system
design of the solar powered absorption airconditioning system, a parametric study must
be carried out to investigate the influence of
There are many benefits of ARS:

Can be driven by low grade
thermal energy, as waste heat, biomass,
solar thermal energy or heat from
cogeneration so they will be a better
solution for cooling in the future because of
the rising prices announces for fossil fuels
and the return payback will be shorter along
with mass production.
Absorption chillers are silent and
vibration free.
High
protection
of
the
environment is done due to the energy
used and the refrigerants, NH 3 -H 2 O, which
have zero ODP and GWP thus protecting
the ozone layer and does not contribute to
global warming as chloro- fluorocarbons
Owing to the fact that there is always
enough roof area to install solar collectors,
solar-powered integrated energy systems are
auxiliary heat sources to supplement solar-
powered cooling systems.

10.
References
1. Balaras, C. A. et. al.: Solar air

conditioning in Europe - an overview,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 11 (2007) 299314.
2. Best, R. and Ortega, N.: Solar
refrigeration and cooling, Renewable
Energy Volume 16, Issues 14,
JanuaryApril 1999, Pages 685690
3. Chiriac, F.: Instalaii frigorifice,
(Refrigeration Plants) Editura didactic
i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981
4. Chiriac, F., et. al.: Heat exchanger
with micro-channel for absorption
chillers, with ammonia-water solution,
for small cooling power, 4th IIR
Conference
on
Thermophysical
Properties and Transfer Processes of
Refrigerants, Delft, The Netherlands,
2013
5. Ferreira, C.A.I.: Thermodynamic and
physical property data equations for
nitrate
and
ammonialithium
ammoniasodium
thiocyanate
solutions. Solar Energy. 1984;
32(2):231236.
6. Herold, K. E. et. al.: Absorption
Chillers and Heat Pumps, CRC Press,
Inc., 1996
7. Ibarra-Bahena, J., Romero, R. J.:
Performance of Different Experimental
Absorber Designs in Absorption Heat
Pump Cycle Technologies: A Review,
Energies
2014,
7,
751-766;
doi:10.3390/en7020751
8. International
Energy
Agency:
Transition to sustainable buildings,
Strategies and Opportunities to 2050,
Executive
Summary,
at
http://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/bu
ilding2013SUM.pdf
9. Kim, D. S., Infante Ferreira, C. A.: Solar
refrigeration options a state-of-the-
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
art review, International Journal of

Refrigeration 31 (2008) 3 -15
Kim, J.S., Park, Y., Lee, H.:
Performance evaluation of absorption
chiller using LiBr + H 2 N (CH 2 ) 2 OH +
H 2 O, LiBr + HO (CH 2 ) 3 OH + H 2 O,
and LiBr + (HOCH 2 CH 2 ) 2 NH + H 2 O
as working fluids, Applied Thermal
Engineering. 1999; 19(2):217225
Klein S.A.: EES-Engineering Equation
Solver.
Educational
Version
Distributed by McGraw Hill, F-Chart
Software.
Mittal, V et. al.: The study of solar
absorption air-conditioning systems,
Available at: http://www.erc.uct.ac.za/
jesa/volume16/16-4jesa-mittal.pdf
Accesed: 20-05-2013.
Muhumuza,
R.:
Modelling,
Implementation and Simulation of a
Single-Effect Absorption Chiller in
MERIT, A thesis submitted in partial
fulfilment for the requirement of
degree in Master of Science in
Renewable Energy Systems and the
Environment, 2010, University of
Strathclyde, United Kingdom
Saravanan,
R.,
Maiya,
M.P.:
Thermodynamic comparison of waterbased working fluid combinations for a
vapour
absorption
refrigeration
system, Thermal Engineering. 1998;
18(7):553568.
Serban, A., Chiriac, F.: Instalatii
frigorifice, (Refrigeration Plants)
Editura Agir, Bucuresti, 2010
Yokozeki,
A.:
Theoretical
performances of various refrigerantabsorbent pairs in a vapor-absorption
refrigeration cycle by the use of
equations of state, Appl. Energy. 2005
;80(4):383399
*** http://www.dralexandruserban.ro
Accessed: 15-05-2013
*** Thermo Physical Properties of
Refrigerants, ASHRAE Handbook,
2005.

ANALISYS OF PREDICTED SPRINKLER

ACTIVATION TIME IN AUTOMATED CAR
PARKINGS
B. BRNITEANU 1
D. M. ERBAN 2
D. D. SOLOMON2
Abstract: In the past few years car parking has developed different
technologies. Protection against fire must to develop properly to ensure the
minimum level of security and protection.
Many studies regarding fire behavior on an enclosed car parking were made.
Fire suppression and smoke control its a commonly issue of this studies.
This paper is focused on the calculation methods and computational fluid
dynamics models that can predict the activation time of sprinkler systems
mounted on an enclosed automated car parking.
Key words: sprinkler, car stacker, standard response, test plunge
1. Introduction
In car parking fire can spread easily
because of the smaller distance between
the cars and the higher quantity of
flammable liquids and combustible
materials such plastics. A particular case of
car parking is represented by multiparking
car stackers.
Serious concerns were expressed
regarding the fire safety of stackers. These
are automated car parking devices of
various types were cars are located above
one another with no fire resisting floor or
ceiling between them.
2. Fire behavior on car stackers
Automated car parks like stackers are
becoming increasingly common and there
are a variety of different automated car
parks types, some involving a hollow,
1
2
General Inspectorate of Emergency Situations

Police Academy Al. Ioan Cuza Firefighters Faculty
other using simple jack ramps to double

capacity.
This equipment allows two or more cars
to be parked on the place of a single car.
Such innovations have implications for fire
fighters due to the very rapid development
of fire in the second car. Studies [1]
demonstrated that the fire growing faster in
the lower car on stacker and spread very
rapidly to the car above in about 5 or 6
minutes. The complexity of stacker
structures may also cause difficulties in the
application of water.
Potential benefits of installing sprinkler
systems on car parks have been
demonstrated by many studies [2], but
design fire engineering codes dont take
into account the activation time.
Because the distance between cars is
very small fire can spread rapidly from a
car to another and the activation time of
10
sprinkler system become an essential

parameter in this case.
Fig. 1. Automated car parking

During the growth stage of a fire, the
smoke environment in an enclosed car
parking can be represented by two layers, a
hot upper layer and a cool lower layer. In
early stages of fire development, the
temperature of the lower layer is close to
ambient.
The temperature of the upper layer rises
as the plume above the fire transports
smoke and hot gases into the upper layer
along with a significant volume of
entrained air.
Once the plume reaches the ceiling in a
radial direction away from the plume. This
hot gas flow is known as the ceiling jet, the
properties of which strongly influence the
operation of sprinkler systems.
The activation time of the sprinkler is the
time at which the temperature of the
sprinkler link reaches the nominal
activation temperature.
Convective heat transfer from the
flowing gases in the ceiling jet to the
sprinkler link is the primary heat transfer
mechanism.
However, for an enclosure where the
ceiling jet is immersed in a hot layer,
additional heat transfer from the hot layer

to the sprinkler occurs.
The operation of a sprinkler depends on
several factors other than the given
activation
temperature, Nash and Young [3] describe
the factors as:
- actual operating temperature of
sprinkler.
- thermal capacity of those parts of the
sprinkler which affect operation is
quantified by RTI and c-factor.
- ease of transfer of heat from the air to
the affected parts of the sprinkler (RTI/cfactor).
- rate of growth of the fire in terms of its
convective heat output.
- height of the ceiling below which the
sprinkler is mounted.
- ceiling configuration below which the
sprinkler is mounted.
- thermal qualities of the ceiling
assembly.
- distance between sprinkler and ceiling.
- horizontal distance of sprinkler from
fire.
- extraneous factors affecting the pattern
of flow of the gases from the fire to
the sprinkler.
- rate of rise of air temperature
surrounding the sprinkler.
The sensitivity of a sprinkler head
depends on the RTI and conduction factor.
Basically the more sensitive the sprinkler
head, the quicker it will activate at given
fire.
3. Response Time Index (RTI)
The RTI is a measure of thermal
sensitivity, which indicates how fast the
sprinkler can absorb heat from its
surroundings sufficient to cause activation.
The RTI is calculated taking account of the
actual function time of a link mounted in a
sprinkler or other devices in given standard
conditions and its usually determined by
B. BRNITEANU et al.: Analisys of predicted sprinkler activation time in automated car

parkings
plunging into a heated laminar airflow

within a test oven.
It is calculated using the following:
operating time of the sprinkler;
operating temperature of the
sprinklers heat responsive element which
is determined in a bath test;
air temperature of the test oven;
air velocity of the test oven;
sprinklers conductivity (c) factor,
which is the measure of conductance
between the sprinklers heat responsive
element and the sprinkler mounted oven;
A classification of sprinkler heads
regarding RTI and conductivity c - factor
its been presented in SR EN 122591+A1:2002, Fixed firefighting systems
Components for sprinkler and water spray
systems Part 1: Sprinklers.
Sprinklers defined as fast response have
a thermal element with an RTI of 50
m1/2s1/2 or less, defined as special response
have a thermal element with an RTI
between 50 m1/2s1/2 and 80 m1/2s1/2, defined
as standard response
A have a thermal element with an RTI
between 80 m1/2s1/2 and 200 m1/2s1/2 and
defined as standard response B have a
thermal element with an RTI of 200
m1/2s1/2 or more.
Factory Mutual Research Institute
developed a test apparatus to determine the
RTI of sprinkler heads.
In the test, called plunge test, the
sprinkler head is plunged into the flow of
heated air.
The temperature and velocity of the gas
are known and are constant during the test.
The equation for the change in the link
temperature is
dTd 1
Tg Td
dt

(1)
11
Since the gas temperature is constant

during the test, the solution to this equation
is
t
Td Ta Td Ta 1 exp (2)

Rearranging the equation gives
ln Tg Ta Tg Td
(3)
In therms of the response time index,

equation becomes
1/ 2
RTI
tr u0
T Ta
ln g
T
T
g
r
(4)
Sprinkler data sheets presents RTI value

for every sprinkler head. Knowing the RTI,
the change in temperature of similar units
can be calculated for any history of fire
gases flowing past it. The form of the heat
transfer equation is:
1/ 2
dTd u Tg Td
dt
RTI
(5)
This equation is used to calculate the

temperature of a sprinkler head exposed to
fire gases. It can be used to determine the
time at which the sprinkler bulb or link
reaches its operating temperature.
Alpert [4] present a fire model with
ceiling jets having a near constant gas
temperature and velocity wich can be
modeled using the following series of
equations
12
5
.
38
r
T T
g
a
H
2/3
4
.
74
r
oC
H
2/3
0F
(6)
Where r/H > 0.18, and

. 2/3
. 2/3
16.9 Q
14.9 Q
o
oF
T
T
C
5/3
5/3
g
a
H
H
(7)
Where r/H 0.18, and

1/ 3
1/ 3
0.20 Q H 1 / 2
0.25 Q H 1 / 2
m/s
ft / s
u
5/6
5/6
r
r
(8)
dTd Tg Td
dt
Where r/H 0.15.

This model assumes that the temperature
and velocity of the fire gases at a point
away form the source are related to the
instantaneous heat release rate of the fire.
For a constant gas temperature and
constant gas velocity, the basic heat
transfer equation can be
dTd
t
Td Td Ta Tg Ta 1 exp 0 C

(9)
Td dt
(10)
(11)
or, substituting the equation for RTI
tu 1 / 2
Td Td Ta Tg Ta 1 exp
RTI
The RTI is the product of the thermal

time constant of the heat responsive
0
C
(12)
element and the square root of the

associated gas velocity.
B. BRNITEANU et al.: Analisys of predicted sprinkler activation time in automated car

parkings
RTI u 1 / 2
(13)
mc
hc A
(14)
The conductivity c - factor is a measure

of how much of the heat picked up from
the surrounding gas is conducted into the

sprinkler frame from the glass bulb.
Computational programs such as Fire
Dynamics Simulator or BranzFire that can
predict the activation time of a sprinkler
head uses a model based on a differential
equation including convective heating of
the sensing element and conductive losses
to the sprinkler frame.
dTd
u
c
Td Tm C 2 u .
Tg Td
dt
RTI
RTI
RTI
4. Experimental
procedures
condition
and
For the experiments two standard

response sprinkler heads with same
characteristics were placed in a 5,5 x 3,1 x
2,3 m fire compartment made form
concrete of 10 mm thickness. There was no
open
vents
in
the
experimental
construction and to bring oxygen during
the fire tests a door with 1,4x2,0 m
dimensions was open 20 cm from the
closed position. Sprinkler heads were
mounted at 35 cm bellow the ceiling at 1 m
distance from each other. For the first test
a 10 l ethanol pan was placed into the
Fig. 2 Temperature evolution inside the

fire compartment
13
(15)
corner of the room to simulate a single car

fire and then the same pan with ethanol
was covered with a 5 mm steel flange at 90
cm above the floor to simulate a simple
two cars stacker.
To record temperatures inside the fire
compartment three thermocouples type K
were placed into the wall at 30, 60 and 90
cm above the floor.
5. Conclusions and results
The aim of this study was to investigate

the sprinkler activation time in automated
car parking and to identify all critical
parameters that can influence it.
14
The results as shown in the table 1, led to

the following observations regarding to the
activation time:
the steel flange influenced the
movement of the hot gases inside the fire
compartment;
sprinkler activation time was
bigger in the stacker case;
fire safety engineers should
carefully calculate the activation time of
sprinkler systems especially in automated
car parks because the activation delay in
such fire compartments can cause a rapid

development of fire and extinguish process
can failed;
in rack sprinkler system must be
installed to decrease the activation time;
fast response sprinkler heads
would be more efficiently than other
sprinkler head types;
when people presence is not
necessary to park the cars an appropriate
fire prevention system should be take into
account at fire safety designing.
Table 1
Experimental results
Activation time
[sec]
Sprinkler no. 1
Sprinkler no. 2
Car stackers
Regular car park
125
143
92
92
After the experimental work the results

show that the difference between Fire
Dynamics Simulator and fire compartment
test is not bigger than 25 %. Fire Dynamics
Simulator activation times is reasonably
well, being within 25 % of the actual times
and it tend to be conservative.
Nomenclature
A area of the sprinkler body (m2)

c conductivity factor (m/s)1/2
C 2 Di Marzo constant empirically
determined to be 6 x 106 k/(m/s)1/2
H compartment height (m)
h c convective heat transfer (kW/m2 0C)
M mass of sprinkler body (kg)
Q - total heat release rate (kW)
r radial distance from the axis of the

fire plume (m)
RTI response time index (m s)1/2
T time (s)
T a ambient temperature (0C)
T d - link temperature (0C)
T g gas temperature (0C)
FDS Car
stackers
137
152
FDS Regular
car park
108
117
T m temperature of the sprinkler mount

(0C)
u gas velocity (m/s)
u 0 gas test velocity (m/s)
- volume fraction of water in the gas

stream
- time constant
References
1. SP Technical Research Institute of

Sweden: Report 2008:41, Bus Fire,
2008.
2. Li, Y.: Assessment of Vehicle Fires in
New Zealand Parking Buildings. Fire
Engineering Research Report 04/2,
University of Canterbury, New
Zealand, May 2004.
3. Nash, P., Young, R.: Automatic
Sprinkler Systems for Fire Protection.
3rd Ed., Paramount Publishing Limited,
England, 1991.
4. Alpert, R.L.: Calculation of Response
Time of Ceiling-Mounted Fire
Detectors. In: Fire Technology, 1972.

ON ELECTRICAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN

BUILDINGS
M. BUZDUGAN 1
H. BLAN 2
Abstract: The paper deals with electrical energy efficiency in buildings. In

the introductory section the main aspects of auditing electrical energy
systems in buildings is addressed. In the second section the main sources of
power losses in induction motors along with some features of the modern
efficient inductor motors are briefly presented. The third one is devoted to the
main topologies of variable speed electrical drives in buildings equipment
(i.e. square wave and phase width modulation inverters). The final section
deals with power quality issues determined by the variable speed drives in
buildings (especially in air handling units, pumping and lighting).
Concluding it can be noticed that even if variable speed electric drives
contribute to improve energy efficiency, the power quality issues lower
energy efficiency and consequently these problems must be cancelled or at
least mitigated.
Key words: voltage source inverters, square wave inverters, phase width
modulation inverters, harmonic content.
1. Introduction
Due to economic and environmental
reasons, humanity is constantly under
pressure to reduce energy consumption.
One of the main issues relating to energy
consumption is the emission of carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas determining
global warming.
Another concern is the ever-increasing
demand for fossil fuels, nonrenewable
energy sources, to support economic
development.
Reduction in energy consumption can be
achieved in several ways, but also through
energy efficiency programs, involving a
systematic approach in promoting an
efficient use of energy containing
1
objectives and priorities. More often it is

not only the management team of the
companies concern, but of the national and
international organizations that are held to
draw energy policies.
2. Efficient Motors in Electric Drives
Pumps, fans, compressors, are mostly
powered by induction motors, widely used
in these applications and therefore being
essential to the operation of most modern
buildings. At the same time, they are quite
often costly items.
All induction motors have inherent
inefficiencies, energy losses including:
iron losses, associated with the magnetic
field created by the motor (voltage related
Faculty of Building Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
16
and therefore constant for any given motor

and independent of load).
copper losses (or I2R losses), determined
by the resistance of the copper wires in the
motor; the greater the resistance of the coil,
the more heat is generated and the greater
the power loss.
friction losses, constant for a given speed
and independent of load.
Iron losses predominate and since they
result from the consumption of reactive
current,
the
power
factor
is
correspondingly low, even at full load
(typically around 0.8).
Correct sizing of electric motors is
critical to their efficient operation, since
oversized motors tend to exhibit poor
power factors and lower efficiencies.
Depending on size and speed, a typical
standard motor may have full load
efficiency between 55% and 95%.
Generally, the lower the speed, the lower
the efficiency and the lower the power
factor are.
Typically motors exhibit efficiencies
which are reasonably constant down to
approximately 75% full load. Thereafter
they may lose approximately 5% down to
50% of full load, after which the efficiency
falls rapidly (see Fig. 2) [1].
At the same time the power factor tends
to fall off more rapidly than the efficiency
under part load conditions.
Consequently, if motors are oversized,
the need for power factor correction
becomes greater.
Fig. 1. Induction motor efficiency
Oversizing of motors also increases the

capital cost of the switchgear and wiring
which serves the motor.
In addition to these standard motors,
some motor manufacturers also produce
premium efficiency motors, which operate
at efficiencies about 3 to 7 percent higher
than the standard designs. In these energy
efficient motors, losses are reduced by [2]:
use of wire with lower resistance
improved design of the rotor electric
circuit
higher permeability in the magnetic
circuits of the stator and rotor
use of thinner steel laminations in the
magnetic circuits
improved shape of the steel stator core
and rotor magnetic circuits
smaller gap between stator and rotor
internal fan, cooling fins, and cooling air
passages designed to reduce the cooling
power requirement
use of bearings with lower friction
Apart from these, a very effective way to
increase energy efficiency consists in the
use of variable speed drives.
3. Variable Speed Drives in Buildings
Equipment
Most induction motors used in buildings
are fitted to fans or pumps. The traditional
approach to pipework and ductwork
systems has been to oversize pumps and
fans at the design stage, and then to use
commissioning valves and dampers to
control the flow rate by increasing the
system resistance. While mechanical
constrictions are able to control the flow
rate delivered by fans and pumps, the
constriction itself increases the system
resistance and results in increased energy
loss. This situation is highly undesirable
and is one of the main reasons why the
energy consumption associated with fans
and pumps is fairly high in so many
buildings [3].
M. BUZDUGAN et al.: On electrical energy efficiency in buildings
An alternative approach to the use of

valves and dampers is to control the flow
rate by reducing the speed of the fan or
pump motor, strategy which results in
considerable energy savings.
Variable speed drives are nowadays used
in conjunction with supply and return fans,
centrifugal chillers, as well as with
virtually any type of centrifugal pump.
Speed control is considered primarily for
its energy savings benefits.
The main advantage of the adjustable
frequency drive is that the standard AC
motors may be used.
Basically, induction motors are constant
-speed devices, their speed depending on
the number of poles provided in the stator,
when the voltage and frequency of the
supply remain constant.
One of the traditional methods of varying
induction motors speed is to connect the
stator to change the number of poles. This
method is still in use (e.g. for the driving
motor of the ventilo converters). The main
drawback of this method, beyond the
higher manufacturing cost, is that speed
change is not continuous, but a discreet
one, having a certain number of steps
(usually three, tripling the base speed).
The slip (and accordingly the speed) can
be modified for a given load by varying the
line voltage. The shaft torque is
proportional to the square of the voltage,
so reducing the line voltage rapidly
reduces the available torque. Consequently
only very limited speed control is possible
by this method.
An excellent way to vary the speed of a
squirrel-cage induction motor is to vary the
frequency of the applied voltage. To
maintain a constant torque, the ratio of
voltage to frequency must be kept
constant, so the voltage must be varied
simultaneously with the frequency.
Adjustable frequency controls perform this
function [4].
17
At constant torque, the horsepower

output increases directly as the speed
increases.
For a 50-Hz motor, increasing the supply
frequency above 50 Hz will cause the
motor to be loaded in excess of its rating,
which must be done only for brief periods.
For a supply frequency of less than 50
Hz, the speed will be less than the rated
speed of the motor. As the frequency is
reduced, the voltage should also be
reduced, to maintain a constant torque.
Sometimes it is desirable to have a
constant output horsepower over a given
speed range. These and other modifications
can be obtained by varying the ratio of
voltage to frequency as required. Some
controllers are designed to provide
constant torque up to 50 Hz and constant
horsepower above 50 Hz, to permit higher
speeds without overloading the motor.
The speed of an AC induction motor can
be changed over a very wide range from
10% to 20% of 50-Hz-rated speed up to
several times rated speed. At higher
speeds, care must be taken to not exceed
the horsepower rating of the motor.
At low speeds, roughly 20% of rated
speed or less, care must be taken to not
exceed the permitted motors temperature
rise. If speed gets too low, the motor may
cog the rotor jumping from one
position to the next, instead of rotating
smoothly or it may stall completely.
Variable frequency drives (VFD), acting
as an interface between the AC power
supply and the induction motor, must
perform the following requirements:
Ability to adjust the frequency
according to the desired output
speed.
Ability to adjust the output voltage
so as to maintain a constant air-gap
flux in the constant torque region.
Ability to supply a rated current on a
continuous basis at any frequency.
18
Fig. 2 illustrates general principle of

variable (adjustable) speed drives. The
block schematics of the conversion
consists in converting the AC power input
into DC by means of either a controlled or
an uncontrolled rectifier.
Fig. 2. Block schematics of a VSD

The intermediate circuit (the DC link)
filters the ripple at the output of the
rectifier, and the combination of the
controlled rectifier and filter provides a
variable DC voltage to the inverter.
The filter of the intermediate circuit is a
passive one consisting in a bulky capacitor,
a mH inductance or a combination of these
elements of circuitry.
The inverter converts DC to variable
frequency AC. An inverter belongs to the
voltage source. Similarly, an inverter
which behaves as a current source at its
terminal is called a current source inverter.
Because of the low internal impedance,
the terminal voltage of a voltage source
inverter remains substantially constant
with variations in load.
The control circuit of the variable speed
drive (VSD) enables exchanges of data
between VSD and peripherals, gathers and
reports fault messages and carries out
protective functions of the VSD.
The inverter of the VSD (Fig. 3) operates
in a square-wave mode, which results in
phase to neutral voltage as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Square-wave mode inverter
Fig. 4. Waveforms at the output of the

inverter
In a square-wave inverter, each input is
connected alternatively to the positive and
negative power-supply outputs to give a
square-wave approximation to an AC
waveform at a frequency that is determined
by the gating of the switches [5].
The voltage in each output line is phase
shifted by 120 to provide a three-phase
source.
The switches produce a stair-step voltage
for each motor phase. At frequencies
below the rated frequency of the motor, the
applied voltage must be reduced.
Otherwise, the current to the motor will be
excessive and cause magnetic saturation.
A decreasing voltage level to keep the
peak flux constant can be done with the
square-wave inverter decreasing the DC
voltage as motor speed is reduced below
rated speed. This can be done by a
controlled rectifier, but this produces
problems with harmonics in the power
system supplying the controller.
Theoretically,
voltage
harmonics
magnitude in the inverter output decreases
with the harmonic order with respect to the
fundamental frequency phase-to-neutral
voltage. Because of substantial magnitudes
of low-order harmonics, these currents
result in large torque ripple, which can
produce troublesome speed ripple at low
operating speeds.
The standard three-phase VSI topology of
a pulse-width-modulated PWM drive is
shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Standard PWM of voltage source

inverter
Assuming a three-phase utility input, a
PWM inverter controls both the frequency
and the magnitude of the voltage output.
Therefore, at the input, an uncontrolled
diode bridge rectifier is generally used.
In a PWM inverter, the harmonics in the
output voltage appear as sidebands of the
switching frequency and its multiples.
Fig. 6. Waveform of the output voltage of

PWMVSI
Therefore, a high switching frequency
results in an essentially sinusoidal current
in the motor (Fig. 6).
Since the ripple current through the DCbus capacitor is at the switching frequency,
the input DC source impedance seen by
the inverter would be smaller at higher
switching frequencies. Therefore, a small
value of capacitance suffices in PWM
inverters, but this capacitor must be able to
carry the ripple current.
A small capacitance across the diode
rectifier also results in a better input
current waveform drawn from the utility
19
source. However, care should be taken to

avoid letting the voltage ripple in the dcbus voltage become too large, which
would cause additional harmonics in the
voltage applied to the motor.
Figure 4 shows the ideal waveforms of
three-phase VSI SPWM. All phase
voltages are identical, but 120 out-ofphase without even harmonics; moreover,
harmonics at frequencies, a multiple of 3,
are identical in amplitude and phase in all
phases [5].
4. Power
Quality
Equipments
in
Building
Power electronics circuits used in motor

controls can be susceptible to power
quality related problems, as transient
overvoltages, voltage sags and harmonic
distortion. These problems may determine
control anomalies, nuisance tripping and in
some cases circuitry damage [6].
Capacitors, used in the electrical system
to provide power factor correction and
voltage stability during periods of heavy
loading determine transient overvoltages
when they are energized.
Circuits may be also sensitive to
temporary reductions in voltage (sags),
usually caused by faults on either the
customers or the utilities electrical system.
Lighting systems and other electric
devices can also cause distortion in the
electrical current, affecting power quality.
Fluorescent, HID and low-voltage
systems,
which
use
ballasts
or
transformers, can have distorted current
waveforms.
Devices with heavily distorted current
waveforms use current in short bursts,
instead of following the voltage waveform
and affecting in their turn the voltage
waveform. The load current waveform will
be out of phase with the voltage waveform
creating a phase displacement that reduces
the efficiency because of the reactive
20
power drawn from the system. It is well

known that reactive power places an extra
load on the distribution system. This extra
virtual load represents a supplementary
burden for utilities.
Highly distorted waveforms have a high
harmonic content. Even harmonics
(second-order on up) tend to cancel each
other effects, but odd harmonics tend to
add in a way that increases the distortion
because the peaks and troughs of their
waveforms are coincident.
The value indicating the harmonic
content is the total harmonic distortion of
the current THDi and of the voltage THDv.
In literature, power quality associated
with variable speed drives means mainly
voltage dips, supply interruptions and
harmonic distortion that have negative
effects on almost all the components of the
electrical system, by causing new
dielectric, thermal and mechanical stresses.
Harmonics in the square-wave inverter
have two sources. At the input, the
controlled rectifier generates harmonics
that produce electrical noise in the power
system. These can be filtered, but this
reduces efficiency and the power factor,
which is already low in a controlled
rectifier.
The output waveforms also produce
serious harmonics. The stairstep output
waveforms have only odd harmonics. The
third and ninth harmonics cause no
problems, since they are in phase and
cancel at the input of the wye-connected
motor. Higher harmonics, mainly the fifth
and seventh, cause currents that increase
losses in the motor but produce no torque.
These harmonics are filtered some by the
inductance of the motor.
Power electronics circuits used in motor
controls can be susceptible to power
quality related problems, as transient
overvoltages, voltages sags and harmonic
distortion. These problems may determine
control anomalies, nuisance tripping and in

some cases circuitry damage.
Capacitors, used in the electrical system
to provide power factor correction and
voltage stability during periods of heavy
loading determine transient overvoltages
when they are energized.
Circuits may be also sensitive to
temporary reductions in voltage (sags),
usually caused by faults on either the
customers or the utilities electrical system.
Lighting systems and other electric
devices can cause distortion in the
electrical current, which can affect power
quality. Fluorescent, HID and low-voltage
systems,
which
use
ballasts
or
transformers, can have distorted current
waveforms.
Devices with heavily distorted current
waveforms use current in short bursts,
instead of following the voltage waveform
and affecting in their turn the voltage
waveform. The load current waveform will
be out of phase with the voltage waveform
creating a phase displacement that reduces
the efficiency because of the reactive
power drawn from the system. Reactive
power places an extra load on the
distribution system.
Highly distorted waveforms have a high
harmonic content.
Even harmonics (second-order on up)
tend to cancel each other effects, but odd
harmonics tend to add in a way that
increases the distortion because the peaks
and troughs of their waveforms coincide.
The value which indicates the harmonic
content is the total harmonic distortion of
the current THDi and of the voltage THDv.
In literature, power quality associated
with variable speed drives means mainly
voltage dips, supply interruptions and
harmonic distortion that have negative
effects on almost all the components of the
electrical system, by causing new
dielectric, thermal and mechanical stresses.
Harmonics in the square-wave inverter

have two sources. At the input, the
controlled rectifier generates harmonics
that produce electrical noise in the power
system. These can be filtered, but this
reduces efficiency and the power factor,
which is already low in a controlled
rectifier.
The output waveforms also produce
serious harmonics. The stair-step output
waveforms have only odd harmonics. The
third and ninth harmonics cause no
problems, since they are in phase and
cancel at the input of the wye-connected
motor. Higher harmonics, mainly the fifth
and seventh, cause currents that increase
losses in the motor but produce no torque.
These harmonics are filtered some by the
inductance of the motor.
21
having a value of only 0.5, since the

European regulations indicate for the
neutral power factor a value of 0.93.
Fig. 8. Real power drawn by the AHU

The harmonic content is shown in Fig. 9.
One can see from the FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) chart that only odd harmonics
are present and their amplitude is
decreasing in hyperbolic way. However,
the fifth, seventh and ninth order harmonic
components are quite significant, which
leads to a reduced energy efficiency,
considering
that
these
harmonic
components have no useful effects.
Fig. 7. Supply voltage and current drawn by a

rectifier
Fig. 7 depicts the waveforms of the

supply voltage and of the current drawn by
a mono-phase rectifier. A highly distorted
waveform of the current is revealed.
Measurements were carried out using a
programmable power source (i.e. a clean
power source).
In Fig. 8 the real power drawn by a
PWMVSI is depicted. The waveform is
discontinuous tracking somehow the
current waveform.
At the same time, total power factor
recorded in Fig. 8 is dramatically low,
Fig. 9. FFT chart of the harmonic limits of

the AHU
It can be noted in the left side of the
chart from Fig. 8 that the THD of the input
22
voltage is quite insignificant, the system

being supplied by a clean power source
(manufactured by California Instruments),
while the THD of the current drawn by the
rectifier is rather high, having a magnitude
of 86%, revealing a very significant
harmonic content.
5. Conclusions and further work
Power electronics embedded in modern
buildings equipment, like fans, pumps, air
handling units or chillers have plenty of
advantages, but at the same time several
drawbacks which have to be cancelled or
at least mitigated.
The power factor issue an along with the
undesired harmonic content are very
serious matters in lowering the overall
energy efficiency.
It is compulsory to deal with these
drawbacks in terms of modern total power
factor correction (the classical method of
inserting capacities in order to compensate
the displacement factor, the old cos,
being more satisfactory) and of filtering
the harmonic content retrofitting harmonic,
active filters and/or EMI filters.
It should be noted that total power factor TPF
and displacement power factor DPF differ in
any circuit with nonlinear electrical loads
because these types of load generate
harmonics.
Several harmonic computer programs

have been developed to perform a steadystate analysis of the facilitys electrical
system for each frequency at which a
harmonic source is present. The programs
will calculate the harmonic voltages and
currents in the system. In these harmonic

simulations, TPF corrections can be
provided to check for system operation and
possible undesired resonances.
As an overall conclusion, it can be said
that the boom of the power electronics
devices should be treated with utmost care
since they may lead to significant power
quality issues, greatly affecting the
electrical energy efficiency.
References
1. Thumann, A., Franz H.: Efficient
electrical systems design handbook.
Taylor & Francis Ltd., 2009.
2. Buzdugan, M. I., Blan H.: Power
Quality
versus
Electromagnetic
Compatibility in Adjustable Speed
Drives. In: Proceedings of the
International
Conference
on
Renewable Energies and Power
Quality (ICREPQ13), Bilbao (Spain),
2013.
3. Jayamaha,
L.:
Energy-Efficient
Building Systems - Green Strategies
for Operation and Maintenance, The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
4. Beggs,
C.:
Energy-Management,
supply and conservation. ButterworthHeinemann, 2002, Taylor & Francis,
2012.
5. Rashid, M.H.: Power Electronics
Handbook - Devices, Circuits and
Applications. Elsevier Inc., 2007.
6. Hordeski, M.F.: New technologies for
energy efficiency. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
2003.

FAULTS FOUND IN SEWER PIPES,

CAUSES AND REMEDIES
T. V. CHIRA
Abstract: In the contents of the paper, the author presents several photos
extracted from footage obtained during CCTV (closed circuit television)
sewer inspection activities in sewer mains. In these photos several types of
faults found in sewer pipes can be observed. After a thorough analysis of the
photos and additional data obtained during inspections the leading factors
for the faults are identified. The analysis revealed that some of the faults are
related to pipe material and others are due to disregard of pipe laying
techniques. In the final of the paper some remedies are suggested for the
presented cases of faults.
Key words: sewer pipes, faults, CCTV inspection, pipe rehabilitation.
1. Introduction
2. Preliminary data
The anthropic action on the environment

is damaging because of the pollution it
generates and it should be a permanent
concern for society and most of all for
specialists to minimise it. One of the
pollution sources is the sewer network if
the sewer sections are not perfectly sealed
and exfiltration of waste water occurs in
the adjacent soil and ground water [1].
Neither the infiltration of ground water in
the sewer network is not a good thing
because the waste water processing plant
will be forced to process a bigger volume
of water thus increasing the processing
cost. A good way of assessing the technical
condition of a sewer sections is by CCTV
survey with specialised mobile inspection
laboratories and this should be the first
step in choosing the rehabilitation method
for the sewer sections.
During a research activity the author had

access to the CCTV inspection footage
archive of the local sewer service operator.
The archive contains movies, photos and
inspection reports generated during CCTV
inspection activities conducted in sewer
sections. The materials were produced with
the two mobile CCTV inspection
laboratories of the local sewer service
operator. Both of these laboratories make
use of remote controlled robots carrying
CCTV cameras along the sewer section
between two manholes. The first mobile
laboratory is an older generation, the
footage being recorded on VHS videotape
and after that converted to digital format
and recorded to DVD media for archiving
purposes. The second mobile laboratory is
a newer generation, uses greater resolution
digital camera and the obtained footage is
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Building Services, Department of Building

Services
24
stored on hard disks or DVD media. The

sewer sections were made from different
pipe materials. Not only has the pipe
material varied but also the age of the
sewer sections, soil conditions and natural
slope of the terrain. In regard of pipe
material the surveyed pipe sections were
made of PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
reinforced concrete, GRP (glass reinforced
polyester), vitrified clay and asbestos
cement. The vitrified clay and asbestos
cement sections were in small number
while the most numerous sections were
made from PVC followed by reinforced
concrete and GRP.
3. Sewer pipe faults
In the studied materials were found
several types of pipe faults commonly
found in sewer networks. These were
classified in several categories: cracks or
breaches in the pipe wall, pipe collapses,
faulty joints on the main sewer collector,
faulty lateral joints, roots penetrations
through the pipe wall, sediments and cross
section deformations.
3.1. Cracks or breaches in the pipe wall
Cracks in the pipe wall occur more
often in reinforced concrete and GRP
pipes but are not totally absent in PVC
pipes. There are several scenarios for
appearance of the cracks. One possible
cause, especially in the case of concrete
pipes is the erosion of the pipe wall from
inside by the waste water carrying sand
and gravel.
As result of erosion the pipe wall is
weakened and cannot withstand the loads
exerted on it. In this case is highly
probable to observe longitudinal cracks
found usually in the lower part of the
cross section of the sewer pipe. Chemical
corrosion is another potential cause of
weakening of the pipe wall. Another
scenario for the occurrence of the cracks

is the failure to follow the pipe laying
technique
especially
the
bedding
conditions.
It is known that pipes should be laid on
a sand bed and covered with sand in order
to distribute loads as evenly as possible. If
the pipe is laid on rocks the weight of the
pipe combined with the weight of soil
layers above it and other loads may cause
the cracks to appear at the the contact
point with the rock. Same thing is
possible if the rock is above the pipe and
is pressed against the pipe wall. In either
case the cracks could be in any direction.
A third possible scenario is to have
different degrees of soil compaction along
the pipe section.
This may lead to cross sectional
shearing of the pipe when big loads are
applied on the less compacted portion of
the soil. Shearing is possible also in case
of landslides. In other circumstances its
possible to have less compacted soil on
the sides of the sewer main and when the
laterals are loaded heavily they could
break the mains wall at the joint. Figure 1
presents such a case. Cracks or breaches
could also be caused accidentally during
interventions on other networks adjacent
to sewer by digging machinery and
equipment, especially when the sewer
section is older and less well documented.
By implementing modern tools for
network mapping and documenting like
GIS (geographic information system) we
should be able to avoid in the future these
incidents. Sometimes the cracks are
caused by increasing loads combined with
aging of sewer infrastructure. In most
cases the sewer lines are underneath roads
circulated by heavier and numerous
vehicles. In these cases longitudinal
cracks appear on the upper side of the
pipe and if the reinforcing is exposed the
pipe will collapse when it corrodes.
T.V. CHIRA: Faults found in sewer pipes, causes and remedies
25
Fig. 1. Cracks in the wall of a PVC sewer main at a lateral joint due to uneven soil
compaction and the lateral acting as a lever
3.2. Pipe collapses
Pipe collapses are very dangerous
because not only contaminate the soil and
the ground water but render the use of the
sewer impossible. Collapses occur when
cracks evolves into breaches and parts of
the pipe wall are missing and thus the
structural integrity of the pipe section is
affected. In other cases the collapses are
the result of landslides. Another
mechanism for collapses is forming of
cavities in the soil underneath or along the
sewer pipe. Usually this cavities are the
result of soil being washed away by
underground water. Sometimes soil
particles get inside the sewer pipe if wall
breaches are present or faulty joints exist.
Figure 2 exemplifies this kind of fault.
Since the effects of these faults are very
disturbing measures should be taken to
prevent them.
3.3. Faulty joints

There are several types of faulty joints.
In some cases, when the sealing is done
with rubber gaskets the sealing is lost
because when the pipes are connected
they are not properly aligned and the
gasket is expulsed from its groove. This
mainly occurs in PVC and GRP sewer
sections. Another reason for gasket
expulsion is the lack of a proper lubricant
on the entire length of the gasket. In other
cases when the sealing is done with
mortars or other compounds in time they
fall from the joint and the sealing is lost.
Obviously, these faulty joints are big
sources of infiltration of ground water or
exfiltration of waste water. In Figure 2 a
faulty joint in a concrete pipe allows soil
to get inside the pipe and in Figure 3 a
.
26
Fig. 2. Faulty joint in a concrete sewer section allowing soil to enter

inside the pipe (in the right side of the image)
Fig. 3. Rubber gasket expulsed from groove in a PVC pipe joint
joint has the gasket expulsed and sealing

compromised
The same problems may occur also at
lateral joints but here there is one more
situation worth mentioning, namely
laterals protruding excessively inside the
sewer main. In this particular case is not
an issue of compromised sealing but an
issue of creating an obstacle in the way of
floating debris that may lead to creation
of dams inside the sewer section. For
example a wooden plank stuck against
such a protruding lateral will quickly
agglomerate sand and gravel thus creating
a sediment deposit and diminish the
usable cross section of the pipe. Another
issue related to protruding laterals is the
impediment of continuing the CCTV
inspection when such a situation arises
because it acts like a barrier in the way of
the inspection robot, the only solution
being to try to insert the robot from the
27
other manhole and this is time consuming.

This situation is exemplified in Figure 4.
Even more, if we have two protruding
laterals
between
two
consecutive
manholes the distance between them
cannot be inspected.
3.4. Root penetrations
Root penetrations occur when trees exist
in the vicinity of the pipe section.
Sometimes the trees were planted after
execution of sewer pipeline disregarding
the minimum distance required by norms.
In any case root penetrations inside the
sewer pipe may lead even to the collapse
of the pipe or complete obstruction of the
cross section thus incapacitating the
functioning of the sewer. Figure 5 shows
a case of root penetrations at an early
stage, the sewer section being still in
function.
Fig. 4. Protruding lateral inside sewer main prevents the camera robot
to advance along the pipe [2]
28
Fig. 5. Early stage of roots penetrating inside concrete sewer pipe [2]
3.5. Deposits of sediments

This type of fault has mainly two
causes. The first and the most frequent is
the lack of a proper pipe slope that leads
to a waste water velocity lower than the
self-cleaning velocity stipulated by
norms. The second cause is the creation of
artificial dams inside sewer pipe due to
debris stuck across the section. The most
problematic is the first case because it can
be corrected only by remaking the sewer
section and laying the pipe at the correct
slope. The alternative, would be to make
frequent washes of the sewer section
which can be very costly in terms of
money and resources. The second
situation can be solved comparatively
easy by removing the dam inside the pipe
and performing a wash of the sewer

section. In cases of counter slope the
deposits of sediments ca reach such
heights that render de sewer section
unusable.
3.6. Cross section deformations
Cross section deformation is encountered
most often in PVC sewer pipes because of
the plasticity of the material. It is the effect
of unequal forces or loads exerted on the
cross section of the pipe. Frequently section
deformations are observed as ovalities of
the usually round cross section pipes.
While small ovalities do not affect the
functioning of de sewer section as long as
the sealing is still maintained severe
deformation can go beyond ovality and the
cross section of the pipe gets a U shape. In
this case it is obvious that the good

functioning of the sewer is prevented and
the sealing is lost. Figure 6 shows a case of
29
sediment deposit and Figure 7 presents a

case of severe cross section deformation in
a PVC pipe.
Fig. 6. Deposits of sediments 50% of the pipe cross sections

is unusable due to sediments
Fig. 7. Severe deformation of the pipe

cross section the sealing is compromised
4. Conclusions
The first and most important conclusion
is that keeping a sewer network in top

condition is a great way of reducing
ground water and soil pollution because
30
the sewer pipeline route goes across the

entire city and may be even passing
through agricultural fields before reaching
the waste water treatment facility. Sewer
service operators should schedule CCTV
surveys on the entire network in order to
assess as clearly as possible the technical
condition of sewer sections. CCTV robots
are a very useful way for this purpose but
other means should be considered, for
example SSET (sewer scanner and
evaluation technology) or ultrasonic
scanning [3]. SSET gives image of greater
resolution and ultrasonic scanning gives
information about the pipe wall condition
beyond its inner surface being able to
detect faults invisible from the inside of
the pipe. It must be mentioned though that
is not usable on all pipe materials. In
regard of repairing the faults presented in
this paper we have nowadays several
technologies at our disposal. Some of the
faults can be repaired only by replacing
the affected section, like in case of pipe
collapses. This implies excavating
trenches, pretty often on roadways and
streets, disturbing the traffic and
necessitating remaking of the roadway
surfaces which is costly. Clearly is better
to prevent such faults than to confront
them. In the case of cracks and faulty
joints we have at our disposal several
trenchless technologies for waterproofing
the sewer section as long as it is statically
stable. For example there are robotic
grouting techniques and lining techniques.
For lateral junctions sealing there is a
robotic technique for applying top hat
liners. Both for longitudinal liners and top
hat liners after impregnation and insertion
in place follows a polymerisation step that
gives rigidity to the lining. Root
penetrations should be removed as soon
as possible because thickening of the

roots may lead to pipe collapse. There are
special cutting heads for removing roots
inside the pipe but the tree should also be
removed from the vicinity of the pipe line.
Protruding laterals can be removed by
remote controlled robots equipped with
special cutting heads. Minor cross
sectional deformation should be inspected
on regular bases to see if the deformation
is getting worse, in which case the pipe
must be replaced. Sever deformation
implies immediate replacement of the
pipe.
Acknowledgements
All images in this paper are courtesy of
Somes Water Company (Compania de Ap
Some) and the author uses this opportunity
to show his appreciation for the help given in
research activity.
References
1. Chira, T.V.: Diagnosticarea strii
tehnice a conductelor de canalizare
(Technical Condition Diagnosis of
Sewer Systems), PhD Thesis, ClujNapoca, 2012.
2. Chira, T.V., Safirescu, C., Moldovan,
E.: Cteva aspecte privind defeciunile
conductelor de canalizare (Several
aspects regarding faults in sewer
pipes), In Proceedings of Conference
Modern Science and energy SME2013,
Cluj-N., p. 225-234.
3 Iyer, S., Sinha, S. Pedrick, M.,
Tittmann, B.: Evaluation of ultrasonic
inspection and imaging system for
concrete pipes, in journal: Automation
in Construction, 22, 2012, Elsevier, p.
149-164.

ANALYSIS OF USING STAND-ALONE

SOLAR-WIND POWER SYSTEM IN RURAL
AREAS
G. CORSIUC 1 C. MRZA1 R. FELSEGHI1
T. OIMOAN1 M. ROMAN1
Abstract: The use of renewable can be a solution for the power supply of
remote rural villages in Romania, where grid connection is impossible or
very expensive to achieve. Stand-alone power systems generate power onsite
with no need for a complex transportation system, while offering consumers
energy independence. In this paper are analyzed and compared three types of
stand-alone systems based on solar and wind power. A series of simulations
were conducted in order to obtain the optimal solutions in terms of energy
production, investment cost and CO2 emissions. The first system studied is
composed only of photovoltaic panels and it is feasible if there is enough
space for the installation of the panels needed to cover the energy demand.
The hybrid solar wind appears to be a good solution for this specific location,
both in terms of energy production as well as of the cost.
Key words: renewable energy, rural electrification, stand-alone power
system, hybrid system.
1. Introduction
In the context of durable development, a
special stress is put on the use of nonconventional and unpolluting sources of
energy and also on the decrease of gas
pollution, which contributes to the
greenhouse effect. Thus, the strategic
objectives established by the European
Union are to provide 20% of the total
amount of energy needed from renewable
sources of energy until 2020 and to
decrease the CO 2 emissions by 20%.
In Romania, the rural area is a mixt
space in which very small human
communities, some isolated with few
inhabitants, coexist with relatively large
1
communities,
with
a
population
approaching 10,000 people. For Romania,
the rural areas have an important socioeconomic value, because here lies 45% of
the population, 47% of the number of
residential houses and 46% of the
residence
designed
area.
In
the
administration of communes are found
87% of the total area of the country and
91% of the agricultural area, while the
average density of population is under 48
people per km2.
Nowadays, in Romania there are some
isolated villages, placed far away from
communal
centers
and
scattered
throughout the country, undeveloped
economically and beyond the pale of
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Building Services
32
civilization (some are small villages of 510 households) that are still not benefiting
from electricity. Connection to the
distribution grid of these isolated areas is a
basic requirement to ensure normal living
conditions today. Considering that
Romania is a European Union Country is
necessary to provide economic and social
development in this isolated regions.
Electrification is one of the biggest
blessings of social life, that can not be
conceived without the use of electricity.
Electrification of isolated communities
can be done in three ways:
by extending the existing electrical
network - that involves issues of cost due
to the low density of population and low
energy consumption;
by using the conventional diesel
generators,
causing
environmental
problems,
operating
costs,
not
guaranteeing a continuous supply,
maintenance;
or the implementation of hybrid systems
using renewable energy sources.
Although the cost of electricity supplied
through the grid is now inferior to that
produced from renewable sources, must be
emphasized the high cost of connection to
the network mainly due to the relatively
large distances (and often difficult) from
the network, territorial spreading, small
number of isolated households located in
areas of interest, as well as the lower
power consumption in rural areas. It
should also be noted that the population in
these areas have generally lower solvency.
As a result, it is difficult to bear the right
price for energy supplied through the
network correspondig to the real value of
the investment. Thus, some technical and
economic studies indicate that for many
punctual situations, the cases of renewable
electrification can be competitive or even
more
advantageous
than
other
conventional solutions such as network
connection or generators.
In this paper the authors are presenting

the results of the research regarding the
design and sizing of some renewable
sources energy systems , that supply an
isolated house in the countryside. Three
types of stand-alone energy systems will
be presented and analyzed.
2. Renewable energy sources
In rural areas there are various forms of
renewable energy that can be used in the
power supply of these areas:
biomass - which is the main fuel in rural
areas being mainly used for space and
water heating as well as for cooking;
geothermal energy - which can be used
for space heating and hot water;
small hydropower - can be a basic option
for supplying energy to rural areas which
are not connected to the electricity
network, only that is dependent upon the
existence of a constant flow water source;
solar energy - used for water heating and
electricity production;
wind power - also can cover the
electricity needs of hard to reach rural
areas.
Choosing a solutions one must take into
account the following criteria:
the location of the consumer compared to
the existing conventional sources, namely
the distribution network;
the existence in the area of some nonconventional energy resources;
dynamics of the area development
respecting
the
declared
energy
consumption;
the existing technology, materials,
switchgear and equipment;
the size and shape of the geographical
area occupied by isolated consumers which
can decide if the solution is either the
conection to the distribution network or
from local unconventional sources;
the shape and geomorphology of the land
determines if is favorable or not the use of
G. CORSIUC et al.: Analysis of using stand-alone solar-wind power system in rural areas
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
[kWh/m2/day]
1,35
2,16
3,18
4,01
4,87
5,32
5,35
4,93
3,47
2,37
1,42
1,08
Wind
speed at
10m
[m/s]
3,99
3,82
3,26
3,18
2,92
3,22
3,10
3,56
3,25
3,36
3,89
3,38
The values of the solar irradiation on

horizontal surface are considered to be :
- daily average irradiation 3,28 kWh/m2 ;
- total annual irradiation 1197,26 kWh/m2 .
The values of the solar irradiation on the
plane of the photovoltaic pannels are :
- daily average irradiation 3,35 kWh/m2 ;
Insolation [kWh/m2/day]
5
4
3
2
1
Ja
n
Fe ua
br ry
ua
M ry
ar
ch
Ap
ril
M
ay
Ju
ne
Ju
A
Se ug ly
pt us
em t
O be
N ctob r
ov e
D em r
ec be
em r
be
r
4,5
4
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
n
Fe uary
br
ua
r
M y
ar
ch
Ap
ril
M
ay
Ju
ne
Ju
A ly
Se ugu
pt st
em
Oc ber
No tob
ve er
De mb
ce er
m
be
r
Month
Insolation
Fig.1. Output graphic for solar radiation

profile
Wind speed [m/s]
Monthly averaged insolation and wind

speed
Table 1
- total annual irradiation 1225,4 kWh/m2 .

The average wind speed for a year,
measured at 10 meters altitude is
considered to be 3,4 m/s.
Ja
renewable energy resources.

For the simulations presented in this
paper was considered that the energy
system uses renewable energy sources as
solar and wind power and is located in a
village in the county of Cluj, having the
coordinates: latitude 46o25'N, longitude
23o38'E, at an altitude of 609m. For this
area we used the official meteorological
data of solar radiation intensity and wind
speed according to the months of a year
[7].
Simulations were performed during a
year of the operating system, and the
weather conditions are considered constant
for the remaining years of the system
functioning. Thus, in Table 1 are given the
average values of solar irradiation and
wind speed during a year while in Figure 1
and Figure 2 are shown the corresponding
output graphics.
33
Fig.2. Output graphic for wind speed

profile
3. Household energy load
Considering the needs of an isolated
household farm but also the requirements
of ensuring a typical regime of
electrification for stand-alone systems, was
established the energy load, considering
the following consumers: indoor lighting,
outdoor lighting, radio, TV, power
tools and a fridge.
Based on the energy consumers, and
considering the normal way of life in the
countryside the following loads was
considered:
- maximum load : 350 W ;
- average hourly load : 241,67W.
34
Further on simulations for three

configurations of energy systems were
performed, having as objectives reducing
total system cost and optimizing the values
of carbon and excess energy. The first
system is based on the energy produced by
photovoltaic panels, the second system
produces energy using wind turbines and
the last type is a solar-wind hybrid system.
All three systems are equipped with
batteries to store the excess energy. If the
power produced by renewable sources is
higher than the energy demand, the
batteries will charge, the stored energy will
be used when the system does not cover
the energy demand of the consumers.
4. Simulations for stand-alone energy
systems
In order to determine the optimal
renewable energy system design that can
cover the load using solar and wind power,
the authors used the software HOGA
(Hybrid
Optimization
by
Genetic
Algorithms), which is a simulation and
optimization program based on genetic
algorithms [4].
energy balance of the system for a year is

shown in Table 2. For comparison, the
results are graphically represented in
Figure 3.
Balance of system energies for one year
Table 2
Overall Load Energy
[kWh/year]
Excess Energy
[kWh/year]
Energy delivered by PV
[kWh/year]
Battery Charge Regulator
[A]
Energy charged by Batteries
[kWh/year]
Energy discharged by Batteries
[kWh/year]
Total CO 2 emissions
[kg CO 2 /year]
2117
2369
5122
135,8
1511
1513
298
Figure 4 shows that from the total cost of

the system, the largest share is held by the
price of the photovoltaic panels 46.12%,
followed by the batteries price 39.81% and
auxiliary equipments 14.07%.
6000
4.1. Simulation results for a solar

photovoltaic system
5000
Performing the simulations for a solarphotovoltaic energy system, the algorithms

have determined the optimal configuration
of the system according to the energy load
required,
havind
the
following
components:
2 PV panels serial x 19 panels parallel of
175Wp each, with a total power of 6,65
kWp ;
4 batteries serial x 3 batteries parallel,
having a capacity of 80Ah each ;
inverter, 500VA ;
battery charge regulator.
Considering that the minimum state of
charge allowed for the batteries is 40%, the
3000
4000
2000
1000
0
Total
Load
Exc.
PV
C.
D.
Batteries Batteries
Fig.3. Electrical energy production

of the solar photovoltaic system
4.2. Simulation results for a wind
turbine system
Performing the simulations for a wind
35
8000
INV.+AUX.
14,07%
7000
6000
PV 46,12%
5000
4000
3000
BATTERIES
39,81%
2000
Fig.4. Percentage cost of the proposed

system equipments
1000
0
Total
Load
turbine energy system, the algorithms have

determined the optimal configuration of
the system according to the energy load
required having the following components:
1 DC wind turbine, 6500 W ;
4 batteries serial x 2 batteries parallel,
Cn = 444 Ah;
inverter, 500 VA;
battery charge regulator.
In Table 3 is shown the energy balance
of the wind power system for a year. The
results are graphically represented in
Figure 5.
Table 3
Overall Load Energy
[kWh/year]
Excess Energy
[kWh/year]
Energy delivered by Wind Turbines
[kWh/year]
[A]
[kWh/year]
[kWh/year]
[kg CO 2 /year]
2117
4165
6767
107,6
841
845
439
Figure 6 shows that from the total cost of

the system, the largest share is held by the
price of the batteries 51,55%, followed by
the price of the wind turbine 41,51% and
Exc.
Wind
C.
D.
Batteries Batteries
Fig.5. Electrical energy production

of the wind energy system
the price of the auxiliary equipments
6,95%.
INV.+AUX.
6,95%
WIND
41,51%
BATTERIES
51,55%

system equipments
4.3. Simulation results for a hybrid
solar-wind system
After performing simulations for solarwind hybrid stand-alone energy system has
resulted the following design - as in Figure
7:
2 PV Panels serial x 9 Panels parallel,
175 Wp;
4 Batteries serial x 4 Batteries parallel,
Cn = 80 Ah each, E total = 15,3 kWh;
1 DC Wind Turbines, 1760 W;
Inverter, 500 VA;
Battery Charge Regulator.
36
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500

Table 4
Overall Load Energy
[kWh/year]
Excess Energy
[kWh/year]
Energy delivered by PV generator
[kWh/year]
Energy delivered by Wind
Turbines [kWh/year]
[A]
[kWh/year]
[kWh/year]
[kg CO 2 /year]
2117
1603
2426
1779
64,3
839
839
255
5. Results and discussions

Comparing the values obtained from the
simulations of the three types of systems
we note that in terms of investment cost
(Figure 10) solar photovoltaic system has
the lowest price, but has a large number of
Ba
t te
rie
s
D
.B
at
ter
ies
C.
W
in
d
PV
To
ta
l
The energy balance of the solar-wind

hybrid system for a year is shown in Table
4. For a better comparison, the results are
graphically represented in Figure 8.
The percentage values for the proposed
solar-wind hybrid system equipments cost
are shown in Figure 9. It is noted that in
this case too the highest percentage is held
by the cost of batteries.
Ex
c.
0
Lo
ad
Fig.7. Solar-wind hybrid energy

system
Fig.8. Electrical energy production of the

solar-wind hybrid system
INV.+AUX.
10,01%
WIND
33,18%
BATTERIES
35,63%
PV 21,18%

system equipments
panels which implies a large area required
for their installation. It seems a good
solution if the necessary space is available.
Analyzing the results it is observed that
every time from the total cost of the system
the highest percentage is held by the cost
of the batteries. This demonstrates the
importance of energy storage in
dimensioning a stand-alone system and
also the need to solve the storage problem.
Even if the cost (Figure 10) of the solarwind hybrid system is 3% higher then the
solar photovoltaic system we note that is
composed of a much lower number of
photovoltaic panels, resulting the need for
a smaller area for installation. Also, in
Figure 12 is noted that it is the energy

system with the lowest CO 2 emissions.
The calculated CO 2 emissions are resulting
both from the operation of the equipments
in the lifetime of the system as well as
from the process of manufacturing them.
Figure 11 shows that the wind turbine
system produces the greatest amount of
energy, 60% more than the solar-wind
hybrid system.
37
performance, lower CO 2 emissions and

also the lowest level of excess energy.
Hybrid solarwind system
Wind turbine
system
Solar
photovoltaic
system
0
100
200
300
400
500
[KgCO2/year]
Wind turbine
system
Fig.12. Annual CO 2 emissions for the

studied systems
Solar
photovoltaic
system
0
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
[Euro]
Initial Investment
Total System Costs
Fig.10. Economic comparison of

simulation results
Wind turbine
system
Solar
photovoltaic
system
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
[kWh/year]
Fig.13. Annual energy excess
Wind turbine
system
6. Conclusions
Solar
photovoltaic
system
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
[kWh/year]
Total Load
Energy production
Fig.11. Annual energy production by

different systems
In terms of reducing the excess energy is
shown in Figure 13 that also the solar-wind
hybrid system has the lowest values.
The results presented above demonstrate
that when solar and wind power are
combined in a hybrid system, we obtain a
much more reliable system, with a stable
In the context of sustainable development,

renewable energy resources are the optimal
alternative to solve energy issues and
protection against environmental degradation.
The problem of ensuring energy in

isolated rural areas presents certain
peculiarities caused in principle by the lack
of networks or by the existence of some
damaged national systems of energy
distribution. In this context, to obtain
energy on a local level using
unconventional and clean energy sources
represents a reliable solution, which is in
agreement
with
the
sustainable
development policy.
38
Renewable energy resources, particularly

solar and wind power, are considered as
the basic components in the sustainable
development of human communities
whose energy demand continues to grow.
The development of the renewable
industry is considered to be a possible
answer for both consumers connected to
national electricity grids as well as for
those isolated ones.
Unfortunately, solar power and wind
power are, in most cases, intermittent
sources (solar radiation, wind speed),
which is their main disadvantage. For this
reason, renewable energies are generally
highly dependent on energy storage
systems or be supported by continuous
energy generation technologies like hydro,
biomass or diesel/biogas generators. Thus,
a solution would be the combination of
solar and wind energy, this way
contributing to alleviate the deficit in
power supply and, at the same time helping
to reduce the amount of energy that needs
to be stored.
Stand-alone energy systems, unlike gridconnected systems, are much more
complex and expensive because it must
ensure the independence of the consumers
operations, for which an important role is
occupied by the storage of excess energy
in batteries.
Acknowledgements
This paper was supported by the project
Inter-University
Partnership
for
Excellence in Engineering - PARTING project coordinated by the Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca contract no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137516,
project
cofounded by the European Social Fund
through the Sectorial Operational Program

Human Resources 2007-2013.
References
1. Azurza O., Arranbide I., Zubia I.: Rural
electrification based on renewable
energies. A rewiw, International
Conference on Renewable Energies and
Power
Quality,
Santiago
de
Compostela, Spain, 2012.
2. Bernal-Agustn JL, Dufo-Lpez R.:
Simulation and optimization of standalone hybrid renewable energy systems,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 8, 2009, p.
21112118.
3. Daz P., Pea R., Muoz J., Arias CA.,
Sandoval D.: Field analysis of solar
PV-based collective systems for rural
electrification,
Energy.
The
International Journal, Volume 36, Issue
5, 2011, p. 25092516.
4. Dufo-Lpez R., Bernal-Agustn J.:
Software and HOGA User Manual,
Faculty of Engineering, University of
Saragossa, Spain.
5. Huang R., Low S., Topcu U., Chandy
M.: Optimal design of hybrid energy
system with PV/wind turbine/storage: a
case
study,
Smart
Grid
Communications,
2011
IEEE
International Conference , Brussels, p.
511 516.
6. Vani N., Khare V.: Rural electrification
system based on hybrid energy system
model optimization using HOMER,
Canadian Journal of Basic and Applied
Sciences, Vol. 01, Issue 01, 2013, p.
19-25.
7. https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov
8. http://www.lpelectric.ro
9. http://www.minind.ro/

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF
THERMALLY ACTIVATED BUILDING
SYSTEMS (TABS)
G. DRAGOMIR 1
A. BREZEANU1
V. CIOFOAIA1
Abstract: The ussage of the cooling systems that use earths natural enery
potential has increased over the last years dn with it the need for radiant
systems.The efficiency of the radiant surfaces , expecially the TABS systems
is influenced by the temperature variation over their surface This article
studies the effects of the thermal agent velocity in ducts and ventilation
system present on the temperature field of the radiating surfaces TABS
system.
Key words: TABS, temperature vaiation,radiant surface.
1. Introduction
Cooling buildings during warm seasons
increases significantly the electricity bill.
To guarantee thermal comfort in
residential and tertiary buildings during
summer, the most common method spread
worldwide is the ussage of air-conditioning
systems [4].
Lately, a particular emphasis, worldwide
spread, is the energy consumption of
ventilation and air conditioning systems.
An efficient alternative to the energy used
by the air conditioning systems is the
mixed systems: cooling/heating that use
radiation and ventilation [2].
In the early 1990s, Swiss engineer
Robert Meierhans realised two successful
projects: thermal baths at Vals in
Switzerland (1996) and Kunsthaus
Bregenz in Bregenz, Austria (1997) which
represent the foundation for modern
1
thermal activated building systems

(TABS) [3]. Structural elements such as
walls, floors, ceilings, can be thermaly
actviated by means of electric, water or air
circuits. TABS systems are specifically
designed to be an integrate part of the
overall building structure and its energy
strategy The main parameters that
influence the functionality and thermal
comfort provided by the radiant surfaces
are: cooling/heating capacity, uniform
temperature distribution, minimum and
average temperature of the radiant surface.
2. Research objectives
In order to be able to operate optimally a
radiant cooling system and in particular
TABS it is important to determine the
average temperature of the radiating
surface, used to determine the heat flow,
Building Services Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Brasov
40
and in particular the lowest temperature

value on the radiating surface.
The temperature of the radiant surface is
influenced by several factors such as the
diameter and configuration of the pipe, the
mounting
distance,
the
thermal
carachteristics of the surfaces top layer
ventilation of the surface, the flow rate of
the heating and convection type on the
surface. Research aimes to highlight the
influence of the velocity of circulation
inside the tubes , the convection type of the
themperature field distribution on the
radiant surface and indirect heat flow
recived from the ambient environment.
The schematic of the slab is presented in

figure 2.
The thermal agent is supplied to TABS
from a manifold, type HKV-D, witch also
feeds the othe radiant surfaces in the
laboratory.
3.Experimental conditions
Experiments were performed in the
radiating surface laboratory of the Building
Services Faculty in Brasov, fig. 1.
Fig. 1. TABS radiant surface in the

faculty laboratory
The TABS system in the laboratory has
an area of 6 m2 having a pipe coil made of
PEXA 202,2 mm diameter and 28 m
length.
The laying pipe is in the form of double
coil assembly having a 20 cm mounting
pitch.
The concrete slab that containes the pipe
has a thickness of 20 cm and the following
thermotehnic properties
2,00 W
m2 K
, 2600
kg
m3
Fig. 2. Schematics of the TABS in the

radiant surface laboratory
The source for the thermal agent is a heat
pump and an absorption chiller mounted
near the faculty building of the Faculty.
Measurement and processing system for
the TABS is embedded in a complex
system that monitors all radiant surfaces
and also the entire laboratory envelope .
The sensors used in the laboratory
are described below:
- Sensors used to measure the
temperature on the pipe surface both for
system
flow
and
return,
type
ALTF_PT1000_PVC1,
5,
THERMASGARD according to DIN EN
60751, Class B , measurement range -30
180 C;
- Sensors used to measure relative
inside
air
humidity
RPFF-I,
HYGRASGARD according to DIN EN
60751, class B, range 0 100%;- Sensors used to measure indoor air
temperature, type RTF1_PT1000 FRIJA I
THERMASGARD, range -30 + 70 C;
G. DRAGOMIR et al.: Experimental research on the temperaure distribution of thermally

activated building systems
Mean
radiant
temperature
measurement sensor, pendulum type
RPTM2-I PT1000, THERMASGARD,
adjustable measuring range from -50 to +
150 C, figure 3;
Energy meter, type microCLIMA
MI1429.0-00_00, Precision Class EN
1434-1: 2007, class3; Mechanical Class
M1; Electromagnetic Class E1; Protection
class IP54; Hydraulic disorder class U0;
Temperature range +1 to + 150 C;
Temperature difference 3 ... 100 K.
Fig.3 Sensors for measuring the relative

humidity and radiant mean temperature.
For temperature measurement on the
TABS, there were mounted eighteen
temperature sensors, type OFTF_Pt
1000_PVC1,5,
THERMASGARD
according to DIN EN 60751, Class B +
range -30 105 C. The Position of
TABS in the radiant surface laboratory and
the position of the sensors on the TABS
are shown in figure 4.
41
4. Results
The research were performed on the
TABS for a period of two summer months,
from the 1st of july to 31st august. During
this period were monitored both radiant
surfaces temperatures and the heat gained
by the TABS from the environment, for
different operating conditions of the
system. The measurements were carried
out under various operating conditions of
the system to highlight the influence of
external factors on the performance of
TABS.
In Figure 5 are shown the temperatures
on TABS surface and indoor air
temperature, inside radiating surface
laboratory. There is a correlation between
the radiant surface temperatures and the
indoor air temperature, wich is similar to
the existing radiant surface literature.
Indoor air temperature inside radiant
surface laboratory, during the monitoring
and operation of the cooling system was
maintained,most of the time, within
standard acceptable comfort, EN ISO 7730
[5].
The only time when indoor air
temperature exceeded the temperature
recommended by the standard was the
system boot time, this fact was largely due
to the buildings thermal inrtia.
Fig.5. Mean temperature variation on

the TABS surface during monitoring
period.
Fig.4. Temperature sensors location on
the TABS.
An important parameter which has been

monitored during the research time was in
42
wich way the thermal agent speed rate

inside the pipes, influences the radiant
surface temperature. Measurements were
performed for a speed of 0,5 l/s,
characterized as a turbulent flow regime,
and 0.08 m/s, characterized as laminar
flow regime. The design of radiant cooling
systems, wich also include TABS is
performed for turbulent flow regime. The
laminar flow is achieved only if the system
isnt hydraulically balanced or has
assembly errors.
The values measured for TABS in the
same caonditions (interior air temperature
and thermal agent temperaure) are
presented in figure 6
decrease the energy required to circulate

heat through the pipes.
Similar results obtained and Can [1] for
capilar type radiant surfaces.
The heat is gained by TABS both by
convection and radiation, usually consider
that 40% by convection and the rest by
radiation. The convection on the radiant
surface can be natural or mixed (mixed
convection is considered if the system is
provided with mechanical ventilation).
In order to study the effects of the mixt
convection, a ventilation system was
mounted inside the laboratory, and the
obtained data is shown in figure 7
Fig.6. Temperature variation for TABS

surfaces, both for laminar and turbulent
flow regime.
Fig.7. TABS Surface temperature

variation both for natural and mixed
convection.
The data revealed a insignificant

influence of flow speed on the radiant
surface temperature, the maximum
temperature difference was only 0.16 C.
The only notable difference resulting from
the measurements was the increased
temperature difference between flow and
return for laminar flow. The different
values indicated by the sensors on the
same TABS surface is explained by the
different distance between them pipeline
inside the radiant surface.
The main conclusion that can be drawn
from the above is that TABS can also be
operated using a laminar flow regime
without significant influence system
performance, but would significantly
Radiant surface temperature is

significantly influenced by the type of heat
transfer on it. The temperature difference
between the two cases is about 0.9C for
the upper surface of the slab and a little bit
higher, approximately 1C for the lower
part of the slab. Radiant surface
temperature directly influences and heat
flux gained by the TABS, therefore the
system design must take into consideration
the type of convection heat transfer and
think the design differently for rooms with
mechanical ventilation or without.
During the day, the temperatures on
the TABS radiant surfaces change,
influenced by indoor air temperature and
indirectly by the required cooling load.
G. DRAGOMIR et al.: Experimental research on the temperaure distribution of thermally

activated building systems
The chart for the average temperature for

the radiant surface and indoor air over 24
hours is shown in figure 8.
The temperature increase rate on the
TABS surface is much slower than the
increase of indoor air temperature. During
the day the thermal agent temperature
provided to the system was constant, about
20-21C. The radiant cooling system was
able to maintain the temperature into
thermal comfort limits using high
temperature heat.
43
Maximum heat gained in TABS was at

17 oclock and had a value of about 3700
kJ as shown in figure 9., this value being
limited by high enough temperature in
TABS in the morning. This temperature
was 23.11C because the device producing
cooling agent (absorption heat pump with
absorption chiller) has the main function
spaces cooling by using fancoil units.
Fig.9. Variation of heat accumulated by

TABS for 24h.
Fig.8. The temperature variation on the

TABS surface for a period of 24 hours.
This highlights that TABS systems can
be used with high efficiency with
renewable energy sources such as heat
pumps and systems using "natural
cooling".
The increase of the TABS system
temperature leads to an heat accumulation
inside it, during the peak load and a
decrease of the cooling equipment power.
To highlight the TABS heat
accumulation during the day, it was
calculated using the measured values and
thermotehnic properties of the TABS
materials.
TABS system is made of reinforced
concrete witch has the following
properties:
- Weight 3120 kg.
- Specific heat 963 J / kgK
- Density of 2600 kg / m3
- TABS volume 1.2 m3.
The heat pump and the chiller shut down

after the working schedjule. For the same
reason the system did not returned in the
morning to its original state, the
accumulated heat loss was achieved by
releasing it to the indoor air during night.
The large heat storage capacity of the
TABS and the low temperatures during
summer nights for Romanias fourth
climate zone lead to a conclusion that these
systems can be used with special
advantages with natural night cooling or
cooling towers.
5. Conclusions
Decreased circulation velocity in inside
the system does not influence performance
TABS but by reducing pressure losses
inside the hydronic circuit, leads to a
significant reduction of energy needed for
the circulation pumps.
Currently, TABS design is identical and
for ussage with or without a ventilation
system.
44
Due to different performance and to

difficulty in automation of theese systems
enegy waste will result from their
malefunction.
Therefore TABS must be sized
differently for each case or be placed in
different areas of automation. TABS heat
accumulation during peak load leads to a
decrease of power of the energy source.
Because, the acumulated heat transfer is
performed during nights these systems can
be s used profitable in a natural cooling
systems during night.
Unlocking the potential of renewable soil
for space cooling can be done in an
efficient manner using TABS because they
use high heat temperatures.
Acknowledgement:
This paper is supported by the Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources
Development (SOP HRD), ID134378
financed from the European Social Fund
and by the Romanian Government
References
1. Can A., Buyruk E., Kucuk M.,

Thermally
activated
building
elements for cooling, Int. J.
Environmental Technology and
Management, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2005,
Pp.42-59.
2. Gwerder M, Lehmann B, Tdtli1 J,
Dorer V, Renggli F., Control of
thermally-activated building
systems (TABS), Applied Energy
85 (2008)
3. Meierhans R.A. Slab cooling and
earth coupling. ASHRAE Trans
1993;99(2):P5118 [DE-93-02-4]
4. Olesena B. W.,. Using Building
MassTo Heat and Cool, Thermo
active building systems ASHRAE
Journal, February 2012.
5. ***ISO 7730 Moderate thermal
environments - determination of
the PMV and PPD indices and
specification of the conditions for
thermal
confort.
September
2014.

THE IMPACT OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

ON THE COOLING PERFORMANCE OF
TABS
G. DRAGOMIR 1 G. NASTASE1 V. CIOFOAIA1
I. BOIAN1 A. SERBAN1 A. BREZEANU1
Abstract: The paper highlights the influence of design parameters, such as
pipe spacing, pipe diameter, type of floor covering, fluid flow regime and
fluid flow temperature on the cooling performance of thermally activated
building system (TABS). Considering the existing TABS developed in the
Radiant Surface Laboratory of Civil Engineering Faculty of Brasov as a
model a study based on a commercial simulation program (Comsol
Multiphysics) was carried out. COMSOL Multiphysics is a general-purpose
software platform, based on advanced numerical methods, for modeling and
simulating physics-based problems. With COMSOL Multiphysics, you will be
able to account for coupled or multiphysics phenomena. The COMSOL
Desktop is a powerful integrated environment designed for crossdisciplinary product development with a unified workflow, regardless of the
application area [7]. Results of the simulation and the conclusions are
presented.
Key words: design parameters, cooling, TABS, simulations.
1. Introduction
Reducing energy consumption in the
residential and tertiary buildings is a matter
of national interest being present all over
the world. Todays energy consumption in
buildings in developed countries accounts
for approximately 30-50% of total energy
consumption [3]. Significant problems of
environmental pollution result from the
burning of fossil fuels as the main source
of energy needs. Energy-efficient cooling
systems design is important from an
environmental reason but for the lowering
of the operating cost of buildings too.
Air-conditioning is the most common

method worldwide used for summer
comfort for residential and tertiary sector
buildings. An energy efficient alternative is
the mixed system based on radiation and
on ventilation too, used for heating but also
for cooling.
According to REHVA Guide [1] radiant
surfaces used for low temperature heating
and for high temperature cooling were
divided into three categories:
- Radiant Cooling Panels (RCP),
- Water-based embedded cooling
systems (ESCS),
- Thermally Activated Building
Systems (TABS).
46
The modern concept of TABS was

developed by the Swiss engineer - Robert
Meierhans in 1990 together with the
architect Peter Zumthor, when designing
two successful projects: the thermal bath at
Vals in Switzerland (1996) and the
Kunsthaus Bregenz in Bregenz, Austria
(1997).
Energy consumption for cooling during
peak load drops up to 42% in case of
buildings equipped with TABS. In fact,
this reduction varies between 17% and
42% depending on the climate in which it
stands, cold and wet or hot and arid areas
[26]. Currently there are several studies on
the influence of design parameters on the
performance of radiant systems. Sattari and
Farhanieh [4] studied the effects of design
parameters on the performance of a waterbased embedded cooling system type
ESCS using finite element method.
Following studies showed that the main
factor affecting the performance of the
system is the type and the thickness of the
coating.
Xing [6] studied the effects of thermal
resistance of the pipe and that of the speed
of the cooling agent on the performance of
radiant floor, used for cooling. The thermal
resistance of the pipe affects the
performance of radiant floor only in case
of vary low values, and the speed of the
cooling agent does not significantly
influence it even for laminar flow. Can et
al. [2] studied the thermal flux of a
capillary radiant floor for different values
of the flow and of the cooling agent
temperature. Studies have been conducted
in particular on the ESCS-type radiating
surface using the finite volume- and the
finite element-method.
2. TABS simulation
Simulation was carried out on a TABS
model identical to that existing in the
experimental laboratory for radiating
surface of the Civil Engineering Faculty

from Brasov.
This model has the following
constructive features: 6 sq.m area,
thickness of 20 cm; the hydronic system
having a length of 28 m is realized from a
20x2,2 mm pipe.
The heat is supplied to the hydronic
system by a compression heat pump
located in a Laboratory on the first level of
the building. The same hydronic system is
used during the summer for cooling the
radiant laboratory, being fed by two
absorption equipments, a chiller and a
reversible heat pump.
Designing TABS is related to a selection
of parameters:
- Constructive, like pipe spacing,
type of floor covering and pipe
diameter
- Operational, like flow rate and the
temperature of the cooling agent.
The efficient operation of TABS is
the result of their correct sizing.
Radiant surfaces used for cooling
must comply for the necessary heat
flux to be removed, but additionally
their temperature should be over the
dew point in order to avoid
condensate.
The most important parameters
which influence the temperature
distribution on the radiant surface and
the unitary radiant heat flux are:
- Pipe spacing,
- Fluid flow temperature,
- Fluid flow velocity (flow regime),
- Thermal properties of the covering
surface,
- Pipe size.
The study of their influence was realized
using the Comsol Multiphysics simulation
software.
The PEXA pipe was considered in the
middle of the TABS and the conductivities
used for simulation were 2 W/mK for the
G. DRAGOMIR et al.: The impact of design parameters on the cooling performance of TABS 47
concrete slab and 0.35 W/mK for the

PEXA pipe. The heat transfer superficial
coefficient for the TABS was 6 W/m2K on
its upper face, and 11 W/m2K on its lower
face respectively.
The indoor air temperature was
considered constant at 26C for both
spaces in contact with the upper and the
lower faces of the TABS. This temperature
lies within the comfort limits specified by
the EN ISO 7730 standard [7].
Table 1 presents the parameters taken
into account for each simulation case.
(a)
3. Results and discussion

The radiant heat flow and temperature
distribution on the two faces of the radiant
surface are the main parameters that
influence its efficiency.
(b)
Fig. 1. Surface temperature distribution on the
upper (a) and on the lower face (b) of the TABS
for different pipe spacing.
3.1. Pipe spacing

The most common method used to
increase the radiant heat flow over TABS
is the pipe spacing. Values of 15, 20, 25 30
cm for the pipe spacing have been used for
simulating their influence on the radiant
surface performance. Figure 1 shows the
significant influence of the pipe spacing on
the surface temperature on the upper and
on the lower face of the TABS and on its
uniform distribution.
The amplitude of the surface temperature
rises with the pipe spacing. A difference of
1.8 C exists between a 30 cm pipe spacing
and that of 15 cm.
However the influence of the pipe
spacing is more significant for the heat
flux over the radiating surface.
Obviously a smaller pipe spacing
increase the value of the heat flux over the
TABS. According to Figure 2 this increase
is almost 40% in case of a 15 cm pipe
spacing compared with the 30 cm pipe
spacing.
Fig.2. Heat flux magnitude over the upper

surface of the TABS for different pipe spacing.
3.2. Pipe size

Two elements count when sizing the pipe
for a TABS i.e. the diameter and the
conductivity. Considering the fact that
PEXA is the main material used for TABS
only the pipe diameter is the selectable
element.
In practice the size of the pipe is selected
to correspond for a required flow of the
cooling agent.
48
Figure 3 (a) and (b) show the influence

of the pipe diameter on the temperature
field and on the heat flux, respectively. As
can be seen the size of the pipe affect to a
lesser extent the temperature field of the
radiant surface and the heat flux removed
from the TABS.
(a)
3.3. Flow regime

Usually heating and cooling by radiant
surfaces is done using a turbulent flow
resulting from the speed of the thermal
agent, the hydraulic balancing elements
playing an important role too.
To simulate the influence of turbulent
versus laminar flow the Comsol
Multiphysics software need the superficial
heat transfer coefficient from fluid to the
pipe wall. The following expressions [6]
have been used:
(b)
Fig. 3. Surface temperature (a) and Heat
flux magnitude (b) over the TABS for
different pipe size.
Specific parameters for the investigated situations

Case
Influence
of the
fitting step
Pipe size
Pipe size
20X2,2 mm
Fitting step
Fluid flow
regime
0,15; 0,20; 0,25

turbulent
and 0,30 mm
Table 1
Fluid flow
temperature
Finished
surface
coverage
16C
tiles
20X2,2 and
17X2,0 mm
0,15
turbulent
16C
tiles
Fluid flow
regime
20X2,2 mm
0,15
laminar and
turbulent
16C
tiles
Fluid flow
temperature
20X2,2 mm
0,15
Finished
surface
coverage
20X2,2 mm
0,15
- for turbulent flow:

turb 2040 1 0,015 Ta.t 273
- for laminar flow:
0 ,87
v a .t
Di0,13 (1)
turbulent 14, 16, 18, 20 C
turbulent
16C
tiles
tiles
parquet
PVC carpet
and linoleum
lam 49028 4.173 Re Pr
- for transitory flow
Di
0 , 33
a .t
Di (2)
tran
1
turb 1
v
40
1
vtran
1
e
1
lam
v
1 e
vtran 2300
(3)
40
1
vtran
1,003 10 6
Di
(4)
where
T a.t - fluid flow temperature, [K]
a.t - cinematic viscosity of fluid flow,
[m2/s]
Re - Reynolds criterion
Pr - Prandtl criterion
a.t - thermal conductivity, [w/(m.K)]
L - pipe length [m].
D i -.internal diameter[m]
To determine the thermal flux taken by
the TABS, it is mandatory to know the
convective heat transfer coefficient.
Using
numerical
methods
for
determining the convective heat transfer
coefficient of the heat inside the pipe is a
cumbersome method.
To simplify the calculation, was created
a chart that is based on the above equations
for the most common types of pipe used in
TABS. As can be observed in Figure 4, in
the laminar flow heat transfer coefficient
from fluid to the pipe wall is
approximately
constant,
varying
significantly in the transitional and
turbulent flow.
Figure 5 (a) and (b) shows the specific
heat flux removed by the lower face of the
TABS in case of laminar and turbulent
flow.
The difference between the two
situations is about 10% meaning that
changing from laminar to turbulent flow
Fig. 4. Convection coefficient variation

based on fluid flow regime
has a low influence on the heat flux
transferred by TABS.
(a)
(b)
Fig.5. The specific heat flux transferred by the
lower face of the TABS (a) and temeprature
distribution (b) in case of laminar and
turbulent flow.
The temperature field in a cross section

of the TABS for laminar flow is similar
50
with that for turbulent flow, as can be seen

in Figure 6.
3.4. Covering surface
Thermal properties of the material
covering the TABS have in significant
impact on the temperature of the radiant
surface and on the heat flux transferred by
it. Four covering materials for the upper
face of TABS have been studied ceramic
tiles, PVC-carpet, textiles and parquet. The
performance of the TABS is in direct
relation with the conductivity of the
covering material. Figure 6 (a) and (b)
shows the heat flux transferred by the
TABS for the above mentioned types of
covering materials. Ceramic tiles is the
best covering material and PVC-carpet the
worst-one when the heat flux transferred is
considered.
surface in case of the four covering

materials considered for study. Ceramic
tiles give the lowest surface temperature,
and PVC-carpet the highest-one.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Fig.6. Unitary heat flux transferred by the

upper (a) and lower (b) face of the TABS for
different covering materials.
Figure 7 (a) presents the temperature

distribution on the upper face of the radiant
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution on the upper

(a) and on the lower (b) face of the TABS for
different covering materials.
The lower face of TABS is usually

covered with a plaster layer. Figure 9
shows the impact of different covering
materials used for the upper face of TABS
on the heat transfer from its lower face.
As can be noticed the impact of the
upper face covering material on the heat
transfer is less than 5%, considering the
best situation-PVC-carpet and worst-one
i.e. ceramic tiles.
But the heat flux transferred in cooling
mode by the lower face of TABS and 1.5
to 2 times higher than that transferred by
the upper face.
Figure 7 (b) shows the temperature

distribution on the lower face of TABS
considering different types of covering
materials for the upper face of the radiant
surface.
Ceramic tiles as covering for the upper
face present the highest temperatures for
the lower face of TABS, and PVC-carpet
gives the lowest temperatures for the lower
face.
3.5. Cooling agent temperature
The best way to control the TABS
operation is the temperature of the cooling
agent. The heat flux removed by the TABS
significantly rises when the cooling agent
temperature is lowered i.e. the heat flux is
twice if the cooling agent temperature is
lessen from 20 to 14 oC, as Figure 8 shows.
the radiant surface but its value is limited

by the dew point.
Condensate on the surface of TABS must
be avoided and comfort temperature is
limited to 19 C in case of floors, European
Standard
EN
15377-2005
[7]
recommending a lower limit of 17 C.
Figure 9 presents the impact of cooling
agent temperature on the upper face
temperature of the radiant surface.
For the temperature range considered in
this case the cooling agent temperature
t cool.ag could be correlated with the required
upper face of TABS t up.surf with the
expression
tcool .ag 1,8 tup surf 21,02 [oC]
(5)
(a)
Fig.9. Temperature distribution on the upper of
TABS for different values of the cooling agent
temperature.
4. Conclusions
(b)
Fig.8. The unitary heat flux taken over the
upper (a) and lower (b) face of TABS for
different values of the cooling agent
temperature.
Even if lowering of the cooling agent

temperature is a very attractive issue from
the point of view of the heat transferred by
This study realized through simulation

has shown the impact of different
constructive and operational parameter on
the performance of TABS indicating the
issues to be selected for a better efficiency
of this new technology.
Using larger pipes for the radiant surface
does not improve significantly the
performance of TABS, but rises the cost
of the investment.
Lowering the speed of the cooling agent
through the pipes do not affect
52
substantially the performance of TABS,

but the pressure losses lessen and a
significant reducing of energy needed by
circulators is possible.
Pipe spacing is the most important
element to be used when designing a
TABS in order to fit the cooling load of the
system with the cooling requirements of
the space
The covering surface of the upper face of
TABS must be considered during the
design phase as a result of its impact on the
system operation.
The most important parameter for the
performance and efficiency of TABS is the
cooling agent temperature, but it must
conform to recommended values in order
to avoid condensate on the radiant surface.
These simulations, performed in
stationary regime are intended to be a
starting point for a more complex and time
dependent future study. The results will be
compared to the values from the
laboratorys monitoring system.
Acknowledgement:
This paper is supported by the Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources
Development (SOP HRD), ID134378
financed from the European Social Fund
and by the Romanian Government
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
References
1. J. Babiak, B. Olesen, D. Petras, Low
temperature
heating
and
high
temperature
cooling_REHVA
Guidebook, Federation of European
Heating
ahd
Air-Conditioning
Associations, 2007.
Can A., Buyruk E., Kucuk M.,
Thermally activated building elements
for cooling, Int. J. Environmental
Technology and Management, Vol. 5,
No. 1, 2005, Pp.42-59.
M.W. Liddament, M. Orme, Energy
ventilation,
Applied
Thermal
Engineering 18 (1998) 11011109.
Sattari S, Farhanieh B. A parametric
study on radiant floor heating
systemperformance.
Renewable
Energy 2006;31:1617e26.
Stetiu C, VAV and radiant cooling
systems
comparison,
Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 2002.
Xing J, Xiaosong Z, Yajun L,
Rongquan C,. Numerical simulation of
radiant floor cooling system: The
effects of thermal resistance of pipe
and water velocity on the performance,
Building and Environment 45 (2010)
pp2545-2552
***ISO 7730 Moderate thermal
environments - determination of the
PMV
and
PPD
indices
and
specification of the conditions for
thermal confort.
http://www.comsol.com/comsolmultyphisics; Accessed in 3
September 2014.

EFFICIENT WAYS OF PROVIDING

THERMAL ENERGY TO PASSIVE HOUSES
G. DRAGO 1
R. MOLDOVAN1
Abstract: Under the circumstances heat energy covers most of the

energetic balance of a building, in view of limiting energetic and ecological
consumptions in passive houses, an essential role will be incumbent on
finding the most efficient methods of providing heat. In this respect, the paper
develops, in dynamic regime, some energy supply systems, using solar and
geothermal sources of energy.
Key words: passive house, thermal energy, heat pump, double flow
controlled mechanical ventilation.
1. Introduction
Within the present energetic and
ecological context, the energy efficiency
represents one of the most remarkable
energy resources of Europe, being an
essential element for securing an economy
based on low energy consumption and low
greenhouse effect emissions and at the
same time, efficient from the point of view
of employing energy resources [4].
Considering that buildings have got the
greatest potential of energy savings,
measures have been taken for improving
energetic performances of buildings at
both enveloping levels and energy supply
systems.
The highest contribution to the energetic
balance of a building comes with thermal
energy, consequently, the greatest energy
savings will be obtained by improving the
performance of enveloping, of heat energy
production and turning to better account
the renewable sources of energy in view of
covering energy consumptions at a
percentage as high as possible, even 100%
1
in some cases.
Within these measures, a most
remarkable role comes with the passive
houses, with most restrictive standards
concerning [7]:
limitation of energy consumption:
- heating/cooling: 15 kWh/m2year;
- primary energy: 120 kWh/m2year;
providing quality requirements and
internal comfort maximum tightness
0.6h-1,
and which, due to optimization of their
components, minimizing losses and
turning to value the renewable sources of
energy decisively contribute to diminishing
energy consumption and protection of
environment.
2. Efficient systems of producing and
supplying heat energy to passive
houses
In the case of passive houses,
characterized by high standards of thermal
insulation and tightness, to provide
comfortable conditions and air quality (a
Faculty of Building Services, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
54
minimum rate of 36 m3/h per person) is

required to some mechanical ventilation
systems.
These secure both evacuation of exhaust
air (toxic substances, humidity, dust,
odours) and admission of fresh air and
reduction of CO 2 concentration.
In order to reduce energy losses through
ventilation with provision of air quality
and internal comfort, one recommends the
use of some double flow controlled
mechanical ventilation systems with heat
recovery which would meet the following
requirements [1]:
provision of two air filters;
electricity consumption for ventilators
0.45 Wh/m3;
efficiency of heat exchanger 75%;
balancing input output air flow;
noise level<35 dB.
As a result of heat recovery from the
evacuated exhaust air and from the transfer
to the fresh air input preheating air is
provided which contributes to heating the
passive houses. Consequently, these
systems will be connected to heating/
cooling and domestic hot water (DHW)
preparation systems.
The first version consists in associating
ventilation systems with Canadian wells
systems. These represent earth-to-air heat
exchangers serving the preheating/cooling
of air before entering the house [2], leading
this way to energy savings. Figure 1
schematically represents a passive house
equipped with double flow controlled
mechanical ventilation system and
Canadian well.
As domestic hot water preparation is
concerned a solar heating system in
combination with electric resistance is
employed.
A second variant of turning into account
the earth energy is given by brine/water
heat pumps. These can be used for
preparing domestic hot water and heating
passive houses, coupled with mechanical
Fig. 1. Mechanical ventilation system in a

passive house, with Canadian well [7]
ventilation systems; the hot water obtained
serves for heating the air through the
agency of a heating battery. The
brine/water heat pumps can also provide
the cooling of the house, either by an
active system, by reversing the operational
cycle, or by a passive system. In the case
of passive cooling, the thermal agent gives
up a heat flux through a heat exchanger to
the soil thus, causing both to cooling the
house and significant diminishing of
energy consumption for cooling. In Figure
2, the scheme of a brine/water heat pump
is presented, having the function of
heating, domestic hot water preparation
and passive cooling.
Beside the earth, another important
source of heat is represented by the air that
can contribute to both heating/cooling of
passive houses and the preparation of
domestic hot water through the agency of
air/water heat pumps. Figure 3 presents a
mechanical ventilation system to which an
air/water heat pump is coupled (with
recuperation from evacuated exhaust air)
in view of heating and domestic hot water
preparation, being accompanied by a solar
system and electric resistance, while in
Figure 4 an air/water heat pump is
provided for heating, domestic hot water
preparation and cooling.
G.DRAGO et al.: Efficient ways of providing thermal energy to passive houses
55
Fig. 3. Thermal energy supply system for

heating and DHW preparation [3]
Fig. 2. Brine/water heat pump for heating,

DHW preparation and passive cooling [8]
1/2-brine outlet/inlet;3/4-return/flow
heating;5/6-DHW/cold water;7,22-diverter
valve;8-electric booster heater;9condenser;10-heat exchanger;11,23circulation pump;12,19-pressure
limiter;13-compressor,14-indirect coils
DHW;15-DHW cylinder;16-expansion
valve;17-sight glass,18-filter dryer;20condensate tray;21-evaporator
3. Case study. Implementing the model
and simulation results
Improving energetic performances of
buildings is owed both to enveloping
(shape, orientation, windows surface,
shading, building materials) and energy
supply systems.
In order to set into evidence the role of
energy supply system in diminishing
primary energy consumption and negative
impact on environment, a survey, based on
numerical simulations, was carried out, for
analyzing various methods for devising a
functional-structural system of energy
supply.
Fig. 4. Thermal energy supply system for

heating/cooling and DHW preparation [9]
1-outside air;2-extract air;3-fresh air;4exhaust air;5-double-flow heat
exchanger;6-evaporator;7-compresor;8solar heat exchanger;9- indirect coils
DHW;10- DHW cylinder;11-cold
water;12-DHW
A residential house in Cluj-Napoca was
chosen as model, aiming, primarily the
improvement of energetic and ecological
performances, starting from strategies of
passive designing. In this respect, a
56
compact form was adopted with a height

regime ground floor+first floor+platform
roof, most of the windows south oriented,
mobile external shading systems and a
high degree of tightness and thermal
insulation.
An energetic and ecological analysis was
effected concerning thermal and electrical
energy consumption, deciding upon
efficient solutions of energy supply and the
contribution of renewable sources in
diminishing energy consumption and
polluting emissions.
The house has a useful area of 170 m2
and is made of concrete and porotherm
bricks, rockwool insulation (30cm-walls,
40cm-platform roof, 40cm-floor slab),
three layer glass windows of low
emissivity, PVC frames, warm edge
spacers and interspaces filled with
Krypton. Consequently, the heat transfer
coefficients at envelope level lay within
limits imposed to passive houses:
U exterior wall =0.092 W/m2K;
U roof =0.081 W/m2K;
U floor slab =0.083 W/m2K;
U window =0.70.76 W/m2K.
Determining
both
heat
transfer
coefficients and the energy consumption
along with polluting emissions have been
effected by means of Lesosai soft, on the
basis of the Meteonorm climatic data for
Cluj-Napoca.
Starting from considerations related to
internal comfort and air quality in passive
houses, the heat energy supply is provided
with a double flow controlled mechanical
ventilation system with heat recovery
(88% efficiency) and a supplementary
source.
In order to counteract the negative
effects of a very good tightness and
insulation overheating and need for
cooling both external shading mobile
systems were mounted at windows and
natural ventilation during nights (an open
window in each room for ventilation).
For energetic analysis, limit temperatures

20 0C were imposed for heating and 26 0C
for cooling.
The calculation of energy needs for
heating and cooling was effected in
conformity with EN 13790 standards
(hourly calculation), by determining the
heat losses through transmission and
ventilation and solar heat contribution.
The air flow rates were determined in
conformity with Norms I5/2010, observing
the rates extracted from bathrooms and
kitchen (Table 1) and of minimum flow
rates (Table 2). A flow rate of 75 m3/h was
chosen for the kitchen and 30 m3/h for
bathrooms, a total flow rate of 165 m3/h
resulted for 4 persons.
Determining the energetic needs for
domestic hot water preparation was
effected in conformity with SIA 380/1
standards (considering a specific medium
consumption of 50 l/person/day at 550C),
and the needs for illumination, ventilation
and electric appliances, in conformity with
SIA 380/4 standards.
For
limiting
electric
energy
consumption, led type illumination devices
and efficient electric appliances have been
provided.
The survey started with a reference case
(case 1): double flow controlled
mechanical ventilation system with air/air
heat exchanger ( =88%), analyzing
different variants of energy supply systems
of model house:
case 2: solar and photovoltaic panels;
case 3: solar panels and brine/water
heat pump;
case 4: solar panels, brine/water heat
pump and photovoltaic panels.
For covering the electric energy needs
for preparing domestic hot water, two solar
panels (S=4.26 m2) were provided
The text with the explanation of the table
For covering the needs of electric energy,
57
Air flow rate for ventilation [5]
Table 1
Extracted flow rates [m3/h]
Number
of main
rooms
Kitchen
Bathrooms or communal
shower and toilets
Another
shower
room
unitary
multiple
1
2
3
4
>5
75
90
105
120
135
15
15
30
30
30
15
15
15
15
15
15
30
30
15
15
15
15
Toilets
Minimum air flow rates for ventilation [5]
Total [m /h]
In kitchen [m3/h]
1
35
20
10 polycrystalline photovoltaic panels

were provided (dimensions: 1.65x0.986
m).
For preparing heating agent, cooling and
DHW preparation, a brine/water heat pump
was provided with depth collectors and
high coefficients of performance: 3.8 for
heating and 3 for DHW preparation.
Cooling was passively achieved by a
heat exchanger connected to the water-air
cooling battery.
After simulations the annual energy
consumptions were determined alongside
with polluting emissions.
The monthly variation of heating and
cooling energy needs is given in Figure 5,
specifying the duration of heating and
cooling periods. In the months of JanuaryApril and November-December the
heating of the house will be needed, the
highest values will be recorded in
December (743.02 kWh) and January
(594.62 kWh), and the lowest values in
April (29.46 kWh). As concerning the
need for cooling, the months with highest
values will be June-September (in June
2
60
30
Number of main rooms

3
4
5
6
75
90
105 120
45
45
45
45
Table 2
7
135
45
335.66 kWh), but cooling will also be

needed in May (38.9 kWh) and October
(46.32 kWh).
The annual energy consumptions and
polluting emissions for the reference case
are given in Figure 6.
Due to the application of passive designing
principles for the house under consideration
a specific annual need for heating was
obtained of 11.9 kWh/m2year
and a
specific annual need for cooling of 6.6
kWh/m2year, thus observing one of the
principal limit conditions imposed to
passive houses (maximum 15kWh/
m2year).
But for limiting the primary energy
consumption in conformity with the passive
standards at 120 kWh/m2year (calculated
with a conversion factor of electric energy
of 2.97) the implementation of renewable
sources technologies will be required, with
the cases under consideration they are:.
solar panels, photovoltaic panels and
brine/water heat pump
58
Fig. 5. Monthly values of heating and cooling energy demand [6]
Fig. 6. Energy consumptions and CO 2 emissions (case 1) [6]
Comparatively analyzing the proposed

cases with reference case (controlled
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery),
one observes the following:
recuperating energy from earth and
using high coefficients of performance,
the heat pump contributes 74% to
diminishing energy consumption for
heating the house (Figure 7);
59
7%
94%
Heat pump brine-water
Electric
26%
Fig. 8. The contribution of renewable

sources to covering the energy needs for
cooling the house
74%
Ele ctric
16%
Heat pump brine-water
Electric
Solar panels

sources to accomplish the energy needed
for DHW preparation
diminishing
energy
consumption
emissions of polluting gases were also
reduced (Figure 11).
200
150
100
50
Case
Case
1
Case
2
Case
3
4
accomplishing the cooling in passive

regime, the heat pump reduces energy
consumption to a minimum
for
cooling, excepting the circulation
pumps (Figure 8);
turning to good account the solar
energy through the agency of solar
panels as well as well as the energy of
the earth (geothermal energy) by means
of heat pump, the need for covering the
DHW preparation at a proportion of
84% is assured (Figure 9);
using solar energy (solar and
photovoltaic panels) and geothermal
energy (brine/water heat pump) low
annual primary energy consumptions of
120 kWh/m2year were obtained, for all
cases studied (Figure 10);
through turning to account of solar
energy by implementation of solar and
geothermal systems, alongside with
51%
[kWh/m year]

sources to covering the energy needs for
heating the house
32%
Primary energy
consumption
He at pump brine -wate r
Fig. 10. Total primary energy consumption

for the house
60
4
2
Case
1 Case Case
2
3 Case
4
[kg/m ]
CO2 emissions
10
2.
3.
4.
Fig. 11. Total CO 2 emissions for the house

4. Conclusions
As a result of high performances at
envelope level to meet the quality needs
and internal comfort in passive houses,
the implementation of a controlled
mechanical ventilation system with heat
recovery is required.
Improving energetic and ecological
performances of thermal energy supply
systems may be achieved by connecting
systems of turning to value of solar
energy solar panels (for DHW
preparation) and geothermal energy
brine/water heat pump (for heating,
cooling and DHW preparation) to
mechanical ventilation system. For
covering the electric energy needs in
increasing energetic independence the
provision of photovoltaic systems are
recommended.
References
1. Grobe, C.: Construire une maison
passive. Conception physique de la
construction. Details de construction.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Rentabilite (Building a pssive house.

Physical design of construction.
Details of construction. Profitability).
Paris. Linedite, 2002.
Herzog, B.: Le puits canadien.
(Canadian wells). Eyrolles, 2010.
*** Directory passive houses. Available
at: http://www.passivhaustagung.de/
Passive_House_E/PassiveHouse_direc
tory.html. Accessed: 26.09.2014.
*** Energy Efficiency Plan 2011.
Available
at:
http://europa.eu/
legislation_summaries/energy/energy_ef
ficiency/en0029_en.htm . Accessed:
01.10.2014.
I5-2010:
Normativ
pentru
***
proiectarea, executarea i exploatarea
instalaiilor de ventilare i climatizare
(Norms for design, execution and
utilization
of
ventilation
and
climatization equipment). Accessed:
01.10.2014.
Lesosai Software. Accessed:
***
18.09.2014.
*** Passivhaus primer:Introduction. An
aid to understanding the key principles
of the Passivhaus Standard. Available
at:
http://www.passivhaus.org.uk.
Accessed: 01.10.2014.
*** Stiebel Eltron. Brine/water heat
pump. Operating and installation
instructions. Available at: http://www.
sollaris.cz/media/download/manualy/wpc
_5-13_en_06-07.pdf.
Accessed:
01.10.2014.
*** Stiebel Eltron. Le chauffage qui fait
respire votre maison (The heating that
facilitates your house to breath).
Available
at:
http://www.stiebeleltron.fr. Accessed: 01.10.2014.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE INDOOR

CLIMATE CONDITIONS INSIDE
ORTHODOX CHURCHES
V. S. HUDISTEANU 1
N. C. CHERECHES3
A. I. BARAN 2 M. BALAN 3
T. MATEESCU3 M. VERDES3
V. CIOCAN3
Abstract: In this paper is presented a numerical approach of the

improvement of indoor climate conditions inside Orthodox churches. First
step was to propose a solution to reduce the risk of condensation for an
implemented hot air heating system at Three Holy Hierarchs Monastery in
Iasi. The improved case consisted in introducing local ventilation at towers
level that activates air circulation in these zones. This configuration was a
good one and the numerical results are highlighting this effect. The proposed
local ventilation was also studied for two other heating solutions that are
largely used in this type of buildings, under floor heating and static heaters.
The comparative results showed that the local ventilation is the most
appropriate combined with the hot air heating.
Key words: place of worship, indoor climate, heating strategies, numerical
modeling
1. Introduction
Churches constitute an inestimable
wealth, consisting of sacred and liturgical
items as well as the patrimony preserved in
museums and historical buildings. They
also preserve many kinds of valuable
artworks, each of them with a specific
vulnerability: paintings on canvas and
wooden panels are subject to cracking,
swelling, blistering, and soiling; frescoes
mostly to efflorescence and blackening;
wooden artifacts to cracking; metals to
corrosion; textiles to fading and soiling
[1]. Therefore, the HVAC system has an
1
important role in order to preserve these

values.
The thermal indoor climate is defined by:
Air temperature
Surface temperatures
Relative humidity
Air movements
In order to control the indoor climate we
need a physical and quantitative
understanding of the complex interaction
in the building between air, the building
structure, objects and interiors and people.
The proper indoor climate is determined
with respect to:
Comfort is a subjective parameter that
PhD student, eng. Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi

M.Sc. student, eng., Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi
3
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi
2
62
describes to what extent humans find the

indoor climate acceptable. People are very
sensitive to temperatures, but not so
sensitive to relative humidity. The comfort
temperature range depends mainly on
clothing, activity and duration of stay in
the building; a typical range is 1822C.
Relative humidity matters for humans only
when it is very high, over 80%, or very
low, fewer than 30% [2].
Conservation of materials in the
building requires an indoor climate that
minimizes ageing and degradation of the
materials that are to be preserved. This
depends on the materials and the type of
degradation processes that are prevalent in
the building. For materials, relative
humidity is often the most important
climate parameter [2].
Costs are always a limiting factor and
we must consider this from the beginning.
A solution that is too expensive is useless
[2].
Ulf Christensen from Norway said that
after developing some theories he and his
team got some experiences with the
following types of heating systems and
products:
Direct electrical heating with traditional
pipe-heaters
under
benches,
low
temperature electrical sheets or cables built
in ceilings and floors and panel-heaters at
walls or newer types of bench-heaters and
mobile radiant heaters
Gas radiant heating in older and in
newer churches
Water-based heating with some
different types of heating centrals and
distributions [3].
Also, Diana Piksriene from Lithuania
presented the peculiarities of heatingventilation systems installed in 4
Lithuanian churches and their impacts.
The principle of blowing out warm air
with gas heat has been applied for heatingventilation process at the Cathedral of Sts.
Apostles Peter and Paul. A gas boiler-
room, ventilation pipes and other

equipment for air intake, warming and
warm air sending have been installed in
the unemployed space of the cathedrals
attic. The automatic control of the system
allows warming up the Cathedral premises
objectively to the temperature desired
before the service or other ceremony, and
later to keep it to a minimum and to
maintain the standard relative air humidity
as well. Thus the economic effect has been
achieved and the damages in this church
were minimally [4].
Electrical under-floor heating has been
installed at the church of St. Virgin Marys
Visit Convent and the church of St.
Trinity. On the first case the maintenance
of this heating system was extremely
expensive and has not been used for
several years, until they have found some
sponsors. They intend to use the heating
system the following winter adjusting the
intensity of heating accordingly to the rites
and ordinary periods of time. On the
second case the church was heated during
the cold season continuously and the
economical effectiveness has been
achieved controlling heating intensity
during events and by heating separate floor
areas according to the demand. In both
cases the electrical under-floor heating
system has not damaged the space of
interiors of the churches [4].
Radiant heating using gas has been
installed at the church of St. Virgin Mary.
The glass pipe of the heating device, which
has been fitted in a pad of curve of arch in
central nave, gives warmth while the gas is
burning. This heating system has damaged
the space of the interior of the church and
did not produce the desired thermal effect
in local places of peoples presence. For
these reasons this heating system has not
been used in the church [4].
The present paper presents a Romanian
place of worship: Sfinii Trei Ierarhi
(Three Holy Hierarchs) Monastery from
V.S. HUDISTEANU et al.: Improvement of the indoor climate conditions inside orthodox
churches
Iasi demonstrates the concerns in this

regard since the 1880s when, during the
capital restoration was equipped with hot
air central heating system, which is
partially functional in present.
The solution has been designed in the
Engineering Office of F.R. Richnowski of
Lemberg, between 1885 and 1886. Indoor
premises heating was made with air heated
in a central station powered by wood,
located in a specially designated place in
the church basement. The fresh air intake
and the flue were located outside the
building. Air circulation is achieved
gravitationally, through channels of stone
and brick masonry laid under the floor to
which air intake and discharge ports are
connected, arranged on a perimeter basis at
the floor level and distributed evenly in the
middle of the church (pronaos), in front
63
(naos) and inside the altar. The

importance of ventilation and heating
system, from an operational point of view
and especially for the conservation of
unique ceremonial objects and works of art
housed inside the cathedral, is such as to
justify the technical interest in the cuttingedge solution proposed by the restorer as
well as for its efficiency.
Unfortunately, the lack of written
documents does not allow us to obtain
further information on the subsequent
operation of the installation
2. Case Description
The problem studied in the base case is
taking into account the present HVAC
system of the Three Hierarchs Monastery.
This situation is presented in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Networks existing air channels under the floor: 1-fresh air intake channel;
2-basement of porch; 3- air handling unit; 4-flexible pipe connected to the suction grid;
5- flexible pipe connected to the outlet grid; 6- suction chamber;7- exhaust air collector;
8- pressure side chamber; 9- treated air collector; 10-outlet grid; 11-suction grid
The second one is obtained by improving
the actual situation. The third and fourth
cases are created in order to compare
another two largely used heating systems
for this type of building.
Fig. 2. Base case: air heating system without tower ventilation
64
C and the convective heat transfer coefficient

of 24 W/m2K.
4. Results
Fig. 3. Improved case: air heating system

- with tower ventilation
The numerical results were obtained as

temperature and velocity spectra and
profiles. The qualitative information on the
flowing can be observed in the following
images - Figures 6-10.
For obtaining the quantitative data in
figure 10 are concentrated the values of
velocity at 1 m height from the floor in the
studied cases.
Fig.4. Under floor heating
Fig. 6. Velocity spectrum base case
Fig.5. Static heaters
3. Numerical modeling
The numerical model is realized using
ANSYS-Fluent software, in steady state
regime. The type of flowing is the turbulent
one: - k- RNG model.
A 2D model was created for the
longitudinal section of the building. The
geometrical dimensions used were those of
the real building. The external conditions
imposed to the walls and windows in
simulations were the temperature of air of -18
Fig. 7. Velocity spectrum proposed case
Fig. 8. Velocity spectrum under floor

heating
V.S. HUDISTEANU et al.: Improvement of the indoor climate conditions inside orthodox
churches
Fig. 9. Velocity spectrum static heaters

Analyzing the velocities in the studied
cases some particularities can be remarked.
In the base case is presented the currently
implemented solution that consists of
heating and ventilation of the church by
air. In this case the air recirculation at the
inferior zone leads to a homogenous
temperature.
Fig. 10. Profiles of velocities at 1 m height

Analyzing the velocities in the studied
cases some particularities can be remarked.
In the base case is presented the currently
implemented solution that consists of
heating and ventilation of the church by
air. In this case the air recirculation at the
inferior zone leads to a homogenous
temperature.
The 4 air inlets can be observed with
velocities of 0.5 m/s and the two outflows
with velocities of maximum 1.4 m/s. In the
same time, the poor circulation of the air
inside the two towers is affecting that zone,
with a high risk of condensation.
Therefore, a local ventilation of the
towers is proposed in order to evacuate
humidity and eliminate condensation. This
configuration is presented in Figure 7 of
65
the presented study. Under the effect of

ventilation the velocities rise inside the
towers and evacuate the excess of
humidity.
The other two cases studied are taking
into account two heating solutions that are
largely used in churches: Figure 8 Under
floor heating and Figure 9 Static Heaters,
combined with the solution of ventilation
the towers. With respect to the air
circulation, the two solutions are almost
the same.
Fig. 11. Temperature spectrum base case
Fig. 12. Temperature spectrum proposed

case
Fig. 13. Temperature spectrum under

floor heating
Fig. 14. Temperature spectrum static

heaters
66
Fig. 15. Profiles of temperatures at 1 m

height from the floor
The distribution of temperatures
underlines the effect of air flow for each
configuration. In this way, the main
problem is detected for the base case,
where is recorded a low temperature of the
air in the towers and their walls. For the
second case, the effect of using the local
ventilation can be seen in the raise of
temperatures in these zones.
In case of using under floor heating the
low velocities at both extremities of the
church determine the decrease of the
temperature near the walls.
When static heaters are used it can
observed a non-uniform distribution of
temperatures, especially in the occupation
zone.
In the first three cases Figure 15, the
temperature at 1 m height has similar
values of approximate 15 C. The chart of
temperatures in case of static heater is
influenced by their presence, but as
average value, the temperature in the
occupation zone is almost 15 C.
5. Conclusions
The solution of local ventilation in
towers enhanced the evacuation of
humidity and reduces the risk of
condensation.
In the occupational zone, the use of
ventilation in towers does not affect the
distribution of temperatures and velocities;

With under floor heating system and
static heaters, the use of ventilation in
towers generates two recirculation of air
below them which creates a gradient of
temperatures rising towards the sides of the
church;
The second case, with hot air heating, is
the most appropriate for keeping the
comfort parameters in the occupational
zone.
References
1. Dario Camuffo and Antonio della
Valle: Church heating: A balance
between Conservation and Thermal
Comfort, Experts Roundtable on
Sustainable
Climate
Management
Strategies held in Tenerife, Spain in
April 2007
2. Tor
Bronstrm
(Sweden):
Fundamentals of indoor climate at the
seminar in Riga regarding Indoor
Climate in Churches Problems and
solutions, November 2004
3. Ulf Chriestensen (Norway): Heatin
strategies in Norway at the seminar in
Riga regarding Indoor Climate in
Churches Problems and solutions,
November 2004
4. Diana Piksriene (Lithuania): Heating
devices and their influence on the
interiors of cold churches at the
seminar in Riga regarding Indoor
Climate in Churches Problems and
solutions, November 2004
5. Theodor Mateescu: Ensuring the
microclimate in religious buildings
Historical
testimonies-,
XXIVth
National Conference Building Services
and Energy Economy, Iai, 3-4 July
2014, vol. I

THE IMPACT OF THE SITE

ORGANIZATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT
V. IACOB 1
Abstract: The organizing a construction site asks each time solving issues
related to creating the conditions for basic activities. Frequently these
activities lead to environmental protection violations. To ensure sustainable
development, laws are implemented based on the principles like: caution in
making decisions, prevention of environmental risks and damage occurrence,
biodiversity and ecosystems conservation, removing the pollutants that
seriously affects human health. In this paper the authors will present the
main factors of pollution from a construction site, and the measures who
shall take for environmental protection.
Key words: construction site environment, pollution, construction site
organization, biodiversity, ecosystems.
1. Introduction
In the decade in which the cities face a
chaotic urban development, by building
residential houses and the demolition of
the old buildings, the development of main
streets, the construction and demolition
waste are growing and must come up with
a plan to reintegrate them.
Environment,
built
environment,
natural environment are concepts that
define the intervention to protect the
environment on a global scale in
construction and urban development.
2. Type and volume of waste deposited
In the Construction activity, the waste
are divided into two categories:
construction waste and demolition waste.
These wastes come from:
materials
resulting
from
construction and demolition of
buildings - cement, bricks, tiles,
ceramics, stone, plaster, plastic,
metal, iron, wood, glass, scrap
carpentry, building materials that are
expired;
materials
resulting
from
maintenance and from construction
of the access roads and associated
structures, tar, sand, gravel, bitumen,
tarred substances, substances with
bituminous binders or hydraulic;
material excavated during
construction
activities,
decommissioning,
dredging,
remediation - soil, gravel, clay, sand,
rocks, plant debris.
Also, waste resulting from natural

disasters are considered construction and
demolition waste. The objects or materials
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
68
easily removed from a structure (furniture,

electrical appliances and other equipment)
are not considered construction and
demolition waste.
The waste from construction sites can
be divided into two other categories, like
dangerous waste and very dangerous
waste:
- hazardous material: asbestos, tar and
paint, heavy metals (chromium, lead,
mercury), varnishes, adhesives, polyvinyl
chloride,
solvents,
polychlorinated
biphenyl compounds, different types of
resins used for conservation, fireproofing,
waterproofing;
- non-hazardous materials that were
contaminated by mixing with hazardous
materials, such as building materials mixed
with
hazardous
substances,
mixed
materials resulting from indiscriminate
demolition work;
- soils and gravel contaminated with
hazardous substances.
The Regional Waste Management Plan,
construction and demolition waste,
including
excavated
soil
from
contaminated land are composed of three
individual components: construction waste,
demolition waste and earth excavated from
contaminated land.
Construction and demolition waste
represent 25% of the total waste. These
wastes come mostly from renovation or
demolition of old buildings.
Currently only a small part of
construction and demolition waste is
reported, especially those that are coming
from people seeking building permits for
renovation, demolition and construction.
The largest quantities (waste concrete,
brick, brick and mortar) are coming from
the construction companies, which usually
do not declare these quantities. These
wastes are crushed and reused at road
access to construction sites or at filling the
holes in asphalt. Also, the waste may be
stored in places authorized by the

Environment Agency, but supported by
local administrative authorities.
Regarding other components, such as the
timber of replacement windows and door
frames, doors, floors or floor coverings,
repairs to roofs, it recovered to 95% by
poor people, who use it as fuel.
The reinforcements of concrete are
removed and taken to melting and reuse.
Glass is a component that is very brittle
and often is eliminated with household
waste when it come at the population or
when mixed waste come from construction
companies.
Construction and demolition waste, who
coming the European Union countries,
represent about 25% of waste. They
include different materials, many of which
can be recycled.
3.Environmental protection measures
On the whole period operation of a
construction and demolition site, can be
contaminated the environment element,
like:
- air (fig. 1);
- water (direct or indirect);
- noise;
- soil (fig. 2).
Measures for protection against air
pollution.
Demolition work are an uncontrolled
source of particulate emissions in the
atmosphere, both during the application of
methods proposed for demolition, as well
at handling the waste and the waste heaps.
Since emissions are uncontrolled, can not
establish a monitoring program.
Measures for protection against water
pollution. The main categories of
wastewater collected on the demolition site
are the pluvial waters. Collected rainwater
should not be discharged directly into the
environment. If in the construction site or
V. IACOB: The impact of the site organization on the environment
69
Fig. 1. Measures for protection against air pollution
in its vicinity there is a centralized sewer

system, it will take over and will collect
rainwater. Otherwise, ensure rainwater
harvesting in a pool, these will be treated
either on construction site or in a treatment
plant. Water quality will be monitored as
required by the regulatory authority in
water management with order to track
indicators:
pH,
conductivity,
total
dissolved substances, suspended matter,
metals.
Noise emissions.
The noise from the demolition sites are
caused by handling of heavy machinery,
by the broken concrete with different cars,
by demolition with controlled explosion,
by the waste handling and transport.
Besides dust, the noise is one of the most
important factors of environmental
pollution from a demolition site. Noise
emission monitoring shall be made
annually near the construction site or
demolition site.
Measures for protection against soil
pollution (Fig. 2).
- control and daily cleaning of the work

area;
- selective collection of waste;
- waste transport for recovery or
disposal;
- final issuance of the construction site
after demolition;
- greening the construction site after
demolition;
- control and daily cleaning of the work
area.
4. Ecological construction sites
A convenient way to waste reduction
may be ecological construction sites
experimenting. This demonstrated that
economic balances and materials of
construction site waste management can be
positives for the following reasons:
- source reduction and sorting waste for
recovery a materials can be benefical, both
for waste management as well as for
construction site productivity: less waste,
70
Fig. 2. Measures for protection against soil pollution

good training, staff informing, greater
safety the workplace and reducing costs.
- knowledge the quantities and types of
waste, real costs associated with them,
allows companies to define new sources of
savings and productivity;
- planning early for the organization sites
is essential, despite the difficulty of
estimating for the quantities and types of
waste generated (underestimated in most
experimental sites).
This may be easier, with the needed
experience, especially as sorting and waste
management will become a necessity. On
the other hand, stands out the need to
organize local branches waste, so sorted
waste not to be transported long distances,
resulting additional transport costs,
additional costs related to environmental
protection.
Conclusions of economic evaluation,
qualitative and quantitative have proved
that ecological sites are only one element
of local politics and regional waste
management.
- the waste evolution and profitability
will depend to the local officials wishes
that are responsible with the waste

management;
- the plans for waste disposal by
introducing them into the building sites are
major elements that will help improve
waste management;
- the business mobilizing is fundamental
to
creating
and
supporting
the
implementation of local branches for waste
recovery.
Ecological construction site or traditional
site - cost differences.
A comparative economic simulation
between a traditional site and ecological
site for a new building emphasize the
following:
For a traditional construction site:
- volume of waste is higher, hence a
greater number of tippers for transport;
- waste is not sorted or recovered;
- the waste is stored in class III sites,
without sorting, in a way similar to
household waste, not complying with
european regulations in force;
For ecological construction site:
- reduction of waste at source by 20%
and no extra cost, a higher loading factor
V. IACOB: The impact of the site organization on the environment
for dumpers and more dumpers for

transportation;
- the ordinary industrial waste are
recovered: 15% (wood, plastic, cardboard),
35% are exploited;
- 50% of waste is stored in class II sites,
debris and embankments of the site.
The final conclusion is that for an
ecological site the cost represent 66% of
the cost of a traditional site.
The difference between costs is explained
by:
- sorting iron and of remaining debris
(with the opportunity to use debris at
embankments to the nearby construction
site) - 20%;
- reduce the volume of waste at source 25%;
- other factors such as material recovery
have a small influence (about 5%), because
there is local recovery centers.
The data from the various studies - audit,
the data from recovery center - have
proved that the total cost of selective
demolition is 2,5 times higher than the cost
of a classical demolition. This difference is
due to labor cost (2150 hours from 265
hours), but is explained by the
experimental nature of this study. The
selective demolition demonstrate economic
attractiveness in particular the recovery of
waste. Instead, remains comparable in
terms of waste transport from the classical
demolition.
We can say that transformation and
recycling of construction sites waste
remains an evolving process, because a
market economy without waste is an ideal
of human development.
71
5. Conclusions
The organizing a construction site
involves some work phases and
elaboration of lists of activities. These lists
include processes that take place before
project execution, during project execution
and after project completion.
Thus, for good protection of ecological
environment and prevent environmental
risks, some measures are taken in the
construction site, depending on the type of
project to be executed, by its location,
neighborhood, physical condition of the
objective (if it's a demolition project), so
the environmental factors like water, air,
soil to be affected the least.
Apart from specific documentation for a
project construction or demolition should
be presented documentation on the types of
materials, work methods used, the amount
of waste, type of waste and their impact to
the environment.
For demolition of a building should be
data on:
- amount and type of waste;
- the main environmental factors that
may be contaminated;
- methods of waste sorting and recovery;
- the place where the waste is
transported and stored.
References
1. Iacob, V.: Management dezavectrii
construcilor
i
recuperarea
materialelor (The management of
construction decommissioning
and
materials
recovery)
Matei-Teiu
Botez, Iasi, 2011;
2. Iacob,V., erbnoiu I., Ungureanu, L.:
Deeurile din activitatea de execuie a
72
construciilor, din demolarea acestora

i impactul lor asupra mediului
nconjurtor,
Conferina
tiina
Modern i Energia, Ediia 28, ClujNapoca, mai 2009;
3. Gheorghe, M., Turning waste and
industrial by-products in building
construction, Matrixrom, 2007;
4. Ghecef, I., Recovery technologies of
concrete
from
demolition,
an
inevitable need for future, SINUC,
Bucharest, 2005;
5. Queensland
Government
Environmental Protection Agency,

Construction and Demolition Waste.
Waste management and resource use
opportunities, july 2002;
6. Departament of Environmental &
Climate Change NSW, Report into the
Construction and Demolition Waste
Stream Audit 2000-2005;
7. EUROPEAN
COMMISSION,
Management of Construction and
Demolition
Waste.
Accessed:
26.12.1996.

CONSIDERATION ON BIOMASS
VALORIZATION
C. MRZA
G. CORSIUC1
D. ILUIU-VARVARA1
Abstract: With the development of technologies the energy consumption is

constantly increasing, including in rural areas. The use of renewable sources
in order to cover the energy demand would be, at the same time, a solution
for reducing CO2 and methane emissions. One of the renewable sources
which we can consider is biomass, which can be found in the highest
proportion in rural areas, in the form of residues and waste from agriculture,
livestock or wood processing. Currently is most commonly used in
households for heating and domestic hot water. Through mechanical,
biological or thermal processes biomass can produce thermal energy but
also electricity and other fuels. Each process differs depending on the type of
biomass available and the desired final product.
Key words: biomass, energy, renewable, gazification, anaerobic digestion.

1. Introduction
The biomass energy potential of
Romania
is
up
most
important,
representing approximately 65% of the
total renewable energy resources [6].
The biomass includes the following
components: cellulose, hemicelluloses,
lignin, lipids, proteins, simple sugars,
starches, water, hydrocarbons, ash etc. The
concentrations of each compound vary one
species to another. Biomass is carbon
based and is composed of a mixture of
organic molecules containing hydrogen,
usually including atoms of oxygen, often
nitrogen and also small quantities of other
atoms, including alkali, alkaline earth and
heavy metals. Generally, biomass is
composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
lignin.
Celluloses consist of many sugar

molecules linked together in long chains or
polymers. The lignin fraction consists of
non-sugar type molecules that act as a glue
holding together the cellulose fibers, and
contributes to structural rigidity of plant
tissues. It has very high energy content
structure and difficult to decompose. These
are present in the complex macroscopic
polymeric forms as [10,13]:
cellulose (C6H10O5)x;
hemicellulose (C5H8O4)y and
lignin (C9H10O3(CH3O)0.9-1.7)z,
where x, y and z represent parameters of

large magnitudes which define the
composition of a given biomass material.
The relative proportions of cellulose and
lignin is one of the determining factors in
identifying the suitability of plant species
for subsequent processing as energy crops.
74
Biomass is used for facility heating,

electric power generation, and combined
heat and power. The term biomass
encompasses a wide range of materials,
including [3, 6]:
wood from forestry, arboricultural
activities or from wood processing;
agricultural residues, from agriculture
harvesting or processing;
energy crops (high yield crops grown
specifically for energy applications);
food waste, from food and drink
manufacture, preparation and processing,
and post-consumer waste;
industrial waste and co-products from
manufacturing and industrial processes.
animal and human waste.
Biomass production is not only a
renewable energy resource but also a
significant opportunity for sustainable rural
development.
The paper presents two different ways of
exploiting biomass for energy generation
in rural area and describes some
installations that produce heat and
electricity from biomass, based on
gasification
respectively
anaerobic
digestion processes.
2.Conversion technologies and plants
Briefly are presented the main processes
of biomass conversion into energy:
Thermochemical processes
Direct combustion with heat generation;
the oldest method is the heat produced
from biomass obtained from the burning
of wood or forest residues (heat required
for heating homes and cooking, especially
in rural areas, is the result of consumption
of vegetal waste);
Advanced thermal conversion; this
category includes gasification with air or
oxygen - producing a poor gas, syngas or
ethanol, respectively pyrolysis which
produces a medium gas and tar.
Pyrolysis yields bio-oil by rapidly

heating the biomass in the absence of
oxygen.
There are several ways to convert
biomass into synthetic fuels. Thermal
pyrolysis and a series of catalytic reactions
can convert the hydrocarbons in wood and
municipal waste into a synthetic gasoline.
Biological conversion, which mainly
produces biogas (having variable methane
content, depending on the raw material
used) through anaerobic digestion;
Chemical conversion - such as acid
hydrolysis
that
produces
ethanol;
Biochemical conversion - alcoholic
fermentation respectively aerobic and
anaerobic
fermentation
of
organic
materials into hydrogen, methanol, ethanol
or diesel fuel.
There is a wide range of conversion
technologies to make optimum use of
biomass. Depending on the type [15] of
biomass, the technologies are different for
dry (Figure 1) or wet (Figure 2) biomass.
2.1 Gasification
Combustion technologies, including raw
materials and the resulting products are
summarized in Figure 3.
Gasification is a process about 200 years
old, which has its origins in the so-called
dry distillation of materials containing
carbon and had first engineering
applications in 1812 at Gas Company in
London. The first commercial plant was
built in 1839, after which the production
from coal and biomass was used on an
industrial scale. In 1881 the process was
used on internal combustion engines and
then, in 1920, was implemented to operate
of trucks and tractors. In the Second World
War, due to the lack of oil, gasification of
biomass for energy production has been
extended so that more than a million of
gasifier-powered
vehicles
were
in
operation during that time in Europe.
C. MRZA et al.: Consideration on biomass valorization
75
Fig. 1 Dry biomass conversion technologies
Fig. 2 Wet biomass conversion technologies
Fig. 3 Combustion processes diagram

Finally, with the trigger of the energy
crisis of the 1970s, the gasification
method, as well as all technologies that do
not rely on fossil fuels, returned to the
attention of technicians. Their goal was to
obtain as high as possible efficiency

processes.
The gasification process may be
regarded as a burning conversion, but
involving less oxygen than combustion.
76
Depending on the ratio between the

amount of oxygen in the reaction and that
necessary to the complete combustion (the
equivalent ratio) can be calculated the
composition of the resulting gas.
For a ratio less than 0.1, the process is
known as pyrolysis and only a small
portion of the chemical energy of biomass
is found in the resulting gas, the rest being
found in the carbon and in the produced
bio-oil. If the ratio is between 0.2 and 0.4,
the process is called gasification. Here
occurs the maximum power transfer from
biomass to the produced gas [8].
Gasification may be applied to the
biomass that has the moisture content less
than 35%.
The process usually takes place at about
850C. Because the injected air prevents
the ash from melting, steam injection is not
always required. A biomass gasifier can
operate under atmospheric pressure or
elevated pressure.
An important feature of gasification is
that the system is autothermic. It creates
sensible heat necessary to complete
gasification from its own internal
resources.
In following, prevailing chemical
reactions are presented, respectively the
main three gasification stages are
described [7]:
o in the first stage the oxidation and
other exothermic reactions take place:
o partial oxidation: C + O2 CO (1)
o CO oxidation: CO + O2 CO2 (2)
o total oxidation:
C6H10O5 xCO2 + yH2O
(3)
o hydrogen oxidation:
H2 + O2H2O
(4)
o water-gas shift:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
(5)
o methnation:
CO + 3H3 CH4 + H2O
(6)
in the second stage the combustion gases
are pyrolyzed by being passed through a
bed of fuel at high temperature, producing

tar and char:
C6H10O5 CxHZ + CO
(7)
C6H10O5 CnHmOy
(8)
in the third stage the initial products of
combustion are reconverted by reduction
reaction to carbon monoxide, hydrogen
and methane, which are the main
combustible components of syngas:
o steam gasification:
C + H2O CO + H2
(9)
o boudouard reaction:
C + CO2 2CO
(10)
o reverse water shift:
CO2 + H2 CO + H2O
(11)
o hydrogenation:
C + 2H2 CH4
(12)
Depending on the origin and quality of
biomassas well as the way in which it is
brought into contact with the oxidant
gasification
products
may
have
applications that can be grouped into two
categories:
heat production - used for fuelling
external burners in boilers or dryers;
electricity production;
coupled to gas turbine or internal
combustion engine for power generation.
Further in Figure 4 is presented the
schematic diagram of the catalytic
gasification process, having as a result the
syngas [11].
2.2 Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic
digestion
produces
a
renewable natural gas when organic matter
is decomposed by bacteria in the absence
of oxygen. In the Figure 5 are shown
schematically the stages of biomass
conversion in various energy forms.
Fermentation is a process that uses
microorganisms to convert fresh biological
material into simple hydrocarbons or
hydrogen. We illustrate fermentation
processes by describing the anaerobic
digestion process, a process that is well
77
Fig. 4 The scheme of catalytic gasification process
Fig. 5 Diagram of anaerobic digestion process

suited for producing methane from
biomass [3, 5, 14].
The
anaerobic
digestion
process
proceeds in three stages:
in the first stage, the complex biomass is
decomposed by the first set of
microorganisms. The decomposition of
cellulosic material (C6H10O5)n into sugar

glucose (C6H12O6) occurs in the presence
of
enzymes
provided
by
the
microorganisms. The reaction is:
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O nC6H12O6 (13)
in the second stage, hydrogen atoms are
removed in a dehydrogenation process that
78
requires
acidophilic
(acid-forming)
bacteria. The net reaction is:
nC6H12O6 3nCH3COOH
(14)
in the third stage, a mixture of carbon
dioxide and methane called biogas is
produced from the acetic acid produced in
stage two. The third stage requires the
presence of anaerobic bacteria known as
methanogenic bacteria in an oxygen-free
environment. The reaction is:
3nCH3COOH 3nCO2 + 3nCH4
(15)
In this case, biomass appears to be a
source of methane.
The valorisation potential for renewable
energy in rural areas, will have the
following consequences:
improving the quality of life through:
creating optimal living conditions, increase
of attractiveness for the area, increase the
birth rate, reduce the depopulation,
reduced unemployment by attracting
further investors etc.;
realising of independent autonomous
applications of electrification for isolated
villages, for tourist locations;
depreciation, in the relatively small, of
investment for equipment producing green
energy because the produced energy is
free;
increasing the number of homes from
sustainable building materials [1] etc.
Biogas production is very well suited in
rural areas, to ensure the needs of
households (individual or farms) and also
of a community through the centralization
of various forms of biomass specific to the
region. It also can be used in close
proximity to urban areas, like annexes to
the wastewater treatment plants.
2.2.1. Biogas production for individual
households
In rural areas or in remote areas, these
types of installations are used in a
relatively large scale. The biogas obtained
in digesters is used for household needs,
mainly for heating and lighting. The most

common types are the underground
reactors, namely:
- the chinese type (Fig. 6.a) [12]; in
which new substrates are added once a day
and with the same frequency an equal
amount of the decanted liquid mixture is
being evacuated. This type of reactor is
without stirring, so that the sedimentated
suspended solids should be removed 2-3
times per year, during which most of the
substrate is removed and only a small
portion (about one-fifth of the reactor
contents) is left for the recirculation.
- the indian type (Fig. 6.b) [12]; are
similar to the chinese type except that the
effluent is collected at the bottom of the
reactor, and a floating gas bell also
functions as a biogas tank.
There is also mobile unit version,
which consists of a horizontal cylindrical
reactor fueled with wet biomass at one end,
while the digestate is collected at the
opposite end. The substrate moves through
the reactor as a plug flow, a part of the
outlet is re-circulated to dilute the new
input, achieving in this way the
inoculation.
2.2.2. Centralized biogas production
This method is also known as the
centralized co-digestion and consists in
collecting wet biomass from a community
consumers and its centralized processing in
order to reduce costs, time and labor.
This method is specific to countries
having a developed zootechnical sector,
such as Germany, Denmark etc.
The digestion process takes place either
mesophilic (about 35 C) or thermophilic
(around 50 C to accelerate the
decomposition process). The two processes
involve the participation of various types
of microorganisms. The time assigned to
decomposition is between 12 and 25 days.
a. The chinese type
79
b. The indian type

Fig. 6 Types of rural biogas reactors
2. Conclusions
On our planet are produced annually
large amounts of dry and wet biomass.
Biomass is the only renewable form of
energy, which if is not properly used,
produces a negative effect on the
environment. As a result of microbial
activities the biomass is subjected to
natural
anaerobic
degradation
and
generates different gases, primarily
methane. Thus, emitted directly into the
atmosphere, methane is a major
greenhouse gas, but recovered and used is
a renewable source of energy.
The gasification plants present a series of
advantages, such as:
can be adapted to any type of organic
solid fuel;
a high energy efficiency; high electrical
performance compared to other processes
(for gasification efficiency is 32%
compared to 22% for direct combustion
using Rankine cycle);
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,
namely up to 40% CO2 and 100% CH4;
the values of emission that affect human
health, such as dioxins and furans, are
much lower than in combustion;
allow the construction of smaller plants

(from 0.5 MW) ;
waste resulting from gasification can be
eliminated or recycled;
resulting synthesis gas are clean and
usable as such;
possibility for energy suply in remote
areas.
Anaerobic digestion is an integrated
system of renewable energy production,
organic waste treatment and recycling of
nutrients. It creates benefits to the
agricultural, environmental and economic
level for farmers, biogas plant operator
personnel and also for society as a whole,
ensuring:
recycling cheap and safe environment
animal manure and organic waste;
production of renewable energy;
decrease of greenhouse gas emissions;
an enhanced animal safety by sterilizing
digestate;
an improved fertilization efficiency;
less inconvenience caused by odors and
insects;
economic benefits for farmers.
The price of biomass itself is low (ie
fuel), but power plants based on such fuel
are expensive. Among the disadvantages
of energy production plants using the so-
80
called green energy, is mentioned: low

conversion efficiency, the need of land,
seasonal variations in productions (of
crops), high volume in fresh form - raising
questions of transport, storage and usage
according to the needs.
7.
8.
Acknowledgements
This paper was supported by the project
Inter-University
Partnership
for
Excellence in Engineering - PARTING project coordinated by the Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca contract no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137516,
project
cofounded by the European Social Fund
through the Sectorial Operational Program
Human Resources 2007-2013.
9.
10.
References
11.
1. Aciu, C.: The "ECCOMAT" method
for the selection of sustainable
building materials. Journal Of Applied
Engineering Sciences (JAES) 2013,
3(16), p. 714.
2. Boyle, G., et al: Renewable Energy,
Power for a Sustainable Future,
Oxford University Press, 2012.
3. Cioabla, A. E., Ionel, I., Popescu, F.:
Study connected with wood residues
behaviour
during
anaerobic
fermentation
process.
In:
Environmental
Engineering
and
Management Journal (2010) Vol. 9
(10), p. 1411-1416.
4. Ciubota-Rosie, C., Gavrilescu, M.,
Macoveanu M.: Biomass an
important renewable source of energy
in Romania. In: Environmental
Engineering and Management Journal
(2008) Vol. 7 (5), p. 559-568.
5. Fanchi, J. R.: Energy: technology and
directions for the future. 2004,
Elsevier.
6. Iluiu Varvara, D. A., Fiiu, A.,
Vladu, D. E., andor, A.: Research
12.
13.
14.
Regarding the Biomass Energy

Potential of Romania. In: Bulletin
UASVM - Agriculture (2009) Vol. 1-2
(66), p. 100 105.
Jones,
J.B.,
Hawkins,
C.A.,
Engineering Thermodynamics, 1986
Mrza, C., Houpan, A., Moldovan, R.,
Corsiuc, G: Surse neconvenionale de
energie, Cluj- Napoca, Utpress, 2013.
Morar F., Peterlicean A.: Research
Regarding the Importance Growing
Canola in Mure County as an
Alternative in Obtaining Biofuel. In
Procedia Technology (2014) Vol. 12,
p. 604608.
Plumb, I., Zamfir A.: Management of
renewable energy and regional
development - Case study: Braov
County". In Review of General
Management (2011), (1) p. 50-59.
Sorensen, B., Renewable energy. Its
phyisics,
engineering,
use,
environmental impacts, economy and
planning aspects, Third Ed., Elsevier
Science, 2004.
***Al Seadi, T, et. al.: Biogazul. Ghid
practic, Biogas for Easten Europe,
2008
*** Improved Solid Biomass Burning
Cookstoves: A Development Manual.
Field Document No.44, FAO Regional
Wood
Energy
Development
Programme in Asia., In Collaboration
with Asia Regional Cookstove
Programme and Energy Research
Centre
of
Panjab
University
Chandigarh. September 1993.
*** Technologies for Converting
Waste Agricultural Biomass to Energy.
United
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Environmental
Programme, Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics International
Environmental Technology Centre,
Osaka, 2013.
15. http://cicia.ro/old_version/res/3_pre
zentare_uti_roman.pdf

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVELOPING ON

ENERGETIC AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFICIENCY OF PASSIVE HOUSES
R. MOLDOVAN 1
G. DRAGO1
Abstract: Within the European energetic and ecological context of

reducing energy consumption and polluting emissions, a major role will be
played by designing energetically efficient buildings, such as passive houses.
In view of improving energetic and ecological performances of these
buildings, the emphasis will primarily be laid on improvement at the level of
envelope elements aiming at both diminishing energy losses limiting heat
transfer coefficients in conformity with passive standards by using some
highly efficient insulating materials and reducing the negative impact on
surroundings by using ecological materials.
Key words: energy efficiency, passive house, building enveloping, global

heat transfer coefficient.
1. Introduction
Within the present context of increasing
energetic needs implying an increase of
toxic emissions, the energetic policies of
EU will aim at providing a long lasting,
competitive and secure development of
energy supply. In this respect, the energetic
and climatic objectives of the EU,
contained in the Europe 2020 strategy
will pursue the following targets for 2020
[6]:
improving energetic efficiency by 20%;
diminishing
greenhouse
effect
emissions by at least 20% as compared
with 1990 level;
increase in the proportion of renewable
sorts within the total energy
consumption to 20%.
Taking into account that the construction
area registers the highest consumptions of
1
energy and greenhouse effect emissions,

emphasis will be placed on promoting
energetic efficiency in buildings by [5]:
stimulating restoration processes with
the existent building;
improving energetic performances at
the enveloping elements level;
improving energetic performances at
the level of energy supply.
The energetically efficient buildings, part
of which are the passive houses, too, aim at
reducing energy consumption, diminishing
greenhouse effect emissions and improving
the degree of using renewable sources of
energy.
To get to these objectives along with
providing the quality requirements of
internal comfort, an essential role will be
played by the envelope of the building.
82
2. Measures to improve energetic

performances of enveloping
One of the basic principles in building
passive houses consists in applying passive
designing strategies [1], [3]:
compact forms, in view of minimizing
building surfaces as compared with its
volume in order to reduce heat losses to
the exterior;
a proper orientation of the building in
view of maximizing solar heat
contribution in cold seasons and
minimizing it in hot seasons, along with
providing some schemes of solar
control;
a good thermal insulation capable to
reduce heat losses to the exterior in cold
seasons by using some innovative
solutions and some performant
materials from insulating property point
of view;
a proper insulation against penetration
of cold air and diminishing heat losses
to the exterior.
The energy losses through envelope
elements are given by the global heat
transfer coefficients (U) whose values, in
accordance with the climatic zone should
lie between limits [8]:
0.15 W/m2K for opaque components of
the envelope;
0.8 W/m2K for vitrified components.
2.1. Opaque components
Opaque components of envelope (external
walls, slabs, floor slabs, roofs, terrace slabs)
offer various constructive possibilities that
can be made of massive masonry walls and
insulating layers, prefab elements, walls
with high thermal inertia, dynamic
insulation systems or dynamically adaptive
systems.
The main method of improving energetic
performances of opaque elements of envelope
consists in diminishing global heat transfer
coefficient. This represents the heat flux

transmitted to 1 m2 of wall surface, at a
temperature difference of one degree and is
calculated as follows [2]:
1
1 NS i
1

hi i 1 i he
(1)
where:
hi is surface coefficient of heat transfer to
interior, [W/m2K];
NS
i amount of conductive thermal
i 1 i
resistance for all NS-layer wall, [m2K/W];
i thickness of each layer of the wall,
[m];
i thermal conductivity coefficient of
each layer of wall, [W/mK]
he surface coefficient of heat transfer to
exterior, [W/ m2K].
In order to fulfil the passive house
standards, the opaque elements of the
envelope should provide a global heat transfer
coefficient U0.15 W/m2K. In this respect,
one recommends the use of some thermo
insulating
materials
of
thermal
conductivity () as low as possible and
with a poor impact upon environment (kg
CO2 equivalent) such as:
expanded polystyrene (EPS):
=0.033-0.04 W/mK,
7.36 kg CO 2 equivalent;
extruded polystyrene (XPS):
=0.032-0.038 W/mK,
styropor/neopor:
=0.035-0.031 W/mK,
rockwool:
=0.034-0.04 W/mK,
transparent insulation - aerogel:
=0.013-0.014 W/mK,
4.2 kg CO 2 equivalent.
R. MOLDOVAN et al.: The influence of enveloping on energetic and ecological efficiency of

passive houses
2.2. Windows
The vitreous component of building

envelope the windows should play a
double role: to reduce energy losses and
improve sun contributions.
Uw
To reduce losses, measures of improving

energetic performances of windows are to
be taken by reducing the global heat
transfer coefficients U w .
The calculation of coefficient U w is
carried out as follows [9]:
Ag U g A f U f l g g l inst inst
Ag A f
where:
U w is global heat transfer coefficient of the
window, [W/m2K];
A g area of the glazing, [m2];
U g heat transfer coefficient of the
glazing, [W/m2K];
A f area of the frame, [m2];
U f heat transfer coefficient of the frame,
[W/m2K];
l g glass edge length, [m];
g linear heat transfer coefficient
(determined by the spacer profile),
[W/mK];
linst frame edge length, [m];
inst linear heat transfer coefficient (due
to installation), [W/mK].
In view of limiting coefficient U w in
accordance with requirements imposed to
passive buildings - U w 0.8 W/m2K one
aims at reducing heat transfer coefficients
at glass, frame and spacing device level.
The reduction of heat transfer coefficient
for glass (U g ) may be achieved through the
following methods:
increasing the number of glasses and
the spaces in between and replacing the
air between glass panes with noble
gases - argon (Ar), krypton (Kr);
use of low emissivity glass.
In order to secure a positive energetic
balance in the cold season (the solar
contribution given by the sun factor g
should be greater than the energy losses
given by coefficient U g ), the windows of
83
(2)
the passive buildings should meet the

condition [1]:
U g 1.6 W /( m 2 K ) g 0
(3)
a fact leading to the following limitations:

U g 0.8W/m2K and g0.5.
Consequently, the windows made of
triple glass panes with two low emissivity
layers and the spaces between window
panes filled with noble gases are proper for
building passive houses, an example in this
respect is represented in Figure 1.
For diminishing heat transfer coefficient
for frames (U f ) some very good insulating
materials are recommended, and for
reducing linear heat transfer coefficient
( g ), given by frame-spacer profile
ensemble the use of warm edge spacers are
recommended instead of aluminium
spacers.
3. Case study. Implementing the model
and simulation results
Considering that a primary role in

improving energetic and ecological
performances of passive houses is played
by envelope, a case study was carried out,
based on dynamic simulations starting
from a model house situated in the III
climatic zone (Cluj-Napoca).
84
Fig. 1. Triple glazing with 2 low emissivity and argon filled space [4]
The study pursues the energetic and
ecological analysis of various solutions of
making the envelope, in correlation with
the climatic zone, orientation, building
materials, proportion of glass surfaces,
degree of shaded zones, so meeting the
standards of passive houses.
The simulation was achieved with
Lesosai soft, in conformity with the
European CEN EN 13790 (hourly
calculation), aiming at both the
determination
of
thermal
transfer
coefficient and the impact of envelope
upon the environment.
Starting from one of the major
characteristic of passive houses, namely
providing a high standard of thermal
insulation a first analysis aimed at the
influence of various solutions of making
envelopes taking into account the
following material and technologies for
the opaque elements of envelope:

case 1a: brick masonry walls and
rockwool thermal insulation at wall,
roof, floor slab level 30/40/40 cm;
case 1b: brick massive walls and
polystyrene (EPS, XPS) 30/40/40 cm
thermal insulation;
case 1c: prefab elements neopor
concrete filled casings 29/30/30 cm.
Determining heat transfer coefficients U
was carried out on the basis of Lesosai
program using the materials Library. A
detail concerning an external brick wall
structure and rockwool insulation (case
1a) is shown in Figure 2.
For each of the three cases both at
external walls level and at floor slab and
roof level, heat transfer coefficients U
below limits imposed to passive houses
have been obtained, as can be seen in
Figure 3.

passive houses
85
Fig. 2. Detail of the structure of an outside wall (case 1a) [7]
U [W/m 2 K]
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
case 1a
Exterior wall
case 1b
Roof
Case 1c
Floor slab
Limit
Fig. 3. Values of heat transfer coefficient

Further on, heat transfer coefficients U
were, in conformity with climatic zone III
limited, so that the model house should
meet the condition of passive houses (with
annual energy consumption for heating/
cooling 15kWh/m2year).
In conformity with the results obtained
for climatic zone III the limitation of heat
transfer coefficients U at wall/roof/floor
slab levels have been recommended to
0.11/0.10/0.10 W/m2K.
Comparing the variants studied one
observes that the best coefficients at the
external walls level were obtained in case
1b, as a result of low conductivity of EPS
(=0.033 W/mK), and at roof and floor
slab level, in case 1c, as a result of using
neopor (=0.033 W/mK).
The impact of passive houses on
environment is given by two indicators:
global warming potential (GWP);
cumulative energy demand (CED).
Figure 4 shows the variation of the two
impact indicators for each case analyzed,
setting into evidence materials with
highest energetic consumptions and green
house effect emissions.
For each building material one has
considered their production, replacing and
elimination, the variation of impact
indicators being shown in Figure 5.
Case 1a
86
Case 1b
36000
Manufacturing
Case
1c
Replacement
End of life
0
Case 1c
Case Case
1b
1a
1000
Case 1a
2000
Case 1b
12000
CED
[MJ/year]
24000
3000
GWP [kgCO2
eq/year]
Case 1c
Fig. 4. The influence of building materials on CED and GWP indicators [7]
Manufacturing
Replacement
End of life
Fig. 5. Variation of CED and GWP for building materials

Making a comparison between the three
cases one notices the followings:
as a result of large insulating
thicknesses, the highest energetic
consumptions
come
with
EPS
insulation (8173 MJ/year), followed by
neopor (7643 MJ/year) and rockwool
(5208,9 MJ/year);
as GWP is concerned, the highest
emissions come with EPS insulation
(565,9 kg CO 2 -eq/year), neopor (529,2
kg CO 2 -eq/year), XPS (509,9 kg CO 2 eq/year) and concrete (406,3 kg CO 2 -
eq/year as a result of high quantities

used with casings) while the impact of
rockwool is 319,7 kg CO 2 -eq/year;
the highest energy consumptions for
manufacturing and replacing materials
were recorded with EPS and XPS
insulation, their elimination in case of
using rockwool, and the lowest values
were obtained with neopor casings
(1904,73 MJ/year);
the largest polluting emissions were
obtained in the case of EPS and XPS
insulation (2856,96 kg CO 2 -eq/year),

passive houses
and the lowest emissions for the

manufacturing,
replacement
of
materials in case of neopor casings and
their elimination in case of rockwool
insulation.
Another remarkable role in providing a
high standard of thermal insulation comes
with windows. So, starting from the initial
parameters of the house, a second analysis
has in view various solutions of making
windows considering the following cases
of windows with three glass panes with 2
low emissivity layers and warm edge
spacers:
case 2a: PVC frames with Ar
interspaces;
87
case 2b: wooden frames with Ar

interspaces;
case 2c: PVC frames with Kr
interspaces;
case 2d: wooden frames with Kr
interspaces.
Determining heat transfer coefficients U
at the window level was carried out on
Lesosai computer program, using the data
base for frame and Glazing Library. A
detail concerning the characteristics of a
window (case 2a) is given in Figure 6 and
the variation of heat transfer coefficients
in Figure 7.
U[W/m K]
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
case 2a
Min
Fig. 6. Detail of the characteristics of

a window (case 2a) [7]
One notices that the lowest heat transfer
coefficient was obtained in the case of
using the PVC frames, as a result of a
better coefficient (U f =0.7 W/m2K) and
filling the interspaces with Kr (U g =0.5
W/m2K) (case 2c).
For the model house under consideration,
both in case 2a and 2c (PVC frames with
interspaces filled with Ar and Kr) heat
transfer coefficients U0.8 W/m2K were
obtained for all windows, in conformity
with limits imposed to passive houses.
Performing an ecological analysis
(Figure 8) from the point of view of the
impact of windows upon energy
consumption and toxic emissions it
case 2b
Limit
Case 2c
Case 2d
Max
Fig. 7. Values of heat transfer coefficient

followed that the highest weight on the two
impact indicators comes with the materials
from which the frames are made, namely
PVC (2547 MJ/year and 146.92 kg CO 2 eq/year), while the contribution of the
window glazing to energetic consumption
and polluting emissions is minimum (253.8
MJ/year and 16.23 kg CO 2 -eq/year).
4. Conclusions
Considering that energetic and ecological

performances of buildings primarily
depend on the designing solutions of
envelope, in order to build a passive
house in a certain climatic zone, its
envelope should be so designed that it
3000
2400
1800
1200
600
0
wall/roof/floor slab level should be

limited to 0.11/0.10/0.10 W/m2K; for
windows - the use of triple glass panes
window of low emissivity, interspaces
filled with Ar and Kr, warm edge spacers
and PVC or wood frames.
CED
[MJ/year]
complies with the climatic variations by

providing the energy needs imposed. For
climatic zone III one recommends the use
of some very good heat insulating
materials - for opaque elements with an
impact as low as possible upon
environment, the U coefficients at
me
fra rame ng
C
i
f
PV ood Glaz
W
ng
e ame lazi
ramod fr G
f
C o
PV W
160
120
80
40
0
GWP
[kgCO2
eq/year]
88
Fig. 8. Influence of window frames upon CED and GWP indicators

References
1. Grobe, C.: Construire une maison

passive. Conception physique de la
construction. Details de construction.
Rentabilite (Building a passive house.
Physical design of construction.
Details of construction. Profitability).
Paris. Linedite, 2002.
2. Ilina, M., Dumitrescu L., et al.:
Enciclopedia tehnic de instalaii.
Manualul de instalaii. Instalaii de
nclzire (Technical Encyclopedia of
installations.
Handbook
of
installations. Heating). Bucureti.
Artecno, 2010.
3. Tymkow, P., Tassou S., et al.: Building
services design for energy efficient
buildings. London. Routledge, 2013.
4. *** Calumen Software. Accessed:
18.09.2014
5. *** Directive 2012/27/EU on energy
6.
7.
8.
9.
efficiency. Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?

qid=1399375464230&uri=CELEX:3201
2L0027. Accessed: 15.09.2014.
*** Energy 2020 A strategy for
competitive, sustainable and secure
energy. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/
energy/publications/doc/2011_energy20
20_en.pdf. Accessed: 15.09.2014.
Lesosai Software. Accessed:
***
18.09.2014.
Passive house requirements.
***
Available at: http://www.passiv.de/
en/02_informations/02_passive-houserequirements/02_passive-houserequirements.htm. Accessed: 16-092014.
*** Window-heat transfer coefficient
and
glazing-heat
transfer
Uw
coefficient
Ug.
Available
at:
http://www.passivhaustagung.de/
Passive_House_E/window_U.htm.
Accessed: 16-09-2014.

COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS AS AN
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE FOR
STUDENTS
G. NSTASE 1
A. ERBAN1
Abstract: Studies points out that interactive teaching methods create a

deeper learning, students develop better thinking skills by presenting
concrete examples and students demonstrate better memory and are more
appreciated. This paper presents a new method of teaching and learning
basic phenomena and also complex studies for students enrolled in Technical
Faculties. The method consists in using a commercial simulation program for
creating applications that match the various issues raised in the seminar and
lab hours. Finally an application example is given in order to present the
advantages.
Key words: new teaching method, simulation software, applications.
1. Introduction
2. The proposed simulation
Over time, it was found that teaching on

blackboard with chalk and implement a
written course are a minimum mandatory
but not sufficient, as proven by many of
today's courses are made using digital
presentations. This paper proposes a new
method of learning by using simulations
software based applications. The software
that has the capabilities to create
simulations based applications is Comsol
Mutiphysics version 5. The idea is simple.
You create a simulation model and based on
it you can create an application with a much
simpler and intuitive GUI (Graphical User
Interface) for students. Using the new
interface the students from undergraduate
years can understand different physics or
phenomena without knowing how to use a
complex simulation software.
The real life situation considered in this

paper is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Automotive fuse 60 A, made from

copper
90
The application proposed in this paper

was created after a simulation of a JouleLenz effect on a 60 Amps fuse used in
automotive applications. The simulation is
created in steady state, which means the
field variables do not change over time.
For the initial study the voltage for the
simulation was considered 32 V, the
current intensity was considered 40 A, in
terms of electric currents and in terms of
heat transfer in solids was considered a
convective heat flux of 5 W/m2K and an
ambient temperature of 20 oC, as can be
seen in Figure 2.
Using these input data the computer

simulation software Comsol Multiphysics
5 solves the problem and the user can
chose what result are important to be
shown and can plot under different forms.
For example in this simulation it is
considered important to show the electric
potential and the surface temperature over
the fuse. These results can be observed in
Figure 4 and 5.
Fig. 4. Multislice electric potential results
Fig. 2. Boundary conditions for the

convective heat flux
For the mesh it was used a fine element
size, and the result can be seen in Figure 3.
Fig. 3. The fine mesh for the copper fuse,

used in the simulation
Fig. 5. Surface temperature over the fuse

In order to conclude to create this
simulation the user has to follow five basic
steps:
1. To create a geometry 2D or 3D;
2. To mesh it;
3. To setup the boundary conditions
of the study;
4. Wait for software to compute the
study;
5. Finally, to plot the results.
Following those five steps require CAD
knowledge, in order to create more
complex 3D models, requires that the
phenomenon being studied already to be
G. NASTASE et al.: Box window double skin faade. Heat transfer validation through inner
envelope
known and understood in order to setup the

correct boundary conditions, require to
know how to use a complex simulation
software, require a workstation PC
depending on the complexity of the
geometry or phenomena studied and in the
end if the penultimate condition is fulfilled
only partially a lot of waiting time is
needed.
3. The Application Builder
To eliminate all these inconvenient
wouldnt be easier for the users to have
access to a database of ready-made
applications, where they can change key
parameters to see the system or the
component behaviour? With the new
version 5 of Comsol Multiphysics this is
possible, by using the Application Builder.
A COMSOL application is a COMSOL
Multiphysics model with a user interface.
With
a
license
of
COMSOL
Multiphysics, applications can be run from
the COMSOL Desktop in Windows in
91
this new launched version 5, but in future

versions the Application Builder will be
available also for OS X an Linux.
With a COMSOL Server license, a web
implementation of an application can be
run in many popular web browsers on
platforms such as Windows, OS X, iOS,
Linux, and Android. In Windows,
you can also run COMSOL applications by
connecting to a COMSOL Server with an
easy-to-install COMSOL client, available
for download from www.comsol.com, as
for example Amazon.com.
Files extension for Comsol Application
Builder is *.mphapp.
The Application Builder includes a
comprehensive set of tools for creating and
deploying applications based on COMSOL
models. The main tools and desktops that
you use to create applications are shown in
figure 6 and are the following:
The Application Wizard: A wizard that
guides you through the steps to set up an
application from an existing COMSOL
Model.
Fig. 6. The Main Window Branch in Comsol Multiphysics 5 Application Builder

The main COMSOL Desktop with the
Application Builder window, which
contains a tree with the model nodes and

the nodes that define the application, and
92
an Application ribbon toolbar with tools

for creating applications.
The Form Editor for creating and
designing forms (user interfaces) with
various form components (user interface
controls) that are adapted for the
application in mind.
The Method Editor for creating and
editing methods and classed for including
custom code that can be connected to user
interface events, for example.
Based on the simulation proposed and
using Comsol Multiphycs 5 Application
Builder interface we created a simple user
friendly application example.
4. A simple application example
In this simple example students can
change the electrical current intensity and
the voltage and see quickly the effects in
terms of thermal heating. This way it
becomes easier for them to understand the
theoretical aspects of the problem and used
also with some aspects of simulations, but
without creating one. The application
created for the simulation described in this
paper is shown in Figure 7, bellow.
run by students from the COMSOL client

for Windows or through a web browser.
To get the most out of the Application
Builder, consider these six logical steps:
Consider what the application should
include: parameters are of interest, outputs
that a user would like to see, plots are
useful, specific numerical results are
important;
Make a sketch of the user interface and
its controls and objects, outlining what
type of inputs, menus, buttons, plots, and
so on that the application should include
and making a layout of the form or forms
in the application;
Create a COMSOL model of the
application, including the parameters that
you want to use as inputs in the
applications and the derived values and
plots that you want to use as the outputs
and results when running the application;
Use descriptions for all the parameters
that you want to include in the application.
Solve the COMSOL model, and consider
what studies you want to include that the
application should then run to produce the
output that is of interest to the users;
Save the COMSOL model as a Model
MPH-file that you will then use as a
starting point for the application.
5. Conclusions
In our current society, there is a dynamic
process which requires all walks of life to
keep up with the evolution of society and
therefore education. The application of
new learning methods require time,
diversity of ideas, commitment to action,
discovery of new values, teaching
responsibility, confidence in personal
ability to apply them creatively to
streamline the educational process.
Fig. 7. The Joule-Lenz application created

using the simulation described
After the application is created it can be
References
***Comsol Multiphysics version 5 Help

EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT OF THE

DRINKING WATER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM IN THE CITY OF IASI
M.PROFIRE 1
A. BURLACU1
Abstract: From the design stage, the lifetime distribution network must
ensure an optimal balance between costs and revenues. In the context of the
potential water sources have limited potential, their effective use is a major
goal for which is important to allocate resources and set clear directions for
action. Considering the current structure and distribution network based on
information that we have, we have identified three major steps have to be
taken:
STEP 1: Creating database in GIS application framework, and highlighting
the concept of effective management of drinking water distribution system in
the city of Iasi.
STEP 2: Identifying opportunities and establishing DMA-s in the drinking
water distribution network of Iasi municipality.
STEP 3: Interpreting data base and managing DMA-s.
Key words: Water Distribution Network, Costs, Revenues, GIS application
1. Introduction
The sound management of a drinking
water distribution network is a complex
and continuous process which must ensure
an effective operational regime within the
system, and involves an accurate
structuring of information and the
conversion of these data into reports on
basis of which decisions can be made.
Starting with its design stage, and all
along the lifetime of a distribution
network, an optimal balance between costs
and revenues must be provided.
Considering that water sources are limited,
an efficient use of these resources is a
major goal. In order to reach this goal
sufficient resources must be allotted and
1
clear action directions must be defined.

Taking into account the current structure
of the distribution network and based on
data that we possess now, we have
identified three major steps that have to be
covered:
STEP 1: Creating a GIS database and
highlighting the main elements that
constitute the concept of effective
management of the drinking water
distribution system within city of Iasi.
STEP 2: Identifying opportunities and
establishing microsectors within the
drinking water distribution network.
STEP 3: Interpreting the main data and
ensuring the microsectors management.
2. STEP 1 - Creating a GIS database
Technical University Gheroghe Asachi of Iasi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services,
Romania
94
and highlighting of the main elements

that constitute the concept of effective
The Iasi City water distribution network
includes all pipelines, fittings, measuring
instruments and accessories that allow the
conveying of water from storage tanks to
the consumers taps.
The distribution network ensures the
maximum hourly flow at the necessary
service supply pressure and is ring-shaped
(this bringing the advantage that water can
reach any location from at least two
directions).
The annular configuration of a water
distribution network is optimal because it
provides maximum operational safety
(both at normal consumption flow and at
firefighting special flows).
Moreover, in case of pipe failure on a
network sector, only the consumers that
are strictly connected to that sector shall
suffer due to water cutoffs. Within a
branched network, a failure on a pipe shall
stop the water distribution towards the
entire town sectors or industries that are
located downstream of the failure point.
Plus, a ring shaped network is significantly
reducing the effects of water hammering.
As of 25.02.2011 the situation of the Iasi
distribution network was the one shown
below:
Features of the
network in Iasi city
water
distribution
Table 1.
It is crucial to define a set of standard

maneuvers, enabling the company to
precisely know which tank/pumping
station is supplying the distribution
network at one moment. Also, there is
need to define the coverage areas of
tanks/pumping stations:
Storage tanks: Pcurari, Aurora,
Mijlociu, Breazu, orogari, Ciric, CUG,
Miroslava, Galata, Bucium IVV;
Pumping stations: Pcurari, Aurora,
Mijlociu, Bucium CUG, Chirita.
Each pipeline must have assigned a code
corresponding to the tank/pumping station
which supplies it with drinking water:
adduction pipes;
main pipes;
service pipes;
connections.
The geodesic level is defined in absolute
coordinates hereinafter referred to as
"C.T."
storage tanks;
pumping stations;
adduction pipelines in knots;
main pipelines in knots;
service pipe towards connections.
In case we do not have information (GIS,
topographic map, etc..) or if these do not
meet the systems requirements, the lands
level will be determined by direct
measurement. The potential of each tank
must be computed, that is the lower and
upper limits between of which water can
be used (in terms of geodesy). The
consumed and stored energy will be used
to cover pre-set areas. The minimum and
maximum pressures that is to be provided
in compliance to contract and to norms
must be taken into account. Must be
provided also the allotment for each
pipeline of areas according to the buildings
height regime, and depending on flow and
pressure mentioned in the technical permit
and, subsequently, the determining of
pressure zones. These zones must be
graphically delimited. Each pressure zone
M. PROFIRE et al.: Efficient management of the drinking water distribution system in the city 95
of Iasi
will have a color code allotted; hence, all

the elements within that pressure zone
(pipes, connections, taps, valves) shall bear
the same color code.
The superior zone: has a potential CT
The Galata-Miroslava high subzone

supplied via the Galata pumping station,
Galata booster pump and Galata tank;
The Bucium high subzone - supplied by
(160 120) m, delivers water to districts

Copou, Agronomie, Crucea Rosie,
Munteni and is supplied from Timisesti
source via the Mijlociu pumping station
and Breazu storage tank;
Bucium pumping station, boosting pump

located at Bucium IVV tank and the
Bucium IVV tank;
The middle zone 1: has a potential CT
Ciric recreational area, supplied by the

Sorogari and the Ciric tanks/Sorogari
water tower;
(120 75) m and supplies water to districts

Toma Cozma, Codrescu, Lascar Catargi,
Universitate, Sararie, Ticau and is supplied
from the 2x4.000 m tanks located in 6
Costachescu Street ;
The middle zone 2: has a potential CT
(120 75) m and supplies water to districts
Toma Cozma, Codrescu, Lascar Catargi,
Universitate, Sararie, Ticau and is supplied
from the Aurora 2x4.000 m tanks;
The inferior zone: has a potential CT (80
35) m and supplies water to districts
Pacurari, Canta, Dacia, Alexandru cel Bun,
Mircea cel Baran, Cantemir, Nicolina,
CUG, Podu Rosu, Bularga, Tudor
Vladimirescu, Centru and is supplied with
water from:
- Prut river / lake Chirita via the 4x5.000
m tanks from Sorogari Plant;
- Prut river / lake Chirita Chirita through
the Chirita pumping station;
- Timisesti source via the Aurora 2x10.000
m tanks. This area includes both
enterprises from the former industrial zone
and also some residential neighborhoods
located on the lowest plateau of Iasi City;
In this zone, considering the terrain
features, the next subzones are identified:
The Moara de Vant high subzone, the
A subzone with P+8/P+10 appartment

blocks within Dacia and Pacurari districts,
supplied by the Octav Bancila highpressure pumping station (Q = 285 l / s, H
= 55 mwc);
A subzone with P+8/P+10 appartment
blocks within Alexandru cel Bun and
Mircea cel Batran districts, supplied by the
Cerna high-pressure pumping station (Q =
263 l / s, H = 55 mwc);
Piezometric lines are to be drawn, by
starting from storage tanks, for all
adduction and main pipelines. In each node
available pressures and characteristic
sections are to be established.
pressure and flow measurements must
be carried in all relevant nodes and points;
for each pressure zone the most
unfavorable points shall be identified (that
is those with the minimum pressure that
can be provided);
data supplied by operational monitoring
systems are to be used;
96
3. STEP 2 - Identifying opportunities

and establishing microsectors within
the drinking water distribution
network
There is need to reconfigure the
architecture of the drinking water
distribution system according to the
principle of an unique supply, hereinafter
named the main supply, for a standard
operation that offers also the possibility of
to start-up a second supply in case of
emergency.
On the second supply, hereinafter named
"the secondary supply" the valve must be
left in normally closed position.
The dual supply and the possibility to
feed the microsector from two main
networks ensures the microsystems
independence and, hence, the water cutoffs
durations will decrease (in case of failure
interventions or planned works on
network).
The measuring device (water meter or
flowmeter) will be installed on the main
supply and the following types are
identified:
permanent measuring on all pipe
diameters, with electromagnetic flowmeter
equipped with totalizer and local reading,
or with remote transmission;
permanent measuring on pipes having
diameters of (50 200) mm (Syble system
water meter);
measurings at preset time (temporary

installation) for all pipe diameters, with an
UDM 100/UDM 200 portable flowmeter;
In order to create a microsector the
distribution
networks
technical
characteristics must be assessed and
known and the next goals must be
achieved:
the existence of only one main
pipeline (as much as possible to avoid the
duplication of networks having the same
pressure regime);
all service pipelines
connected to the main pipe;
must
be
Connection identification (maneuvers,

tracking with route locator, etc.)
Entering the information in the
graphic database
all valves to be checked in order to
ensure their correct operation in positions
full closed/full open;
will be taken into account the
completion of new links, installation of
valves, suppression of some connections;
on network, ports will be created for
mounting the noise listening and
measuring devices (correlators), used to
detect failures and leaks.
.
M. PROFIRE et al.: Efficient management of the drinking water distribution system in the city 97
of Iasi
Fig. 1
Consumers must be identified on each
microsector. Consumption shall be allotted
to them, on basis of water meter indexes
(the basis of water billing). Consumers
may be:
Domestic customers;
Housing associations;
Businesses.
A software will be developed, that is a
software which automatically shall collect
data on clients water consumption and
transcribe them in Excel format in order to
allow a comparative analysis
4. STEP 3 -Interpretation of main data
and the management of microsectors
Taking into account the technical
possibilities of the company two ways of
data recording and interpretation are
identified:
Readings carried at night, when,
theoretically, the water consumption is
minimal; the meter readings at different
moments will lead to the figure for the
leakages on this section and the volume of
lost water.
The water balance method

accordance with IWA (figure 1).
in
5. The authorized consumption

Billed authorized consumption:
- The measured billed consumption:
water billed on basis of water meter
readings (devices installed on customers
connections)
water billed and conveyed by tanker
on customer request
- Unmeasured billed consumption:
water billed in Pauschal system (lump
sum billing);
water supplied during summertime to
unmetered public fountains;
water used for firefighting (only
Emergency personnel only), water drawn
from street hydrants;
activation for short periods
(firefighting, etc.) of connections that
bypass
the
water
meter
(at
enterprises/businesses);
washings of septic pits (commercial);
capital works completed on own site.
98
Un-billed authorized consumption:

- Measured unbilled consumption
water consumption of own facilities (indoors consumption)
- Unmeasured unbilled consumption:
a. Works performed by the Distribution
Department:
water within the isolated pipe section of
pipe by closing of line valves and drained
to sewers, in accordance with the standard
method statement for failure repairs;
water used for washings of isolated pipe
section, after completion of works, in
accordance with the standard method
statement for failure repairs;
water used for the washing of the tanks
managed by the Distribution Department
(cleaning up of residues and contaminants,
in compliance to the "tanks washings
planning);
authorized pipe washing works
(authorized by "pipe washing" planning);
pipe washing works carried ahead of
schedule, and instructed on basis of quality
tests conducted by the QualityEnvironment-Laboratories Dept.
b. Works performed by the Sewers
Department:
water
used
for
current
maintenance/intervention works performed
with the sewage trucks (water from
distribution system, drawn from fire
hydrants, via mobile systems with the aim
to flush / declogg /clean-up the sewers);
6. The water losses
Apparent losses
- water theft: illegal connections, meter
bypassing pipes, illegal use of fire
hydrants, illegal use of ventilation ports,
various discharges;
- commercial losses due to different

readings on customers water meters
- reading / billing errors.
Real Losses
- losses in distribution pipelines;
- accidental losses and spills from tanks;
- losses (leakages) on connections up to the
water meter point.
Developing a "micro-sector data sheet"
model which shall contain essential
information, structured by category, as it
follows:
- pipe material, lengths, diameters
- pipeline commissioning year
- number of customers / connections, by
categories
- method of flow computing
- interventions performed: failure repairs,
pipe washings, connection of new
customers, suppressions of existing
connections, replacement of connections /
networks, etc.
- amount of unbilled metered water
- objectives/activities of the companies that
use a drinking water connection.
7. Conclusions
The decreasing of amounts of water lost
through seepage from distribution pipes is
a major goal for the safe operation of water
distribution system. In this regard, a
priority is to identify the areas where water
losses of water are detected.
In distribution systems having high
network lengths (over 400 km), different
pipe materials and ages of more than 40
years, the micro-sectorization is the main
tool by which a company may intervene in
order to provide an efficient management
and control of resources and water losses..

WATER LOSS REDUCTION THROUGH

ON-LINE MONITORING OF
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PARAMETERS
M.PROFIRE 1
A. BURLACU1
Abstract: The water distribution network is the most expensive water

supply system of populated centers (50-70% of the total cost of installation),
due both to its large length (1-2 m / inhabitant) and the fact that currently,
the networks have been made largely of steel tubes and azbo-cement.
Intermittent operation is not recommended in drinking water system due to
the danger of water contamination, due to lower atmospheric pressure in the
pipes under pressure during their discharge with the entrance of the dirt from
outside the pipe.
The cabinets are installed in distribution network nodes. The devices
supervise continuously and transmit to the central dispatch, on-line the
following parameters: pressure, pH, conductivity, temperature, turbidity,
water flow.
All information is stored and generates reports and charts with the evolution
of the parameters registered.
Key words: Water Distribution Network, Network Nodes, Physical and
chemical parameters
1. Introduction
The format of the bulletin will be A4.
The article, inclusively the tables and the
figures, should be of 6-8 pages, an even
number of pages being compulsorily. The
last page will be filled at least 70%.
A water distribution network, that
operates for populated centres or for
industries, includes all the pipes, fittings,
measuring instruments and accessories
constructions needed for the conveying of
water from the storage tanks (or from the
pumping facilities) towards the consumers
1
taps. The distribution network must provide

the required maximum delivery service
pressure.
The water distribution network is the most
expensive element that constitutes a water
supply system (50-70% of the systems total
cost). This is due both to its large length (12 m/capita) and to the fact that currently,
networks are made largely of steel and
asbestos-cement pipes. The distribution
network must operate in a safe manner and
without interruptions.
Intermittent operation of a drinking water
system is not recommended, due to the
Technical University Gheroghe Asachi of Iasi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services,
Romania
100
danger of water contamination in cases

when pressure within pipes decreases below
atmospheric
pressure
(during
their
draining), event that absorbs inside
polluting substances from outside the pipes.
In networks where the dominant materials
are steel and gray cast, and pipes are joined
by lead sealed connectors, there is the risk
that when pipes are drained, contaminants
from soil might enter the pipes through
cracks or joining connectors.
The physico-chemical tests performed by
our laboratory, in accordance with the laws
in force and operating license, are
conducted at well-established intervals, the
samples being taken from the same
locations. Thus, given the fact that tests are
performed in laboratory, in case when noncompliances are discovered, the reaction
time is reduced, and the implementation of
measures are delayed. In this regard, a
monitoring system for the chemical and
physical parameters which are crucial for
the water systems operation, and the
transmission of information towards the
central dispatch centre, shall offer the
possibility of swift and effective
interventions.
2. Description of equipment
The installed on-line analysis equipment
is manufactured by Endress-Hauser and
delivers the waters parameters as realtime data.
The sampling devices, the sensors and
the electromagnetic flow meters are
installed in the distribution networks
nodes, via special mounting parts, installed
on pipes, and transmit data to the
analysers. For these devices special
manholes have been built (figure 1). These
manholes
are
protected
against
groundwater infiltrations and are fitted
with water tight frames and lids (equipped
with special rubber gaskets).
Fig. 1.
In order to obtain accurate results the
analysers have been calibrated by means of
precise measurements in parallel with the
laboratory tests which have been
conducted on basis of standard methods.
After the units calibration and after
comparing the results with those from the
laboratory, it has been seen that the gap
between values has reached 3%, this
degree of accuracy being sufficient for the
purpose of the project.
The analysers are grouped by test and
parameters classes and are mounted in
metal cabinets connected to the power grid
and equipped with local heating (Figure 2
and Figure 3).
2. Operating mode
The cabinets are installed in protected
locations, inside fenced sites belonging to
certain institutions with which the
company
has
signed
cooperation
agreements. The data received from the
measuring probes are stored in a memory
buffer type electronic block. From the
memory buffer data are sent to a data
compressing device (logger type), which is
able to create data packs that are sent via a
GPRS communication transponder towards
a dispatch point.
The monitored parameters are:
- turbidity;
-conductivity,
M. PROFIRE.et al.: Water loss reduction through on-line monitoring of physical and
chemical parameters
101
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 2.
- concentration of free residual chlorine;
- temperature;
- ammonium ion concentration.
Apart from these parameters are also sent
data related to:
- Pressure;
- Flow.
Depending on the location of the networks
node three types of cabinets (Figure 4) have
been mounted:
- Type I: ammonia, chlorine, pressure,
turbidity, conductivity;
- Type II: flow, pressure, chlorine,
conductivity;
- Type III: pressure, chlorine, conductivity
- Type III: pressure, chlorine, conductivity;
Given the nature of information and their
use, the transmission rate is a submittal at

every 5 minutes. The dispatch service decodes
the data packs and convert them into graphs
that indicate the evolution in time of the
analyzed parameters (Figures 5, 6 and 7).
.
Fig. 5. Evolution of water turbidity

(green).
All information is stored on a dedicated
server with the possibility of data archiving
102
3. Conclusions
In areas with permeable terrain, which
are actually draining the water lost through
seepage from drinking water distribution
networks and are also featuring a high

groundwater level, it is very important to
continuously know the evolution of studied
parameters, along all the path: from
storage tanks until the final consumer.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
The water distribution systems in which
the water losses are higher than 40% and in
which more than half of pipelines have an
expired normal lifetime, should be
monitored by taking into account two
elements:
- the physical losses;
- the quality of supplied water.
The data delivered by the monitoring
cabinets allows an integrated approach for
these two elements and allows the

company to take all the optimal decisions
in relation to a safe operation of the water
system. The data are processed by a
specialized personnel and, hence, a data
base is established. Thus, the historical
data collected from a measurement point
will subsequently govern all the needed
intervention procedures.

SOLUTIONS OF ENERGY OPTIMISATION

IN INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
A. RETEZAN 1
S. Z. GEYER EHRENBERG1
C. PCURAR1
Abstract: This paper is a short study on the potential of Heat Recovery

(HR) systems advantages in industrial applications. By using the recovered
heat from different waste streams, global efficiency can be improved. In
mean time the running costs are set back together with a significant CO 2
reduction. The Heating-Ventilation-Air Conditioning system will keep the
same comfort level by combining in innovative way the existing traditional
systems with the HR opportunities. All these will be coordinated by a master
control system which needs to think global about building & production
demands.
Key words: heat recovery, energy, cost estimation.
1. Introduction
We live in a modern world and we spend
most of the time inside a building and use
energy to ensure productivity and
wellbeing. Optimized energy use is widely
discussed since many years, but the
increasing primary energy costs and the
continuous industrial expansion is putting
more and more pressure on these topics.
There are many new technologies
available meant to reduce the consumption
of energy. There are also a lot of political
decisions, directives and laws which push
us to be more and more economic.
Probably the biggest pressure on people
was and will always be the costs and the
profit margins by means of capital key
figures.
According to BP issued Energy Outlook
2030 report, in the last 20 years world
faced an energy consumption grew of 45%
and an approximately 39% additional grow
1
is forecasted for the next 20 years. These

figures shows that by 2030 we will use the
double of the energy we used in 1990.
EU norms by means of Energy Labeling,
EuP directives and other design guidelines
try to put in practice the 2020 project of
3x20. These means 20% less greenhouse
gas emission, 20% higher energy
efficiency and 20% renewable energies.
Beside of the new technologies available
we should not forget that these
technological features must work in a
perfect harmony and never the less the
continuous improvement analyses must
have basis on optimal and rational use of
the resources.
The study spots on how to use residual
energy resources by combination of
existing basic technologies with optimum
control management of automation
systems.
2. Theory & Facts
Civil engineering and building services, Politehnica University of Timioara.
104
Industrial facilities often use different

technologies, where by means of
technology there are lot of wastes that
could be reused.
Typical applications might come from
moulding processes, compressed air, food
industry, etc.
Any industrial application that involves
thermal processes like heating and cooling
could be potentially generator of waste
energy. However, not always the waste
energy can be usefully recovered. For this
reason we should say that any waste heat
stream shall be considered by means of its
quantity (approximate energy content),
quality (typical temperatures) and recovery
systems availability for certain application.
The three main items of the heat
recovery of waste energy shall be
considered as follows:
Quantity: It is important to consider this
is a function of mass flow rate, temperature
and composition, which is defined on the
energy consumption of the process.
Nevertheless, in case of quantity we should
consider the timeline availability (all the
time or maybe couple of hours a day).
Quality: it refers to the typical
temperature. Some of the waste heat
streams might have low temperatures,
which make them available for limited
applications, others could have higher
temperatures which shall be used for wider
application range of reuse or conversion.

This component is an important one in the
feasibility of the heat recovery calculation.
Recovery system availability: This
chapter is the component which makes the
recovery process itself to happen. For
various streams we have different recovery
processes
available
with
different
efficiencies.
An important remark upon heat recovery
processes of waste energy is that most of
the recovery systems frequently used is for
recovering high temperatures heat streams,
just like from electric plants or metal
molding processes. Commonly these are
used for district heating (Heat & Power
Plant) or maybe also for cooling.
But, what happens with low temperature
heat streams typically below 100C? The
low temperature streams were mainly
avoided because of high investment costs.
In the following pages some of these
applications will be discussed. There are
many waste energy streams we could use
with low temperatures. Within these we
can put the ventilation air inside buildings,
compressed air-, cooling systems-,
exhausted hot gas heat recovery.
A basic theory which could apply to
these low temperatures heat energy
recovery is the heat pump theory,
explained in equation (1).
HeatPumpEnergy primaryPumpedEnergy ThermalEnergyofthe umpSystem (1)

Lookup for the processes that needs
residual heat to be exhausted. Some typical
applications are widely spread just like:
Industrial cooling processes with
chilled water loop or Direct Expansion
solutions.
Hot Gas exhaust like drying ovens,
compressed air stations.
These two typical applications are
general available (at least one of them) in
mainly all production facilities. Moreover,
these applications are low temperature

waste streams, which could be, depending
on case, used on the heating system as
addition.
To define the feasibility of the reuse of
these energies we need to know the
following:
Temperatures - t exh [C],
Mass Flow rate m [m3/h],
Timeline nr. of hours used T [h].
As soon as is indicated the total waste
A. RETEZAN et. al.: Solutions of energy optimisation in industrial plants.
heat stream capacity and its timeframe we

must calculate against the energy demand
of the building it will feed. Seasonal
energy demand vs. heat recovery energy
gain will define the efficiency ratio, and it
will give an overall picture of the add
value. The energy gain of HR system could
be considered for given periods of time,
just like on a daily/monthly or seasonal
use.
Heat recovery systems must have a
backup solution of the base system, so we
have
100%
coverage
for
any
circumstances. On other hand, HR system
shall never be the single solution to
dissipate the waste heat.
The reason of the statement above is that
not always the entire waste heat stream can
be used inside the heating system as well
as sometimes it cant cover the losses of
the building. A certain example will be
shown later.
Studying the saving potential of the
waste energy certain analyze of the
building heat loss profile is a must. On the
heat loss profile we need to consider the
following:
Heating season as average period for
calculations;
Minimum/Maximum/Average Outdoor
temperature frequency of this.
(number of days/heating season);
Load profile of above mentioned days
to compare with the heat recovery
capacity;
Monthly loading profile based on multi
annual average temperatures.
With all these data we can simulate the
saving potential of the system and spot
where heat recovery gives more energy
than the demand.
Basic calculation of full season load
divided by sum of full period waste energy
stream might result in errors in calculation.
Shorter periods need to be considered to
get more accurate data.
As mentioned, the calculations give only
105
empiric calculation on saving potential.

For this reason on implementation period a
proper management must be done to
follow the system and improve if needed.
This type of application must be done
during a multi-annual contract together
with customer. After implementing waste
heat energy recovery system, it is easy to
do the calculations based on degree days
method, which might give a reference base
to see if there were improvements on the
system.
Degree days method will help the
customer to compare more or less on same
base the different periods. For example one
of the winters might be harder, where more
heat is required. The next year could be
easier, but the less energy cost doesnt
necessarily mean, the system was better in
efficiency. This follow-up procedure might
be used on bases of standard 15C or
18.5C base temperature calculation of
degree days.
As long as the HVAC system will have
multiple heat source feeders afteroptimization is the most important to avoid
wrong functionality.
The reason, why low temperature waste
heat sources (the biggest amount of this
waste energy sources) are not often reused
or implemented is because of the costs
against benefits. Even if from engineering
point of view the system works well, by
the end of the day the decision is taken on
financing point of view.
In any cases, the most important ratio of
reusing the waste heat energy will be
defined by Return Of Investment (ROI)
point. Any system like this will be feasible
only if this ROI will point to a period less
than 4-5 years.
Usually the target is around 3 years of
ROI, which can be easily calculated and
handled. This sort of investments with ROI
> 7 years could be named Never Return
Investments.
In these perspectives the calculations of
106
the system shall be carefully considered

and maybe additional benefits must be also
pointed. (e.g. safety issues, new
investments
plan,
old
systems
functionality, etc)
The following basic steps must be
considered:
Heat Recovery systems of waste heat
energy are potential energy savers, which
shall be defined inside the facility.
Heat Recovery Capacity = Efficiency x
Waste Energy - expressed at base exhaust
temperature.
Existing System must be able to receive
the waste energy partly or fully
Building Dynamics must be considered
to define whether the waste energy could
be used or not.
Define schematic of system.
Implement with the proper control
system. The control system is the heart of
the designed optimized system. If the
automation and control system is not
properly done we could rather waste
energy than saving it!
3. Example of Energy Optimisation by
means of Heat Recovery:
The following example shows the heat
recovery potential calculation of an
existing production facility.
The facility is located in Arad County
and its activity is juice bag (package)
production.
Basic input data:
Year of construction: 2007 - 2012.
Type of building: Industrial production
hall made of concrete structure with
insulated concrete panel walls, sandwich
panel roof structure.
Climate zone: II (t min winter = -15C D.B,
t max summer = +35C D.B.)
Internal Temperature: Offices: 22C 2K
in winter, 26C2K in summer
Production hall & storage: 24C 1K all
round year.
Temperature setback is done by BMS

system during night time 3K from
setpoint.
Heat losses (including Fresh Air heat
losses) = 800 kW 285 kW internal gain =
515 kW
Cooling load = 850 kW (including
internal gains). No technological cooling
considered.
Technological equipments cooling need
1 x Extruder machine 1x12 kW= 12 kW
9 x Bag machines
9x18 kW= 162 kW
1x Bag machine(2015) 1x18 kW= 18 kW
Total gain on techn. cooling
192 kW
Production working time: 2 shifts/day
8 hours/shift.
Recorded working hours of equipments
(supplied by client): 12h/day (4 hours for
maintenance, row material load, etc)
Number of working days/year: 285 Days
(6 days/week, 2 breaks of 2 weeks for
Holiday)
Technological cooling is short in
capacity in winter time, due to fact that air
cooled chillers has got no glycol loop at
this stage, therefore, they are drained
before freezing temperature occurs.
The sum of existing Water cooled chiller
capacity = 96kW. This will be supplied by
one additional unit with 90kW nominal
capacity and one master controller. Total
cooling capacity will be 186kW at 7/12C
Total condensing energy of the water
cooled chillers: 220kW at 42/37C
Compressed Air system:
Three Units are working at 70% load
each. Group control is supplied by
manufacturer of compressors. The 2 shifts
sum 16hrs of working/day.
Capacity = 260kW.
Plate heat exchanger recovering capacity
at real working conditions: HR eff. x
El.Load x Thermal energy percent = 90% x
208 x 80% = 149,76kW. at 50/45C
Compressors has got double heat
exchanger solution inverter driven fan
for air cooled mode and Plate heat
107
06.04.(according to Table 2.2.3 Appendix

III Manualul de Instalatii - Inclzire)
Calculation Base: For easier calculations
period will be considered 15.10-15.04
182 days
Temperature statistic data for 5 year
timeline 2009-2013:
Average winter temperatures (2013-2009
Oct.-Apr.): 4.34C
Average number of lowest temperature
days/season (-15C or less): 3 days (0.02%
of winter season)
Average number of highest temperature
days/season(+15C): 10 days (0.06% of
winter season)
Average number of days with temp
around reference temp: (4.34C0.5K): 14
days (0.85% of winter season)
exchanger for water cooling. Working

criteria is given by outside control. If no
need for LPHW production fan is
switched to higher speed.
According to the listed sources above we
have got available capacities of waste
energy stream as follows:
Technological cooling:
Q=220kWh;
t exh =42C; T=12 hrs/day from recorded
data.
Total heat stream: 2640kWh/day at 42C
Compressed air LPHW recovery =
150kW t exh =45C; T=16 hrs/day
Total heat stream: 2400kWh/day at 45C
These resources could lead to savings on
the Heating system of the building.
User of Waste Energy:
Total Heat Losses: 515kW at -15C
Heating Season : 166 days, from 22.10 to
Table 1
The monthly energy demand on the calculation base.

OCT
NOV
DEC
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
11,7
7,6
1,2
-0,5
0,0
6,
12,6
58526
156309
224168
240768
213023
175190
54078
16
30
31
31
28
31
15
External Average Temp [C]

Total En. Demand [kWh]
Nr. Of days
Table 2
Energy recovery from the waste energy stream

OCT
NOV
DEC
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
Recov. En. from Cooling [kWh]
34320
68640
55440
66000
63360
71280
34320
Recov. En. from Compres.[kWh]
31200
62400
50400
60000
57600
64800
31200
Total Recov. Energy [kWh]
65520
131040
105840
126000
120960
136080
65520
On table 2 it is quantified the energy

recovered from the waste energy stream
during work time. Calculation refers to
working days only.
We can see clearly on based on table 1
and table 2, that we have got an extra
energy on recovery system which cannot
be fully used on October and April, but all
the other months does need additional heat
energy from the Boiler Plant room.
The graphical presentation of the data is
presented on figure 1 According to the
calculations the total estimated energy

need is 1.122.062 kWh, from which the
Waste Energy by means of recovery
system can cover 65%, 732.524 kWh .
This means a big potential of savings.
For Safety measurement 3 points
simulation is made as verification.
Loads are simulated at random dates
where outside temperature is at lowest
point (-15C), than at highest maximum
temperature for heating season (+15C)
and on average yearly temperature as daily
108
maximum (+4C). These results can be

seen on figure 2 , 3 and 4.
Fig. 1. Monthly energy demand estimation of building vs. recovered waste energy amount
Fig. 2. Daily load profile waste heat recovery - hourly load (ref. date 02.02.12, Text min=-15C,
Heat losses 10666kWh, Heat Gain 5040 kWh, Coverage 47,25 %)
The HVAC system consist about
fancoils, AHUs and floor heating system.
According to Manufacturers data sheet, the
AHU units coils have been designed to
50/45C heating water temperature, while
the fan-coil units can work on the same
low temperature, since the capacity can
cover the losses.
Furthermore, extra capacity might be
stored in a buffer tank.
Since the waste energy from compressed
air system is many time excessive heat, we
might consider a buffer tank and a
modulating changeover valve to load tank

with hot energy in case of available extra
energy from compressed air.
Nevertheless,
considering
the
temperature differences and enthalpies
when load is pumped to buffer, we could
increase the capacity of the recovered
system. In these conditions, we can have
an extra percent on efficiency, but this
needs further investigations on the
implementation field.
109
Fig. 3. Daily load profile waste heat recovery - hourly load (ref. date 01.03.10, Text
min=+15C, Heat losses 4646 kWh, Heat Gain 5040 kWh, Coverage 108,47 % - Excesive energy on cooling
recovery - critical time 14:00 - 16:00 and 17:00 - 19:00)
As figure 3 shows, there are situations,
when the heat loss is less than the
recovered heat from technological cooling.
In these conditions if it is necessary an
external cooler shall switch on by the
control board. In case of isolated
situations, the external cooler might not be
needed, since there are time gaps with
almost 0 heat recovery from cooling

(switch changes and row material
preparations or even coffee & snack
brake). These issues must be checked on
real conditions and the control system to
be properly modified/set.
Fig. 4. Daily load profile waste heat recovery - hourly load (ref. date 07.12.13, Text min=+4C,
Heat losses 7339 kWh, Heat Gain 5040 kWh, Coverage 68,67 %)
The control system must follow with
priority the cooling processes. For safety
measure, one air cooled chiller, next to Old
Plant room shall be converted to glycol
solutions. This needs a buffer tank, a plate
heat exchanger one extra pump and fixing
materials, piping, approx. 750l of ethyleneglycol. In this case, we can have double
safety factor by means of 100%
redundancy on technological cooling 365
days and possibility to switch anytime to
outdoor system, if there is no possibility to

dissipate the heat from condensing into the
heating loop.
A little cheaper alternative could be the
usage of a dry cooler, but the cost
difference would be about 10%, since air
cooled chiller is already available on
customers site.
Cost of the new investment.
Total cost of the new investment is
69.000 EUR, including all the hydraulic
110
changes, the new chiller, controllers and

Return of investment calculation:
Natural Gas rate: 155,99 RON/MWh
type B.3 according to DistriGaz Vest
public price list, ANRE 58/27.06.2014
annex. Nr.9 .
Natural Gas price = 34,66 EUR/MWh
Gas fired boiler efficiency: 95%
Annual savings on Heating Energy:
732.524 kWh
Total Energy Demand= 732.524kWh/ 95%
= 771.077kWh = 771 MWh
Annual savings of Gas = 26.722,86 EUR
Interest rate: 5%/year
Gas Cost savings at 5 year = 147.661EUR
Return of investment = 2.5 years 3 years
Benefits & Environmental Protection:
The above presented solution proposal
gives benefits in many ways as follows:
After the return of new investment
around 30.000 EUR annual savings can be
expected.
The environment protection is improved.
While EU-27 average CO 2 emission for
2013 is specified to be 352g/kWh in case
of electricity production, some countries
from Europe have got less than 30 g/kWh.
In the case of our example the amount of
CO 2 saved equals to 257 tons of CO 2
emission reduction yearly.
An amount of 73.715 m3 of gas can be
saved based on average calorie rate of
Natural Gas = 10.46kWh/m3.
People satisfaction factor is increased.
According to Human Resource statistics,
employees working for environment friend
companies are more optimistic and happier
than others. This could results in better
approach and higher productivity.
3. Conclusions:
The recovery of low temperature waste
heat streams, especially from industrial
cooling processes and compressed air
could be useful. It can be used generally in
one existing chiller glycol conversion

new or existing buildings as well, but this
needs a lot of attention pay on system
inside the building. It wont be used as
long as it is designed on high ongoing
temperatures.When a new building is
considered this solution could be included
to keep costs at minimum. Non return
financing can be obtained for these apps
(EU financing on renewable energies, 2020
directives, LEED certificates, etc)
The heat recovery systems could be
applied in best way in case of new
buildings, but retrofitting is also possible
depending on the available system.
In ultimate case of 70C+ temperatures
on waste energy, depending on application,
beside of heating, absorption cooling
system could be also considered. This
would keep electricity use at bottom as
well.However, not every system is suitable
for this sort of implementation, therefore
overall view must be considered and none
of the projects shall stop at turnkey
execution, but further optimization shall be
considered.
References
1. BP Energy Outlook 2030, London,
2011, British Petroleum Statistics
2. Waste Heat Recovery: Technology and
Oportunities in U.S. Industry, 2008, U.S.
Department of Industry
3. Manual de Instalatii Incalzire, Bucuresti,
2010, ARTECNO
4. Fts s Klma-Technika 2000
Recknagel-Sprenger-Schramek,
Pcs,
2000, Dialg Campus
5. www.clivet.com
technical
documentation of equipment
6. www.wunderground.com weather
statistics information
7. Improving Compressed Air System
Performance, Washington, 2003, U.S.
Department of Energy

PREDICTION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS BEFORE
AND AFTER RETROFITING USING
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
D.S. RUSU 1
Abstract: This paper presents the development of a new method of energy
consumption prediction in residential buildings taking into consideration the
great differences between the standard modelling simulations and the real
conditions. The novelty of this method is that energy consumption is
determined based on real data collected from numerous real cases instead of
standard old norms, leading to a more accurate prediction. This method
takes into consideration the nonlinearity relations between all the
measurable variables and the final energy consumption, without being
restricted to standards and norms. To this end, several artificial neural
networks were built, trained and tested, generating a computer software that
can be used for verifying and proving the accuracy of the new method in
predicting the energy consumption in retrofitting residential buildings.
Key words: energy consumption, residential, buildings, neural networks
1. Introduction
The energy consumption in residential
buildings is predicted today by a series of
calculations methods that start with some
physical data of the building itself and a lot
of normated values extracted from
standards (ex. the specific hot water
consumption per capita per day). What we
get out of these methods is how much
energy it should be consumed and not how
much it will. The two values can
sometimes vary significantly because there
are a lot of factors that are not taken into
consideration (the human factor for ex.)
just because there are no standards for
them, we dont know the impact that they
have (the rate of unemployment for ex.) or
1
we dont have a linear mathematical

relation between them and the final energy
consumption value.If we have to predict
the future energy consumption for a
residential area we are forced to repeat the
same inexact calculations for each building
without taking into consideration the
previously obtained data as well.
Solving some of these problems by
using artificial neural networks will allow
to accurately determine the results almost
instantly, without the need to use
mathematical modeling of the process and
repeating these calculations for new
situations [1].
Of course we do still need most physical
parameters of the building but the results
do no longer depend on norms and
Faculty of Building Services, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
112
standards which may not be suitable for

our class of buildings [6].
retrofitted.
3.1 Initial hypothesis
2. Theoretical considerations on
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
An artificial neural network is defined as
an
evenly
distributed
information
processor with the ability of experimental
data storage and prediction on new input
cases. The information processing module
mimics the human brain activity forming
patterns by studying the existing situations
and applying the knowledge in order to
generate predictions about new situations.
ANN's are used in the engineering field
as an alternative method of analysis and
prediction. Neural networks operate
successfully in most cases where
conventional methods fail, data analysis
being applied at present to solve a variety
of nonlinear problems such as pattern
recognition. [3]
Instead of using complex rules and
mathematical routines, ANN's are able to
learn the key information patterns within a
multidimensional information domain. In
addition, neural networks successfully
eliminate
data
entry
errors
and
supplementary information irrelevant to
the processes, becoming robust tools for
data modeling and prediction [4].
3. The database construction for the
ANNs training
The database that will be used to train
the neural network must contain a
sufficient number of cases in order for the
method to have a general application. Also,
the cases should be evenly distributed over
the length of analyzed interval, in order for
the level of accuracy in predicting future
cases to be as high as possible. In this
regard 70 cases were chosen as the main
references, 35 of them have poor thermic
characteristics and 35 buildings are
The first step in building the neural

network is to establish the most important
physical and thermal characteristics and to
build a data base for each of the 70 cases.
3.2 Selecting the input and output
parameters
Given the available data, the following
variables are chosen to represent the input
parameters of neural network, being the
input neurons of the network as well:
S h representing the total heated area
[m2];
V representing the volume [m3];
S anvelop representing the total outside
surface [m2];
S perei representing the outside wall
surface [m2];
S teras representing the terrase surface
[m2];
S fe.usi representing the total outside
windows and doors [m2];
R perei being the thermal resistance of
the walls [mK/W] ;
R teras being the thermal resistance of
the terrace [mK/W];
R fe.ui being the thermal resistance of
the windows and doors, obtained as the
ponderate mean in regard to the surface
[mK/W].
The variable chosen to represent the
output parameter of the neural network and
also the output neuron is:
Q h being the annual energy
consumption
[kWh/year] .
for
heating
3.3 Construction of the ANNs training

file
The set of data used for the ANNs
D.S. RUSU: Prediction of energy consumption in residential buildings before and after
retrofiting using artificial neural networks
training is comprised of 9 values for each

building, numbering a total of 630 input
values and 70 output values.
These values were measured on
different residential buildings from Brad
town, in Hunedoara County over a period
of two years (before and after thermal
insulation).
The file is actually a spread sheet with
11 columns (one for each parameter and
the number of the building) and 70 lines
(one for each case).
Out of this training file, 15 cases were
selected for the verifying file that will be
used for the validation of the ANN.
4. The construction and the training of
the ANN
113
version 7.0.4, was used for the

construction of the neural networks, for
which an academic license was obtained.
In order to determine the right
architecture of the network, a series of trials
were made. The final architecture is
composed of 10 neurons on the input layer
(9 corresponding to the input parameters
and one to the Bias), and one neuron on the
output layer corresponding to the output
parameter.
Regarding the neurons on the hidden
layer a series of configurations were
examined in order to reduce the errors,
arriving at a number of 9 neurons.
The final architecture of the artificial
neural network created is being presented
in Fig.2.
The program Tiberius Data Mining,

Fig
. 2. The architecture of the neural network used to determine the annual energy
consumption for the heating of a residential building
The training process was conducted at
different rates starting with 0.7 and ending
with 0.1 in the interest of decreasing the
error. The number of epochs was originally
established at 5000. The last adjustment
for the synaptic weights occurred after
1952 epochs.
The annual energy consumption targeted

values for the networks testing; the
modeled values and the errors between the
two of them for 15 of the 70 test cases
contained in the test file are shown in
Table 1. Differences between the targeted
values introduced and the model output of
which is the validation of the method for

determining the specific heat loss.
The testing results of the ANN for determining Q h
The chart for the targeted values and

the modeled values of the specific heat loss
and the error between them for 70 cases on
which the neural network gets validated
are shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen an
14
15
275125,92
730320,47
527688,35
918082,50
752145,04
-1012,51
802,88
1690,75
-36,62
-24,58
529379,10
13
255965,82
731123,36
12
79,54
274113,41
11
275125,92
256045,36
10
-1012,51
274113,41
217161,54
216596,67
-564,87
268847,16
273957,84
-5110,68
256045,36
251880,29
4165,07
378765,57
382685,09
-3919,51
778135,93
1068491,07
991621,71
779028,33
Error
-892,39
value
1069104,99
Qh
-613,92
Modeled
990254,46
value
1367,25
Qh
812413,31
Targeted
812284,71
number
128,60
Case
Table 1
752120,46
the neural network do not exceed 5 [%]

which allows for the next step to occur,
918045,88
114
almost perfect overlap between the two

graphs, which demonstrates the networks
capability to determine the required value
with sufficient accuracy.
Fig. 3. The chart for the targeted, the modeled values and the error for the ANN
Once trained for these cases, the neural
network can predict the annual energy
consumption for heating for new cases, by

modifying any of the input neurons values.
D.S. RUSU: Prediction of energy consumption in residential buildings before and after
retrofiting using artificial neural networks
The new values must not exceed the

trained interval by a large amount;
otherwise the possibility of error will
increase.
Table 2 contains the relative contribution
of the neurons in the hidden layer which
help to determine the final result for the 70
cases used. It can be seen that each neuron
of the hidden layer contributes at some

point to the correct solving of the nonlinearity between the input parameters and
the output result. This insight demonstrates
the importance of the wall structure on the
final energy consumption, giving good
references on the actions that need to be
taken in optimization strategies.
The testing results of the ANN for determining the specific heat loss
Neuron
Neurons Name
Number
115
Relative
Table 2
Level of Importance
Importance
R perei
1,000
R teras
0,497
R ferestre ui
0,179
Sh
0,142
0,110
S ferestre ui
0,102
S teras
0,063
S anvelop
0,021
S perei
0,009
In the end a software program was

generated by the network that can
determine
the
annual
energy
consumption for heating residential
buildings in the conditions mentioned
above. The last two columns of the
program are showing the minimum and
maximum values experimented by the
neural network in the training process.
The softwares interface generated with
the neural networks is shown in Fig. 4.
This program was used afterwards in the
prediction of the total annual energy
consumption for heating of the entire
town of Brad, summing 120 residential
buildings with 3989 apartments.
Even though only 5% of the buildings
were rehabilitated thermally, the
software helped to predict the total
energy consumption before and after the
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process of rehabilitation. Knowing this

information is crucial in establishing the
strategies to reduce energy consumption
and redesigning the new thermal energy
production, transport and distribution
plans for the town. After analyzing the
data there was an estimated 6.041.611,21
[Gcal/year] drop in energy consumption
after the rehabilitation process, making
this a priority before other measures.
Having this prediction helps a lot in the
establishment of the energy policy of the
town also, knowing in advance the
quantity of thermal energy needs in the
near future.
5. Conclusions
The application of the neural network in
order to determine the energy consumption
116
in residential buildings can be done

successfully due to their ability to
overcome the problems of non-linearity
between the input parameters and the
values to be calculated.
This method can be used for all kind of
predictions in energy consumption areas,
thermal energy being the first to be
experimented in this case.
Fig. 4. The interface of the software

program created with the neural network
The software program generated by
using neural networks allows the
determination of accurate values in a very
short period of time for any input values
that dont exceed the intervals that the
networks experienced during training. And
so it can be a powerful tool for the
establishment of energy policies for town
administrations.
References
1. Gouda, M. M., Danaher, S.,
Underwood,C. P.: Application of
artificial neural network for modelling
the thermal dynamics of a buildings
space and its heating system,
Mathematical
and
Computer
Modelling of Dynamical Systems, Vol
8., Nr.3, p333-344 , United Kingdom,
2002.
2. Haykin, S.,O.: Neural Networks and
Learning Machines, Prentice Hall,
United States of America, 2008
3. Heaton, J.: Introduction to the Math of
Neural Networks, Heaton Research
INC., United States of America, 2011
4. Kalogirou, S. A.: Application of
artificial neural networks for energy
systems, Applied Energy, vol 67,p.17
35, United Kingdom, 2000
5. Kalogirou,S.A.:
Artificial
Neural
Networks and Genetic Algorithms in
Energy Applications in Buildings,
Advances
in
Building
Energy
Research Vol. 3,p.83120., Earthscan,
United Kingdom,2009
6. Wentzel, E.,L.: Annual Heat Loss of a
Building with Different Wall Types. A
Study of the Influence of the Shape of
the Weighting Functions.The 7th
symposium on Building Physics in the
Nordic Countries, Iceland, 2005
7. Rusu,D.,S.: Optimization of energy
consumption in household buildings,
Phd. Thesis, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
2012

THEORETICAL ECOLOGICAL STUDY

-REFRIGERANT COMPARISONG. TARLEA
M.VINCERIUC 1
A. TARLEA 2
Abstract: The present paper is about the refrigerant R32 as an alternative

solution for R134a. The thermodynamic properties were determined using the
program Refprop. The comparative analysis regarding the TEWI factor was
made for an air-water heat pump that currently works on R134a.
Key words: refrigerant, GWP, TEWI factor.
1. Introduction
Because of the more and more severe
measures undertaken in order to eliminate
HFC and HCFC type refrigerants,
synthetic substances which nature cannot
rapidly dissociate and which, by
accumulating could contribute to global
warming and ozone depletion, extensive
research is done, in which various

ecological refrigerants are analized
[1],[2],[3].
The paper presents a comparative study for
an air-water heat pump in terms of the
contribution of refrigerants to global
warming.
Fig. 1: Pressure refrigerants vs. temperature

Thermodynamic properties of these
simulations were determined using
RefProp software [8]. From Table 1, it can
1
2
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest.

Romanian General Association of Refrigeration.
be observed that the pressure of R32 is

higher, in comparison to R134a's. Figure 1
118
and Figure 2 show the vapour pressure and

density differences on the temperature
variation of the proposed refrigerant.
Fig. 2: Vapour Density vs. temperature
Fig. 3: Heat of vaporization vs. temperature
2. The theoretical study

The study case is for a refrigeration
capacity of 0.4 kW. The vaporisation
temperature of the refrigeration system is 10C and the condensation temperature is
+55C.
The TEWI factor was calculated
according to UE legislation. The total
global
warming
potential
method
calculation (GWP) of the Ecological
Alternative was done according to
REGULATION (EC) No 842/2006 (from
1 January 2015 REGULATION (EC) No
517/2014) [1], [4], [5], [6], and [7].
The TEWI factor was determined
respecting the Standard SR EN 378-1:
G. TARLEA et al.: Theoretical ecological study -refrigerant comparison
The following assumptions were made in

order to calculate the TEWI factor: mass of
119
Alternative R32 - 0,646kg and 0,780 kg for

R134a.:
Table 1
Comparison between the ecological alternative and R134a

Refrigerant
R32
R-134a
Critical temperature
[oC]
Critical pressure
[bar]
Critical density
[kg/m3]
Molar mass
[kg/kmol]
78,105
101,06
57,82
40,593
424
511,9
52,024
102,03
Refrigerant
R32
Table 2
R-134a
Refrigerant charge [kg]
0,646
0,780
ODP
GWP
650
1300
TEWI
Tons of CO 2
43,37
41,01
The theoretical results
TEWI(tonsofCO2)
43,37
41,01
44,00
43,00
42,00
41,00
40,00
39,00
R134a
R32
Fig. 4: TEWI Factor

The refrigeration system operated 20
hours per day, 200 days per year. The
leakage of refrigerant was 8% from charge
with a usual recovery factor. The total

operating time of the system was 15 years
and CO2 emissions were 0.6 kg / kWh.
120
3. Conclusions
The paper shows the advantages and
disadvantages of the refrigerant R32,
which could replace R134a and could be
used in air conditioning equipment.
By comparing the alternatives in Figure
4, Table 2 it is clear that the global
warming impact (TEWI) of refrigerant
R32 is the lowest and of R134a is the
highest.
As a consequence to the determination of
the thermodynamic properties, one could
observe (Table 1) that the critical
temperature is decreasing and the critical
pressure is increasing for alternative R32
in comparison with refrigerant R134a.
More information can be required
through the following e-mail address:
gratiela.tarlea@gmail.com.
3.
4.
5.
6.
References
1.
2.
rlea G. M.: Codes of Practice (1,2).

Domain refrigerating and air conditioning
Bucharest, Publisher AGIR, 2008, 2009.
Trlea G., Vinceriuc M.: - Studiul
comparativ al pompei de caldura aer-apa
utilizand agentii frigorifici R134a si
7.
8.
R152a, in Conferinta nationala de

Instalatii, 13-15 octombrie Sinaia 2010.
Tarlea G. M.,Vinceriuc M - Agenti
frigorifici ecologici nlocuitori ai R134a
, In A 47-a conferinta nationala de
Instalatii, 17-19 octombrie Sinaia 2012,
rlea G. M., Vinceriuc M., Tarlea A.,
Popescu G - Theoretical Comparative
Study Case, Hydrocarbons and HFC
Mixture Alternatives Retrofit,.published in
The 10 th IIF/IIR Gustav Lorentzen
Conference on Natural Refrigerants, Delft,
The Netherlands, June 25-27, 2012
rlea G. M., Vinceriuc M. - Alternative
ecologice de agenti frigorifici pentru o
pompa de caldura aer-apa, in Volumul
Conferintei
TehnicoStiitifica
cu
participare internationala, ,,Instalatii pentru
constructii si economia de energie, Editia
XXII, 5-6 iulie Iasi 2012, Editura
Societatii Academice MATEI-TEIU
BOTEZ;
*** Regulation (EC) No 842/2006 of the
European Parliament and of the council
on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases
*** Regulation (EC) No 517/2014 of the
European Parliament and of the council
on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases
*** The National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) - REFPROP V 8.0,
Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and
Transport Properties.

INFRASTRUCTURE BEHAVIOR OF
EXISTING STEEL BRIDGES IN
OPERATION
I. BADEA 1
D. BADEA1
Abstract: Estimating the carrying capacity of old steel bridges in mining,

you need to take in consideration two things: the infrastructure and the
superstructure. On the superstructure you can make some investigations,
but the problem becomes more difficult when inspecting the infrastructure.
This paper presents some typical solutions for the infrastructure of old
metal bridges in operation
Keywords: bridges, infrastructure, old bridges in operation;

1. Introduction
Estimating the carrying capacity of the
existing metal structures is an important
problem for the idea of the constructions
sustainability.
Rehabilitation
of
existing
steel
structures is a way of sustainable
development and also an act of culture.
Generally we can say that the main aspects
are:
- Positive socio-economic impact for the
region which would be able to obtain the
maximum benefit from the rehabilitation
of the structures
- The rehabilitation program will be
conceived to achieve safety at all
construction stages and to allow no
compromises
during
the
different
construction stages.
- Exemplary work sites from an
environmental perspective have to be
conceived.
- The current problem is the safety of the
construction. It needs to be safe for further
1
exploitation. We need to keep in mind that

the traffic and the loads on axles have
increased and also the material fatigues.
Fig. 1. Correlation schema for

rehabilitation of existing structures
University Politehnica Timioara Faculty of Civil Engineering
122
The determination of the carrying

capacity of the structure is performed
usually after specific regulations. [2], [3],
[4]. European standards EUROCODES
do not relate to existing constructions, but
to new ones.
A separate chapter is assessing the
technical condition and carrying capacity
of the infrastructure.
These were made with the specific
technology existing at the end of the
nineteenth century and early twentieth
century.
In this paper we present several typical
solutions for the foundations of railway
bridges and existing old road in operation.
Currently in Europe, it is used to extend
the life span of old structures in order to
maintain the historical value.
In that period, the bridges were
calculated using much easier loads.
Therefore each element of the structure
must be reinforced with ingenious
solutions in order to meet the current
traffic conditions.
The rehabilitation is a difficult and
complex process.
Fig.2 Direct Foundation - pier

Direct foundations were built on good
soil for foundations, at reduced water
levels or where there was the possibility of
deviating the river course in order to
realize it onshore. This solution was used
for building light bridges with light loads
(highway bridges). In general the bridges
piles were covered with stone masonry and
inside they were filled with crushed stone
or ciclopian concrete.
2. Typical infrastructure solutions for

existing steel bridges.
In general, you cannot find a lot of
information regarding to the infrastructure
of bridges built between XIX and XX
centuries.
A list of instructions could be obtained
from the railway administration. Also an
on-site inspection of the infrastructure is
rather difficult and its based on good
knowledge of the expert, as well as
observations on the behavior of the
construction in time.
A first solution is the direct foundation.
Fig.3 Wooden grillage

The same solution could also have a
wooden beading material (grillage) in
order to have a better repartition of the
foundation ground.
I. BADEA et al: Infrastructure behavior of existing steel bridges in operation
With increasing loads from year to year

and where to soil was not good for direct
foundation, the solution with timber piles
was adopted.
Fig.4 Wooden piles

The wooden piles were fitted in the
ground at the right level with pile drivers.
The top of the piles were covered with
stones. Over the wooden piles, the
structure was fitted with a surface made
out of timber beams on which they
continued building the stone masonry.
123
on top of the wooden beading material.

The casing was set in the right position and
then it was sunk. Afterwards, inside the
caisson, the pile was built. After the work,
the caisson was removed and used to build
the next pile.
Fig.6 Wooden caisson

A step forward was to provide a double
wooden sheet pile wall, in order to protect
the pier.
Fig.7 Double wooden sheet pile wall
Fig. 5 Sunken wooden piles

A step forward was the solution with
built-up wooden caissons, that was fitted
Between timber walls, clay was put up

in order to protect the pier. With the help
of steam machineries, they dried the workspace in order to work on dry land.
Another way of building piles was with a
124
compressed air caisson. With this solution,

the bridge Regel Carol over the Danube
was built in Cernavoda .
3. In time behaviour of existing bridges
infrastructure
Generally
maintenance
of
these
structures is poor. In time producing a
series of degradation. Below we describe
some typical defects:
Settlements and inclined piers An
important aspect concerns to scoring of
foundations. By placing the infrastructure
in the river bed, increases the water flow
rate. On reaching a critical speed, it can
produce
scoring.
The
following
considerations will describe some possible
situations of scoring. Wear (Stone
masonry). Water has the effect of abrasion
on natural stone. Wear may be more
pronounced at the stones masonry soft
rock (sandstone).
Displacements.
Their
occurrence
indicates subsidence structure, which can
lead to destruction of infrastructure.
Discovered joints. Absence of stone
masonry. Absence of mortar and lack of
stone masonry indicates subsidence
structure, which can lead to destruction of
infrastructure.
Defects of stone masonry. This defect
may occur by crafting the infrastructure
with floats and boats.
In the figure is presented the

consequences of scoring next to a pile that
is protected with embankment.(scoring
next to a pile)
Another situation can occur to pile
founded directly where scoring reduce the
carrying surface of the foundation on the
Foundation soil; in consequence cracks
and settling may occur.
Fig.9 Scoring under the foundation

At foundations on piles scoring can lead
to reducing their carrying capacity by
reducing friction on the mantle, danger of
buckling and pilots destroyed by the rot.
Fig.8 Scoring next to a pile
I. BADEA et al: Infrastructure behavior of existing steel bridges in operation
Fig.10 Sections
It emphasizes that on-site inspection of
these structures is complicated and can be
done by: execution of an enclosure of
piling and removal of water. This method
is expensive and difficult.
Another method consists in verifying the
structure under water by a diver. It must be
specially trained.
Today there are modern methods using
underwater cameras.
4. Case Study: Bridge from Svrin.
The general disposition and description
of bridge
4x39,80m; Ltot =159,2m
Fig. 11 Savarsin Bridge elevation

The bridge was rehabilitated in 2008. To
125
the infrastructure were found a number of

defects and was prepared a consolidation
project.
Bridge over the river Mures at Svrin
is situated on the county road DJ 707 A
(km 1 + 271 m) and is a remarkable
structure with four spans L = 4 x 39.80 m
= 159.20, built in 1897. (Fig.).
The bridge has a classical form for the
period when it was built: the main truss
girders with parabolic shape, with
descending diagonal (tensionned) and
verticals (compressed).
At the top, on four central panels wind
braces are disposed. Resistance structure of
the path is formed by a network of beams
disposed orthogonally stringers and cross
girders who supported the Zores profiles.
Over the profiles Zores was placed a
layer of ballast non- aggregated, approx.
20 cm thick and a layer of asphaltic
concrete with a thickness of approx. 5 cm.
With a ratio L / H = 39.6 / 6.22 = 1 / 6.4
(Fig.), the main beams have an elegant
look, bridge fits perfectly into the
surrounding landscape.
Pointed out that the bridge is located
near the summer residence of King
Michael I of Romania.
The maintenance of the bridge was
neglected; the technical condition of the
bridge was bed.
The rehabilitation of the structure was
realized with adequate solution without
changing the general appearance of the
structure. This project received the first
European ECCS prize in 2010 [
R.Bncil, E.Petzek, D. Boldu New life
for an old historical steel bridge over the
Mure river European Convention for
Constructional Steelwork AWARD - First
European prize, 2010 Sept.
[www.steelconstruct.com].
A special problem was the rehabilitation
of the infrastructure. Taking into account
the general behavior of the structure, and
carefully in situ observations (no
126
settlements or inclination were observed),

only minor works to the abutments and
piers were provided.
With the help of an old expertise the
pressure on the soil was calculated; the
result is lower than the allowable ground
pressure. Nevertheless the structure
(superstructure and infrastructure) is under
surveillance. In present the traffic is
normal on the bridge.
There was made an approximate
calculation of the effective pressure on the
sole of foundation using a geotechnical
study IPTANA - 1998 In this regard were
considered all of its own weight loads plus
convoy A30 loads on two adjacent

openings. Resulted a pressure less than the
the admissible pressure. This corroborated
with the good behavior of the foundation
over time leads to the conclusion of good
behavior
of
the
foundation
by
strengthening the superstructure.
Conclusion:
The appreciation of carrying capacity of
the existing bridges infrastructure is
generally difficult. It can be based on a
good knowledge of foundation solutions.
Fig.12 Savarsin Bridge after rehabilitation

References
1. German Norms [1]
2. Swiss Norms [2]
3. Austrain Norms [3]
4. SBB Empfehlung fur die

Uberwachung und Hinweise fur den
Neubau 1998 [4]
5. G. Mehlhorn Der Ingenieurbau,
Ernst&Sohn, 1995

DEFLECTION AND PRECAMBERING OF

STEEL BEAMS
R. BNCIL1
D. BOLDU1 A. FEIER2
M. MALIA1
S. HERNEA1
Summary: Steel beams are used in the construction of

industrial, commercial buildings, bridges and other structures.
Deflection in a steel beam describes the amount of deformation
the beam will incur under load. Precambering reduce the
deflection under load being one of the requirements of deflection
checking. The present paper describes the calculus of the
deflection and the necessity of precambering in different
structural elements.
Key words: Deflection, Precambering, Plate girders, Truss
girders.
1. Introduction
Serviceability Limit State (SLS) is

the design state such, that the structure
remains functional for its intended use,
subject to the different everyday
loadings. SLS is the point where a
structure can no longer be used for its
intended purpose, but would still be
structurally robust (for example a beam
deflect by more than the SLS limit, will
not necessarily fail structurally). The
occupants may feel uncomfortable, if
there are unacceptable deformations,
drifts or vibrations. In the case of SLS,
the judgements are usual non-technical,
involving perceptions and expectations
1
2
of building owners and occupants.

Sometimes it is part of the contractual
agreement with the owner, than lifesafety related.
It is important to mention that,
serviceability problems cost more
money to correct than would be spent
preventing the problem in the design
phase [1].
Generally, the serviceability limit
state includes [2] the verification of:
the functioning of the structure or
structural members under normal use
(including the adjacent machines or
services)
the comfort of the people
the appearance of the construction
works
Universitatea Politehnica Timisoara, Facultatea de Constructii

Urban INCD INCERC-Sucursala Timisoara
128
It is mention that appearance refers to

deflection and extensive cracking,
rather than aesthetics.
Serviceability
requirements
are
established for each structure.
Generally it shall be verified that:
EdCd
(1)
where
Ed is the design value of the effects
of actions specified in the serviceability
criterion determined on the base
of the relevant combination.
Cd limiting value for the relevant
serviceability criterion.
For
buildings
structures
the
simplified combinations of actions are
the followings:
considering
only
the
most
unfavorable variable action:
k, j
Qk ,1
(2)
considering all unfavorable actions:
G
j
k, j
0,9 Qk ,i
i 1
(3)
d0
d max
d2
d1
It must be underlined that, M for the

SLS verification shall be taken as 1,0
(characteristic values of the loads). The
limiting values for vertical deflections
are presented in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Vertical deflections of a simple

supported beam
max 1 2 0
(4)
where:
max is the maximum deflection
(sagging) in the final state, relative to

the straight line joining the supports;
0 is the precamber of the beam in
the unloaded (state 0)
1 is the variation of the deflection
of the beam due to the permanent

loads, immediately after loading (state
1)
2 is the variation of the deflection
of the beam due to the variable loads,

increased with the deflection of the
beam due to the permanent loads (state
2).
The recommended limits for vertical
deflection are given in the Eurocodes
standards for different structures and
are
generally
between
L / 150 L / 1000 , where L is the span
of the beam.
Excessive deflections can produce
distortion in connections and lead to
high secondary stresses.
They are indicators of the lack of
rigidity which might result in vibration
and overstress under dynamic load and
discomfort for the human uses of the
structure. For the usual structures some
values for the ratio maximum
deflection/span ( f / L ) according to
[3], are presented:

roofs and purlins L / 200 L / 250
Large deflections have as result a
poor drainage of the roof and the
increasing of the loads due to
ponding.
floors ceilings L / 250 L / 300
R. BANCILA et al.: Deflection And Precambering Of Steel Beams
floors supporting other structures

L / 500
Excessive deflections may produce
cracks in ceilings, floors or partition.
highway bridge main girders and
cross girders L / 500
railway bridge main girders and cross
girders L / 800
crane girders, light use L / 500
crane girders, heavy use (service
class) L / 800 L / 1000
Where the appearance of the structure
can be affected, a maximum deflection
of L / 250 is recommended. For crane
girders the limitation of the deflection
avoids the up and down rolling,
respectively the inclination of the
crane. [4]
The deformations of crane girders are
calculated without the dynamic
coefficient [5].
A special attention must be paid for
bridges. By railway bridges the
limitation of the deformations avoids
the derailment (especially by high
speed), respectively the increasing of
the dynamic effect (the trajectory is
curved centrifugal force). In the case
of underpasses the limitation of the
structure deformation assures the
clearance gauge.
For bridges the European Standard
SREN
1990:2004/A1:2006
[6],
prescribes:
for highway bridges the SLS
verification is needed only in special
cases.
The
frequent
loading
combination is recommended (p.
A.2.4.2.)
for railway bridges, the maximum
deflection is L / 600 (p. A.2.4.4.2.3.).
129
For bridges the dynamic coefficient

are taken in consideration (UIC,
SW0 and SW2 convoys).
The German Standard for railway
bridges [7], are more severe and
conservative, especially for high
speeds.
Speed 160<v<200 km/h
Span
Number of spans
2
3
L / 500
L / 1000
25 m
L / 800
L / 1700
30 m
Tab. 1. Deformations according to
the German Standard DS 805
2. Classical calculus of the deflection
For a simple supported girder the

value of the maximum deflection at
midspan is
5 M max l 2
f
f max
48
EI
(5)
EI is the flexural rigidity of the
beam
Fig.2 Analysed load cases

For a double symmetrical cross
section with
I
M max W R R
h
2
where R represents the design value of
the resistance results:
130
5 I
l2
2R
f max
48 h
EI
EI is the flexural rigidity of the

beam
5 Rl2
f
f max
24 E h
(6)
2
l
5
f kR
k
h where
24 E
(7)
The necessary height of the girder

results:
5 R l2
hnec

24 E f max
and
5 l 1
I nec
M max l
48 f E
(8)
A first interesting conclusion: The
deflection do not depend on the
moment of inertia but only on the span
l and the height of the beam. The
designer can reduce deflections by
increasing the depth of the element,
reducing the span or providing greater
restraints.
With the usual values l / f 500
and a steel grade S235 with R=235
N/mm2 results:
hnec
5
2350
l
500 l
24 2100000
8,6
(9)
For a steel grade S355 with R=355
N/mm2 results:
l
hnec
5,7
(10)
Fig. 3. Predimensioning a railway

bridge
The deflection calculus and control
assumes a particular significance with
the development of the higher strength
steels and the tendency to large spans
in beams structures. For a simple
supported girder with l=13 m, limiting
the deflections results:
- for S235
13000
h
1500
8,6
- for S355
13000
h
2300
5,7
From equation (5) the value of the
inertia moment for f max l / 500 is:
5
500
Inec
Mmaxl 25106 Mmax l
48 2100000
[cm] (11)
Relation (11) can be used for the
initial determination of the cross
section. If the cross section varies
along the length of the beam (for
example
additional
plates
are
provided), the deflection can be
calculated by
131
loads
As a guide value, for , it can be
taken 0,25 0,30 in Civil Engineering
and 0,5 in bridges.
Fig.4 Load concentrated at l / 2
The calculus above can be repeated
also for others loadings. For a single
load at midspan, results: (fig. 4)
As a general observation, these
conditions are very severe. Often the
steel beams have to be designed from
the rigidity condition, that means that
the maximum stresses in the structure
are lower than the design value of the
resistance.
In a similar way can be calculated the
deflection for a continous girder. More
complicated is the situation in
composite
girders,
where
the
construction sequence is essential.
3. Precambering necessity in steel
plate girders
From the above considerations results

the necessity of precambering.
Deflections are counterbalanced by
camber in beams. Camber (bent)
comes from old French, respectively
from Latin camurum (arched).
Precamber is efficient even if the
fabrication costs are higher. [3]
Generally for precambering (fcs) it is
recommended [3]:
f cs f g fu
where
fg
deflection produced by the
permanent loads
f u deflection produced by live
Fig.5 Precambering at steel plate

girders
To induce a camber in a beam cold
bending is the usual method and it
involves brute force.
Hot bending is more labor intensive,
time consuming and increasing the
costs. The beam is heated in wedgeshape segments along the member at
uniformly (not necessarily equally)
spaced points, symmetric about the
member centerline. A wedge is heated,
the steel expands and bends the beam
in a direction opposite to the intended
camber (due to the longitudinal
restraint of the cold steel around, which
resists the expansion). Hot bending is
used extensively in the repair of
structural damaged elements. In
modern steel shops, there are additional
methods to induce camber [9].
Maximum camber is also limited in
order to avoid serious over-stressing
during the cambering operations
(Recommendation AISC Manual).
Fig.6 Maximum camber for welded

plate steel girders
132
For welded plate steel girders the web

will be composed by rhomboidal and
not by rectangular elements. (Fig. 6)
In this situation the execution of the
but welds requires a quality NDT
control [10]. For truss girders, due to
the height of the structure, the
deflections are usually not important.
Nevertheless, for crane girders and
bridges a camber is recommended. The
precambering has the parabola or a
circle form (Fig. 7). In this situation the
geometrical system of the girder is
different.
y 4 xx1
company started the construction of a

new bridge over the river Crisul
Repede. The designer, an Italian
design office, has chosen the solution
of a continuous girder with variable
height over three spans with the
following sequence
L = 15, 875 + 49,70 + 17,875 = 85 m
f
l2
Fig.8. General view and cross section

of the bridge.
It is a composite solution with two
steel box girders and a deck composed
2
2
2
of prefabricated slabs.
b
f
l
y R x1 b f
A first observation: the ratio between
8R
the central and the side spans is only
Fig. 7. The precambering to the
32%
(outside
of
the
usual
parabola or a circle form.
recommendations), which has as result,
the presence of ascending reaction
More
complicated
is
the forces in the end bearings on the
precambering problem by continuous abutments
with
following
girders especially for bridges, where consequences:
different positions of the convoy have
complications in the design of
to be considered. In this case the abutment with the need of anchoring
precambering form is a S.
the structure and to provide a superior
Case study
end bearing.
In the city of Oradea a private
difficulties in the erection of the

structure.
The height of girder is close to the
recommended values of L/25 on the
bearing and L/40-L/50 in the middle of
the span. The structure composed by a
steel grade of S355K2W is over
dimensioned (the actual stress are
lower than the allowable ones)
resulting an important self weight of
approximately 2,5 tones/m for one
girder. During the launching of the
steel structure some rigidity problems
appeared.
The structure is supported only on
two piers, the abutments and the final
bearings are not finished yet; in this
situation the deformations are free
without any restraint.
At the end a deflection of 81 mm and
in the middle 69 mm were registered,
which represents almost the half of the
recommended value of L/350=143 mm
(Fig.9).
Fig.9 Deflection of bridge structure

In the situation if the concrete slabs
aprox 3,75 tones/m, are disposed on the
steel structure, the final deflection will
have a value of 100 mm, which is
visible, having an unaesthetic aspect
and
consuming
75%
of
the
133
recommended value of the maximal

deflection.
This
example
underlines
the
importance of the initial precambering
avoiding many problems.
For continuous girders bridges the
precambering problem is more
complicated. In this situation the
deflections are positive (sagging) or
negative (hogging) depending on the
position of the convoy. A possible
solution is the superposition of the
resulted deflections from the successive
positions of the convoy.
A case study was performed on a
continuous plate girder railway bridge,
having the following spans: L=
30+40+30 m, loaded by the dead load
and the UIC-71 convoy according to
EC1-2 (Fig.10).
Fig.10. Railway bridge load

The deflections in an interval of 10 m
from the dead load fg0, and the UIC-71
convoy in the most unfavorable
position in the marginal fcm and the
central field fcc were determined.
(fig.11)
134
Taking into account that the deflections

are positive and negative, a combined
value fc are resulting from the
superposition of fcm and fcc.
In the next step a precambering was
applied with the following value:
With
=0,2;
(fg0+fc,cum).
0,3;0,4;0,5;0,6;0,7;0,8;0,9;1 eight cases
(A-H) were analyzed: Table 2.
Fig.11 UIC-71 convoy in the most

unfavorable position in the marginal
and in the central field
Tabelul 2
F U IC
X=
fG 0
fcm
f cc
(m )
c o n tra s a g e a ta
s a g e ti fin a le p e ip o te ze d e in ca rc a re
fc c u m f c s -A f c s -B f c s -C f c s -D f G - A f G - B f G - C f G - D
L c m -A L c c -A L c m -BL c c -B L c m -C L c c -C L c m -D L c c -D
(c m + c c ) fg + 0.2 u fg+ 0 .3u fg+ 0 .4u fg + 0 .5 u
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
-5 .7
-3 .5
0
-7 .7
-1 2 .9
-7 .7
0
-3 .5
-5 .7
0
0
-3 3 .9
-2 9 .9
0
1 1 .9
1 2 .3
1 0 .5
0
-2 4 .9
-1 9 .8
0
X=
fG 0
f cm
0
8 .4
1 4 .2
0
-4 5 .5
-7 0
-4 5 .5
0
1 4 .2
8 .4
0
f cc
0
-5.7
-3.5
0
-7.7
-12.9
-7.7
0
-3.5
-5.7
0
0
-33.9
-29.9
0
11.9
12.3
10.5
0
-24.9
-19.8
0
0
8.4
14.2
0
-45.5
-70
-45.5
0
14.2
8.4
0
0
-2 5 .5
-1 5 .7
0
-3 3 .6
-5 7 .7
-3 5
0
-1 0 .7
-1 1 .4
0
0
11
7
0
14
24
15
0
6
8
0
0
13
8
0
18
30
18
0
7
9
0
F UIC
(m )
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
s a g e a ta fin a la d in G
0
16
10
0
21
36
22
0
8
10
0
0
18
11
0
25
42
25
0
9
11
0
0
5
3
0
7
12
7
0
2
2
0
contrasageata
0
8
5
0
10
17
11
0
3
3
0
0
10
6
0
13
23
14
0
4
5
0
0
13
8
0
17
29
18
0
5
6
0
0
-2 9
-2 7
0
19
24
18
0
-2 3
-1 8
0
sageata finala din G
0
-25.5
-15.7
0
-33.6
-57.7
-35
0
-10.7
-11.4
0
0
21
13
0
28
48
29
0
10
13
0
0
24
14
0
31
53
32
0
11
14
0
0
26
16
0
35
59
36
0
12
15
0
0
-2 6
-2 5
0
22
30
21
0
-2 2
-1 6
0
0
16
19
0
-3 5
-5 3
-3 5
0
17
12
0
0
-2 4
-2 4
0
25
35
25
0
-2 1
-1 5
0
0
19
20
0
-3 2
-4 7
-3 2
0
18
13
0
0
-2 1
-2 2
0
29
41
28
0
-2 0
-1 4
0
0
21
22
0
-2 9
-4 1
-2 8
0
20
14
0
sageti finale pe ipoteze de incarcare
fc cum f cs -E f cs -F f cs -G f cs -H f G - E f G - F f G - G f G - H
(cm +cc) fg+0.6u fg+0.7u fg+0.8u
0
14
17
0
-3 9
-5 8
-3 9
0
16
11
0
L cm -E L cc -E L cm -F L cc -FL cm -GL cc -GL cm -H L cc -H
fg+u
0
31
19
0
41
71
43
0
14
17
0
0
15
9
0
20
35
21
0
6
7
0
0
18
11
0
24
40
25
0
7
8
0
0
20
13
0
27
46
28
0
9
9
0
0
26
16
0
34
58
35
0
11
11
0
0
-19
-20
0
32
47
32
0
-18
-13
0
0
24
24
0
-25
-35
-25
0
21
15
0
0
-16
-19
0
35
53
35
0
-17
-12
0
0
26
25
0
-22
-30
-21
0
22
16
0
0
-14
-17
0
39
58
39
0
-16
-11
0
0
29
27
0
-19
-24
-18
0
23
18
0
0
-8
-14
0
46
70
46
0
-14
-8
0
0
34
30
0
-12
-12
-11
0
25
20
0
In figure 12( precambering and the final deflections), the calculated values are
represented.
pozitia pe verticala (mm)
Grinda continua cu 3 deschideri L=30.0+40.0+30.0 m

CONTRASAGEATA SI EVOLUTIA SAGETILOR
70
50
30
a)10
-10
-30 0
-50
-70
-5,7
10
20
-3,5
30
-7,7
40
50
-12,9
-7,7
60
sectiunea din deschidere (m)
70
-3,5
80
-5,7
90 100
fG0
fcm
fcc
fccum (cm+cc)
fcs-A fg+0.2u
fcs-B fg+0.3u
fcs-C fg+0.4u
fcs-D fg+0.5u
fG-A
fG-B
fG-C
fG-D
Lcm-A
Lcc-A
Lcm-B
Lcc B
135
Grinda continua cu 3 deschideri L=30.0+40.0+30.0 m

CONTRASAGEATA SI EVOLUTIA SAGETILOR
b)
70
pozitia pe verticala (mm)
50
34
30
10
-10
-30
8,4
30
00
25
14,2
14,2
00
10
20
20
8,4
00
30
40
-12
50
-12
60
-45,5
-50
-70
-11
70
00
80
90 100
-45,5
-70
sectiunea din deschidere (m)
fG0
fc m
fc c
fccum (c m+cc)
fcs-E fg+0.6u
fcs-F fg+0.7u
fcs-G fg+0.8u
fcs-H fg+u
fG-E
fG-F
fG-G
fG-H
Lcm-E
Lcc-E
Lcm-F
Lcc-F
Lcm-G
Lcc-G
Lcm-H
Lcc-H
Figura 12. Precambering and the final deflections: a) situation A-D ; b)

situation E-H
In table 3, the allowable values for deflections in different situation are
given.
Tabelul 3
L=
(m )
40
30
sag etii adm isibile la rapoarte L/n

350
11.4
8.57
500
8
6
1000
4
3
In conclusion, the proposal is to apply a

precambering of (fg0+0,5fc,cum) and to
make a final verification of the
structure loaded by the dead load and
convoy.
Conclusion: Precambering is always
necessary in plate girders and
especially
in
plate
girder
bridges.
Even if the fabrication is more
complicated
(there
are
different
technologies
in
this
direction),
precambering
must
be
introduced
in
the initial design of the structure.
1200
3.33
2.5
[cm ]
1500
2.66
2
2000
2
1.5
References
1. Ch. J. Carter, Serviceability

Design Considerations for Steel
Buildings, Modern Steel Construction,
November 2004;
2. ***
EN
1990:2012+A1
(December 2005) Eurocode Basis of
Structural Design;
3. Christian Petersen, Stahlbau 4.
Auflage, Springer Verlag 2013, ISBN
987-3-528-38837-9;
4. Christoph
Sesselberg,
Kranbahnen, Bauwerk Verlag 2009,
ISBN 987-3-89932-218-7;
5. *** SR EN 1993-6 Proiectarea
structurilor de oel Ci de rulare,
ASRO iulie 2008;
136
6. *** SR EN 1990:2004/A1:2006
Bazele proiectrii structurilor, ASRO
decembrie 2006;
7. ***
Vorschrift
fur
Eisenbahnbrucken
und
sonstige
Ingenieurbauwerke DS-804, Deutsche
Bundesbahn;
8. Edward Petzek, Radu Bncil,
Alctuirea i calculul podurilor cu
grinzi metalice nglobate n beton,
Editura
Orizonturi
Universitare,
Timispara, 2006, ISBN (10) 973-638283-4
9. B. Bresler, T. Lin, J. Scalzi,
Design of Steel Structures, John
Wiley, 1968, Catalogue Card Number
67-29012;
10. *** SR EN 1090 Execuia
structurilor de oel i structurilor de
aluminiu

REHABILITATION OF EXISTING STEEL

STRUCTURES, AN INTEGRAL PART OF
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
R. BNCIL 1 A. FEIER 2 D.RADU 3
Abstract: Sustainable development is a fundamental objective of the
European Union and it aims to meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to fulfill their own needs. Its
goal is the continuous improvement of quality of life and well-being of
present and future generations, through an integrated approach between
economic development and environmental protection. Rehabilitation of steel
structures and historic steel bridges with long life service, is an integral part
of maintaining and preserving existing heritage and can be also considered
an act of culture. The paper describes the main steps needed to undertake the
rehabilitation of existing steel structures and possibility and necessity of a
Life-Cycle Costing (LCC) analysis in order to estimate the total cost and the
Importance of the rehabilitation works
Key words: Sustainable development, Rehabilitation of steel structures
1. Introduction
The concept of Sustainability and
Sustainable Development appeared in the
last 2 3 decades. According to the
Brundtland
Report:
"Sustainable
development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.
In the 1970s, the concept of
"sustainability" was employed to describe
an economy "in equilibrium with basic
ecological support systems". The United
Nations Millennium Declaration identified
principles and treaties on sustainable
development,
including
economic
development, social development and

environmental protection.
Sustainable
development
and
sustainability derive from the older
forestry term "sustained yield", which, in
turn, is a translation of the German term
"nachhaltiger Ertrag" dating from 1713.
Sustainability science is the study of the
concepts of sustainable development and
environmental science. There is an
additional focus on the present generations'
responsibility to regenerate, maintain and
improve planetary resources for use by
future generations.
The preparation of the revised National
Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS)
[1], is an obligation that Romania has
undertaken as an EU Member State in
University Politehnica Timioara Faculty of Civil Engineering

URBAN INCD INCERC Timioara Branch
3
University of Transylvania Brasov Faculty of Civil Engineering
2
138
conformity with agreed Community

objectives and the methodological
guidelines of the European Commission.
Sustainable development has developed
as a concept through several decades of
active international scientific debate and
has acquired distinct political connotations
in the context of globalization. In the
Romanian language , the concept is
described by two equivalent terms
dezvoltare durabil and dezvoltare
sustenabil, that have emerged as
synonymous borrowings from different
linguistic sources. Existing structures are
subjected to processes of degradation with
time, which leads to a situation in which in
which they became not able to fulfill the
purpose for which they have been built.
Sometimes, there is also the need to
improve the conditions offered by the
existing buildings or to adapt them to new
functions.
The rehabilitation of existing steel
structures and steel bridges is an integral
part of the sustainable development. In the
developed societies, as they progress, the
feeling grows that it is necessary to
maintain the existing architectural heritage.
Rehabilitation of heritage buildings is a
way of sustainable development and also
an act of culture [2].
Other aspects are:
- Positive socio economic impact for the
region which would be able to obtain the
maximum benefit from the rehabilitation
of the structures.
- safety a top priority; the rehabilitation
program will be conceived to achieve
safety and at all construction stages and to
allow no compromises during the different
construction stages.
- exemplary work sites from an
environmental perspective have to be
conceived.
The present paper presents the principal
steps in the rehabilitation of existing steel
structures, with some examples in this

direction.
2. Main steps in the rehabilitation of
existing steel structures
The estimation of the carrying capacity
of existing structures is a complex matter.
One of the most important aspects is the
experience of the expert. In a first step the
expert have to inspect carefully the
structure and to make some simple
estimations based on simplified analysis
methods and a statement about the
technical condition of the structure. In
figure 1 are presented the main steps in the
evaluation of the existing structures.
The expert must see and inspect
obligatory the structure; he can ask for
some NDT (Non Destructive Tests) tests or
even destructive ones in order to establish
the material characteristics.
In present in the technical literature,
there are in generally sufficient data
regarding the material qualities, in function
of the data when the structure was put in
function. In these direction the railway
Administrations
from
Germany,
Switzerland, Austria and Hungary, have
performed 667 tests [3] on the material
collected from existing structures.
For wrought iron (puddle steel) and steel
produced before 1900, the following
values can be accepted:
- Ultimate tensile strength fu = 320 380
N/mm
- Yielding stress fy = 220 N/mm (survival
probability of 95%)
- Young modulus E = 200 000 N/mm
For the partial safety factor the following
values are prescribed: 1,2 for wrought iron
R = 1,2 and R = 1,1 for the old steels
produced before 1900.
For steel grades after 1925 the following
values are recommended:
- Ultimate tensile strength fu = 370 460
N/mm
R. BANCILA et al.: Rehabilitation Of Existing Steel Structures, An Integral Part Of The

Sustainable Development
- Yielding stress fy = 240 N/mm (survival

probability of 95%)
- Young modulus E = 200 000 N/mm.
It is interesting to mention that, the
Romanian Standard for the Design of
Railway Steel Bridges [4], recommends for
139
existing structures produced after 1900,still

in a satisfactory technical condition, the
following values for the allowable stress:
- aI =1,5 kN/mm mild steel
- aI =1,4 kN/mm wrought iron.
Fig. 1 Flowchart regarding the rehabilitation of existing structures

Existing steel structures can be evaluated
using the safety concept existing to the
time of the structures erection [5], [6]
generally the safety concept of allowable
stress.
Nevertheless a checking according to
Eurocodes is strongly recommended. For
the majority of existing steel structures the
documentation is missing. (exception are
Railways, they have generally complete
archives). In consequence the expert have
to do some in situ measurements mapping
the structure, which is not always easy,
taking into account the accessibility of the
structure.
The next step is to perform simple stress
verification based on usual calculus
methods. These results corroborated the
technical condition of the structure, allows
to take a decision; the structure can be used
in continuation (even with some
restrictions), the next evaluation step is

necessary, or the structure must be
disaffected immediately.
In the second stage a complete
verification based on a spatial calculus
model are usually performed: In function
of the results some reinforcements can be
done. It is important to mention that the
majority of the structures are riveted; the
reinforcement is not simple.
Generally the reinforcement of the
structures are not recommended if :
- the additional material is more than 40 %
from the weight of the existing
structure or 30 % of a new one;
- the cost of the rehabilitation is higher
than the cost of a new structure.
Exceptions are the historical structures,
monuments of the engineering art; in this
situation every situation must be analysed
separately.
140
Reinforcement can be done directly by

adding of material (complex by riveted
structures), or indirectly by changing the
statically scheme (if its possible), which is
more
efficient.
For
usual
steel
constructions
which
change
their
destination (e.g. industrial buildings
becoming exhibitions, theatre halls or
commercial buildings) the last solution
combined with an architectural conception
can have as result spectacular end
emblematic buildings.
In situ tests of the structure are very
relevant, especially for important structure
and complicated statically schemes, but
there is expensive and time consuming. In
situ tests measuring stresses and
deformations are used often for existing
steel bridges (Fig. 2).
Important data about the technical

condition of the structure can be obtained
and the calculus model can be calibrated
(validated). The existence of a Romanian
Standard in this direction can be
mentioned [9].
A special problem in the refurbishment
of steel railway and highway bridges is the
establishment of the remaining fatigue life.
This can be obtained by using simplified
methods based on the Miner principle. For
example for the Svrin bridge, erected in
1897, a total damage of approx.
D = n / N 1,0
was calculated. This result gives the
possibility to strengthen the structure.
Taking into account the present and
future traffic on the bridge, the remaining
fatigue life of the structure can be
appreciated.
The general affirmation: ...the bridge is
old, consequently the structure is fatigued
is not correct.
3. Case studies
3.1. Aqueduct Reia
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 In situ tests on bridges (a)highway
bridge,(b) railway bridge
The Siderurgical Group of enterprises

Reita (founded in 1775) is supplied with
cooling water from a distance of 20 km ,
with open channels excavate in the
mountains which surrounds the region, The
trace of the channel transverse a valley by
open steel aqueduct Reia erected in 1911
(Fig.3).
Fig. 3 Aqueduct Reia, general view
R. BANCILA et al.: Rehabilitation Of Existing Steel Structures, An Integral Part Of The

Sustainable Development
It appeared the necessity of the

increasing the debit of the cooling water.
The solution consisted in raising of the
lateral walls with 30 cm (Fig.4); the water
debit increased with 15 %. Some
strengthening works of the structure where
disposed.
In conclusion it was done a sustainable
rehabilitation of the structure with a
reduced impact on the environment.
141
3.2. Svrin bridge

The highway bridge in Svrin was
erected in 1897 (Fig. 5).
The maintenance of the bridge was
neglected and the technical condition of
the bridge was bad.
Some general principles were taken in
consideration: guarantee of structural
safety; respect for the cultural value of the
structure,
minimum
intervention,
compatibility of the materials and
minimum costs.
The rehabilitation of the structure was
done with adequate solution without
changing the general appearance of the
structure. This project received the first
European ECCS prize in 2010 [10]. The
total reinforcement costs were under 30 %
from the costs of a new structure.
Fig. 4 Aqueduct Reia, cross section
4 x 39,80 m; Ltot = 159,2 m
Fig. 5 General view of the bridge in Svrin
Fig. 6 Highway bridge in Svrin erected in 1897 and rehabilitated after 110 years in
2007
142
4. Conclusion
Nowadays the sustainability of steel
structures is accepted as a key issue and is
essential that the construction industry
recognizes the important role it has to play
in the environment.
Following the presented cases, the
rehabilitation of the steel bridges is a
necessity and obligation to be consider,
prior to a rebuilding solution.
References
1. National Sustainable Development
Strategy Romania 2013 2020
2030 Government of Romania,
Ministry
of
Environment
and
Sustainable Development, United
Nations
development
Program,
National Centre for Sustainable
Development, Bucharest 2008.
2. Guide for the Structural Rehabilitation
of Heritage Buildings, CIB Publication
335 ISBN: 978-90-6363-066-9, June,
2010
3. SBB Richtlinie fr die Beurteilung

von genieteten Eisenbahnbrcken IAM 08.02 2012
4. Proiectarea podurilor de cale ferat
- STAS 1911/75.
5. Deutsche Bundesbahn. Bewertung der
Tragfhigkeit
bestehender
Eisenbahnbrcken. DS8051991 / 2002
6. Bewertung
der
Tragfhigkeit
bestehender
Eisenbahn
und
Strassenbrcken ONR 24008, 2006.
7. European Steel Design Education
Program ESDEP 1995,
8. V. Bondariuc, R.Bncil Probleme
speciale de poduri metalice Lito UPT
1992.
9. ASRO ncercarea suprastructurilor
cu aciuni de prob STAS 12504 / 86
10. R.Bncil, E.Petzek, D. Boldu New
life for an old historical steel bridge
over the Mure river European
Convention
for
Constructional
Steelwork AWARD - First European
prize, 2010 Sept.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY REGARDING

THE BEHAVIOR OF GLUE LAMINATED
BEAMS DOUBLE REINFORCED WITH
RECTANGULAR METAL PIPES (RMP)
A.D. BERINDEAN1
C.A. BERINDEAN1
Abstract: Improvement of the load carrying capacity of glulam beams by

the addition of reinforcement is now common practice. The possibility of
using RMP as reinforcement for glulam timber elements in place of FRPs is
of interest, due to the improved durability of the system, low cost
manufacturing and to the easier and faster application guaranteed by the
traditional square steel bars. The aim of this paper is to determine the
supporting capacity on bending and flexural properties of reinforced (RMP)
compared with unreinforced glued laminated beam. The size of each beam is:
115x320x6400mm. The results indicate that the behavior of reinforced beams
is totally different from that of unreinforced one..
Key words: glue laminated timber, rectangular metal pipes reinforcement.
1. Introduction
As we know, glulam beams loaded by
bending moments fail first at the
compression side then tension side at the
position of defects, in generally knots. Due
to this failure mode glulam beams are
mainly reinforced at the compression and
tension side to strengthen the weak crosssections.
The reinforcement for glulam beams
should have a high modulus of elasticity
(MOE) and a large tensile strain at failure.
Materials considered in the past were steel,
glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) and
since a few years carbon fiber reinforced
plastic (CFRP) and aramid fibre reinforced
plastic (AFRP). Fiber reinforced plastic
(FRP) has the advantage of a high MOE
although generally lower than steel (RMP)
1
and a high tensile strength. An effective

reinforcement leads to a plastic behaviour
on the timber compression side. In
unreinforced glulam beams this effect
hardly occurs and design models therefore
do not take into account this effect.
1.1. Possible applications of RMP in
timber structures [1]
Possible combinations of FRP and other
high strength materials with timber are
basically presented in figure 1.
1.2. The main mechanical properties of
RMP
Regarding the possibilities to apply and to
combine different materials, it's useful to
compare
their
most
important
Faculty of Constructions, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
144
characteristics. Figure 2 shows the orders of

the tensile strength and the Young's
modulus of some materials often used for

building tasks [2].
Fig. 1. Possibilities of using RMP in timber engineering
Fig. 2. Mechanical properties (tensile strength / Youngs modulus) for different materials
2. Structure of reinforced glulam beams
Figure 3 shows the types of reinforced
glulam beams cross section. In practice, for
reasons of fire safety or for esthetical
reasons a facing consisting of a load
carrying timber lamination is applied

below
the
reinforcement.
RMP
reinforcement was applied in the same
manner (type 1) [3].
A.D. BERINDEAN et al: Experimental Study Regarding The Behavior Of Glue Laminated
Beams Double Reinforced With Rectangular Metal Pipes (RMP)
145
3. Experimental study
Fig. 3. Type of reinforced glulam beams

cross section
Using a tensile reinforcement the
compressive stress will exceed the timber
tensile stress in beams loaded in bending.
Therefore plastic deformations are more
probable in beams with tensile reinforcement.
Using both, compressive and tensile
reinforcement the linear modes will mostly
occur due to the reduction of the plastic area
in the compressive zone.
Non-reinforced glulam beam and double

reiforced RMP glulam beam have been
tested
under
static
bending
for
experimental study.
Cross section of 115x320 mm and length
of 6400 mm were considered for both type
elements. The beams have been
manufactured based on SR EN 386 with
strength classes of C24 given by SR EN
338 [4] respectively GL24c based on SR
EN 14080 [5]. The adhesive used to
manufacture
the
beams
(Prefere
4535/5035) was the same type of adhesive
applied on RMP used to reinforce the
beam specimen [6].
The cross section of reinforced beam is
presented in figure 4 included the
dimensions of RMP.
Fig. 4. Cross section of double reinforced beam with RMP
Fig. 5. Cross section of double reinforced beam with RMP
146
Adhesive
thickness
around
reinforcement was 0.5mm, the same
between lamellas. Both elements have
been bent to failure applying loads as per
SR EN 408 (the span was 6000 mm and
the loads were applied 2000 mm away
from each support).
An increment of 1.0KN has been used
when applying the loads and the deflection
in three different locations was recorded as
follows: F2 and F4 at location of loads and
F3 at mid span.
Also deformations of beam in 5 different
locations have been recorded as follows:
F1 and F5 at supports, F6, F7and F8 at mid

span over a length of 500mm for tensioned
fiber,
median
fiber
respectively
compressed fiber (figure 5).
The test results are shown in table 1. The
differences,
quite
large,
between
deflections can be observed for the same of
load (Fmax = 48 kN).
Curves load-deflection are shown in

figure 6 and figure 7 for the three
locations (F1, F2 and F3).
Figure 8 shows RMP double reinforced

glulam mode of failure.
Test results
Maximum load Fmax [kN]
Bending moment M [kNm]
F2
Deflection u [mm] F3
F4
Bending strength fm [N/mm2]
Non-reinforced glulam
48
47.41
61.00
66.30
61.50
24.15
Table 1
RMP double reinforced glulam
(48)
76
(47.41)
75.41
(37.90)
65.80
(43.90)
75.60
(36.60)
65.20
38.42
Fig. 6. Load-deflection curve of non-reinforced beam
A.D. BERINDEAN et al: Experimental Study Regarding The Behavior Of Glue Laminated
Beams Double Reinforced With Rectangular Metal Pipes (RMP)
Fig. 7. Load-deflection curve of RMP double reinforced glulam
a.
b.
c.
Fig. 8. Type of failure
d.
147
148
Conclusions
Timber facing failure at tension side
occured first (fig. 8a) because of knots.
Second to fail was the adhesive around
RMP (fig. 8b,c) followed by total collapse
of beam (fig. 8d).
RMP double reinforced glulam gained
approximate 59% in strength and the
values of deflection have been recorded
lower with 33.8% then non-reinforced
beam, for the same value of load.
References
1. Steiger R., Widmann R., (2002): Fibre
reinforced
plastics
in
timber
structures. A survey of possible
applications. Research Report of the
EMPA Wood Department.
2. Meierhofer U.A., (1999): Bending and
tension jointing of timber by use of
highstrength fibre material. Schweizer
Ingenieur und Architekt SI+A 117

(1999), Nr. 43, p. 11 16.
3. M. Romani and H.J. Bla, (2001)
Design model for FRP reinforced
glulam beams, International Council
For Research And Innovation In
Building And Construction, Working
Commission W18 - Timber Structures,
Meeting Thirty-Four, Venice, Italy.
4. ***SR EN 338:2010, Lemn pentru
construcii. Clase de rezisten.
(Structural timber - Strength classes).
5. ***SR EN 14080:2013, Structuri de
lemn. Lemn lamelat ncleiat i lemn
masiv ncleiat. Cerine. (Timber
structures - Glued laminated timber
and
glued
solid
timber
Requirements).
6. http://www.concept-smart.com/
certificate/Concept_35-35h_UBAtc
.pdf.Accessed: 25.08.2014.

MODERNIZATION SOLUTIONS FOR

LOCAL ROADS
V. BOBOC
A. BOBOC
Abstract: The paper presents a solution to upgrade the local roads in the
Moldavia region, using rigid road structures. For the cement concrete road it
had been used local pit gravel partially crushed which replaced a part of the
career aggregates. There are analyzed the characteristics of aggregates used
in the preparation of cement concrete road and road structures behavior in
time under the influence of the climatic factors and road traffic.
Key words: cement concrete road, local materials, tensile flexure strength,
tensile splitting strength, compression strength, concrete unit weight.
1. Introduction
2. Natural pit gravel partially crushed
Political and economic restructuring in

Eastern Europe in the last 25 years has led
to substantial changes in the transportation
system.
European transport policy objective is to
establish a balance between economic
development and quality requirements and
traffic safety in order to develop a modern
transport system.
In European Union, the balance tends
towards a transport system centered on
road transport.
In Romania, one of the specific
objectives in road transport, besides
rehabilitation and modernization of
national transport infrastructure, is the
integration of the local roads in the
national infrastructure network [1].
In addition, considering that over 50% of
the total length of Romanian roads are the
local roads that are not upgraded, a
solution that can be used in the Moldavia
region is the rigid road structures.
The natural pit aggregates partially

crushed used for the presented local roads
are from a pit of Suceava River in
Miliui, jud.Suceava. These aggregates
are siliceous aggregates that have the
following
mineralogical
composition
(determined by X-ray analysis): Quartz 95%, feldspar plagioclase 3...5% and
traces below 1% of serine, limonite, pyrite,
lodestone, and kaolinite.
Romanian norm [7] requires in the case
of a single layer of concrete cement road
the using of minimum two varieties of 816 mm and 16-25 mm chippings. In the
preparation and realization of cement
concrete road with local materials both
mandatory chipping varieties were
replaced with partially crushed pit gravel
8-16 mm and 16-25 mm.
The characteristics of the aggregates
used in the preparation of cement concrete
for road are shown in Table 1. Also, Fig. 1
shows the grain size distribution curves of
Department of Roads and Foundations, Civil Engineering and Building Services Faculty, Gheorghe
Asachi Technical University Iassy
150
the aggregates used, the granulometric

distribution and the range size of the
aggregate mixture used to prepare the BcR

4.0 cement concrete for road.
Characteristics of the Miliui pit aggregates
Nr.
Characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sand equivalent
Activity coefficient
Degree of chipping
Shape coefficient
Crushing resistance
of aggregates in
saturated state
Freeze-thaw
resistance / weight
loss
5.
6.
7.
Wear with car Los

Angeles
UM
Table 1
Obtain values
Pit aggregates partially
crushed
0-4
4-8
8-16 16-25
96
1
89
85
91
24
16
16
Admissible
limits
[7]
%
%
%
%
Natural
sand
0-4
98
-
61
76
70
Min. 60
1,2
1,0
0,9
Max. 10
21
-
19
-
15
Max. 35
Max. 30
Max. 25
Min.85
Max.1.5
Min. 65
Max. 25
Fig. 1. Grain-zise distribution curve for the aggregates and for the aggregates mixture
V. BOBOC et al.: Modernization Solutions For Local Roads

.
3. Cement concrete for roads made with

pit aggregates
In Romanian norms [7] the Cement
Concrete Road notation is BcR 4.0.
The dosage of cement type I 42.5 R was
350 kg/m, the ratio A/C = 0.45, additive
dosage of CEMENTOL SPA 94 was 3
ml/kg of cement, resulting a density of the
designed concrete of 2358 kg/m.
The presented road is a municipal twotraffic lane road in town Voitinel located in
Suceava County and it was conducted in
autumn 2011 with the following
composition of the road structure:
Layer form - the existing pavement
with a thickness of 15 cm;
151
Foundation layer ballast 0-63 cm thickness 25cm;

Stabilized sand + Kraft paper - 2 cm;
Cement Concrete BcR 4.0 - 20 cm
thick.
The physic-mechanical properties of
hardened concrete at the age 28 days, RC
(compression
strength
on
cubes
150x150x150 mm), Rti (tensile flexure
strength on prisms 150x150x600 mm and
at the age of 3 years (1,095 days)), RC
(compression strength on cores with
diameter of 100 mm) and Rtd (tensile
splitting strength on cores with a diameter
of 100 mm), are shown in table 2.
Physico-mechanical properties of cement concrete BcR 4.0

2
Age
R ti (N/mm )
28 days
R td (N/mm )
1095 days
32
2376
34,88
1,89
5,42
2358
4,10
0,107
2,61
2319
3,26
0,175
5,38
R C (N/mm )
28 days
1095 days
Number of
72
samples
bet (kg/m3)
2358
Obtain values
35,38
*S(N/mm2)
0,96
**C V (%)
2,71
*S standard deviation
** C V coefficient of variation
Figure 2 shows the variation in time of

RC (N/mm2) and the variation of Rt
(N/mm2). The ratio RTD / Rti = 0.795 is
Table 2
Admisible
limits
[7]
-
239030
R C =35
R ti =4,0
between the values Walker and Bloem

(0.62 ... 0.90) and Efsen and Glarbo (0.67
... 0.91) as [3].
Fig. 2. Variation in time of the mechanical resistance
152
4. Cement concrete road degradation

status
The
status
is
characterized by the degradation index:

(ID) as in [6] and determined with the
relation (1).
of
degradation
ID
number of damaged road panel

D1 0,5 D2 0,5 D3 N / S 0,3 D4
Where:
N- number of road panel per lane;
S - measured surface on a lane (m2);
D 1 - number of settled road panels;
D 2 - number of the patching and cracking
road panels;
D 3 - the surface of the affected area:
cracks, corner cracks and longitudinal
irregular shape cracks;
D 4 - exfoliated surface.
Degradation index was determined on
three homogeneous sectors and the results
are shown in Table 3.
The resulting degradation index as
presented in [6] is very good, and the only
problems on the entire length of the road
are:
Exfoliation of the surface (fig.3)
Transverse cracks (fig.4).
Degradation Index
(1)
Table 3
Homogeneous sectors
ID
Km 0+150-0+230 dr.
0,94
Km 1+400-1+490 stg.
0,83
Km 2+000-2+080 dr.
1,04
Mean value
0,94
0,085
C v (%)
9,15
Fig. 3. Exfoliation of the surface
V. BOBOC et al.: Modernization Solutions For Local Roads
153
Fig. 4. Transverse cracks

4. Conclusions
References
The use of the rigid cement concrete made

of pit partially crushed aggregate for road
structures is a viable and economical
solution, cheaper by approx. 30% than
concrete made with cement road chippings
as presented in [7] for upgrading the local
roads. The structures made of cement
concrete road have an appropriate behavior
after 3 years from commissioning.
Road structures with cement concrete made
of pit aggregates partially crushed will be
monitored annually. It will be analyzed the
behavior over time, and if it will be
appropriate will be arranged to introduce in
the design norms these types of structures.
Other information may be obtained from
the addresses: vboboc1956@yahoo.com
1. Bota, I.: Drumuri locale din Romania,

Simpozionul drumuri locale prezent si
viitor, Cluj Napoca, Ed. V.T. Press
Cluj Napoca, 2007.
2. Lucaci, Gh., Costescu, I., Belc, Fl.:
Constructia drumurilor, Ed.Tehnic,
Bucuresti, 2000.
3. Sandor Popovics: Strength snd Related
Properties
of
Concrete:
A.
Quantitative Approach - John Wiley &
Sons, INL New York 1998.
4. Yoder, J. Witczak, M.M.: Principles of
Pavement Design, Second Edition
John Wiley & Sons, INL New York
1975.
5. *** C54 - 81: Instructiuni tehnice
pentru incercarea betonului cu
ajutorul carotelor.
6. *** CD 155 - 2000: Normativ privind
154
determinarea
starii
tehnice
a
drumurilor moderne, BTR nr.2/2001.
7. *** NE 014 - 2002: Normativ pentru
executarea imbracamintilor din beton
de ciment rutier .
8. *** Normativ pentru dimensionarea
ranforsarilor din beton de ciment
rutier ale sistemelor rutiere rigide,
suple si semirigide, BTR 16/2002
9. *** NP 116/2002: Normativ privind
alcatuirea structurilor rutiere rigide si

suple pentru strazi, BTR 2-3/2005.
10. *** NP 081 2002: Normativ de
dimensionare a structurilor rutiere
rigide, BTR 8/2005
11. *** Normativ pentru prevenirea si
remedierea
defectiunilor
la
imbracaminti rutiere moderne, BTR
8/2013.

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF
THERMOSYSTEM SUBJECTED TO WIND
LOADS
A.C. BOJAN 1
A. CHIRA 2
Abstract: The main objective of this paper is to study the behavior of

the polystyrene EPS 80 subjected to wind loads in different areas. The
properties of the material were determined experimental and an
appropriate material law was used in order to model the material. The
tested polystyrene samples were cubes having 100x100x100 mm and
they have been cut from slabs of 1000x500x100mm. Numerical
investigations considering suctionwind load for faades thermosystems
have been done and conclusions were drawn based on the results. Finite
element code Abaqus was used in order to conduct the nonlinear
analysis.
Key words: crushable foam, nonlinear analysis, wind loads, Abaqus.
1. Introduction
The behaviour of the buildings faade
thermosystem have been very little or at all
analysed regarding possible failures when
subjected to wind loads. Polystyrene as a
material has been analysed in experimental
tests and numerical simulations by many
authors [1-6]. In order to get results related
to real life behaviour a proper material law
should be assigned when conducting an
analysis using a finite element model. For
this reason as depicted in the available
literature the ,, Crushable foam plasticity
[7] material model was chosen for
modelling the polystyrene using the finite
element method software Abaqus [8].
After experimental test to determine the
1
compressive curve of the polystyrene a

finite element model was developed and
calibrated with the experimental results.
Other numerical models were analysed to
study the wind effect on panels that are
fixed with 6 or 8 anchors and adhesive on
the building facade.
2. Compression test and calibration of
FEM model
The stress-strain curve of EPS80
polystyrene
was
experimentally
determined in the laboratory ,,Actions in
constructions and Structures from the
department of Mechanics of structures at
the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca,
Faculty of Civil Engineering. The
Department of Management and Building Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of
Cluj-Napoca
2
Department of Building Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague
156
polystyrene samples had the dimensions of

100x100x100 mm and they have been cut
from 1000x500x100 mm panels. The
experimental testing was done using a
Loyd LS 100 plus pressing machine. The
results of the testing led to the results
presented in figure 1.
3.1. Introduction
For the study of faade panels behaviour
under wind loads a model consisting of 7
panels with 500x1000 mm was analysed.
The panels thickness was 15 cm a value
usually used in the retroffiting of faade
panels regarding the thermal behaviour.
The geometry configuration is described in
figures 3 and 4.
Fig. 1. Compressive Stress-Strain

The finite element model of the
compressive test was done using C3D8R
tridimensional solid elements with 8 nodes
and reduced integration. The boundary
conditions and pressure loads were
introduced accordingly to experimental
ones. After a mesh convergence study a
mesh size of 15 mm was adopted. The
results are in good agreement with the
experimental ones as showed in figure 2.
Fig. 3 Panels configuration
Fig. 4 Numerical model assembly
Fig. 2 FEM model vs Experimental

3. Numerical investigations on
thermoystem
The interaction between the panels has

been done using a general contact with a
coefficient of friction of 0.5 and with hard
normal behaviour. For the boundary
conditions the panels have been considered
to be fixed with no degree freedom on the
exterior part. On the exterior parts the
surface has been considered to be glued
together with adhesive. This surface has
been considered to be 40% of the surface
A.C. BOJAN et al.: Numerical and experimental investigations of the behavior of

thermosystem subjected to wind loads
of panels taking into account the

recommendation of SR EN 13499:2004 for
the fixing of thermosystems. Regarding the
anchors the fixing has been considered to
be the equivalent area of the upper part of
an anchor.
The wind suction loads have been
uniformly distributed on polystyrene
panels. The introduce d values have been
obtained using CR 1-1-4/2012 standard for
wind loads and the worst case scenario was
157
adopted.
The building is a block of flats, with GF
+ 4F, with the following geometrical
characteristics: length d = 19.90 m, width b
= 12.20 m and height from ground level to
the highest point Htotal = 16.70 m.
The location of the building was
considered to be the reference value of the
dynamic wind pressure qb = 0.5 KPa, with
mean recurrence interval of 50 years.
Table 1
Suction loads
Dynamic wind pressure q b =0,5KPa

Terrain
Wind suction
Wind suction according
to (CR 0-2012)
0
-2,024
I
-1,882
II
-1,665
III
-1,178
IV
-0,798
-3,036
-2,823
-2,498
-1,764
-1,197
In figure 5 the boundary conditions are

showed and the loads applied in figure 6.
Fig. 6 Loads and boundary conditions

Fig. 5 Boundary conditions
In order to maintain the accuracy of
result the data that was analysed are for the
central panel. This is also the only panel
which has interactions on every lateral
surface with other panels so that the
transmission of normal and tangential
stress is for every one of these 4 surfaces.
3.2. The analysis of panels fixed with

anchors
For the analysis of the panels fixed with
adhesion and supplementary with 6
anchors per square meter uniform
distributed loads have been used that
represent the wind suction. The loads were
obtained using the type of building, the
158
reference dynamic pressure of the field and

field category.
All the values are
corresponding to A zone of suction from
the maximum suction value based on CR
1-1-4/2012 standard.
In figures 7 and 8 are presented the
possible ways of fixing for panels
Fig. 9 Anchors fixing (8/m2)
Fig. 7 Adhesive fixing
Fig. 8 Anchors fixing (6/m2)

In the case of the panel fixed with adhesive
and 8 anchors per square meter the
analysis conditions are the same with the
panel presented before (figure 9).
In figure 10 the plastic strain values are

showed that were obtained from the
analysis of a wind suction equal to 3,036
KPa for fixing with adhesive and 6 or 8
anchors. Considering the nule values it
means that for this value the results are still
in the elastic region.
Fig. 10 Plastic equivalent strains for 6

or 8 anchors plus 40% adhesive
The displacements values for the load
value of 3,036 KPa wind suction are
shown in figure 11. From the appearance
evolution of the displacements it can be
seen that for the panel with 8 anchors they
concentrate more on the middle of the
panel. Regarding their value for both cases
they are pretty low around 0.34 mm.
A.C. BOJAN et al.: Numerical and experimental investigations of the behavior of

thermosystem subjected to wind loads
159
Fig.13 Displacements for wA=-3,036

KPa (8 anchors/m2)
Fig. 11 Displacements for wA=-3.036

KPa (6 anchors/m2)
Fig.14 von Mises stress for wA=-3.036

KPa (8 anchors/m2)
Fig. 12 von Mises stress for wA=-3.036

KPa (6 anchors/m2)
The distributions of loads from wind

suction for anchors and adhesive is
presented in table 2 as it follows.
Loads distribution
6 anchors
8 anchors
Wind
suction
[KPa]
Anchors
force
3,036
3,035
0,1358
0,1906
Force/anchor
[KN]
[KN]
Adhesive
tension
[KPa]
0,0453
0,0476
6,692
6,347
Table 2
Force distribution
[%]
Anchors
Adhesive
9
91
13
87
160
adhesive where a growth on only 2.1 was

reported.
References
Fig. 15 Suction-displacements for 6 and

8 anchors
Conclusions
Based on the centralised results in the
case of thermosystem with adhesive and 6
anchors per square meter it has been
noticed that the suction wind loads are
distributed approximately 91% for the
adhesive and a rest of 9% for anchors.
In the other case with adhesive and 8
anchors per square meter a redistribution
of loads it appears wich is caused by the
supplementary fixing with one plus anchor
on the middle of the polystyrene panel.
This redistribution is caused by the
increase of area at the exterior of the
panels. diblu.
For the pane with adhesive and 6 anchors
the 40% of the applied area with adhesive
it leads to a grow 2.2 of the attracted
suction wind loads. Some modifications
are appearing for the case of 8 anchors and
1. Ozturk, U. E., & Anlas, G. (2011).

Finite element analysis of expanded
polystyrene foam under multiple
compressive loading and unloading.
Materials & Design, 32(2), 773-780.
2. Seitzberger, Markus, et al. "Crushing
of axially compressed steel tubes filled
with
aluminium
foam."
Acta
Mechanica 125.1-4 (1997): 93-105.
3. Li, Q. M., Mines, R. A. W., & Birch,
R. S. (2000). The crush behaviour of
Rohacell-51WF
structural
foam.
International Journal of Solids and
Structures, 37(43), 6321-6341.
4. Rizov, V. I. (2006). Non-linear
indentation behavior of foam core
sandwich composite materialsA 2D
approach. Computational Materials
Science, 35(2), 107-115.
5. Rizov, V., Shipsha, A., & Zenkert, D.
(2005). Indentation study of foam core
sandwich
composite
panels.
Composite structures, 69(1), 95-102.
6. ABAQUS, Finite element software,
Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen
7. ABAQUS, ABAQUS: Users Manual.
Crushable Foam Plasticity, Hibbitt,
Karlsson & Sorensen

A FEW ASPECTS ABOUT

THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE
C. CAZACU 1
Abstract: The buildings are a result of the work done by engineers
who know and comply with constructions' rules and regulations.
Building codes are a set of rules that specify the minimum standards
for constructed. The main purpose of building codes are to protect
public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the
construction and occupancy of buildings and structures.
Key words: Building codes, state laws, standards for construction, the code
of HAMMURABI, accidents on construction, eurocodes
1. Introduction
Building codes, are municipal and state
laws regulating the construction of
buildings and prescribing all so the
minimum requirements for fire protection,
sanitation, and safety. Such laws are
intended primarily to set standards for new
construction but also to prevent the
continued use of buildings.
The oldest collection of laws is dating
from the Babylonian king, Hammurabi.
The code was probably written around
1760 BC, contained a prologue with 282
law articles and an Epilogue. The text was
carved on a diorite stele of 2.25 meters
long. It was discovered in 1902 by
researcher
MJ
Morgan
during
archaeological excavations at Susa.
Supposedly it was war booty taken by a
conqueror of the Babylonian city. Now it is
located in the Louvre (Paris), and a copy of
it, is in the Pergamon Museum from
Berlin[4].
Fig. 1. The diorite stele contained the code

of HAMMURABI[4]
The code stressed the point of that the
safety of the occupants should be put into
consideration during the construction of
such building otherwise, heavy penalties
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Constructions, University Transilvania of Braov.
162
awaits the builder of such a building if the

building eventually collapse. The code of
HAMMURABI states as follows[4]:
if a man builds for another and the
building collapse and kills the owner, the
builder will be put to death;
if the building kills the son of the
owner, the son of the builder will be put to
death;
if the building destroys the property of
the owner, the builder will replace the
damaged property;
All together we should mention that this
set of rules called the Code of Hammurabi
was not something extraordinary at that
time: three hundred years earlier Sumerian
king Ur-Nammu had taken a similar
collection of lows, and 150 years before
Hammurabi, king of Isin, named Ishtar,
had ordered the inscription of a star
similar. But the two Sumerian law codes
were preserved only fragmentary.
2. Accidents on construction
International
Dictionary
of
Contemporary English present accidents
like some happenings or events that
happen unexpectedly, accidentally or
inadvertently, unpleasant and harmful.
Accidents on construction sites cannot be
over emphasized, might happen as a result
of a mistake or by natural disasters.
3. Health and safety on construction
Health as defined by Long mans
Dictionary of Contemporary English is a
state of being well in body and mind and
free from disease while Safety is described
by the same dictionary as a condition of
being free from danger, harm or risk.
Bokinni (2006) on the other hand describe
Safety as a control of recognized hazards
to attain an acceptable level of risk.
Naturally, the effect of construction on

safety, health and the surrounding
environment would vary from particular
operations starting with extraction of
building materials from quarries and
methods by which the extraction is
occurring, transportation, preparation of
building materials at site and construction
of works processes.[5]
Health
and
safety
in
building
construction projects should be a major
concern for everybody in the construction
industry, but it is a pity that it in some
parts of the world (example in AfricaNigeria), enough attention is not been
given to the issue.
In the civil and building construction
works
which
involve
excavation,
demolition, concrete work, painting,
roofing, operation of machines, plant and
equipment, use of hand tools and many
other operations call for attention from
relevant authorities, regulatory bodies,
societies, scientists, professionals and
businessmen to establish safety and health
management programs and laws governing
construction works activities.[5]
Health and safety is an inevitable aspect
of construction and this is so because the
only time an employee will perform his
duties is when he is in good health and is
sure of a safety working condition.
One of the most important things that an
employer should provide to his employees
is safety even at a low risk site. At sites
where heavy machinery is being used; it is
certain that the level is higher because of
the mechanical movement of parts of such
machinery and therefore for the employee
that will be monitoring or operating such
machinery will be exposed to accidents. In
a case like this, it should be known that the
level of safety that will be provided will be
much more than that of a site where
ordinary hand tools are been used. Based
on the above, we now understand that the
level of Safety and Health protection will
Ch. CAZACU: A few aspects about the national building codes
be higher nowadays because of the rapid

mechanization of the construction industry
and the accidents that may occur will
definitely be more fatal. [1]
3.1. The European building code
The idea of cooperation and then the
economic integration of Europe appeared
first time in 1923, with the beginning of
the pan-European movement, and evolved
rapidly after the second world war through
the creation of various organizations with
different business objectives, like: Union
of European Federalists (1946), European
League for Economic Cooperation (1947),
The Marshall Plan (1948-1952), the
Organization for European Economic
Cooperation (1948), the, NATO (1949),
the Council of Europe (1949,Strasbourg),
the Economic Community of Coal and
Steel (1951). [1]
Conditions for establishment and
operation principles of the European
Economic Community, (EEC) or simply
the European Union (EU), was established
by the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The
agreement became available starting in
1959. Activities of this organization are
coordinated three units:
The European Parliament;
The European Union Council;
The European Commission.
The main objectives of European Union
are to promote a continuous development,
harmonious and balanced the member
countries, the creation of a common
market, agreeing to legislation that would
make possible the functioning of the
common market, the elimination of
customs duties, freedom of movement for
goods, persons, services and capital,
creating jobs, etc.
Since 1985 the EU's founding treaty was
amended and supplemented by a series of
decisions by the EU Council in order to
create the European Single Market. On this
163
occasion, founded initiating the process of

harmonization at community level of
technical rules and standards that premise
to eliminate existing restrictions on the free
movement of goods and services.
The common market in the EU has
officially appeared in 1993, on which
occasion the harmonization of existing
regulations in member countries and
turning them in new European rules has
become a priority.
Construction market as part of the EU
internal market - where the competition to
be able to express freely - has a significant
share and hance the important regulatory
system attributed to construction in order
to the proper conduct of activities in this
sector.
Harmonization of technical base for
designing buildings but also for the range,
quality and performance of materials,
designers need to ensure the growth and
preparation of projects, technical barriers
and commercial building industry, treating
in the same way allover European
countries of different types of structures,
materials and products. A state member or
member of the common market must not
only be able to create conditions for the
production of construction products in
according to EU standards, but must be
able to ensure that all products placed on
the market (projects, materials, equipment)
are substandard. This means not only adapt
by all states member of appropriate
legislation but to and create the necessary
structures, techniques, for implementation
of the new legislation. These structures
testing laboratories, research institutes,
metrology institutes, must win the
confidence of the european community in
its entirety.
In terms of legal measures, the
harmonize technical regulations system
were ordered mainly by two acts of the
Council of the European Union, namely:
Public Works Directive 89/440 / EEC;
164
Construction Products Directive (CPD),

89/106 / EEC. [1]
These acts establish the functioning
market principles in building area and the
production of technical construction
standards, and also how to relate and
interpretation of laws, regulations and
decrees of the European Union member
states.
The importance of guidelines is the fact
that are based on a new and modern
approach of all the construction sector
activities, which consists in providing for
a product or a group of products (materials,
components, structures and overall) a
number of key or essential requirements.
Those are the six essential requirements:
strength and stability;
safety in operation;
fire safety;
hygiene, human health, rehabilitation and
environmental protection;
thermal insulation and waterproof,
energy economy and heat retention;
protection against noise.
Corresponding to the six basic
requirements European level have been
developed six performing document name,
Interpretative Documents,( ID), detailing
requirements for design and construction
products. In according to these documents,
legislation must relate mainly to:
technical regulations on building design;
rules based on the quality of materials
and products used in construction projects;
specifications on technical approvals for
new products, equipment, materials,
processes.
European Union Council decided that the
development of the european system of
regulations and technical rules to deal with
three of the most important standards
organizations:
European Committee for Standardization (CEN);
European Committee for Electro-
technical Standardization (CENELEC);

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
In present there are over 5.000 European
standards and It is expected that the final
of these project European standards
entirely replace the national standards of
each country.
The initiative for elaboration of
international rules for the structural
resistance design in constructions started
in 1974 and it was is based on the good
cooperation
between
technical and
scientific organizations having the
professional activity recognized on the
European field. These organizations are[1]:
IABSE = International Association for
Bridge and Structural Engineering;
CEB = International Committee for
Concrete;
RILEM = International Association of
the Testing and Research Laboratories
for Materials and Constructions;
FIP = International Federation for
Prestressed Concrete;
ECCS European Convention for
Constructional Steelworks;
JCSS Joint Committee on Structural
Safety;
ISSMFE International Society for Soil
Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering;
The basic rules for structures design
were developed in the Joint Committee on
Structural Safety (JCSS). With these basic
rules were made the safety and operating
conditions based on the concept of risk but
also taken into account the criteria of
reliability of structures. All these
conditions ensured the common basis of
design and calculation rules, creating all
the necessary requirements for drafting the
structural eurocodes. All these conditions
ensured the common basis of design rules,
creating also the necessary prerequisites to
elaborate the structural Eurocodes. In this
Ch. CAZACU: A few aspects about the national building codes
way EU aimed to harmonize the principles

rules of all participating States with respect
at construction materials, methods of
construction, types of buildings and civil
engineering.
Eurocode program provides, in a
coherent and comprehensive system of
rules, various design methods and other
specific design elements very important in
construction practice, including all types of
buildings
and
civil
engineering
constructions, made from different
materials. Generally all the eurocodes are
based on reference standards of the
International
Organization
for
Standardization (ISO) and the provisions
from a Eurocode are structured in articles
or different paragraphs like: basic
principles and application rules. These
basic principles and application rules
include:
definitions and general statements for
which there is no other alternative;
requirements, models and analytical
methods for which no alternative are
allowed except as the one stipulated
expressly[3].
Application rules represent special rules
that are recognized by everyone, and these
rules follow the principles and the
requirements that every country agree.
3.2. The National building code
Recommendations on harmonization the
Romanian rules with the Eurocodes.[1]
The responsibility for proper conduct of
the buildings principally rests to the state
building. Therefore the responsible
organism must be involved in the
conception
activities
of
design,
construction and operation of buildings.
State involvement is materialized by the
fact that these activities must be conducted
in accordance with legal and technical
regulations that must be followed
unconditionally.
165
In our country technical building rules

have been unit treated by the Ministry of
Public Works, Transport and Housing,
MLPTL, coordinated by the General
Directorate of Technical.
There
were
formed
specialized
committees, based on the Law no. 10/1995
(the quality of construction rules) that have
the following obligations to meet the
following requirements:
elaborating the technical regulations for
construction quality and
components
system;
technical
approval
for
products,
processes and equipment;
certification of conformity for the
quality products used in construction.
In November 1997 the Rumanian
Ministry of Public Works launches the
Romanian Codes (CR) for "elaborating the
technical regulations for civil and
industrial structures valid in the period
1997-2000 and the harmonization of all
Rumanian technical rules with the
European Union one".
CR program elements have been defined,
in principle, in accordance with Eurocodes
1-9,and the basic idea being that they soon
become National Application Documents
(DAN), that content the entirely text of
Eurocode with proper adjustments based
on the Romanian version situation from
our country. The document containing the
proper adjustments based on the national
version situation from every country its
named the national annex. The national
annex may only contain information on
those parameters from Eurocode defined as
parameters to be determined at national
level. And these parameters can be:
Values and / or classes where Eurocodes
provides national alternatives;
Values that can be used in case that
Eurocode do not provide the value of the
parameter indicating only its symbol;
Country specific data (geographical,
climatic), as zoning map for snow load;
166
The procedure that can be used when

Eurocode
submit
other
alternative
procedures.
4. Conclusions
The construction build codes are of great
importance in construction of buildings
and should be backed by an action of wide
distribution and explain to the engineers
who will apply them and must be tangent
to other existing national building codes.
Building code requirements generally
apply to the:
construction of new buildings;
alterations or additions to existing
buildings;
changes in the use of buildings;
the demolition of buildings or portions
of buildings at the ends of their useful
economic lives.
or
The building code also elaborates on the

blueprint details with regards to access for
the disabled, and stability of the structure
to deal with tremors and violent external
forces. When any constructor design
adopts one eurocode, it automatically also
adopts the sections of the other referenced
codes like the plumbing, mechanical, and
electric codes. Building codes are
generally applied to new constructions, and
alterations or additions to existing

structures. Many a time, changes in the use
of a building expose the entire structure to
adopt the code. [3]
The National Building Code, if are
properly followed and implemented, will
provide the construction of all forms of
unsafe acts, unsafe working condition or
unsafe process of construction.
Reference
1. Ciongradi I., The harmonization of
Romanian structures codes
with
European standards (Eurocodes),
Universitatea Tehnica Gh.Asachi, Iasi.
2. Trombly B., The international building
code (IBC), CMGT 564- Term paper,
2 august 2006.
3. The
National
Conference
in
standardization, Romania Standards
Association, internet article
Eurocodes, seventh edition, 14.10.
2013.
4. Knowledge adventure, The Hamurabi
code, (Aventura cunoasterii "Codul lui
Hamurabi"), internet article, accesed
15.10. 2012.
5. National
Building
Code
and
Construction Health and Safety in
Nigeria, internet article, accessed
15.09. 2014, at www.scrib.com

ON THE STRUCTURE OF MOLDED STEEL

THERMIC
D. M. COSTEA 1
M. N. GMAN 2 G. DUMITRU 3
Abstract: The thermic welding steel used railway tracks and is obtained by
burning thermiteon the basis of aluminothermic reaction between iron oxide
and aluminum, which are conducted by the reactions shown in the relations
1-3. Through these specific redox reactions resulting iron slag (Al 2 O 3 formula hereinafter referred corundum) and a significant amount of heat
quantity generated. The thermite is a mixture of metal powders that contains
mainly iron oxides (FeO, Fe 2 O 3 , Fe 3 O 4 ), aluminum powder, ferro-alloys
and moderators of response. The reaction moderators are added to the slag
separation in a short time and improve flowability of the molten metal. The
exothermic-burning of thermite reaction is developed the temperatures
between 2500 and 3000 C. [1] The reaction is very violent combustion and
primed by firing a magnesium strip (the ignition temperature (the flash point)
of the thermite is 1550 C) and does not need supplemental oxygen for further
combustion reaction that once started the content in any kind of the
environment
.
Key words: ferrite, micro-alloying, micro-segregation, microstructures,

thermite.
1. Introduction
2. Microalloying Elements Influence
This paper presents the highlighting of

structural modifications that occur
following a change in the chemical
composition of steel thermic various
alloying elements or modifying complex
master alloys. The thermic steel analysis is
made of French thermite and was obtained
by the priming ignition of aluminothermic
reaction and resulting the steel casting
fully lined with a refractory crucible.
The micro-alloying elements were

achieved with the chemical element like
Ti, Cu, V, B, Mn, Mo in a ratio of 1% and
the modifier complex consisting of
FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and FeB 15 in a percentage of
0,5%, 1% and 1,5%. In Fig. 1 it is shows
the microstructure of steel thermic
unchanged. In Figures 2 to 6 are shown
microstructures of the steel alloy thermic
with Ti, Cu, V, B, Mn, Mo in a percentage
of 1% for each element.
The thermic steel resulting from
unmodified thermite, is a pearlitic structure
Polytechnic University of Bucharest

The Romanian Railway Notified Body - NoBo
3
The National Railway Safety Agency - NSA / ASFR
2
168
which has a relatively non-uniform

pearlitic grain size, morphology having
slightly degenerate compared to the
lamellar. In Figure 2 we see the effect of
structural titanium finishing, the latter
being materialized and the appearance of
the titanium nitride (TiN).
After the micro-alloying the copper with
the thermite pearlitic effect is observed,
which is manifested in meaning to one
lamellar pearlite morphology change and
the appearance of traces of secondary
cementite.
At the micro-alloying the steel with the
vanadium it is observed the finishing and
uniformity for grain size, while shorter
distances interlaminate pearl, sees a
"lacing" them and local the appearance of
cementitious.
The microstructure of steel microalloyed
with boron has a tendency to "acicular
needle form" of the ferrite in pearlite
(Widmanstatten type structure) and
finishing of grain size.
The micro-alloying with the manganese
has revealed an effect of increasing the
grain size and its non-smoothing. It is
noted the appearance of the cementitious
and acicular needle phenomenon of ferrite.
It is also observed a kind of patchy attack
as a result of the micro-segregation.
At the micro-alloying with molybdenum
is observed that molybdenum has a
finishing and smoothing of grain size.
There was thus obtained a structure with
ferrite, but there is a tendency
Widmanstatten structure.
In Fig. 8 are presented by changing the
microstructure of steel thermic with
different percentages of modifier complex
pre-alloy consisting of FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and
FeB 15 .
According to the microstructures in
Figure 8 is observed the following issues:
The steel structure is being standardized
and is finishing with increasing
proportion of the pre-alloys modifiers.
The pearlite is becoming increasingly
finer, with a slight tendency to "lacing",
remaining at the same time continuing
on the pearlitic grain section.
A slight tendency to appearance of kind
the
insulartype
of
secondary
cementitious.
The information acquired pursuant the
qualitative investigations are supported by
the quantitative point of view through the
measurements performed grain size
according to ASTM E 112 (with
specialized software, calibrated, Intercept
Method). In the Figure 9 are shown the
comparison of the average values of the
measurements of the amount of grain (G).
It is observed from Figure 9 that all items
used refined grain structure, but not the
same extent. The samples who is labeled
on the histogram with 0,5% M, 1% M and
1,5%M are the samples that have the
greatest influence on the grain size and are
samples of steel thermic modified by
adding 0,5% (FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ), 1%
(FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ) and 1,5%
(FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ).
3. Conclusions
In conclusion the most uniform and most
finished structure is obtained by modifying
the microstructure of the steel chemical
composition with modifier complex
(FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ), in a percentage
by 1,5%. The steels with various chemical
compositions have different properties.
According
to
research
results
that
D. M. COSTEA et al.: On the Structure of Molded Steel Thermic
microscopic steels have a finer grain

structure and even more uniformity have a
superior mechanical features and major
grain steels and non-uniform structure.
Therefore we can say that by alloying the
steel with thermic complex modifier
169
(FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ), in a percentage

by 1,5%, it is provide a kind of steel with a
best mechanical properties. In the future it
will be modified mechanical tests on these
steels year for certification information
obtained by optical microscopy.
3Fe 3 O 4 + 8Al 4Al 2 O 3 + 9Fe + (3009 KJ / 3088 C)
(1)
3FeO + 2Al Al 2 O 3 + 3Fe + (783 KJ / 2500 C)
(2)
Fe 2 O 3 + 1Al Al 2 O 3 + 2Fe + (850 KJ / 2960 C)
(3)
500x
Fig. 1. A sample microstructure without modifier
500x
Fig. 2. Sample microstructure microalloyed with Ti
170
500x
Fig. 3. Sample microstructure microalloyed with Cu
500x
Fig. 4. Sample microstructure microalloyed with V
500x
Fig. 5. Sample microstructure microalloyed with B
500x
Fig. 6. Sample microstructure microalloyed with Mn
D. M. COSTEA et al.: On the Structure of Molded Steel Thermic
500x
Fig. 7. Sample microstructure microalloyed with Mo
500x
Fig. 8. a. Modified with 0,5 % (FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 )
500x
Fig. 8. b. Modified with 1 % (FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 )
500x
Fig. 8. c. Modified with 1,5 % (FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 )
171
172
Fig. 9. ASTME E112 Average Grain Size correlation

Acknowledgements
References
The present paper is part of the

researches included in the European
Project The Sectorial Operational
Programme
Human
Resources
Development POSDRU / 6 / 1.5 / S / 16
PhD Candidates in Innovation and
Competitiveness Support, having
regard the identification number of
Contract - ID 5159.
1. Rajanna, S, et al: Improvement in

Mechanical Behavior of Expulsion
with Heat treated Thermite Welded
Rail Steel, World Academy of
Science,
Engineering
and
Technology vol. 3 from 2009.
2. Malev, M. V.: Modificarea
structurii metalelor i aliajelor,
Editura Tehnic Bucureti, 1966.
3. Gdea, S., Petrescu, M., Metalurgie
fizic i studiul metalelor, Partea a
II-a,
Editura
Didactic
i
Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981.
4. http://www.railtech.fr/

THE WELD ALUMINOTHERMIC

OPTIMIZATION OF RAIL TRACK BY
MICROALLOYED
D. M. COSTEA 1 M. N. GMAN 2 G. DUMITRU 3
Abstract: The welding railway rails can be made by aluminothermic
welding process. This process is used throughout the worldwide because of
the low cost. As a result of the aluminothermic reaction results in a thermic
the steel should have mechanical properties similar to those of the rails.This
paper presents microalloying steel thermic effects with modifier complex of
FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and FeB 15 , from the point of view of mechanical tests.
Key words: steel thermic microalloying, aluminothermic reaction, rails
welded
1. Introduction
The aluminothermic welding steel is cast
thermic over the ends of the rails which
have to be welded, placed in a particular
recess, the joining of two half dies made of
refractory. The reaction which lies behind
this method is the reaction of the
aluminothermic welding. The thermic steel
is a stainless made by reaction
aluminothermic, using a mixture of metal
powders, called thermite. The thermite
mixture is granulated iron oxide, aluminum
and ferro-alloys for alloying. The thermic
steel, casting, has about 25000C, is fluid
and fills the cavity available (molds). The
thermite turned into steel by contact
melting from the ends of the rails are
welded into the cavity (between the
molds), performed diffusion material
contribution to the basic material and thus
lead to the achievement of intimate contact
1
Polytechnic University of Bucharest

The Romanian Railway Notified Body - NoBo
3
The National Railway Safety Agency - NSA / ASFR
2
without separation plan between the rails

subjected to splice assembled. [1]
2. The experimental part
This paper presents the effects of microalloying steel with thermic modifier
complex of FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and FeB 15 in a
percentage of 1,5% and highlight the
changes resulting from mechanical tests.
The thermic steel analyzed, is obtained
from French thermite. The railway rails
welded are the type of 60E1 and the steel
grade mark of R260.
The mechanical tests performed are
hardness, static bending and bending
shock. The strength tests tread rails welded
and static bending tests were performed
according SR EN 14730-1+A1:2011. In
the Figure 1 and 2 are shown the location
for strength stiffness testing and the
bending test schematics.
174
3. Bending test shock (resilience)
track rails.
The test specimens needed to achieve

resilience test on welded samples were
taken from the weld seam. The resilience
values of welding samples are presented in
Table 1 and have the following features
which can be interpreted as:
The alloy that is resulting from melting
thermite and the two ends of the track has
a slightly modified structure of the French
thermite unchanged, the direct effect of the
means of: 5,38 J for the sample test
without modifier and 8,32 J for the sample
with complex modifier.
This growth increase can not be
attributed only to realize synergistic effect
modifier of the elements that make up the
complex.
It is also remarkable often good
uniformity values obtained on the five
tests, which show a homogeneous
hardware structure, as uniform.
5. The static bending tests
4. Strength testings
The hard strength stiffness tests were
carried out on a valuable tread of rails
welded to the weld seam in three points.
The obtained values from these tests are
passed in Table 2.
According to the values in Table 2 is an
increase in weld hardness average value
279 for steel thermic without modifying
the average value of the hardness of the
steel 292 with modifier.
At the same time it is observed that the
weld strength obtained by micro-alloying
with modifier complex of FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12
and FeB 15 in a proportion of 1,5%, does
not exceed the hardness side rails, which
are made of steel rails trademark R260, we
can say that it has a hardness between 260
HBW and 300 HBW. Therefore we can
say that by changing the hardness of steel
thermic weld tends to reach the upper limit
of the range of hardness of welded the
There have been two The static bending

test aluminothermic welding in French
thermic welding steel unchanged and
French thermic welding steel as the
modifier complex of FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and
FeB 15 in a proportion of 1,5%. The static
bending tests on these two aluminothermic
welds were performed according to the
method described in Annex F of SR EN
14730-1+A1:2011 and in Fig. no. 3.
The results from static bending tests are
shown in Figure 3 for the sample without
modifier and in Figure 4 for sample
modified steel. The coupon resulting from
rail tracks with French thermite weld was
snapped broken unchanged from static
bending test 707 kN and the coupon
resulting from rail thermite welding track
rails modified with modifier complex of
FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 and FeB 15 in a proportion of
1,5%, was broken in value 727 kN.
6. Conclusions
In conclusion, the thermic steel obtained
by changing the chemical composition of
thermite French with complex modifier
(FeSi 34 V 25 Ti 12 + FeB 15 ), in a percentage of
1,5%, higher values were obtained from
testing the weld Strength, toughness
testing, and the static bending test in
comparison with the values obtained for
the same test carried out with unmodified
thermite steel made from thermic.
We assert that thermite can be optimized
by microalloying since we have been
obtained improvements in all mechanical
tests performed.
Acknowledgements
The present paper is part of the
researches included in the European
D. M. COSTEA et al.: The Weld Aluminothermic Optimization of Rail Track by Microalloyed 175
Project The Sectorial Operational

Programme
Human
Resources
Development POSDRU/6/1.5/S/16 PhD
Candidates
in
Innovation
and
Competitiveness
Support,
having
regard the identification number of
Contract - ID 5159.
Fig. 1. The location for testing the strength

slow
1 - the face longitudinal axis rolling;
2 - the transversal axis of the weld; 3 - the
running surface
Fig. 2. The slow bending test scheme 1 Load charging; 2 - Welding.
The sample test no. 1 (707 kN)
A = 13,5 mm; R p0,2 = 107 kN
Fig. 3. The slow bending test results without modifying the sample
176
The sample test no. 2 (726kN)
A = 8,2 mm; R p0,2 = 125 kN
Fig. 4. The slow bending test results sample with modifier

Values obtained from test specimens taken from resilience weld
No.
1
2
The
sample
test
Welding
without
modifying
Welding
with
modifying
KCU [J]
val.1
val.2
val.3
val.4
val.5
middle
value
4,8
4,6
6,4
6,1
5,38
8,2
8,6
8,3
8,3
8,2
8,32
The Brinell strength hardness values

No.
1
2
Table 1
The sample
test
Welding without
modifying
Welding
with modifying
Table 2
Strength hardness [HBW]

val. 1
val. 2
val. 3
middle
value
281
278
278
279
296
289
291
292
References
1. M. Adithan et al: Manufacturing

Technology, New Delhi 2003
2. SR
EN
14730-1+A1:2011:
Aplicaii feroviare. Sudarea inelor
aluminotermic. Partea 1:
Aprobarea procedeelor de sudare

(Railway applications. Aluminothermic
welding of track rails. First Part. The
approval welding processes)
3. http://www.railtech.fr/

THE INFLUENCE TO THE IMPACT

STRENGTH OF THE RECYCLED RUBBER
GRANULES ADDITION ON THE
CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
D. COVATARIU 1
R.G. ARAN1 G. COVATARIU1
Abstract: Concrete buildings elements having modified mixes improved

physic properties and mechanical characteristics (strength) of the material.
However, the role of the rubber recycled granules addition should not be
reduced only to this principle (strengths improvement), but also, to control
the crackings process evolution and, thereby, to energy absorption
properties and impact resistance, shock, temperature variations, to fire
resistance.
The present paper offered to specialists, a new approach to achieve a
concrete mixes with the recycled rubber granules from waste tires, that could
solve two major problems in this field: improving impact/shock resistance of
concretes structural elements, as well as to the environmental pollution
refinement (by non-biodegradable items) through its integration into
construction materials.
Key words: recycled rubber, impact strength, concrete with recycled rubber.
1. Introduction
The choice of concrete for a certain
engineering work, must be made taking
into account its properties, such as
permeability, resistance to repeated freezethaw cycles, corrosion resistance in
aggressive chemical environments, etc;
but remain determining in every case the
mechanical strengths and deformation
properties of concrete.
Global reuse of waste through their
integration in the field of construction
materials has become an issue of most
importance that can help prevent
environmental pollution and at the same
time contributing to the development of
1
buildings with lower-cost and, why not,

improve performance of the materials
used.
Accordingly, the use of rubber
aggregates in concrete has become more
important and has become a topic of
research since 20 years ago.
Used tyres can be used in two manners:
material (recycling) and thermal (through
co-incineration in cement factories). As a
result of recovery materials, used tyres are
turned into rubber powder of different
sizes (pellets), steel and synthetic yarn.
This article proposes two targets:
- the evaluation by comparison (static
tests) at the impact resistance of concrete
with addition of recycled rubber granules;
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
178
- the influence of the rubber granules

addition on the compression of prismatic
concrete specimens.
2. Experimental procedure
For carrying out the test of impact
resistance to the concrete there was made
16 specimens having each side of the cubeshaped 150 mm (according to SR EN
12390-1:2013). 4 specimens for each mix
(without the addition of rubber, 5%, 10%
and 15% of the fine aggregate 0-4 mm
replaced with rubber granules). The
samples were kept in room air-conditioners
for 28 days, within seven days they were
submerged in water, after which they were
tested.
Fig. 1. Cubic specimens in climatic room

Have been achieved a total of 16 cubes,
4 for each kind of mix:
-concrete C16/20 (no);
-concrete having replaced the content of
sand percentage of 5%;
sand in a percentage of 10%;
sand in a percentage of 15%.
Rubber quantity and the other materials
quantity for concrete mixes are presented
in Table 1.
Materials quantities for every concretes mixes

Material (kg/m3)
Rubber quantity
[%]
Water (l)
Cement
Sand
Gravel
0%
190
355
945
987
5%
190
355
897.75
987
10%
190
355
850.5
987
15%
190
355
803.25
987
In the experiments, each sample was
subjected to dynamic shocks with Fppl
hammer, to measure the hammers recoil.
Whereas at the same time are known and
the values of the height from which it is
fall the hammer, measured its weight and
dimensions of cubes sides, it can be
calculated the total energy induced in the
sample, and the energy absorbed by the
pieces as a difference between the potential
energy of the Fppl hammer in the release
moment and the potential energy of his
after hitting the sample and subsequently
to reach maximum height due to the
recession.
By hitting the sample undergoes a total
global deformation response of elastic
element deformation plus plastic element
deformation. Plastic component of the
Table 1
Rubber
0
47.25
94.5
141.75
strains is more emphasis for the plain

concrete (with natural stone aggregates)
and through experimental results validating
the theoretical conclusions which stated
that the links destruction from inside and
outside the matrix leads to a certain
ductility of concrete, allowing it to
dissipate significant quantities of energy
before fracture. This property has a great
importance especially if concrete elements
are subjected to dynamic actions.
It also wants to be checked of an
eventual increase in the ductility and the
growth potential to shocks-proof and be
impact-resistant concrete that contains a
certain percentage of aggregated results
from tyre recycling of used tires.
D. COVATARIU et al.: The Influence to the Impact Strength of the Recycled

Rubber Granules Addition on the Concrete Structural Elements
179
Zxczv
2.1. Instrument used

Fppl Hammer (Fig. 1) is generally used
to determine the shock resistance of the
natural and artificial stone aggregates. This
instrument could be adapted also to test the
cubic concrete specimens, in order to
determine the impact resistance (Fig. 2).
2.1.1. Instruments description
Fppl hammer is composed by an anvil
(1), two columns (2) in which slid porthammer (3) and the proper hammer (4).
From the column on the right there is a
ruler with graduated sizes from 5 mm (5)
to measure the height of fall.
The left column is fitted to a ruler (6),
millimetre in size, used for measuring the
recoil (rebound).
Lifting points up at the height of drop is
done using manual winch (7) and through
the hook (8) at the port-hammer, and
triggering the fall of the hammer is done
with the help of the handle (17).
Piling on is found two cursors fitted
stoppers (9) which together with the claws
(10) and levers (11) are designed to block
the hammer, after recoil, into a particular
position.
On the hammer is fitted to the lever (12),
the recoil will move the cursor ruler (6).
Test specimens from natural or artificial
stone sits in the plate for testing (13) over
who is sited the superior plate (14).
2.1.2. Technical characteristics
Fppl hammer has the following
technical characteristics:
a) hammers weight G = 50 0,5 kg
b) hammer hardness R B = 200
c) hammer fall max height H = 1500 mm
e) anvils weight G = 500 kg
f) anvils hardness R N = 200
g) instruments total weight G=800 kg
h) max dimensions 10804502860 mm
Fig. 2. Fppl Hammer

2.2. Determination procedure
Determination of impact resistance of the
concrete cubic test specimens is performed
by following these steps:
a. lay down the port-hammer (3) using
the hand winch (7) and using the hook (8)
at the port-hammer, the hammer (4) is
attached .
b. raise the hammer to a certain height so
that the specimen can be placed in the
middle of the testing plate (13).
c. sits on top of the specimen the upper
plate (14).
d. allow the hammer to support over the
upper plate.
e. the claws (10) snaps into locked
position using the lever (11).
f. cursors stoppers (9) are fixed at a
180
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 7 (56) - 2014 Series I
Fig. 3. Cubic specimens placing in order to determine the impact test

certain height, so that the fall of hammer,
the recoil, it does not rely on the superior
plate.
g. graduated Ruler (5) sits so that the
indicator (18) to be placed in the right part
zero.
h. the graduated ruler (6) so that the
levers (12) (which must be based on slider
ruler) to find the zero position.
i. rises up the hammer to the height
indicated in the STAS 730-49, regarding to
the determination of shock resistance.
j. to order the hammers release, by
releasing the hook (8) helping by the
handle (17).
k. read on the graduated ruler (6) the
height of the hammers recoil.
2.3. Results and its interpretation

(impact test)
As a result of tests carried out in
accordance with the procedure described in
item 2.2, the following were noted:
- The impact of hammer with control
specimens (no rubber) were produced
without a rebound significantly (approx. 1-
2 mm), having local minor damage of the

tested specimens (fig. 4 c);
- The results of the impact of the hammer
with specimens with granular rubber have
different recoil, strictly in accordance with
the amount of aggregate replaced. Thus,
for the specimens with the addition of
rubber at the rate of 5% (Fig. 5 d) is found
a rebound of approx. 4 cm and for those
with the addition of rubber in the
proportion of 15% (Fig. 6 d) shows a
rebound of approx. 6-7 cm. The impact
occurred without major implications on the
status of test specimens, so without
producing damage fracture occurs at the
contact with the upper plate.
- So increasing the amount of rubber
granules replaced in the concretes mixes
brings an increase of elasticity and
ductility of concrete specimens, but (as is
indicated graphically in Fig. 9) with
negative input resistance to compressive
strengths.
D. COVATARIU et al.: The Influence to the Impact Strength of the Recycled Rubber
Granules Addition on the Concrete Structural Elements
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 4. Test of the control specimen (without rubber granules)
a) Initial moment b) Hammer falling moment
c) Hammer-plate impact moment (without rebound) d) Final moment
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 5. Test of the mix 1 specimen (with 5% rubber granules)
c) Hammer-plate impact moment d) Rebound moment e) Final moment
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 6. Test of the mix 3 specimen (with 15% rubber granules)
c) Hammer-plate impact moment d) Rebound moment e) Final moment
181
182
3. Determination test of the

compressive strength
Cube-shaped test specimens were tested
in compression with Universal Testing
Machine 300tf from the Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Building Services of Iasi,

according to SR EN 12390-4: 2013.
Have been prepared in accordance with
the conditions contained in the SR and
tested 4 pieces for each concretes mixes
designed.
Fig. 7. Determination test for compressive strength with 300tf UTM

(300tf Universal Testing Machine)
0%
5%
10%
15%
Fig. 8. Collapsed specimens after test (different percent rubber granules)
The addition of recycled rubber granules
in concretes mixes changed mechanical
properties of specimens. The main
disadvantage of the use of recycled rubber
granules is that it reduces mechanical
resistances. The addition of 15% of rubber
granules into concrete results in a decrease
in compressive strength with 48% (Table
2).
Compressive strength
Table 2
Weight Compression
(rubber percentage)
[kg]
[MPa]
Control (0%)
6.648
36.93
Mix 1 (5%)
6.446
25.91
Mix 2 (10%)
6.175
22.70
Mix 3 (15%)
5.729
19.18
Specimen type
D. COVATARIU et al.: The Influence to the Impact Strength of the Recycled Rubber
Granules Addition on the Concrete Structural Elements
183
Average value for each concretes mix
Fig. 9. Compressive strength variation for the concrete cubic specimens having different
rubber quantity
4. Final remarks
The experimental programme which is
the subject of this article, aside of the field
of research are less studied, taking into
account the limited number of publications
regarding the embedding recycled rubber
waste in concrete composition.
Current research has shown that there are
two areas where we can appreciate that the
concrete with admixture of rubber
aggregate
versus
normal
concrete
mixtures, can offer advantages in fine
condition:
Firstly, where rubber aggregates
decreases the specific weight of the
mixture with a higher intake of air which
makes pumping to be easier, and provides
better thermal insulation and/or acoustic.
Secondly, rubberized concrete provides a
large increase in impact absorption
characteristics and vibration.
Concluding, it requires a clear definition
of the concrete made with aggregates in
rubber and enter it in the current standards
and procedures.
Thus, one can opine that the use of
coarse granular rubber (large aggregates)
or rubber powder should be minimized or
avoided in favour of granulated rubber that
has reduced the cost implications and the

resistance. According to the results
recorded in the numerical experimental it
is observed that with the growth potential
of picking up shocks (Figure 4, 5, 6) shows
a decrease of compressive strength
(expressed in Table 2 and graph from
Figure 9).
So, the replacement rate of the aggregate
shall not exceed 15 per cent of its volume,
in order to maintain an acceptable level of
strength and rigidity for the rubberized
concrete is suitable.
References
1. Ganjian E, Khorami M, Maghsoudi AA.
Scrap-tyre-rubber replacement for
aggregate and filler in concrete
Constr Build Mater, 2009; 23(5):1828
36;
2. Najim KB. Modulus of elasticity and
impact resistance of chopped worn-out
tires concrete Iraq J. Civil Eng 2005,
1(6):8396;
3. Guoqiang L, Michael AS, Gregory G,
John E, Christopher A, Baoshan H.
Development of waste tire modified
concrete Cement Concrete Res
2004;34(12):22839;
184
4. Topu IB, Bilir T. Experimental

investigation of some fresh and
hardened properties of rubberized selfcompacting concrete Mater Des
2009;30(8):305665;
5. Cairns R, Kew HY, Kenny MJ. The use
of recycled rubber tyres in concrete
construction The University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow; 2004;
6.http://www.linkedin.com/company/europ
ean-tyre-and-rubbermanufacturers%27-association-etrma
7.http://www.turbopump.ro/reteta_beton_
B250.phpl;
8. SR EN 12390-1:2013, ncercare pe
beton ntrit. Partea 1: Form,
dimensiuni i alte condiii pentru
epruvete i tipare;
9.Bignozzi MC, Sandrolini F. Tyre rubber
west recycling in self-compacting
concrete Cement Concrete Res,
2006, 36(4):7359;
10. Sukontasukkul P. Use of crumb
rubber to improve thermal and sound
properties of pre-cast concrete panel
Constr Build Mater 2009;23(2):1084
92;
11. K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall A review of

the fresh/hardened properties and
applications for plain- (PRC) and selfcompacting
rubberised
concrete
(SCRC) Construction and Building
Materials 24 (2010) 20432051.
12. Y. Hao, H. Hao, G.P. Jiang, Y. Zhou
Experimental confirmation of some
factors influencing dynamic concrete
compressive strengths in high-speed
impact tests Cement and Concrete
Research 52 (2013) 6370
13. Fei Ren, Catherine H. Mattus, John JyAn Wang, Beverly P. DiPaolo Effect
of projectile impact and penetration on
the
phase
composition
and
microstructure of high performance
concretes Cement & Concrete
Composites 41 (2013) 18
14. Muhammad Tariq A. Chaudhary
Effectiveness of Impact Echo testing
in detecting flaws in prestressed
concrete Construction and Building
Materials 47 (2013) 753759

MULTICRITERIA COMPARATIVE
ANALYSIS ON THE EFFECTIVENESS USE
OF VARIOUS MATERIALS FOR THERMAL
INSULATION IN ROMANIAN
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
D. COVATARIU 1
D.T. BABOR1
R.G. ARAN1
Abstract: Today it can already erect buildings with low-energy and passive
houses at reasonable prices. Nowadays is being discussed more often the
issue of the energy performance of the buildings already built.
Improving energy efficiency in existing buildings allows owners of buildings
to keep energy costs under control in order to be less vulnerable in the event
of future fluctuations of the energy prices and, also, to protect the
environment by assimilating some wastes as building material cycle.
This paper was carried out a multicriteria comparative analysis of efficiency
of the use of various materials in Romania for buildings thermal insulation.
The materials selected for this research are: polystyrene, glass fibre mineral
wool, basaltic mineral wool, cellulose fibres and natural wool.
It was analysed the thermal insulation behaviour (for which it was calculated
the heat insulations global coefficient), the reaction to fire, the manufacture
(the mounting technology criterion) and, obviously the economic criterion
(price analysis for square meter).
The objective was not to give a radical conclusion, but rather to present the
advantages and disadvantages of materials according to the requirement of
each criterion.
Key words: expanded polystyrene, natural wool, glass wool, basaltic wool,
cellulose fibers, thermal insulation.
1. Introduction
The quality of interior climate is given
by a good insulation of the house and the
automatic ventilation which changes the
air frequency, assures enough quantity of
fresh air in the interior of the house.
To prove pleasant indoor climate of
passive houses, an agency from Germany
conducted a study on 32 passive houses
1
from German region of Kronsberg nearby

Hannover. The study proves that the
majority (96%) of the owners from those
houses consider the indoor air quality very
good (46%) or good (50%) (Agentur fr
Umweltkonzept, 2001).
The indoor climate its useful to health
and quality of living in that space.
Replacing only a part of the building (for
example, woodwork) can generate into old
Faculty of civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
186
and bad insulation buildings, issues bound

to condensation and excessive humidity
and the development of mould and bacteria
in time , due to poor thermal insulation of
opaque surface.
The lifespan of building is usually
between 50 - 100 years or even more.
Because building lasts a lifetime is fine to
give attention to maximum energy
efficiency in the construction of the
building. In the lasts years the energy
prices raised into a dramatic way and
probably will never return to the low level
in past years.
Choosing a building with low energy
consumption and improving energy
efficiency in existing buildings allows
owners of buildings to control energy costs
and be less vulnerable to future
fluctuations in energy prices.
1.1. Example of energy consumption for
a house
Fig. 1. Energy consumption for different

manners of building insulation
For the owner of the house, the
insulation is more than one way to reduce
CO2 emissions. According to the German
Energy Agency, renovation of a house of
150 sqm initially poorly insulated (from
1970) and its transformation into a
building with low energy consumption by
installing better insulation and quality
windows and making other energy-
efficient measures can reduce CO2

emissions by 11 tons per year.
The quantity of 3600 litres of liquid fuel
saved is more than 3000 euro per year, at
the prices in Germany by mid-2008. If the
owner would like to save same quantity of
CO2 moving bike instead of the car should
travel every year about 70000 km or to
surround the globe one and a half. Luckily
not all buildings were built in 1970.
However, it is proved that an ordinary
building in the European Union every year
can save up to five tons of CO2.
In this paperwork was performed a
comparative analysis of five construction
materials used in isolation to study their
effectiveness in several ways. The
materials selected for this study were:
expanded polystyrene, fiber glass mineral
wool, basaltic mineral wool, cellulose fiber
insulation, natural wool. The objective is
not to take a radical conclusion but rather
will present the advantages and
disadvantages of each criterion according
to requirement.
Insulating materials were selected for
this study based on the following criteria:
best-selling insulation material in our
country - expanded polystyrene; Fiber
glass mineral wool being 2nd in products
marketed in Romania; basaltic mineral
wool manufacturers and retailers reveal
phonic qualities and fire resistance of it, so
we could not overlook this material in our
study; insulation such as cellulose fiber
and
wool encourage environmental
protection (by in waste disposal of natural
circuit) to obtain funding for the economic
development of our country.
The chosen criteria for the comparative
analysis were the most often used building
materials market to justify marketing
Romanian one or other material:
1. Thermal insulation criteria - the most
important. It was examined the impact
(coefficient of thermal conductivity - )
in the overall thermal insulation
D. COVATARIU et al.: Multicriteria Comparative Analysis on the Effectiveness

Use of Various Materials for Thermal Insulation in Romanian Residential Buildings
coefficient (G). It was taken for

analysis an important building kindergarten.
2. Fire behaviour criteria - analysis of this
criterion is one relative, because
nowadays many construction materials
have since the manufacturing process
applied fire protection.
3. Technological criteria - a criterion that
has been analyzed which the materials
selected
will
have
the
most
advantageous
procedure
laying.
Sometimes building materials will be
highly desired by the beneficiaries if
the execution time is short one.
4. Economic criteria - analysis on the cost
price was made by following-up the
bill quantities. The costs of insulation
were calculated by adding material
price per square meter, transport costs,
labour and equipment.
187
is an organic material containing air,

having from 3 to 6 billion closed cells
every cubic meter, which gives
environmental characteristics of this
material. Polystyrene is a liquid
hydrocarbon produced commercially from
petroleum by the chemical industry.
Polystyrene insulation protects the
environment, emissions of CO 2 , NO X and
sulphur dioxide thus reduced. The material
contains approx. 98% air and is tolerated
by the skin.
We chose for the study this type of
expanded polystyrene because in terms of
quality and price the product is situated at
an average level.
Fig. 3.a. Expanded PolyStyrene plates

form
Fig. 2. The analysis was prepared for 5

materials and 4 criteria
2.
Insulating materials chosen for the

analysis
2.1. Expanded PolyStyrene

EPS stands for (Expanded Polystyrene)
Fig. 3.b. Expanded PolyStyrene surface

presentation form
188
2.2. Fiber glass wool isolates as well as

cold and hot, because is a porous material
made from substances that inhibit the heat
transfer.
It is a material of high dimensional
stability. This is extremely important for a
building. In this way we guarantee that the
insulation system retains original features
that do not appear as heat loss, for example

the possible separation of the plates that
appeared by mechanical contraction.
Very small diameter fibers cause a
network of microscopic pores, which
immobilizes the air and turns it into a real
thermal blanket.
Fig. 4. Fiber glass wool presentation form

2.3. Basaltic wool
Basalt wool rigid plates of 2-layer
integrated with organic resin binder,
waterproof mass. The top layer thickness
up to 20 mm, has a larger density which
gives superior resistance to mechanical
action and impact. The lower layer has a
density which gives an improved heat
transfer coefficient. The plates are printed
on the upper surface to ensure proper
installation.
Fig. 5. Basaltic wool presentation form

Mineral basaltic wool properties:
good thermal insulation,
fire protection,
protection against flame propagation,
noise protection;
hydrophobic plates (vapour permeable)
dimensionally stable;
resistant to an alkaline medium.
resistant to pests
not harmful to health.
2.4. Cellulose fibers
The physical properties of cellulose
allow it to reach in spaces or narrow areas
around installations in walls, such as pipes
and electrical wires, leaving no open air
areas that could reduce the effectiveness of
the insulation. Also, the sealing wall and
roof structures insulated with cellulose
fibers system eliminate ingress of air,
convection currents therefore effective to
create a thermal barrier.
Additionally, the cellulose is acting in
the uniform distribution of moisture of the
cavities where is used, preventing the
accumulation in an area and helps to a
faster drying.
Thermal conductivity of the cellulose
fibers is 0.037kW/mK.

189
genetic fixation recurring wool fiber

thickness and original density.
A property that is sometimes given too
little attention: the wool has the ability to
reduce noise. It proved to be a very good
sound absorbing both walls and ceilings.
Fig. 7. Wool presentation form

3. Multi-criteria analysis of the
effectiveness of choice of different
insulation materials
3.1. Analysis regarding thermal
insulation:
Fig. 6. Cellulose fibers presentation form

2.5. Natural Wool
Natural wool is an insulating material
which retains its shape. Is also an
insulating
material
that
eliminates
formaldehyde from air. The coefficient of
thermal conductivity as the data sheet: =
0.0356 W/mK. But it is also a product
treated and fireproof and an insulating
material easy to put in place.
Excellent thermal insulation properties of
wool are kept even wet. The moisture
absorption and rapid release, attenuates
excellent
the
extreme
temperature
variations. Wool retains its shape due to
Construction chosen for analysis is a

building for social and humanitarian
activities (kindergarten) carried on 3 levels
(ground floor and 2 floors), the 3rd level
being part of the area it occupies about
three quarters of the construction plan. The
last will include both bedrooms and
classrooms, ancillary areas and ensure all
utilities - water, sewer, electricity and
heating.
Calculations were performed as follows:
a.
Determination
of
specific
unidirectional thermal resistance
R se/si superficial thermal resistance on

the exterior/interior surface of the element
[m2.K/W]
d thickness of each layer from the
element envelope [m]
190
b. Correcting the specific thermal

thermal conductivitys coefficient
.
resistances corrected due to the
[W/m K]
influence of thermal bridges
- for expanded polystyrene 0.040 W/m.K
Final table concerning the corrected
- for fiber glass wool 0.038 W/m.K
thermal resistances:
- for mineral basaltic wool 0.036 W/m.K
- for cellulose fiber 0.037 W/m.K
- for wool 0.0356 W/m.K
Polystyrene Fiber glass
Mineral
Cellulose
Wool
wool
basaltic wool
0.04
0.038
0.036
0.037
0.0356
[W/m.K]
2.
R pe [m K/W]
3.689
3.82
3.966
3.889
3.989
R plic [m2.K/W]
3.15
3.28
3.427
3.35
3.45
R plir [m2.K/W]
3.197
3.328
3.474
3.397
3.497
R plsc [m2.K/W]
4.375
4.58
4.795
4.683
4.842
R plsr [m2.K/W]
4.41
4.61
4.826
4.714
4.873
1/R pe [W/ m2.K]
0.271
0.262
0.252
0.257
0.251
1/R pi [W/ m2.K]
0.315
0.302
0.289
0.296
0.288
1/R ps [W/ m2.K]
0.227
0.217
0.208
0.213
0.206
R` pe [m2.K/W]
1.808
1.838
1.873
1.855
1.876
R` pi [m2.K/W]
2.74
2.84
2.95
2.89
2.96
2.
R` ps [m K/W]
3.802
3.952
4.1
4.02
4.13
Nr of levels = 3
c. Determining the global thermal RatioA/V=0.473=>GN=0.4538 [m3K/W]
insulation coefficient (G)
Conclusions of the calculations carried
out to determine the efficiency of thermal
V hea heated interior volume of the insulation are summarized in the following
building
table:
n natural ventilation speed of the
building, number of air changes per hour
Material
Efficiencys
No
[h-1] =0.6
degree
correction
factor
of
exterior
1 Expanded polystyrene
*
temperatures =1
2 Fiber glass wool
**
V hea =3304.98 m3
3 Basaltic mineral wool
****
4 Cellulose fiber
***
1. Polystyrene G = 0.4355 [m3K/W]
5
Wool
*****
2. Fiber glass wool G = 0.431[m3K/W]
* - most inefficient material
3. Mineral basaltic woolG=0.426 [m3K/W] ***** - most efficient material
4. Cellulose fiber G = 0.429 [m3K/W]
5. Wool
G = 0.425 [m3K/W]
3.2. Analysis of the reaction to fire
action:
Global thermal insulation coefficient
(GN), in buildings designed conforming to
Buildings fire safety measures must
the norms after 1 January 2011; it is fulfill the criteria and the levels of
extracted from C107-1-2005 norm with performance from P118 norm.
changes from 2010, in terms of:
Depending on the reaction to fire,

materials and building elements can be

incombustible C0 (CA1) or combustible.
Combustible materials and buildings
elements are classified into classes of
combustion:
- C1 (CA2a) practical uninflammable;
- C2 (CA2b) difficult inflammable;
- C3 (CA2c) medium inflammable;
- C4 (CA2d) easy inflammable.
191
polystyrene on the facades of the

buildings:
1. After preparing the support layer it
will be prepared the mortar for fixing the
plates
2. In the bottom of the insulation boards
are fixed the profiles from the base
3.The mortar is applied around the plate
in the form of a strip with a width of 3-4
cm in the plates centre in the form of
bounces with a diameter of about 8 cm, so
that after pressing to fill 40% of the plate.
4. The plates were applied side by side,
beginning from the base, from one corner
and going to the superior part of the walls,
maintaining a straight line. In short, these
would be the execution stages, therefore
the polystyrene is easiest to mount and will
have the best rating in this chapter.
Fig. 8. Reaction to fire Comparison

cellulose vs. Fiber glass wool
According to technical reports, of the
data from P118 norms and with
experiments performed in specialized
laboratories
of
the
manufacturing
companies of thermoinsulation materials
we centralized all data in the following
table to have a hierarchy of the analyzed
products:
No
Material
Efficiencys
degree
*
2 Fiber glass wool
**
*****
4 Cellulose fiber
***
5 Wool
****
***** - most efficient material
3.3.
Analysis concerning technological

criteria (workmanship):
Expanded polystyrene it is easily
installed, follow-up we can observe some
stages into installation of expanded
Fig. 9. The manner to put in place the

expanded polystyrene
Basaltic mineral wool, fiber glass
mineral wool and wool have the same
mounting system. The costs and
complexity of mounting are more
disadvantageous
than
expanded
polystyrene because a metal / wood
structure on which to put in place the
insulating material. In this case the
exception would be the basaltic mineral
192
wool boards but their weight is greater

than polystyrene, so the costs on the
supporting and mounting are higher.
but also because the material can be put

into practice only by specialized
institutions.
Fig. 11. Method to mount the cellulose

fibers insulation
In the following table there where
evaluate
the
material
concerning
technology assessment:
No
Fig. 10. The manner to mount the layers of

mineral wool layers
Materials
Efficiencys
degree
*****
***
****
**
***
2 Fiber glass wool
4 Cellulose fiber
5 Wool
3.4. Analysis on economic criteria

Finally we discuss about the installation
of cellulose fiber insulation which can be
resemblance with that of mineral wool
mats and wool (the use of mattresses of
waste cellulose). The cellulose is most
often presented in the form of granules or
fibers which are specially treated and with
the particular binder will be sprayed (with
a compressor) on the surface to be
insulated. Then the insulating layer will be
protected from the weather by a special
treatment (coating, spraying, painting).
Labour will be quite uncomfortable for the
construction of a large number of levels,
Economically
plan
and
future,
construction will be evaluated, required by
professionals, according to the energy
certification, costs can be found in the
balance monthly rents, own maintenance,
in one total dependence of the value
heating bills, warm water, electricity,
natural gas. All of these calculation
elements will express, clear and to the
point, market price of the property subject
to sale, rent, buying.
In the specialized literature, in presenting
the information made by manufacturers

materials required thermal insulation and

finishes, are defined and even known the
price spread for the implementation of
thermal insulation the building envelope.
These prices are expressed per square
meter insulated surface.
The comparative analysis on the
economic point of view is made from the
raw material costs, taking into account and
expenditure on labour, transport and
equipment (by drafting the bill of
quantities).The results are revealed in the
following table:
No
1
2
3
4
No
1
2
3
4
5
Materials
Expanded
polystyrene
Fiber glass wool
Mineral basaltic
wool
Cellulose fibers
Efficiencys Cost
degree
[/m2]
7-8
*****
***
**
***
Material
Expanded polystyrene
Fiber glass wool
Mineral basaltic wool
Cellulose fibers
Wool
15-16
17-18
15-16
Insulation
degree
*
**
****
***
*****
5 Wool
*
193
21-22
4. Conclusions regarding comparative

analysis
In the table below we centralized all the
information in the previous chapter then I
collected all the marks obtained (*)
achieving a rating on the building materials
proposed for study.
We discussed the position of each
material and which were strengths and
their weaknesses.
The first is located mineral basaltic wool,
although is leading only to resistance to
fire other comparison criteria, is under the
leadership, except for the economic criteria
which is the main disadvantage rigid plates
Dual Density their cost being very high
compared to the other materials studied.
Fire
Technologic Economic TOTAL
resistance
*
*****
*****
12*
**
***
***
10*
*****
****
**
15*
***
**
***
11*
****
***
*
13*
Sheep wool it ranks 2st position and the

main criteria that rises to this level is a
good global coefficient of thermal isolation
(the best of the five the subjects followed)
and fire resistance, the latter is due to
special treatments that the manufacturer
adds to the insulating material.
We can observe that there is not an
advantageous material in economical and
technological point of view.
In the middle place, 3rd position is the
expanded polystyrene, the most efficient
material economically and technology
point of view and the most inefficient in
terms of fire proofing and the degree of
fire resistance. According to the study
never reaches the middle of a criterion

although in reality has a good degree of
thermal isolation (middle). Fact that is
leading without no doubt in the 2 criteria
(technological and economic) explains the
use in most of cases in our country.
4th position is occupied by cellulose
fibers. The fact that none of the criteria is
not the strength of this insulation type, the
product taken only middle notes or even
inferior that explains and place occupied,
but we must consider is just one step away
of expanded polystyrene and the main
advantage (raw material is a waste) has not
been taken into account.
Last position is occupied by fiber glass
194
mineral wool although is a material with

good properties in terms of thermal
insulation, difference between the last 2
seats making by glass fiber lower fire
resistance compared to cellulose fibers.
It is obvious that the present analysis can
be improved by adding new criteria:
durability over time of applied material,
degree of environmental damage (over
time and in the manufacturing), etc.
Unfortunately, these criteria require a long
analysis, stretched over a longer period of
time, which can be achieved in the
following years.
References
1. Ordonana de urgen a Guvernului
nr. 69/2010 privind reabilitarea
termic a cldirilor de locuit;
2. Legea 10 privind calitatea n

Construcii 95 republicata n 2005;
3. Ordonana de urgen a Guvernului
nr. 195/2005 - Avnd n vedere
necesitatea
ndeplinirii
angajamentelor asumate de ara
noastr n procesul de integrare
european;
4. C107/2005 , cu modificri n 2010
Publicat in Monitorul Oficial 820 din
8.12.2010;
5. Normativ de siguranta la foc a
constructiilor P118/98 Republicat
i modificat n 2010;
6. www.austrotherm.ro;
7. www.ursa.ro;
8. www.rockwool.ro;
9. www.termocel.ro;
10. www.alchimea.de;

THE STAGES OF AUTHORIZATION FOR

PLACING IN SERVICE
G. DAE 1
M. CARABINEANU 2
G. DUMITRU2
Abstract: The authorization to placing in service refers to the legal steps an

applicant must take in order to obtain the latter authorization. The placing in
service authorization is granted on request, a legal person in Romania or a
group of legal entities registered in Romania, with state capital and / or
private sector who wish to obtain a license of this nature. The placing in
service authorization can be obtained for rolling stock (motor and / or towed)
owned industrial railway lines, with or without access to railway
infrastructure after execution of building, upgrading or renewal thereof, etc.,
to exploitation. Applicant for an authorization to place in service may be
defined by legal persons or groups of legal entities registered in Romania,
which may require the relevant authority, an authorization for placing in
service are railway undertakings (RU) state owned or privately, public
infrastructure managers and/or interoperable etc. In Romania, the competent
authority may require that applicants authorizations commissioning is
Romanian Railway Authority (AFER), which has in its structure four
independent bodies namely the Romanian Railway Safety Authority (ASFR),
Romanian Railway Notified Body (ONFR) Romanian Railway Licensing
Body (OLFR) and the Romanian Railway Investigating Body (OIFR). At the
European level the body designated to legislate entire business unit specific
rail is the European Railway Agency (ERA), for the authorization to release
the clerkship common to all Member States, introduced a form of a flowchart
diagram summarizing over nine stages throughout the approval process for
Placing in service.
Key words: European Railway Agency (ERA), Romanian Railway

Authority - AFER (NSA), National Rail Safety Authority (ASFR), National
Vehicle Register (NVR), Common Safety Methods (CSM), Standards/National
Regulations (NR,) Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI), Acts on
Administrative Disputes (AAP).
1. Identification of the rules, applicable
requirements and the conditions of
use and assessing evaluation
The first stage of the process also
contains intermediary stages as it is the
preliminary stage 1-1 which presents the
1
2
Romanian Railway Authority - AFER

National Rail Safety Authority - ASFR
means of identification respectively the

choices in of the authorization cases. This
step does not require a warrant under usual
practice (common) referred to in Annex B.
Subsequently it is requires to consulting
the TSIs (Technical Specifications for
Interoperability) applicable to registered
196
national database (NRD) including

national legal framework (NCL) of the
Member State (MS) is applied for
authorization for placing in service which
make arrangements for obtaining. In this
context is required plan by preparing a few
conditions
whom
must
be
met
cumulatively namely whether "type
approval is still valid? Yes / No" or "is
intended to be authorized in another MS
than the initial Member State? Yes / No
"or if" is a vehicle (vehicle type) new / has
undergone changes its original design? Yes
/ No". Also a condition to be fulfilled
refers to the fact that "it is a new base
design? Yes / No". According to the
answers provided, take notice decisions
which take account of European legislation
or other restrictions and legal options
Slovak (Optional / usual practice), legal
option, R: Recommendation 2011/217/EU,
Directive interoperability ID-2008/57 / EC,
common Safety methods (CSM) on risk
evaluation
and
assessment
under
Regulation 352/2009, Annex B. If not,
then we will make a decision on when
authorizing a new model (upgrade /
renewal).
If yes, then will make a decision about
where specific authorization first model.
Also, decisions like this are the decision
about where to authorize renewal decision
on the authorization if the next (higher) or
the next target, the decision about where
additional of authorization (additional). It
takes into account the identity according to
TSI, including appropriate exemption and
the requirements of NR, the condition of
use, verification procedures (including
alternative methods, if applicable) and for
the necessary assessment bodies (ID: 5.1 ,
5.2, 5.3, 5.6, 5.8, 9, 22.2. R 1, 3.1.3), if the
first authorization (ID: 22, 24), if
additional authorization (ID: 21.5, 23, 25),
if is renewed, future presentation or if there

is a new upgrade (ID: 20). For
identification, it is imperative to establish
the project and the scope obviously taking
into account the TSI and NR related
change. Is also important to taken into
account the conditions and verification
procedures (both the user as well as the
verification), including alternative methods
(if applicable - ID: 20.1). Then submit
your project description to the EU Member
State (MS).
The specific methodology file describing
the project is the identification code ID:
20.1. and the examination of the file
describing the project is the identification
code ID: 20.1. The result of the
examination of the file describing the
project is also the ID: 20.1. if it is a new
permit required for the project, all code
(ID: 20.1). In this case, the prior
authorization file examination first
authorization
must
be
apparent
maintenance
records,
maintenance,
operation,
use
and/or
technical
amendments (if any) under ID: 26.3; R:
5.5. From this stage is longer part also the
process of identifying the vehicle type
approved and request assessment bodies
(ID: 26.3; R: 5.5). The result of the review
and analysis prior of authorization file,
records of maintenance and technical
changes (ID: 23.3, 25.2) for vehicles must
be made in accordance with TSI.
In order to identification the process take
into account also modified TSI Technical
Specifications
for
Interoperability,
including
waivers
(if
applicable)
requirements, as well as other NR
verification
procedures
including
alternative methods (if applicable). The
critical error correction is also required
before the authorization (s) in accordance
G. DAE et al.: The Stages of Authorisation for Placing in Service
with the code type identity - ID: 26.3.

When submission of the dossier the MS
project description, check if renewed
authorization required? (ID: 26.3) and
envisages notification "extension" type
authorization and/or notification of the
need for renewal of the authorization (s)
type. If you need to update the verification
procedures, the next step is going to
identify the right type (B and C) according
to national rules associated technical
compatibility, according to the associated
verification
procedures
(including
alternative methods, if applicable). Also at
this moment are taken into account the fact
the terms of use and assessment bodies
necessary to identify, take into account the
appropriate category (B and C) according
to national rules that relate to technical
compatibility, including open points in the
TSI and waivers (if applicable), the nature
of specific cases are described in TSI's.
Also be considered and necessary
exemptions (if applicable).
Finally,
associated
verification
procedures (including alternative methods,
if necessary) conditions and necessary
assessment bodies (ID: 23.4-6) the entire
amount norms underlying the preliminary
stages of defining first (intermediate) stage
I of the licensing process for
commissioning. If there is a change in the
structure of the vehicle or if it is possible
to authorize the use conditions and / or
restrictions on, the move to an intermediate
step respectively follows the step 4 where,
if the applicant does not meet all the
conditions, or if a negative decision for
application, or there is a refusal to permit,
without request, the move to step 7 where
it is necessary to update the procedure (s)
for verification (ID: 20.2). Otherwise,
follow the steps in the preliminary stage 12. At this stage, identification is also
required assessment bodies (ID: 20.2), then
197
check out the requirements and procedures

applicable technical and TSI's (ID:20).
Also on this occasion is the identification
conditions of use and verification
procedures including alternative methods
(if applicable) (ID:20).
2. First engagement
This stage begins with a preliminary
stage 2-1 which is proposed for prerecruitment and in parallel with this, a
second intermediate step menu that
preliminary stage 2-2, during which the
assessment is made proposals for
alternative methods to meet the
requirements essential. Here is also taken
into account the legal options Slovak
binding nature or usual practice, the legal
option and the European Commission
recommendation R: 2011/217 / EU and the
common safety method on risk evaluation
and assessment in accordance with EU
Regulation.
352/2009,
Annex
C.
Subsequently makes selecting assessment
body then makes the composition rules of
the applicable TSIs and / or national
regulations and associated verification
procedures, including information to be
provided. The risk analysis should be
carried out in accordance with Article 6 (3)
(a) of Directive 2004/49 / EC and must
tests to be performed in the network to
verify the criteria referred to in paragraph
4 of Article 23 of Directive 2008/57 / EC.
The submission of pre-assessment
project file (pre-engagement) assessment
body will be accompanied by a file of prerecruitment project sketch later will be
made and review the project file with
drawing pre-engagement. Where there is a
proposal for an alternative, then make a
proposal for an alternative way to answer
the essential. The alternative method must
follow
(to
fulfill)
the
essential
198
requirements,
then
performed
the
evaluation of safety. Then supply (ensure)
the safety assessment / evaluation.
The presentation alternative methods
should be made with supporting evidence
as safety evaluation report or other
supporting evidence. If the alternative
method is acceptable then completed the
preliminary stage 2-2. If the alternative
method is not supported and is filed refusal
decision (rejection) for this method, when
available, will submit alternative methods
accepted by the assessment body.
Subsequently, if one accepts the alternative
method, ends midway 2-2.
3. Stage 3 The assessment/evaluation
The beginning of phase 3, it is in the
forefront of the applicant (candidate
authorization commissioning), Notified
Body, Body and body Designated
Assessment. Within this stage vetting
(including trials and tests on railway
infrastructure when necessary) according
to TSIs applicable national regulations,
common safety methods of risk assessment
(CSM). It also established and proof
required under ID: 21. Also on this
occasion type place compliance checks and
establishing evidence of the completion of
the relevant compliance checks on product
type (ID:26.5). Then submit demand for
assessment bodies to obtain access
according to type (product / service
reviewed / rated).
The appellant of the application must
provide proof (e.g. if he had / or did not
have a Quality Management System,
covering all parts (subassemblies and / or
structural subsystems of the vehicle) as
specified set identification code ID: 26.5).
Note is the fact that Article 513 calls for
the
body
designated
to
provide
transparency or proof, regardless of
whether the applicant has a quality

management system or not. The access to
this information useful applicant should be
facilitated in accordance with the
appropriate type of NR (ID:26.5,b) and / or
with the appropriate type TSI (ID: 26.5(a)).
Also, the body must provide evidence of
completion of the assessment of
conformity to type (ID: 26.5 (b)), evidence
of completion of the relevant checks
(including the trials and tests made on
railway infrastructure when necessary)
according to the TSIs and the appropriate
national regulations (ID:21).
The application made by the applicant
and the address of the assessment to make
assessment in case of contradictions TSIs
and / or with the appropriate NR (s), must
also provide certificates or test reports.
Should also be checked if they are covered
by NR / TSI (cf. ID: 23, 25), all the
requirements of technical compatibility
and integration of safety. If it is an
additional
authorization,
then
the
performance evaluation of the appropriate
requirements of NR inconsistencies (ID:
17.3; R: 4.2.2; CSM: 7.3), will be provided
and the evaluation of the appropriate
requirements of NR by applicants (ID:
17.3; R: 4.2.2; CSM: 7.3). It also making
its assessment report is made taking into
account the appropriate requirements
(effective) of TSIs (ID: 17.3; R: 4.2.2;
CSM: 7.3).
At the delivery of the certificate or
certificates to assess inconsistencies with
the appropriate requirements of TSIs to
applicants (ID: 17.3; R: 4.2.2; CSM: 7.3),
is taking into account the implementation
of the Regulation on common safety
methods for integrating safety risk
assessment (ID: 15.1; CSM: 2.2; R: 5.3).
Making the risk assessment (ID: 15.1;
CSM: 2.2; R: 5.3), for assessment body.
he documentation concerning CSM should

be the basis of preparation of the certificate
or certificates drawn up after consideration
of appropriate requirements TSIs (ID: 18;
R: 4.2.1). A proof of this given example,
you may copy certificates [TSIs or NR],
which could cover several vehicles,
checking on completion relevant to the
type of vehicle (ID: 26.4-5).
The applicant must submit to the
Assessment Report Risk Assessment
according to (CSM:6.1) and the certificate
or certificates obtained from the evaluation
of the appropriate requirements of TSIs are
specified and identification code ID: 17.3;
R: 4.2,2. If the designated body needs an
assessment, common safety methods
necessary for risk assessment, then proceed
to the gathering and collection of
documentation according to CSM: Annex
I.5.
The purveyance documentation to assess
the safety assessment body (CSM) is given
and no items CSM. 6.1 and 7.1. If the
results of testing and evaluation are not
appropriate when, according to (ID:
22.2(b); 23.3; 24.2; 25.2; 26.5), returns to
the beginning of the second stage which
must therefore be to drive the same.
If these results are appropriate
verification and evaluation, then end its the
third stage and move to the next stage.
4. The nonconformities remediation
The main actors involved during this
stage are the applicant, the Agency (IES)
of the Member State National Security
(MS) of the European Union (EU), the
body designated (DeBo). During the stage
no. 4 must also take into account the legal
option (legal) in Slovakia, the usual
practice that non-binding nature (common)
199
in Annex E, where references are made to

an alternative method, and the decision on
corrective actions to changing conditions
use or other restrictions. However is longer
have taken into account the assessment of
technical and / or economic as well as
possible conditions of use and / or other
restrictions, the design change the design.
This change vehicle design, including
modification of that software platform to
software - programming languages, will
take into account the fact that if approval is
based on results from the evaluation of
operating conditions and / or restrictions
possible, then proceed to preparation
conditions of use. Otherwise, start stage 2
and if no conditions of use and / or other
restrictions are not satisfied, again at step
1.
In the case of refused alternatives is
required submission of a request for access
by rail to run on the test track (test site)
when necessary (ID: 23.6; 25.4). After
preparing the request for access to the
infrastructure according to (ID: 23.6; 25.4),
expects approval for testing in circulation
(ID: 23.6; 25.4). Whether the test will be
conducted within the legal time according
to ID: 23.6 and 25.4, then this should be
covered by the NSA to ensure that tests
will be conducted on schedule (rotation
interval time) regulated (ID: 23.6; 25.4).
Take measures to ensure that the tests
take place within the NSA on
Infrastructure Manager to schedule - the
legal time period, are also specified in ID:
23.6; 25.4. In this context must be made
revisions to the provisions and review the
provisions on access to infrastructure
testing
movement.
Following
the
submission of pre-engagement, including
these means alternative proposal, if the
NSA of the Member State and the
200
assessment body.
The pre-engagement file must first be
approved, but not before compiling the
original references for Pre-Employment,
otherwise it is necessary to return to step 1
to renew without checking or updating
procedures
only
if
subsequent
authorization.
5.
Establishing
verification
certificates and declarations
of
The main entities responsible are

involved in the step 5 are the applicant, the
designated body (Debo) Notified Body
(NoBo) CSM Assessment Body. The
specific activities of this phase are
governed
by
Recommendation
R:
2011/217 / EU Directive Interoperability
ID: 2008/57 / EC, the Regulation CSM:
352/2009. Worth mentioning is the fact
that Article 26 of that regulation, it is
found (no correlation) to legislation in
Slovakia, (Appendix F). It also must have
been taken into account throughout stage 5
and the legal option (legally) to establish
the declaration of conformity with the type
of authorization. If any additional
authorization (ID: 23, 25) or according to
the typology for opting applicant ID (ID
code): Annex VI. R: 8.6, then pass to the
method and composition of certification
documentation according to with national
regulations (ID: Annex VI. R: 8.6). In this
context, it is imperative that developing
and compiling documentation shall be
certified by the European Council (EC).
Providing Community CE certificate as
developing, compiling documentation and
not least, the CSM on risk assessment
report is made in accordance with ID:
Annex VI, R: 3.2; 5.3.1; 5.3.2; 8; 8.5; 8.9.
Report CSM on risk assessment reports are
prepared in accordance with ID: Annex VI,
R: 5.3.1; 5.3.2. Where only one vehicle

type approval (ID: 26), then the set
statements checking - EC and / or NR (ID:
Annex V. R: respectively 1.2 and Annex
VI-2.3.1;3; R: 4.2.3). It can move to this
stage no. 5 and by the end of step 3 if for
all other cases, when the result of the
verification and assessment during phase 3
are ok (from eng. "Zero Killed / no victim
or from greek "Ola Kala / everything is in
order"). The stage 5 is completed when the
evaluation result is consistent verification
and further authorizing.
6. The development and the compiling of
the authorization file and submission of
the application
The entities who participate in the
deployment of Stage 6 is the applicant, the
NSA in Annex G which includes the
European Commission recommendation R
2011/217 / EU Directive Interoperability
ID: 2008/57 / EC legal option (legal text)
in Slovakia. If any additional authorization
(ID: 23, 25) in the sense that it is operation
on Railways (Railway specific) then is
(prepare) a copy of the technical file initial
prior authorization, gather (collect /
collect) records of maintenance, operation
and make a record of technical changes
(ID: 23.3, 25.2). It then proceeds to
identify the content of the technical file for
that part of the body designated (R: 8.6,
4.2.2, ID: Annex: VI-3.3.) and that part of
CSM assessment body on risk assessment
(R: 5.3. 2, ID: Annex: VI-2.4). It should
also be taken into account and file
authorization (authorization) above, the
existing records in the archives of
maintenance (repairs and or inspections),
operation and technical amendments (if
any) according to ID: 23.3; 25.2.
Finally should be considered and taken
into account the technical file on the
National Regulations (R: 8.6, 4.2.2, ID:

Annex: VI-3.3) and the report CSM
assessment body on risk assessment) (A:
5.3.2, ID: Annex: VI-2.4). The compilling
(writing that completion) authorization file
(ID: 23.3, 25.2), should be made taking
into account any previous authorization
file (ID: 23.3, 25.2) or earlier notes from
the archives (ID: Appendix VI-2.6). If the
authorization file is archived (ID:
Appendix VI-2.6), or if a typology (a
particular specific) endorsed by the
Member States (AR 513: * 20 (5)), then
proceed to identify the format and
documentation
for
type
approval
application.
Then
submit
formal
application for vehicle type approval and /
or commissioning of vehicle (ID: 21.6, 23,
Appendix VI-2.6, 25.2 R: 8.1). It should
also be noted that the Slovak legislation is
necessary type approval by the Member
States before the application of an
applicant (candidate) for authorization for
placing in service. Filing the formal
authorization for the operation (ID: 21.6,
23, Appendix VI-2.6, 25.2 R: 8.1) may be
accompanied by an application for type
approval (AR 513: *20(5)). The processing
of the application for type approval are two
possibilities that if the application is not
approved and rejected, then refuse to grant
type (AR 513: *20(5)).
If the request for approval shall be
approved and accepted as part file, then
proceed to issue the type approval (AR
513: *20(5)). If changing the type
approval, then resume from Step 1 (AR
513: *20(5)). The refusal of typeautomatically
lead
to
resumption
describing step 4 (AR 513: *20(5)).
201
7. The processing of the request for

authorization
During the stage 7 are involved entities
such as the applicant authorization
commissioning, NSA Certification Body.
The verification of the completeness
(completeness) of demand (request),
supposedly responsible entity identify
whether the request (application) itself is
complete (R: 4.2.3; AAP: *29(1)) (AAP is
an acronym that refers to the fact that it
acts on administrative disputes). If the
results of this verification process is
positive, then proceed to identify any
missing information. After confirming
receipt of the request (demand) is drawn
letter with observations must certify that
the applicant's request (the application
itself) is incomplete. The letter must also
contain
observations
and
missing
information (AAP: *29(1)).
The letter or any other means of
confirmation of receipt of application
(request) (ID: 20.1, 23.7.a; 25.5.a) may be
subject to an approval decision on where
additional (ID: 23;25). If there is a decision
of the NSA in accordance with statutory
time European (EU legal framework) - ID:
21.8, the refusal of authorization (ID:
21.7), then, necessarily, it must be
accompanied by justification for refusal of
authorization (ID: 22.2; R: 8.7). If
authorization is not granted, then the
vehicle is not considered deemed
authorized (ID: 21.8). In this regard, the
applicant may lodge an appeal (a request)
to NSA (ID: 21.7) and then 7-1 midway
through.
202
8. Preliminary
processing
of
authorization
Stage 7-1
the
request
The
for
This intermediate step involving

entitie's menus and NSA, Certification
Body, Agency (Authority) European
Railway (ERA). Completion of this stage
should be made taking into account the
legal framework (legal option), the nonbinding (as result of the usual practice), the
legal framework in Slovakia, the European
Commission's
recommendation
R
2011/217/EU,
Directive
for
Interoperability ID: 2008/57 / EC, the Law
AAR: 395/2002 on archives and records,
the law AAP: 71/1967 on administrative
and not least the longer have to take into
account the timing of specific progression
of
the
operations
authorization
commissioning. It should be noted that this
timetable starts when the request was
granted (Appendix H).
The justification the request is
addressed to the NSA that after review and
reassessment leads to submission of the
application to the applicant by the
certification body. If is changing the NSA
unfavorable decision and the request is
approved, then move to the loading
procedure / supply (ID: 21.7). If it keeps
maintain the refusing authorization, then
the applicant may appeal the ERA.
Whether the ERA opinion is positive
then the application is approved the
applicant so accepted calls (positive
decision of the appeal / call) - ID: 21.7.
Whether the ERA rejects call the applicant,
the applicant is informed of the decision to
reject negative request a license renewal
application and rejection and move on to
further review and revision of opinion
NSA (ID: 21.7). The timing starts (legal
term derived) from the time the NSA
refused permission, so finally taking

preliminary stage 7-1.
9. Preliminary Stage 7-2 The checking
the completeness of the application
Preliminary stage 7-2 Start checking the
completeness of the request / demand
begins with an actual letter to the
applicant, the contents of which should
focus on the formulation (application)
incomplete, missing information (AAP *29
(1)), finding and identification of
incomplete information.
If the request (application) is complete
(ID: 20.1), then you should expect
confirmation of receipt of the request. In
this letter or any other means of
confirmation of receipt of application (ID:
20.1) to be indicated if additional
authorization (ID: 23; 25).
If there is a decision of the NSA within
the legally regulated by the EU (ID: 21.8),
then the decision may contain declaration
vehicle considered authorized (ID: 21) or
contain a rejection that the refusal of
authorization (ID: 21.7), together with the
reasons for refusal of authorization (ID:
21.7), the applicant may decide to make an
appeal to the NSA (ID: 21.7). Otherwise,
further efforts are necessary to grant
authorization (ID: 22.2, R: 8.7) and thus
ends step 7.
10. The
approval
final
documentation
and
During this stage will determine the

shape of authorization for the operation of
the vehicle (s) railway and the
establishment authorization form for the
operation of the railway vehicle. In this
regard, are representative the instructions
no. 3/2012 and no. 4/2012. It is also
important to determine if it's the type of
vehicle license (ID:26,1-2). In the case of

an affirmative answer, then it will proceed
to inform ERA in connection with the
permit issued for the vehicle type in
accordance with Directive European ID
2008/57/EC: 26,7.1. It should also be
reiterated that Article 26.7 of the European
Directive, has no counterpart in legislation
in Slovakia, and any identification code is
not in the Article 26 legislation in
Slovakia. One must also consider the legal
framework (legal), the non-mandatory
character that the usual practice (common
case) according to Annex 1. Moreover it
should be noted that neither Article 34 is
transposed (not found its correspondent)
legislation in Slovakia.
Later proceed to registration in the
European register of authorized types of
vehicles (ERATV) - ID: 34, after request
made in advance by the applicant in this
regard, necessary intermediate step (in the
process of obtaining authorization to
commissioning) which ending the step 8.
11. The vehicle Registration of the
authorization in the National Vehicle
Register
Browsing to the latter stages of the
licensing process for the operation must
also take account of the legal framework
(legal option). However, check that
mandatory character of the common
practice (usual) as matters stipulated in this
European Interoperability Directive ID:
2008/57 / EC and NVR Commission
Decision 2011/107 / EU of the European
Union, amending Decision 2007/759 / EC
of the European Council on adopting a
common specification of the NVR. Last
but not least must be taken into account
and all other entities (actors) involved in
the movement on the stage 9, the entity
designated by updating NVR recording,
the entity responsible for registering
203
additional the authorization or the

European Centralised Virtual Vehicle
Register (ECVVR) and last but not least,
of course, the applicant for registration.
The next step is to identify the step 9
answer questions such as "is a recording
and / or updated further authorization?",
"Are concerned EU Member States have
their own national vehicle registers
connected to the European Centralised
Virtual Vehicle Register?", "is modifying
an additional authorizations?", "apply to
other NVR update information on
additional authorization" (ID: 33.1, 33.2,
33.3, 33.4, National Register of Vehicles:
Appendix 3.2.5, Paragraph (supplement)
4). It is also appropriate to submit an
application to update and other information
NVR with additional authorization under
ID: 33.4; NVR: Annex 3.2.5; Paragraph 4
and other updates other NVR ID: 33.4;
NVR: Appendix 3.2.5. not least to be
provided
updated
information
for
applicants NVR registration request for
additional
authorization
and
that
enrollment in NVR. It is important to
provide information and on the first
authorization or subsequent authorization
and
providing
information
about
registration (making out) for registration
applicant NVR are steps to put an end to
the last stage of the licensing process for
commissioning.
References
1.
Commission
Decision
NVR:
2011/107 / EU of the European Union
amending Decision 2007/759 / EC of
the European Commission adopting a
common specification for the National
Vehicle Register - NVR.
2. The European Commission Directive
ID: 2004/49 / EC.
3. The European Commission Directive
ID: 2008/57 / EC.
204
4. The Law AAR: 395/2002 concerning

The Archives and The Registers.
5. The
Law
AAP:
71/1967
on
administrative litigation.
6. The
European
Commission
Recommendation R: 2011/217 / EU.

7. The European Centralised Virtual
Vehicle Register - ECVVR.
8. EU
Regulation
No.
352/2009.

CONDITIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS

SUSTAINABILITY IN NATURAL
ENVIRONMENTS
O. DEACONU 1
Abstract: This paper has looked to respond to certain issues related to the
sustainability of constructions in the natural environment and bringing of
contributions in the understanding of the phenomenon as a whole. Natural
environment influences the degradation of the concrete by action: freeze and
defrosting repeatedly, temperature variations, rain, biological, wind and
others.
Key words: durability of precast, diagnosis, humidity, dust.
1. Introduction
This paper follows some issues related to
durability of buildings in the natural
environment and bring some contributions
in the understanding of the phenomenon as
a whole.
Natural environment influences the

degradation of the concrete by action:
freeze and defrosting repeatedly,
temperature variations, rain, biological,
dust, wind and others.
Natural
environment
with
atmospheric humidity of 60%, can
cause the corrosion of reinforcement in
concrete elements under a porous or
carbonated
concrete
until
the
reinforcement.
2. Freeze and defrosting repeatedly
Repeated freeze and defrosting action is
a wet concrete problem located in a certain
degree of saturation. Damage is manifested
1
visibly in the form of cracks that develop

along parallel construction elements by
exfoliation, from the outside. Usually mass
damage had had occurred in the form of
rounding of edges and corners and sections
are reduced items. The steps near to the
collapse occurs of massive concrete
dislocations.
Compromising concrete occurs due to
pressure that in its mass arises because the
increase in water content in freeze frame.
On some points or areas can be exceeded
the tensile strength of the concrete, which
results in weakening progressive internal
structures due to reduced cohesion
between concrete components and matrixaggregate adherence.
Concrete frost is a phenomenon that
develops gradually due to the heat transfer
rate through the concrete from the
progressive increase in the concentration
of alkali dissolved in water still unfrozen.
Water does not freezes in all pores
simultaneously, first freezes in the large
pores and continuous at decrease of
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Constructions, University Transilvania of Braov.
206
temperature with water freezes in a finer

structural defects. When thaw occurs under
conditions of high humidity, water gets in
micro and macro cracks occurred by
during previous frosts and goes the
surfaces of the aggregate matrix adhesion
where is weaker or has suffered. The next
frost amplifies state of efforts, as well as
effects, emphasizing the cumulative nature
of freeze defrost cycles.
Under these conditions should be
avoided as water to come in contact with
the concrete by isolation measures
waterproof. Rain water mixed with ice can
drain concrete, or water and dissolved
aggressive agents, such as chlorides, can
penetrate into the concrete and thereby
jeopardizing the concrete and even
armature. In angular zones or at joints
between elements, water can stagnate and
therefore long term impermeability is not
guaranteed. In these areas, it is necessary
to use drainage slopes disposed on the
upper surface of the elements or have
special protection against water. Where
defrost salts are used for example on
bridges, in parking areas or on balconies,
leaks on the joints can cause corrosion of
supporting elements, which although they
are usually really protected, can lead to a
local
degradation
with
serious
consequences both economic and even of
general stability.
3. Temperature variations
Temperature variations may cause in
reinforced concrete elements of a structure,
additional internal tension by compression
or stretching when growth occurs
respectively decreasing temperature. If
concrete element is prevented thermally
expand, there is an increase in the stress
with temperature difference. Internal
tension is influenced by the thermal
expansion coefficient and elastic modulus
of the material.
For linear elements, temperature

variations are important only if they are
part of static structures undetermined,
lengthening or shortening the bars, leading
to the appearance of tensions in other
elements of the structure. Effects of
temperature variation are not negligible,
either plate type elements where
deformations occur between the two sides.
The behaviour of reinforced concrete
elements to decreasing temperature has an
adverse effect, especially when combined
with the phenomenon of contraction. Thus,
before
applying
load
exploitation,
construction executed in the autumn,
crack, when the temperature is decreasing.
Internal deformations which develop state
of crazing increases the concrete structure.
The effects are even more important, as the
internal efforts are higher and temperature
variations occur frequently. Repeated
heating and cooling lead to alternating
concrete efforts thus weakening more
pronounced the structure and cracks in
concrete, a phenomenon that will favour
further deterioration processes through
chemical corrosion.
Concrete structure degradation worsens
when there are sudden temperature
changes and when, between matrix and
aggregate is not thermal compatibility.
If in the concrete structure are
differences between the coefficients of
thermal produces contraction uneven
expansion may affect the internal
continuity of the material.
Thermal expansion cracks produce well
defined and rare, unlike those due to
thermal contraction, which are more dense
and fine. These differences can be
explained by opposite trends of mechanical
actions arising and the difference between
the resistances of concrete in tension and
compression.
O. DEACONU: Conditions Of The Constructions Sustainability In Natural Environments
4. Action of rain
In areas with accumulations of dust

usually develops and biological elements. A
torrential rain is not enough to wash the
dust and clean the wall.
5. Biological action and dust
Surfaces of concrete often provide proper
conditions for the development of
biological elements such as algae and
lichens.
Algae green or dark colours grow on wet
concrete. There are certain algae that can
live alkali surfaces, causing reduction of the
pH of the surface of the concrete and
finally, the onset of corrosion.
Environmental factors that depend on
biological elements for growth on building
materials are still little known, for example
some areas that seem dry may be more
biologically contaminated than others
permanently wet.
Zone B
Dust
density
Zone C
High building
Zone A
The water especially rainfalls can

influence both directly and indirectly
degradation of concrete elements.
Direct action occurs over time with the
abrasion phenomenon and depends on: tilt
raindrops hitting the surface, the density
drops, the speed of fall and others.
Indirect action is manifested by the
appearance of blackish spots on the surface
elements. These spots are present on most
high building facades occur because of the
moisture and the effects of pollution.
Contribution of the rain is transport of dust,
in areas where it becomes increasingly more
concentrated and darker. Horizontal or
lightly inclined surfaces retain more water
and thus even more dust. The areas most
exposed to the smearing effect are facades
oriented N, N-E and where rain is moderate
or low.
207
Fig. 1. Areas dust deposition on the height of buildings

Dust in the air is transported and
deposited by wind. Dust deposits on high
facades can be represented as in fig. 1. In
zone A wind speed is high and dust deposits
are insignificant, even no existent,
depending on the roof of that building. In
region B of dust deposition is accelerated
by the effect of turbulence or wind gusts,
and the C deposition is greatest due to the
increased density of dust especially from
traffic.
Dust according to particle size may be
divided into:
- fine powder (0.01 m to 1m) can
remain suspended in the air and adheres to
rough surfaces. It has a high capacity for
coverage due to a large surface area relative
to mass;
- Coarse dust (1 m to 1 mm) is of
mineral origin and has a small capacity to
208
cover. The dust will not stick to dry surfaces

and easier to surfaces that are wet for long
periods (facades oriented N-E).
Dust deposition is influenced by air
movement in two ways:
- Speed of movement of air masses
increases with height, so that dust
deposition will be higher the lower parts of
the buildings. This effect is intensified by
the dust from the street or from traffic;
- An obstacle near the air flow is deflected
outwards, forming the air current, which in
turn depends on the wind speed.
6. Conclusions
Durability of reinforced concrete
buildings is not a problem only in
aggressive environments but also in the
current environment. In some constructions,
which are found in common environments,
there were also worrying phenomena of
degradation.
Study of degradation of reinforced
concrete is essential in addressing
sustainability. Sustainability of reinforced
concrete depends decisively the quality of
execution and especially the compactness of
concrete coatings.
Behaviour of materials, elements and
concrete structures over time under certain
environmental conditions can be established
only
in-situ
research.
Laboratory
investigation cannot give a complete picture
of the behaviour in time of construction.
In this regard should be given particular
attention to assessing condition buildings,
both in terms of means of investigation and
evaluation criteria. For execution of
sustainable construction must be taken
measures protect the exposed reinforced
concrete elements of the natural
environment, which takes into account:
freeze defrosting repeatedly, variations in
temperature, rainfall, biological action and

dust, wind and others.
References
1. Deaconu, O. Study concerning the
behaviour to durability of the
structures from reinforced concrete
subdued of natural conditions of
exploitation, PhD thesis, University of
Transilvania Brasov, Romania, 2009.
2. ACI Committee 314 Guide for evaluation of concrete structures prior to
rehabilitation. ACI-Materials Journal,
nr. 5, 1993.
3. CEB Bulletin No. 243 Strategies for
Testing and Assessment of Concrete
Structures Popescu A. (co-author)
Lausanne, 1998.
4. CEB Bulletin Nr. 183 Durable
Concrete Structures. Design Guide,
1989.
5. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures.
6. NP 007-97: Code for design of
reinforced concrete frame structures.
7. Popescu
A.,
DEACONU
O.:
Durabilitatea structurilor din beton,
Sesiunea
tiinific
aniversar
Construcii Instalaii Braov CIB
30.10
Universitatea
Transilvania
Braov 14-15 Nov. 2002 p. 121-128.
8. Popescu, A., Georgescu, D. Ghid
pentru inspectare i diagnosticare
privind durabilitatea construciilor din
beton armat i beton precomprimat,
C24493, Buletinul Construciilor
9/1993.
9. Popescu A., Pachiac M., Pepenar I.
Observaii
privind
durabilitatea
elementelor din beton precomprimat n
medii fr agresivitate chimic, a
XIV-a Conferina de betoane, ClujNapoca, 1988, pag. 225-231, vol.3.

DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF A

TESTING INTERFACE FOR AXIAL AND
BENDING LOADING OF THE
STRUCTURAL T JOINTS
G. DIMA 1
V. V. UNGUREANU 2
Abstract: The plane welded T joints validation is made by axial and in

plane bending loading, both of them requiring dedicated test rigs. The article
presents the development of a device consisting in an interface that allows
both types of loadings, on a common testing machine. The numerical
calculations of stresses and displacements are presented. The behaviour of
the testing interface within the experimental testing program is assessed,
together with design recommendations and conclusions.
Key words: welded steel structures, T joint, experimental testing, test rig
1. Introduction
The experimental testing of structural
joints requires dedicated test rigs to
provide apropriate fixture, rigidity, load
introduction and specific measurements.
Because every joint has specific load
cases, most of the time, dedicated test rigs
are needed for every load case or at least
customised modules of the test rig.
Test rigs are fitted with axial or bending
actuators, measurement data being
collected with strain gauges or with
alternate systems (like photogrammetry)
[1], [2] and [3]. For complex joints, test
rigs may be fitted with multiple loading
systems as presented in [4], [5], [6] and
[7]. For simple bending loads, a simpler
solution is presented in reference [8], by
inserting fittings in the junctions tubes
ends. This last application allows only
bending testing.
1
2
Article presents a testing interface that

permits two different kinds of fixture for
the T joints within a bigger range of
members dimensions. This interface
allows the testing of joints using an
universal testing machine. The interface
consists in a welded subassembly, without
needing actuators or bolted clamps.
Thus, using a single interface, dedicated
test rigs are not needed any more, saving
time and money for experimental testing.
2. The Tubular T Joints
The most usual structural hollow
sections (HS) from civil and mining
engineering are circular (CHS) and
rectangular (RHS). The civil engineering
(steel constructions) dedicated many
studies and research programs to T, Y, K
and X connections under different types of
loading conditions [15], [22], [19], [21]
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Transilvania University of Braov

Civil Engineering Faculty, Transilvania University of Braov
210
and [20]. The studied connections are

planar or multiplanar, under axial loading,
in plane bending or out of plane bending.
According reference [14], the use of
circular section structures against open
profiles is justified by higher overall
buckling strength, higher radius of gyration
depending of the cross sectional area and
smaller effective buckling length than that
of angle profiles. For the same
compression
capacity,
the
hollow
structures (CHS & RHS) weight section is
almost 60% from the H section [15].
Circular hollow structures present also the
lowest aerodynamic drag, for this reason
being extensively used in aircraft industry.
In civil steel constructions, offshore
platforms and other heavy structures,
gussets (longitudinal plates) are used for
beam to column or column to ground plate
connections [16], [13], [9]. They are used
as well to facilitate bracing or other
attachments to RHS [10], [15].
To improve the T joints fatigue
behaviour, base plates (chord doublers) are
employed according ref. [17], [19] and
[18], or outer collar [9]. For lightweight
structures, gussets are used to improve the
dynamic and fatigue behaviour, being met
in a big variety of shapes, placements and
dimensions [11], [12].
In lightweight structures, the weight
saving problem deals also with the type of
gusset. An appropriate kind of gusset will
decrease the stress level leading to a
smaller tube section, thus the structure
becoming lighter.
planned to test 100 samples, most of them

up to the limit of elasticity. Samples were
manufactured from OL37, STAS 530/1,
being welded with Tungsten Inert Gas
method, according aircraft standard ASN
430.04.
a)
b)
3. The Testing Interface Requirements

The interface has to allow testing of both
simple T joint samples (Fig. 1 a) and
gusset reinforced joints (Fig. 1 b). Samples
will have different wall thickness for tubes
and gussets, in a range of 0.8 2.0 mm.
The gussets will have different dimensions
and shapes. The experimental program was
c)
Fig. 1. a) T joint sample; b) T joint with
gusset sample; c) T joint load cases
G. DIMA et al: Design and Verification of a Testing Interface for Axial

and Bending Loading of the Structural T Joints
Joints will be subjected to axial load

(AXL) and in plane bending (IPB) load
cases (Fig. 1 c). Out of plane bending
(OPB) was considered not mandatory for
the T joint, being a planar joint.
The testing machine was Lloyds LS100
Plus, allowing static and cyclic loading for
tensile, compression and bending testing,
with the maximum load of 100 kN.
The design requirements were as
follows:
Safety and simplicity of operation;
Allowing both AXL and IPB testing;
Easy acces for inspection of cracks and
remanent deformation measurement;
Easy to mount and to remove the
samples, even after deformation;
The possibility to test the sample joints
up to the total failure;
Robustness;
Low - cost raw materials.
211
Within the initial design, the interface was

fitted with eyelets (Fig. 3 a). In order to
have only symmetrical loading of the
interface (to avoid eccentric loads), an
improved design was elaborated. Thus,
two triangles were joined with welded
brackets, to provide room for sample
mounting and also a robust fork attachment
on the testing machine eyelets (Fig. 3 b).
The sample is mounted inside the testing
interface using two pins, with conical head.
The vertical member of joint is fitted with
a fork to allow the mounting in the mobile
eyelet of the testing machine.
4. The Testing Interface Design

For the testing interface, an OL 37 steel
angle was used, having the dimensions of
40x40x5 mm, SR EN 10056-1:2000. The
welds were executed according EN ISO
5817/2007. All dimensions are shown in
figure 2.
a)
b)
Fig. 2. Dimensions of the testing interface
Fig. 3. Variants of the testing interface: a)

initial design; b) improved design
212
In figure 4, one may see the installation

of the testing interface on the universal
testing machine for both load cases. The
testing machine eyelet is moving only in
vertical direction. By the different
orientations and mounting points of the
testing interface relative to the testing
machine, the sample may be loaded in two
different ways. Thus, with a single one
capability, the samples can be tested both
under AXL and IPB loading, using only an
universal testing machine.
5. The FE Study of the Testing Interface
The two major conditions to be fulfilled
by the testing interface are the maximum
rigidity and the stress level below the
materials yield stress. Being and elastic
structure, infinite rigidity is not attainable,
therefore the acceptance criteria is the
a)
rigidity of the interface to be much bigger

than the rigidity of the sample.
The finite elements model (FEM) was
meshed with 3D tetrahedral elements with
median node (TET10), while the sample
was modeled with 2D shell elements (Fig.
5). Between the interface and sample,
RBE2 constraints were added to model the
assembly with cylindrical pins.
The loads were introduced by the
meaning of the sample. The boundary
conditions and the loading diagram are
shown in figure 6, for both load cases. The
lower attachment corresponds to the fixed
eyelet of the testing machine. The load is
applied on the vertical member of the
sample by attaching it to the mobile eyelet
of the testing machine. In order to prevent
rotation in bending loading, the load is
applied through an intermediate fork
fitting.
b)
Fig. 4. The testing interface mount: a) axial load; b) in plane bending

213
Fig. 5. The FE model for the interface and sample assembly
Fig. 6. The loading diagram and the boundary conditions of the interface/ sample
assembly
Using the FE analysis, it was determined
the ultimate yield load of the samples of 2
kN of axial load and 1.5 kN for in plane
bending load. For rigidity checking, some
conservative values of 20 kN for AXL and
5 kN for IBP were considered.
For the axial loading, the maximum
displacements of the testing interface were

of 0.04 mm for the sample yield limit and
0.37 mm for sample failure (Fig. 7). The
von Misses stress level is 34 MPa for
sample yield limit and below 200 MPa for
the sample yield limit (Fig. 8).
214
Fig. 7. The testing interface displacements for the yield limit of the sample (AXL/ IPB)
Fig. 8. The von Misses stress of the interface for the yield limit of the sample (AXL/ IPB)
Fig. 9. The testing interface installed on the LS100Plus testing machine (AXL/ IPB)

6. Conclusions
Article presented the development and
numerical testing of a testing interface for
T joints experimental study. The following
conclusions may be formulated:
The testing interface allows testing of
joints with and without gussets in a
range of 15 40 mm diameters, with
corresponding wall thickness;
The testing interface allows the testing
of samples for both AXL and IPB
loading conditions, using a common
testing
machine,
without
any
modifications or customisations;
The testing interface fulfilled all design
requirements, the manufacturing costs
being much lower than a dedicated test
rig;
The FE analysis revealed deformations
of the interface of 2% from the
samples deformations; therefore the
testing interface is robust enough to
carry on the experimental testing loads.
The von Misses stresses are below the
yield stress limit of the OL37 steel (240
MPa), therefore the testing interface
will not suffer remanent deformations
along the experimental testing.
The ergonomic analysis was confirmed
by real tests, the interface being easy to
use, allowing the inspection of areas of
interest, saving also time for testing. The
testing interface complied with operational
requirements, after preliminary tests no
adjustments being needed. The interface
behaved well through the whole
experimental program (100 samples), for
this reason, a patent application being
made.
Acknowledgements
For the author Gabriel Dima, this paper is
supported by the Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development
215
(SOP HRD), ID134378 financed from the

European Social Fund and by the Romanian
Government.
References
1. Bao Quan S., et al: Deformation

measurement method for spatial
complex tubular joints based on
photogrammetry, Optical Engineering,
Nr 49 (12), 123604, 2010
2. Choo Y. S.: Static Strength of Tubular
Joints
Reinforced
with
High
Performance
Grout,
Engineering
Research, Vol 28, Nr 3, 2013
3. Dong P., Hong J. K.: Fatigue of
Tubular Joints: Hot Spot Stress
Method Revisited, Journal of Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Vol 134, Issue 3, 2012
4. Mayor Y. S., et al: Theoretical and
experimental analysis of RHS/CHS K
gap joints, Revista Escolas de Minas,
Vol. 66, No. 3, 2013
5. Mooney P.: A Fix for Aluminum
Overheads, Public Roads, Vol. 67, No.
3, 2003
6. Thandavamoorthy T. S.: Experimental
and Numerical Investigations on
Unstiffened Tubular T-Joints of
Offshore Platforms, Journal of
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering, Vol 131, Issue 4, 2009
7. Vieira R. F., Requena J. A.: The effect
of support springs in ends welded gap
hollow YT-joint, Latin American
Journal of Solids and Structures, vol.
8, No. 2, 2011
8. www.circletrack.com/chassistech/
9. Blodgett O. W.: Design of Steel
Structures, The James F. Lincoln Arc
Welding Foundation, 1976
10. Cao J. J., et al.: Design Guidelines for
Longitudinal
Plate
to
HSS
Connections, Journal of Structural
Engineering, 1998
216
11. Dima, G.: Elastic Buckling Behaviour

of Aerospace CHS Gusseted T
Connections, In: Transactions of
FAMENA, 2014, XXXVIII, pp. 67-76
12. Dima G., Rosca I. C., Balcu I.: The
Influence of Corner Gussets over the
Lightweight Tubular Latticed Beams,
In: Interdisciplinarity in Engineering
INTER ENG 2014 Proceedings, Tg
Mures, 2014
13. Eurocode 3, Part 1.8. Design of Joints,
CEN, 2002
14. Farkas J., Jarmai K.: Analysis and
Optimal Design of Metal Structures,
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1997
15. Kurobane Y., et al.: Design guide for
structural hollow section column
connections, CIDECT/ TUV Verlag,
2004
16. Martin L. H., Purkiss J. A.: Structural
Design of Steelwork, ButterworthHeinemann, 2008
17. Nazari A., et al., Analytical Methods
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
for Better Design and Repair of

Mechanical Welded Structures, CRC
Mining Technology Conference,
Fremantle, 2003
Nazari A., et al.: HSS Design with
parameters equations for fatigue
assessment
of
tubular
welded
structure,
Australian
Mining
Technology Conference, 2006
Packer J. A., Henderson J. E.: Hollow
Structural Section Connections and
trusses, Canadian Institute of Steel
Corporation, 1997
Wardenier J., et al.: Design guide for
CHS joints under predominantly static
loading, CIDECT, 2008
Wardenier J., et al.: Hollow Sections in
Structural Applications, CIDECT,
2010
Zhao X. J., et al.: Design guide for
circular and rectangular hollow
section welded joints under fatigue
loading, CIDECT/ TUV Verlag, 2001

SIMILARITY TOPICS OF SOILS WITH

SENSITIVITY TO WETTING BASED
UPON DATA GATHERED FROM
LABORATORY TESTS
C. F. DOBRESCU 1 E. A. CALARASU 2 V.V. UNGUREANU 3
Abstract: Special problems are occurred in several areas of Romanian
territory, where intensive urbanization process involves the building
foundations on soils with high sensitivity to wetting. The paper includes the
data gathered from geotechnical laboratory tests carried out on samples
collected from different sites located along Danube river shore. The aspects
regarding similarity of geotechnical properties for identification and
behavior were analyzed. The results have allowed establishing the variation
intervals of certain parameters depending on depth and soil class, which
have led to a statistical processing of data of data input. The research
direction in which is part the present paper consists in creating a
comprehensive database required for difficult soil zoning at national level
and providing basic information for urban planning. Also, in the present
context of sustainable development, it is imposes for an estimation of real
foundation conditions and therefore the widespread use of correlations
between physical indices, which define the soil nature and state, and
mechanical ones, involved in assessment of foundation settlement or in
estimation of bearing capacity of soil foundation.
Key words: behavior, wetting, sensitivity, correlation
1. Introduction and objective
The soils with sensitivity to wetting also
called collapsible soils can manifests
additional settlements under a given load
or weight, but in same cases, at intensive
wetting, those settlements are suddenly
increasing and gaining a collapse character
1
[1]. It is widely know that the most

important feature of these soil types is very
high sensitivity at water action, manifested
by strong erosion and large settlements [2].
The soils with sensitivity to wetting
cover large areas on approximately 40.000
km2, which represents 17% of the
Romanian territory. It is generally admitted
National Institute for Research and Development in Construction, Urban Planning and Sustainable Spatial
Development, Bucharest.
2
National Institute for Research and Development in Construction, Urban Planning and Sustainable Spatial
Development, Bucharest.
3
Civil Engineering Faculty, Transilvania University of Braov.
218
that the soil origin is to be sought in the

alternation of glacial and inter-glacial
periods in Quaternary geologic age [3],
characterized by a high percentage of silt
grains, ranging from 50% up to 80%, with
clay and sand fractions in approximately
equal proportions. Due to their unstable
structure, to high porosity and high
permeability, under the influence of high
moisture content, collapsible or loess soils
passes from a very loose state to a dense
one. As a result of the high suction of
water from unsaturated loess pores, the
wetting process and the air expulsion can
produce linkage breaks in the existing
structure, by producing collapse [4]. The
building executions on soils with
sensitivity to wetting represents an obvious
problem at nationally and internationally
level, due to the fact that sometimes are
required complex constructions on soils
which can influence their stability [5].
Taking into consideration the actual
interest of building foundation on wetting
sensitive soils, the present work is focused
on the analysis of these types of soils from
the point of view of similarity aspects
regarding the their geotechnical parameters
and behavior [6], [7].
2. Methods and results of laboratory
tests on soil with sensitivity to wetting
For the study, there were selected two
areas from Romania (Calafat and Tulcea),
where the territorial spread of soils with
sensitivity to wetting has a significant
proportion. The working plan is based on
experimental laboratory tests using a
numerous soil samples in order to obtain
the variability of specific geotechnical
properties.
Regarding the site from Calafat area,
located on Danube river shore, on the
southern part of Romania, the laboratory
tests were conducted on silty and sandy
samples collected from soils with
sensitivity to wetting. Following the

available methods, the values for physical
properties (moisture content, plasticity and
consistency index, natural density,
porosity, void ratio and saturation degree)
and mechanical ones (specific settlement,
friction angle and cohesion) were
achieved. According to the requirements of
geotechnical Romanian norms [8], it is
mentioned that the determination of
specific settlement index at wetting under
300 kPa loading step is required and
represents one of the fundamental criteria
related to the mechanical behavior.
Taking
into
consideration
the
predominant grain size fraction of samples
collected from different depths up to 13
meters, there were established several soil
categories. From the analysis of soil
identification data, it is noticed that the
predominant soil category for this site is
represented by silty loess.
Based on statistical processing and
interpretation of the results gathered from
laboratory tests, there were established the
limits
intervals
of
geotechnical
characteristics for Calafat area, as see in
Table 1 for physical properties and Table 2
for mechanical ones.
The measured values can confirm that
the soil samples belong to the category of
soils with sensitivity to wetting, with the
following specific parameters: low natural
moisture content, low and medium
plasticity in terms of plasticity state and
stiff and hard in terms of consistency state,
low natural density, high porosity
exceeding 44 % and high void ratio, low
saturation degree.
By analyzing the obtained mechanical
properties, it is appears that these soils
manifest an activity in relation to the
water, with values of specific settlement at
wetting under 300 kPa loading step higher
that 2 cm/m and a relatively low cohesion.
DOBRESCU et al.: Similar topics of soil with sensitivity to wetting based upon data
gathered from laboratory tests
Table 1
Limits intervals of physical characteristics values for Calafat soils

Measured
values
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Water
content
(%)
11,68
9,5
16
Plasticity
index
(%)
10,69
9
12
Consistency
index
(-)
1,03
0,75
1,14
Density
(g/cm3)
1,52
1,33
1,71
Porosity
(%)
Void
ratio
(-)
0,89
0,78
0,98
47
44
49
Limits intervals of mechanical characteristics values for Calafat soils

Measured
values
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Specific settlement (cm/m)

i m300 (**)
i m300 (*)
3,11
2,2
4,7
3,30
2,1
5
Friction
angle
(degree)
14,73
9,5
22,6
219
Saturation
degree
(-)
0,35
0,28
0,53
Table 2
Cohesion
(kPa)
10,9
5
22
(*) im 300 - specific settlement at wetting for the sample inundated at 300 kPa
(**) im 300 specific settlement at wetting for the initial inundated sample
The second investigated area is Tulcea,

located at the end of the Danube River in
Europe, in the south-eastern part of
Romania. Concerning the spread of soils
with sensitivity to wetting on the
Romanian territory, these deposits indicate
a significant thickness in Tulcea area.
During the laboratory testing program,
there were examined 148 samples
collected from 9 boreholes carried out on
different sites in Tulcea. Taking into
account the data obtained from grain size
analyses, several significant soil categories
have been established: silty clay (type 2),
silt (type 5), clayey silt (type 6), sandy silt
(type 7), clayey sand (type 9), silty sand
(type 10) and sandy clayey silt (type 11). It
should be noted that loess samples from
Tulcea area are susceptible to wetting and
the predominant granular fraction is silt.
The soil categories are represented by
clayey silt and sandy silt.
The experimental working plan consisted
of determining the physical and
mechanical characteristics of the samples
studied. In the study it was considered
useful the delimitation of samples in
different soil categories, illustrated in fig. 1

and fig. 2.
The results of laboratory determinations
are presented as follows: in Table 3 for
silty clay, in Table 4 for sandy silt and
sandy clayey silt, in Table 5 and Table 6
for clayey silt category.
As an overall analysis of data obtained
from laboratory testing, the predominant
soil categories from Tulcea sites can be
characterized by the following specific
parameters:
- for clayey silt (soil category no. 6), the
average value for moisture content is
around 17%, porosity exceeding 42 %,
medium plasticity and stiff consistency
state, oedometric modulus around 9200
kPa, friction angle of 30 degrees and
cohesion around 19 kPa;
- for sandy silt (soil category no. 7), the
average value for moisture content is
around 15%, porosity average around
44 %, low to medium plasticity and stiff
to hard consistency state, oedometric
modulus around 9400 kPa.
220
Soil category
0
10
11
12
0
5
Sample depth (m)
10
F1T
F2T
15
F3T
20
F4T
F5T
25
30
35
Fig.1 Variation of soil category with sample depths in Tulcea area (borehole F1T F5T)
Soil category
0
10
11
12
0
5
Sample depth (m)
10
F6T
15
20
F7T
F8T
F9T
25
30
35
Fig.2 Variation of soil category with sample depths in Tulcea area (borehole F6T F9T)
The results gathered for all defined soil
categories in Tulcea area, but especially
for the silty predominant types, are ranging
within the variation limits corresponding

to physical and mechanical characteristics
for soils with sensitivity to wetting or
collapsible in natural state [8].
DOBRESCU et al.: Similar topics of soil with sensitivity to wetting based upon data
gathered from laboratory tests
221
Table 3
Limits intervals of properties values for soil category 2, 5, 9 and 10

Measured
values
Water Plasticity
content
index
(%)
(%)
Silty clay - soil category 2
Average
21,78
17,77
Minimum 19,60
15,10
Maximum 24,20
19,20
Silt- soil category 5
Average
17,75
12,64
Minimum 14,20
9,70
Maximum 22,00
15,80
Clayey sand - soil category 9
Average
20,33
11,09
Minimum 15,60
9,30
Maximum 23,80
13,70
Silty sand- soil category 10
Average
13,67
10,43
Minimum 10,70
7,00
Maximum 18,10
12,10
Consistency
index
(-)
Density
Porosity
(g/cm3)
0,82
0,72
0,95
(%)
Void
ratio
(-)
Saturation
degree
(-)
Oedometric
modulus
(kPa)
1,96
1,89
2,05
39,00
36,00
41,00
0,64
0,56
0,69
0,89
0,79
0,98
7740
6250
10000
0,72
0,57
0,85
1,85
1,62
2,02
41,50
38,00
45,00
0,71
0,61
0,82
0,73
0,33
1,01
10376
7140
14290
0,70
0,54
0,78
2,00
1,92
2,04
39,20
37,00
42,00
0,64
0,59
0,72
0,98
0,91
1,00
12068
10000
16667
0,96
0,63
1,25
1,94
1,59
2,07
39,20
36,00
46,00
0,64
0,56
0,85
0,84
0,39
1,03
13475
9090
20000
Table 4
Limits intervals of properties values for soil category 7 and 11

Measured
values
Water Plasticity Consistency

content
index
index
(%)
(%)
(-)
Sandy silt - soil category 7
Average
14,58
10,50
0,91
Minimum 10,20
7,20
0,55
Maximum 19,30
16,00
1,46
Sandy clayey silt- soil category 11
Average
16,57
12,52
0,79
Minimum 11,60
10,10
0,58
Maximum 21,50
15,10
1,16
Density
Porosity
(g/cm3)
(%)
Void
ratio
(-)
Saturation
degree
(-)
Oedometric
modulus
(kPa)
1,78
1,33
2,04
44,50
37,00
53,00
0,82
0,59
1,13
0,72
0,11
1,03
9464
3030
20000
1,82
1,44
2,00
43,36
37,00
53,00
0,78
0,59
1,13
0,74
0,30
0,99
7995
2560
12500
Limits intervals of physical properties values for soil types 6 (clayey silt)
Measured
values
Water Plasticity
content
index
(%)
(%)
Clayey silt - soil category 6
Average
16,85
12,22
Minimum 12,10
7,80
Maximum 23,50
17,00
Consistency
index
(-)
Density
Porosity
(g/cm3)
0,76
0,38
1,07
1,79
1,46
2,02
Table 5
(%)
Void
ratio
(-)
Saturation
degree
(-)
42,42
37,00
51,00
0,77
0,59
1,04
0,64
0,24
0,99
222
Limits intervals of mechanical properties values for soil types 6 (clayey silt)
Measured
values
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Oedometric modulus
(kPa)
9251
2560
16670
3. Conclusion and discussions

The studies were aimed to analyze the
similarity aspects of soils with sensitivity
to wetting based upon gathered from
laboratory tests on soil samples collected
from Calafat and Tulcea sites. For each site
there were delimited several specific soil
categories and a statistical analysis of
geotechnical parameters variation was
conducted.
On the basis of results processing from
several series of laboratory tests, it can be
concluded that the limits intervals of
geotechnical parameters for Tulcea soil
samples are similar to those obtained for
the soils located in Calafat. Both types of
investigated deposits are included in the
category of soils with sensitivity to wetting
by taking into consideration the measured
values and their variation.
The aim of this kind of research subject
is to ensure that the construction built on
soils with particular behavior presents a
certain level of safety in exploitation. Also,
in the present context of sustainable
development, it is imposes for an
estimation of real foundation conditions
and therefore the widespread use of
correlations between physical indices,
which define the soil nature and state, and
mechanical ones, involved in assessment
of foundation settlement or in estimation of
bearing capacity of soil foundation.
It should be mentioned that this type of
study, based on comparative tests between
soils with similar behavior, can be used in
Friction angle
(degree)
30
10
59
Table 6
Cohesion
(kPa)
19
0
50
geotechnical design and in creating a

comprehensive database required for soil
zoning at national level and providing
basic information for urban planning, on
the other side.
References
1. Bally R. J., Antonescu I. Loess soils in
constructions, Technical Publishing
House, Bucharest, 1971.
2. Dobrescu C. F. Contributions to
prognosis of soil behavior assisted by
computer, PhD Thesis, Bucharest,
2005.
3. Botea E., Stanculescu I., Bally R. J.,
Antonescu I. Loessial collapsible soils
as foundation base in Romania,
Committee for Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Bucharest,
pp. 1-69, 1969.
4. Antonescu I. Some features of
Romanian loessial soils, Proc. Int.
Conf. on Engineering Problems of
Regional Soils, Beijing, China, pp.
195-200, 1988.
5. Derbyshire E. Geological hazards in
loess terrain, with particular reference
to the loess regions of China. Earth
Science Reviews, 54: 231-260, 2001.
6. Andrei S. Behavior of unsaturated
soils, Roads and Bridges Magazine,
no. 30, pp. 22-25, Bucharest, 1995.
7. Dobrescu C. F. Prognosis of
collapsible soils behavior, Bren
Publishing House,Bucharest, 2011.
8. Romanian
Norm
(NP
126).
Constructions with foundations on
collapsible soils, Bucharest, 2010.

DYNAMIC STUDY ON SAFETY AGAINST

THE DERAILEMENT TO THE SIX AXLE
LOCOMOTIVES
G. DUMITRU1
E. CRCIUN BOJE2
V. TEFAN1
C. N. BADEA3
M. LITR2
G. M. DRAGNE3
Abstract: This paper treats the problem of dynamic forces produced flow
curves that there is a "discontinuous bend" mathematically represented as an
angle where there are so-called" shock angle". It is a situation that can occur
in curves with seamless lines, the vehicle being applied to a dynamic force
shock that may affect traffic safety. Example of calculation was done in the
case of a tank wagon which the center of mass due to high, maybe even
topple under the effect of shock.
Key words: frictional forces, derailment, landslides, longitudinal slides,
guiding, attack angle
1. Introduction
Safety against derailment of a railway
vehicle is determined by the capacity of
the axle driving guidance, which is the
maximum force attack guidance wheel
limit the derailment. The capacity of the
axle driving guidance of the equilibrium
conditions results in the vertical plane - the
transverse forces acting on the axle. The
spatial orientation of the normal force Ni is
determined solely by geometric conditions.
Because of the small angles, normal
operating, the longitudinal component of
the normal force can be neglected, the
normal force is considered to act in the
vertical plane - cross (YZ), where transfers
occurr mostly load (Figure 1). The spatial
orientation of the friction force Ti is
determined first of all on the geometric
1
The Romanian Railway Authority - AFER
SNTFC CFR Cltori SA

SNTFM CFR Marf SA
because it is contained in the plane of the

tangent contact, but because according to
the general laws of friction, has the same
direction as the sliding speed and oriented
in the opposite direction thereof, is driven
by slip occurs the contact points on the
kinematic that. The size who defines the
spatial orientation in the tangent plane of
contact the friction force Ti, due to the
kinematic conditions is a slip angle i,
which the contact points on the tread is
approximately equal to the tangent of the
ratio of longitudinal and cross slides.
Usually the cross slips are determined by
the angle of attack and as a result, the
transverse components of the forces of
friction will have the same effect on both
wheels. The longitudinal sidings, if the
axle is free to run, are determined by
differences in actual driving circles radii,
224
which depend on the gap yc, being

generally opposite on two wheels. The
value of the term cosi in this case,
regardless of the angle of attack , is
approximately uniform. In the drive or
braking, increasing the velocity of
longitudinal slip makes value cosi to
decrease well below the unit, which is
influenced by decreasing the angle of
attack . The size the friction force Ti = i
.Ni is dependent on the coefficient of
friction i, which has a non-linear sliding
speed, i.e. the pseudo-sliding. If driving
axles, which also guide other axles in the
same chassis, wheel attack no. 1 can run
the rail bicontact contested situation that is
proper bevel profiles new condition. In this
case, the next point of contact A1 , the
second point appears A1' , which become
points of guidance. In the contact wheel rail, namely its central act of the rail
normal force bearing Ni perpendicularly to
the tangent plane of contact and contained
in the plane normal to the two - wire path
and friction Ti who is perpendicularly to
the normal force and thus contained in the
plane tangential contact. Spatial orientation
of the contact forces as well as the slip
velocity depends on the position of the
axle in the way, which is characterized by
the angle and the gap offset delay yc to
the middle position. The contact tangent
inclination to the horizontal is given by the
angle i which is the angle between the
lines of intersection of the vertical plane
path with tangent plane wires the contact
with the horizontal plane passing through
the point of contact.
In the case of wheel with two-point, the
contact angle flank attack 1' is small, then
the driving force can be considered
P=N1sin 1 . On the unassailable wheel
axle, all thanks to lower sidewall angle at
the point of contact A2 , the driving force is
negligible. The strength force size of the
guidance Yi is arising (results) on each

wheel, the vertical summation of the
horizontal component of the force normal
to the horizontal component - cross
friction. The maximum value of Yi occurs
on the attack wheel of a driving axle,
where intervenes the driving force P.
2. The limit of the derailment
In the case of bi-attack wheel rail
contact, employment growth guidance Y1
makes guidance point to increase A1 the
reaction N1 and, therefore, increase the
action of the unload component T1yz of the
friction force, so the reaction decreases N 1'
the fulcrum of anchorage A1' . The situation
is reached N 1' = 0, therefore when the
fulcrum anchorage of A1' is completely
discharged and the mass load Q1 attackers
on the wheel goes full guide wheel lip to
the point A1, derailment limit is reached.
Whether that situation to force Y1 further
increase lip driving wheel will climb the
inner side of the rail, causing derailment.
In the case of mono-switched contact,
derailment limit is reached when the single
point of contact A1 has reached the edge of
the wing at an angle of maximum.
Following the derailment process
analysis, we noted that Nadal's formula
was deduced only from the wheel contact
forces attackers, without taking into
account the dependence that exists
between the load on a wheel and guiding
force nor influence effect spin the contact
point on the rim on the coefficient of
friction. As a result of experiments
conducted in the Committees ORE B 55
and B 136, recommended the adoption of
the value of the friction coefficient =
0,36, considered when applying the
calculations covering safety against
derailment Nadal's formula, showing the
influence of positive growth flank angle of
G. DUMITRU et al.: Dynamic Study on Safety Against the Derailment

to the Six Axle Locomotives
the lip rim 1 the ability guidance.

However, it emerged from the
calculations
and
experiments,
the
advantage flank angle 70 outer surface of
guidance wheel lip to enhance the capacity
of the axle guidance. Works Committee
ORE B 55 showed that to avoid derailing
current vehicle line report Y1/Q1 must be
below the limit (Y1/Q1)lim = 1,2. At the
circulation over switches, experiences
made in the Committees C 9 and C 70 are
allowed to conclude that the switches
(Y / Q) lim 0,8 and in contact with the
frog tip lip of the crossings to be compared
to provide a (Y / Q ) lim 0,4 .
3. The safety the derailment under the
influence of external forces
The report (Y1/Q1)lim can not be a proper

criterion for assessing the safety against
derailment but only if the load on the
wheel attackers Q1 is the actual vertical
component of the reaction at the limit of
derailment of the rail, in view of the fact
that the guiding force is dependent on the
Y1. The flank angle 2 depends on the shape
of the profile of the wheel and the rail and
the track path (conical profiles tg 2 =
0,05). In generally, the term tg (2 + 2) is
specific to each vehicle and those bodies
running, influenced by the angle of attack
. At the limit of the derailment, according
to Nadal's formula, Y1 must satisfy the
condition Y1 Q1 .tg ( 1 1 ) where tg (1 1) has well-defined limit values depending
on the angle of the flank rim lip.
4. The influence of shock attack on
security derailment
In track curves may deviate from

nominal dimensions occur in the form of
continuous or discontinuous bends, the
dynamic forces produced by interaction
between the vehicle and the undercarriage
225
in a transverse direction, which damaged

the ride quality, and may jeopardize the
safety of vehicle guidance. Continuous the
path bends are characterized by deviations
of
curvature
continuous
variable,
overlapping any distortion pathway,
leading to variation so cant deficiency and
transverse acceleration of the vehicle. In
Romania, the continuous bends are limited
by the arrows tolerances measured.
Whether the vehicle is traveling at
constant speed in a curve without
misconduct cant deficiency I, the box his
mass mc will be subjected to quasi-static
cross transversal accelerations T0 , the
centrifugal
force
respectively
uncompensated Fn. Consequently as a
result, each axle will act quasi-static
driving force of the chassis H.
Simultaneously with the appearance the
strength force H the stretch resilient elastic
compression
occurs
and
track
superstructure elements and the vehicle.
Taking the view that their total stiffness is
cy , their static deformation will be
yc = H / cy. Therefore, the vehicle could be
considered as a simple harmonic oscillator,
i.e. a mass - spring, in which yc is the static
deflection of the spring. When the vehicle
reaches the outer wheel of the first axle top
of a discontinuous bend, the track will be
attacked with a speed of attack
v.sin v, having a direction
perpendicular to the rail attackers. It
produces a dynamic force Hd = cy yd
driving force chassis called shock or force
attack, in which yd represents the dynamic
deformation of the arc spring stiffness
cumulative cy. The shock does not take part
in the whole mass of the vehicle, only a
portion of this mass that "low", denoted by
mr and the maximum dynamic the force
term expression Hdmax can be deduced by
applying the theorem of the energy
conservation.
The attack speed component v.sin is
perpendicular to the rail track and give
226
mass mr in this direction with a kinetic

energy value (1 / 2).mr . (v. sin ) 2 which is
taken elastic spring stiffness cy between
the mass ground and the track rails. Once
the maximum compression of the arch
spring is ydmax, the kinetic energy becomes
zero, turning by converting itself entirely
within of potential energy. When will
associated of a discontinuously the elbow
angled bend side, another side that is
continuous, then because of the variation
I [mm] of cant deficiency through at the
time of the attack, the vehicle will have an
additional acceleration T 0 and will
conduct mechanical work (mechanical
force couple) by the supplementary
distance ydmax. The maximum force of
impact
occurs
when
the
term
sin.(t ) = 1, therefore the outer wire
path after time reckoned from the moment
of reaching the wire tip and inner elbow
after the time period namely ti = 3te, where
t is defined by the relation number two (2).
The frictional effects damping system
produces vibratory phenomenon until its
complete disappearance, whether big
forces driving this have caused the vehicle
meanwhile derailment. It follows that the
maximum forces transmitted path, asking
her to displacements track due to vehicle
lateral loads are H max H H dmax the
outer thread of the tread, and that
H max H dmax H the inner thread.
Vehicle derailment by overcoming report
(H/Q0)lim, takes place usually on the inside
of the wire path, which is discharged only
at the outside. Since the coefficient of
adhesion can be in the range (0,2...0,8)
depending on the quality of wheel - rail
contact will have values in Table 1.
5. Search results and experimental
measurements
The existence of a continuous bend

over base curve measurement his
highlighted by an arrow f1, which is lead

results to a radius of curvature R1=C2/(8f1).
Such an angled bend elbow in the path, the
continuous variation of the radius of
curvature of the R to R1, and keeping the
cant superelevation h, result into an cant
deficiency
variation
where
I ,
2
I 11,8.V .[(1 / R1 ) (1 / R )] [mm] and to
an a supplementary transverse acceleration
to = I /153 [m/s2]. In this paper we
presented the example calculation made
for a two-axle bogie vehicle without
central suspension, running speed V [km/h]
in a curve bend of radius R [m] with the
cant superelevation h [mm]. That the
curve, for the rope chord length C [m], it is
corresponds with an arrow f = C2/(8R)
[m]. We have also felt deemed thought that
the curve radius R1 an angled bend elbow
occurs discontinuously, which was
revealed by measuring a difference in
arrow fd f1, the angle are given by the
formula number (1) and computational
study we considered that the pivot (bolster)
is located in the center of mass of the
bogie, subsequently causing this low value
of the mass of the box mrc.
The quasi-static force H which is acts on
the axle, will be given by the formula
number (3), where m0 is represents the
adequate unsprung (unsuspended) mass of
the bogie axle, 2Q0 is the axle load and I is
the cant deficiency on the curve radius R.
The safety of the vehicle derailment shall
be checked for the two wires of the path
imposing
the
condition
Hmax /Q0 (H / Q0)lim, after previously
determined the mass load transfer Q0. For
the freight wagon four-axle tank Z series
for the oil tanker, we can use the next
formula
Ymax 0,85.[10 (200 / 3) 65,17 [kN],
where the axle load was thought
considered 2Q0=200 [kN], the gravity
acceleration of approximately 10 [m/s2].
The reduced mass mr of the entire vehicle

has been determined by the relation (1),

where the mb terms are represents the
sprung mass of the bogie and ibx and ibz are
the rays of inertia of the bogie. Knowing
the lateral stiffness of the suspension axle
cy, with the formula number (2) shall be
determined the maximum dynamic force
Hdmax. The limitations for the protecting of
the running gear of the vehicle are for the
force who is acting by the axle axis (bogie
wheelset) H, according to the relationship
number three (3). As well (likewise),
H max = 80 [kN] and H med = 50 [kN] and
axial force H of the tank wagon who is
analyzed H 9,33 [kN], where, with the
E term, the cant excess has been noted that
the path was considered in accordance with
[1],
E=60 [mm]. For to make the
verification by the lateral movement (sway
- cross) of railway track path, must be
taken into account that this is required so
the force Hmax, who is given by the formula
number (4), and the inertial force of the
axle and the axle expression of inertia the
force, which is given as the equation (5).
Also, the car looked, we have considered
the fact that the guiding force
Y Ymax 65.17 [kN] is attain achieve
the
maximum
possible
value
Y / Q0 0,65 . It is also observed that
Y / Q0 (Y / Q0 ) lim 1,2 that i.e., the
vehicle is traveling safely in the current
line and switches (turnouts point rods). At
the crossing over the crossbreeds junctions
of the inequality Y / Q0 0,4 ensure safety
against derailment is concluded because in
reality guiding force is less than Ymax .
The latter amount is charged and
discharged attackers wheel on the inside of
the track thread. On the other hand there is
the
mass
load
transfer
QH .( H .r / 2.e) 3.08 kN and thus
resulting axle loads Q1 and Q2 are given
by the relations (6) and (7). Considering
227
that taking into account that there is a

transfer Q0 uncompensated centrifugal
force and H hc Q0 2e where with hc
has been noted the height of the center of
mass C of the wagon about the axis of the
axle (Figure 3). For hc 2050 [mm],
Q0 H .( hc / 2.e) 16.13 kN . The values
obtained resulting forces that guidance
wheels, wheel attackers Y1 and Y2 the
thread wheel on the inside of the track,
whose values are found in expressions
equations (8) and (9).
When traveling with excess E the cant
force H shown in Figure 3 will be directed
towards the center of the curve thus
causing a discharge to the outside the
thread wheel on the wheel load and on the
inner the thread of the tread. Therefore no
danger analyzed wagon derailment except
crossing peaks at crossings hearts when we
are around the limit allowed. Neither in
that situation we consider that there are no
problems because the calculation is
completely covering the value of failure I
the cant adopted. Thus (therefore) for
H = 9,33 kN, we have Q0 = 12,75 [kN]
respectively Q H = 2,43 [kN] and thereby
Q1 Q0 Q0 QH
[kN]
100 12.75 2.43 84.82
=
respectively Q2 Q0 Q0 QH
115,18 [kN]. In this case, the guiding
forces in this situation would be:
Y1 Q1tg ( 1 1 ) = 38,17 [kN] and
Y2 H Q1tg ( 1 1 ) = 47.5 [kN]. At
the wheel of the inner the thread is
consuming game between the wheels rim
and railway track Y2 / Q2 0.412 1.2
and so we have provided in this case safety
guidance.
6. Conclusions and Summary
At the locomotives because of the

traction force transmission to the chassis,
228
the practice large longitudinal stiffness of

the suspension axles and therefore can be
considered as axles fixed bogie frame. The
formulas established to assess the safety
against derailment can be applied to any
running speed, provided that transfers the
load to be determined properly taking into
account the dynamic actions of the vehicle
in the most adverse situations. When
rotating the bogie (at the turning of bogies)
in curves with radii opposing forces
generate appreciable amounts of the force
H, what compels a reduction transfers the
load to avoid derailments. The flank angle
of the wheel rim. The capacity guidance
the axle load decreases with decreasing
wheel attackers, so as the wheel load
transfer from the unassailable attack is
higher. The safety against derailment is
influenced by load transfer as well as
wheel radius and maximum. The limit
situation (the deadline) for wheel
unloading attack can occur at low speed
going through curves with maximum cant
and maximum twisting path.
The negative charge transfers from the
inside of the curve tilting of the box to the
vehicle are increased by the flexibility and
torsion coefficient of the path, which are
taken up primarily by the wheels of the
vehicle suspension and the small diameter
greater danger of derailment. The increase
maximum The flank angle of the lip is
favorable safety against derailment, it leads
to increase both capacity minimum
guidance and maximum axle.
The verifications to avoid complete
discharge of the wheels are not challenged
for the movement curve at its maximum
authorized speed The driving (leading)
forces of the chassis has a practical
significance because determining safety
path for displacements of rail due to
vehicle loads , the request of the vehicle
running and derailment safety. The
maximum permissible mass transfers in
this situation must not exceed Q0/Q0 0,6
for wheels rim flank angle of 70, provided

that the overhung H to be very close to
zero. This is usually achieved only on
vehicles with steerable axles. The situation
is worst at quasi-static movement of the
vehicle in low speed (up to 40 [km/h])
curve with a radius of 150 [m] and
maximum permissible track any distortion.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by
the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/
137070 (2014) of the Ministry of
National Education, Romania, cofinanced by the European Social Fund Investing in People, within the Sectorial
Operational
Programme
Human
Resources Development 2007-2013.
References
1. DUMITRU, G. et al: Viewpoints on

Some Vibration Features of the
Railway Traction Units - The
in
Brachistocrona
Problem,
Proceedings of the International
Scientific Conference - CIBv 2010, 12
- 13 November, Braov, Vol. 2., pp.
227 - 233.
2. DUMITRU, G. et al: Caracteristiques
dinamiques specifique des locomotives
seria BR 182 Siemens 64 U2 ES 1116
Taurus, in Proceedings of the
International Scientific Conference CIBv 2010, 12-13 November, Braov,
Vol. 2, pp. 269 - 275.
3. SEBEAN, I., Dinamica vehiculelor
feroviare (The dynamics of railway
vehicles),
Editura
MatrixRom,
Bucureti, 2011
4. SEBEAN, I., The study of the wheel
diameter influence over the loading
capacity of a railway vehicle, Harkov
International Conference Academy of
Ukraine, 2009.
5. UIC 515 Fische - Materiel pour le

transport de voyageurs, 2-e ed. 2001.
229
6. UIC 505-5 Fische.
The values of (Y / Q ) lim versus coefficient of adhesion Table 1
(Y / Q) lim
0,2
1,65
0,36
1,2
0,4
1,12
0,6
0,81
0,8
0,55
Fig. 1. The vehicle axle mass load transfers
Fig. 2. The contact forces between wheel and rail in the horizontal and vertical transverse planes
230
Fig. 3. The mass loads on the wagon wheels
mr
m rc mb
1 ( xb / ibz ) 2 ( z b / ibx ) 2
(1)
H d max c y y d max m r T 0 ( m r T 0 ) 2 c y m r ( v sin ) 2
(2)
2Q
I
H 0 m0 T0 (2Q0 m0 g )
1500
g
(3)
2Q
I
H 0 m0 T0 (2Q0 m0 g )
1500
g
(4)
H max H H dmax , H max H dmax H (the outer rail thread and the inner rail thread of the rolling track)
(5)
Q1 Q0 Q0 Q H 100 16.13 3.08 119.21 kN
(6)
Q2 Q0 Q0 QH 100 16.13 3.08 80.79 kN
(7)
Y1 H Q2 tg ( 2 2 ) 11.8 80.79 0.45 48.16 kN
(8)
Y2 Q2 tg ( 2 2 ) 80.79 0.45 36.36 kN
(9)

THE VERTICAL LOADS VARIATIONS

STUDY AND THE GUIDANCE CAPACITY
OF SIX AXLE LOCOMOTIVES AT CURVES
CIRCULATION
G. DUMITRU 1 L. BLAGA 2 G. A. BADEA 3
E. CRCIUN BOJE 4 C. N. BADEA 5 G. M. DRAGNE 6
V. TEFAN 7
Abstract: The current trend of increasing power diesel locomotives require
more efficient use of their weight especially during the startup, when does the
hazard happen slip axles to be unloaded. Providing guidance in curves in
complete safety and with minimum wear of wheels and rails is a basic
requirement of railway vehicles. In this paper is made an analysis of the
circulation conditions in curve of a bogie with elastic driven wheelsets, type
Y 32, used by railways in Romania. The system of wheelsets elastic driving
allows their quasi radial position in curves, leading to the reduction of
friction between wheels and rails and to lower wear. The presented
mathematical model is original, taking into account the wheel loads transfer
and the creep coefficients evaluated according to Kalker theory. It is found
that high elasticity causes a reduction of the hunting critical speed. Therefore
the paper presents also an original study model of the hunting movement of a
high speed bogie.
Key words: wheel slip, starting, adherence, gallop, non pitching, stick-slip.
1. Introduction
The format of the bulletin will be A4. The
article, inclusively the tables and the
figures, should be of 6-8 pages, an even
number of pages being compulsorily. The
last page will be filled at least 70%. The
individual locomotive drive force of the
1

3
4
SNTFC CFR Cltori SA
5
SNTFM CFR Marf SA.
6
SNTFM CFR Marf SA
7
2
drive motor for each axle can be greater

than the force of adhesion to the axle at
more than discharged as excess adherence
to one of axles would cause slippage, and
the traction power needed would be broken
down other axles that will slip and they.
The study in curve movement of a railway
vehicle aims to establish conditions which
232
ensure safe vehicle guidance. From the

point of view of the guidance, the vehicle
is an assembly consisting of a number of
axles connected rigidly or resiliently on a
frame. In the presence paper is presented
the case of vehicles (bogie) with steerable
axles that besides transverse displacement
is possible to rotate the axle to the chassis
due to their elastic binding, longitudinal
and transverse chassis. This rotational
movement allows the axle to orient
themselves qvasi radial in curves, which
has the effect of reducing contact forces
and also tracks the wear of tread and wheel
guide rails.
As the elasticity of the longitudinal axle
guidance system is higher, also the driving
axle of the vehicle will be closer to the
radial position thus creating conditions for
runs "pure" it if the wheels wear profile. A
provides high elasticity in the longitudinal
direction can lead to a movement of the
axle hunting unstable at a speed of
movement of the vehicle less than the
stipulated. Taking into account the size of
the elasticity of adversarial proceedings,
the proper design of the vehicle must be
chosen "middle way" that would be
acceptable from both points of view were
presented previously.
2. The loads variation static nature and
the elasticities influence of conduction
system of the settlement axle bogie
geometric in curves
The loads variation static nature occurs
due to rotation box locomotive bogie
rotation and traction motors action. In
equation (1) is shown the actual amount Q
of load on the axle, where components are
static relationship
load variation
Q0 per axle, of the axle
Qs due to factors such as

Qd due
static of the axle load variation

to factors such as dynamically. This
depends on various factors such as

mechanical, mainly on the type of
connection between the box and the bogie
of the locomotive slurry, suspension mode
of the traction motor as well as any devices
non pitching. The influence of these
factors are considered a type of locomotive
Co - Co, considering the bearing and
alignment line, coupled bogie vertical
tractive force equal to all axles.
Considering released locomotive box
links with external forces and moments
acting on it (figure 1), the conditions of
equilibrium of moments, in relation to A
and B support box bogies, bogie vertical
reactions are obtained, presented in
relation (2) where 2l is the wheelbase of
locomotive, H is the height above the rail
the draw hook, h is the height of point the
traction force transmission from the
locomotives box and the bogie M ' and
M ' ' are moments reaction forces on the
box due to the device non pitching.
Considering their longitudinal axes
represented bogies with low torque forces
and moments at the points A' and B' (that
is, centres of rotation of the bogie, as
schematically shown in figure 2), the
conditions of static equilibrium and
deformation
will
result
reactions
Pi i 1,...,6 of the suspension of bogie,
as shown in fact in the relationship (3) in
which c a1 , c a2 , c a3 are the suspension of
the axles are rigidities (1,6), (2,5) and (3,4)

while F ' , M ' and F ' ' , M ' ' are the
torsion points reduction A' and B' .
Likewise, c it represents the distance
between the middle axle of the bogie and
the centre of rotation of the bogie.
Given the forces and moments acting on
the bogie [5] will results the relations (4)
where h1 is the height of the point of
transmission of the drive force from the
bogie to the box while e is the distance of
point of application of the vertical reaction.
G. DUMITRU et al.: The Vertical Loads Variations Study and the

Guidance Capacity of Six Axle Locomotives at Curves Circulation
Also, 0 F0 is the reaction engine to the

bogie ( 0 being a coefficient which
depends on the traction motor suspension
[5]) while M '1 , M ' '1 represent the reaction
times on the bogies of the non pitching
device.
Between the loads variations on the
springs Pi i 1,...,6 given by the system
of equations (3) and the axle load
Qis i 1,...,6
is
the
variations
relationship (5) where the positive sign (+)
corresponding positioning electric engine
the traction before the front axle of the
running and the negative sign (-) is used
when the engine is positioned after the
axle. To note is the fact that variations in
axle loads given by the relation (5) after
solving the system of equations (6) leading
to the system of equations (6) wherein the
variables N and N are defined as
mathematical expressions by the form (7).
The individual training axle reduces the
possibilities to use the full weight of the
adherence, so the use of appropriate means
to minimize download axles (by the non
pitching phenomenon), because of high
traction effects have now become a
necessity
in
modern
locomotives
construction type [5], [6]. For an elastic
driving bogie axle shall be analyzed
assuming inclusion curve established a
regime of movement stationary quasistatic.. Under the action of external Fn and
contact forces between wheel also rail
bogie sits curve position in Figure 1 axles
by the normal to the curve angles
(attack) 1 and that respectively 2 . They
also assume that there are no large sliding
wheels (with profile wear) but pseudo
slidings proportionate to contact forces and
forces balance can ensure contactless
running axles lips (of wheelsets). To the
axis of the track, the axle centers are offset
towards the outside with y c1 and,
respectively, y c2 and the bogie chassis
233
lowered to its longitudinal axis, is offset

with the right axle y 1 and, respectively, y 2 .
During the movement, the forces of
friction forces also the balance of guidance
system, of each axle must be balanced.
Moreover, the forces acting on the
steering system of the chassis of the bogie
must be in balance with the external force
applied to the bolster (Fig. 2). Towards
chassis axles are rotated 1, 2 (equations
no. (1)). The longitudinal forces of the
suspension springs will be F1, 2 (equations
no. (2)) could be reduced to the moments
M 1, 2 (equations no. (3)). The overhung
transverse forces of the suspension springs
are F1 y and, respectively F2 y and are also
explained in relations (4). If it is noted in
this case f x x .Q and f y y .Q the
pseudo-slip coefficients (units of force),
the pseudo-sliding (dimensionless), Q
being the load on the wheel then the forces
of pseudo-slip will be T1x , T1 y , T2 x , T2 y
which are explained in relations (5). The
forces of balance system of the two axles
C1, 2 are shown in the form of equations
(6), which, as noted with kg the elastic
constant balance this with the expression
(7), wherein the center position of the axle,
Q is the wheel load; - the effective
connicity of the wheel profile; 0 - the
flank angle of the wing tread; c x and c y
are the rays of curvature of the profile of
the wheel and, respectively, of the rail.
With such the forces established
equilibrium equations can be written for
the axle and bogie frame, which takes into
account the small values of the angles
involved (equations no. (8)), which, after
substitution, becomes to the (9) form.
The equations no. (9) are enable for
determining the position of a vehicle on a
curve on two axles in the general case
when the axles are connected to the chassis
by resilient longitudinal and lateral. Taking
234
the view in this case that the k g = 0, from

the system of equations (6), we obtain
equations (10). The first term in equation
(10) highlights the deviation from the track
centre line and the second is the radial
displacement of the axle due to lateral
force Fn.. If 2 k x .b 2 f x .a the slurry
suspension elasticity of the curve does not
improve the vehicle registration. If
2 k x .b 2 f x .a , the deviation from the track
centre line and will drop to a springy
suspension deviation will be close to the
minimum (it possible for free axles)
k c1 k c 0 .
The deviation from the track centre line
when 2 k x .b 2 f x .a is being reduced by
increasing the value of the term
e / r . 1 4c x .b 2 / k y a 2 that is by the
effective connicity high transverse

rigidity and decrease c y . The displacement
of the rear axle to axle path k c 2 is given by
the relation (11). For F n = 0, the angles
that they make axles with normal path will
be 1, 2 (explained in equation (12)). The
maximum force of pseudo-slip will occur
on the two front wheels. At this, for F n =
0, the pseudo-slips are given in the
equation (13) and the pseudo-slips force T,
considering that f x = f y = f, is given by the
equation (14). It follows therefore that an
elastic driving bogie axle will slide on
every curve whose radius is R (see
equation (15)). As the suspension is elastic,
and the radius of the curve R is a lower
axle aiming at a radial position.
Comparing the displacements of lateral
force F n , is observed that the rear axle is
shifted more than the front axle, this
movement being independent of the radius
of the curve.
The displacement under the effect of
force F n is also independent of the
deviation from the track centre line, which
occurs even if the bogie side not exercise
any power and actually indicate the

inherent ability to be self-guided bogie in
way pseudo slidings forces between
wheels and rails.
3. The loads variation dynamically
nature and the elasticities influence
from conduction system of the axles
on the bogie hunting stability
Variations dynamic axle loads occur due

to fluctuations locomotive during the
startup. Out of these the most influential
have oscillations gallop of the
locomotives box due to longitudinal forces
[5]. Considering negligible oscillations of
electric engines bogies and traction
differential equation of oscillations will be
of the form (8) while is the angle of
rotation of the vertical of the locomotives
box, I c is the moment of inertia of the
locomotives box to the center of gravity,
V ' d and Vd ' ' are the vertical reactions
of the bogies to the locomotives box, Fds
the force on the coupling hook locomotive,
Fbd is horizontal reaction locomotive
bogie over the box while M ' d and M ' ' d
are the moments given by the non
pitching phenomenon devices.
To note is the fact that, in the equation
(8) were only considered dynamically
nature forces and moments, their
expressions are given in relations (9), (10)
and (11), where dV / dt is the acceleration
of railway vehicle, is a coefficient that
takes into account the mass inertia in
rotation, m L is the mass of the locomotive,
mb is the mass of the bogie, R L
locomotive is the resistance to progress
while c c is the stiffness of the suspension
locomotives box (on bogies). Also, taking
into account the relationship (9), then the
equation (8) can be written in the form (12)
whose solution can be explicit as (13)
expression of the factor can be deduced

that 0 defining in the form (14), The

equilibrium position about which the
oscillation takes place gallop whose own
pulsation is given in equation form (15).
The variations in the maximum dynamic
axle load are obtained by replacing the
factor max from the relationship (13) in
the equation no. (9) where the negative
sign (-) take the first three axles of the
locomotive while the positive sign (+) for
the next three. Because in general the
locomotive drive systems with shaft
torsion [5], [6] we have p , where p
is the angular frequency of the oscillations
of stick - slip, we can neglect the influence
of the gallop oscillations of the
locomotives box over the stick - slip
oscillations. The study of hunting motion
for stability of an elastic driving bogie axle
is based on relationships obtained after
linearization phenomenon of hunting.
Linearization of the phenomenon of
hunting is realized: considering that the
contact forces vary linearly with lateral
movement of the axle; neglecting friction
and games of various elements of the
bearing structure of the vehicle; neglecting
tread irregularities and discontinuities;
considering equivalent connicity wheel
profile as constant and proportional to the
tangential force pseudo slidings point of
contact of the wheel with the rail.
This study aims to determine the velocity
at which the hunting stable movement of a
vehicle equipped with elastic driving axle
bogies will turn into an unstable motion,
namely the establishment of critical speed,
which when exceeded will result in a rapid
deterioration walking. In other words, we
aimed to determine the maximum speed
that can be reached safely by vehicle.
Consider the case of general motion of the
bogie in hunting which the suspension
consists of axle springs having spring
constants k x , k y , and the linear
characteristic of the shock absorbers (non-
235
viscous), which damping constants c x and

c y (Fig.3). Center of mass of the bogie is
considered located in the axle axles.
Determination of critical speed and critical
pulse respectively when the sprung mass of
the bogie neglect and depreciation can be
based on the equations of motion of the
bogie frame, respectively, axles, axle
balance obtained neglecting the effect of
spin and gyroscopic effect (equations (15))
where noted: k x and k y - the elastic
constants in the longitudinal and
transverse, mo - the wheelset (axle) mass,
Q - the wheel load, a - the wheelbase
bogie, b - the transverse cross midway
between the suspension springs, e - the
midway between the nominal rolling
circles, r - the wheel ray (radius), v - the
velocity running speed, - equivalent
connicity, I oz - the moment of inertia of the
sprung mass above vertical axis which
passing through the center of mass of the
bogie, - pseudo sliding coefficient and
k *y k y .k x b 2 / k y .a 2 c x b 2 which signifies
an equivalent elastic constant cross. With

the change of variables in equations (16)
are the equations of motion of the form
(17). Neglecting the mass of the axle axis,
mean while considering I oz m0 e 2 and
using the notation A, B, C , D from the
equations (18) yields equation own
pulsation (19). Considering that the
stability limit was reached when v vc ,
and making the substitution in the equation
(19) p j.c , resulting final form of the
equation own pulsations (20). Shall be
defined the functions f c and g c
made explicit relations (21) and (22)
allowing the calculation of critical speed v c
and critical pulsation c . Thus stroke
critical pulsation value results as a root of
the equation f c = 0 and critical
velocity resulting from equation (21). For
the coefficients of friction wheel - rail can
236
be considered the work of P. van Bommel

[2] which had recommends some
approximate values of the coefficients of
pseudo slip. Thus based on the results of
Kalker [3] it is found that (for Q expressed
in tons), the parameter x has
approximately the same value with y as
shown in equation no. (23).
4.
Numerical Application - The

establishing the variation of tasks to
starting and drive axle locomotives
class 060 EA
As noted above, slip axle locomotive

tasks depends not and does not remain
constant during walking. Knowing the
variation of static and dynamic tasks axle
is absolutely necessary because they
depend only on the mechanical
construction of the locomotive. For this
case study was taken as an example such
as electric locomotive type 060 EA, which
have been carried out some experiments
with the train and the power of the diesel
type 060 Carpatia, electric traction with
engines into alternating current alternating, who performed a test sample
train in October 2010 to the distance
between Berlin East and Dresden. The
parameters of these kind of diesel electrical
type locomotive, are: l 5,15 m; a = 2,25
m; b = 2,1 m; c = 0,05 m; e = 0,438 m; H =
1,05 m; h = 0,59 m; hl 0,484 m;
hc 2,3
r0 0,625
m;
m;
c a1 c a 3 228 .10 4
c c 320.10 4
N/m;
2
N/m; c a 2 134 .10 4

N/m;
I c 1,4.10 6
kg.m ; m L 126.10 3 Kg; mb 24,5.10 3

Kg; 0,135 ; 0 1,427 . Because
locomotive traction is low moments due to
the mode of transmission of the thrust will
be to form the system of equations (17),
where d = 3,23 m represents the points of
articulation of drawbar on the locomotives
box, d1 2 m is the distance between of

hinge points on the bogie drawbars while
10 0 is the angle of inclination from
the horizontal drawbars.
The values of static variations axle loads
calculated with relations (6) and (17)
depending on tractive force F0 are
summarized in Table 1 wherein positive
sign (+)corresponding axle load while the
negative sign (-)corresponds to its
unloading. From this table it can be seen
easily that the download of the locomotive
axle is axle 1, it having so therefore the
first tendency to skate.
The pulsation own oscillations "gallop"
of the box locomotive, calculated with
equation (15) will have the value
11,011rad.s 1 , this value is much
lower pulsation due to the phenomenon of
stick - slip which is generally the value
p 180,...,375rad .s 1 . It thus follows
therefore that the axle load at the time of
slip can be considered constant.
The unloading one axle maximum
dynamic nature because of tasks will be
given by (16) where 0 depends on the
starting of Vehicle acceleration dv / dt
who are made explained in the relations
(10), (11) and (14) which is determined by
the equation of the train motions (18),
where g / 1 ; R is the total
resistance to the train progress; G L , GV are
respectively the weight of the locomotive
and the weight wagons. It also will
consider and locomotive towing a train
consisting of freight cars in alignment and
In
case,
landing
tier.
this
R rL .GL rV .GV , where rL ; rV represents
the specific resistance of the locomotive
forward
wagons
respectively,
are
determined by the following relations
respectively
and
rV 1,6 V 2 / 2700 daN / 10 3 daN
rL .G L R L 296 7,068V / 10 daN ,

2

wherein V is expressed in km/h.

The force of the axle 1 such are limited
by the adherence, most unloaded will be
given by the relation no. (19), where
a a V represents for varying the
adherence coefficient depending on speed
V [5]. It may reveal the influence of
constructive parameters of the locomotive,
and resistance to progress RL ; RV of the
locomotive and wagon respectively
adhesion coefficient a V over dynamic
load Ql the axle downloaded if you take
into account the dynamically nature of the
loads variation of. For this system to be
solved formed by equations (16), (18) and
(19), thereby achieving the equation (20)
in the canonical form.
Because the phenomenon of stick - slip
axle occurs with the most discharged after
passing this axle and as the adhesion force
of the drive motor for each axle can be
greater than the adherence force to the axle
at more than unload, the load variations
length was calculated for F0 Fa , where
Fa V is given by the relation (19) for
a V determined by the Curtius Kniffler relations and GV 1500.103 daN.
Comparing
calculated
and
limited
adherence strength, taking into account
only the variations of static axle loads
Qld 0 and the results were shown in the
table no. 2.
The locomotive force will be limited by
adherence and became FaL 6 Fa and the
weight adherent will be Ga 6.Ql , both of
which are functions of the speed V by
running of the train. To be able to observe
the influence of train velocity on the
emergence of the phenomenon of stick slip, were represented (in figure no. 2 and
in figure no. 3), the variation curves of
forces FaL ; F ' aL ; R and respectively QL ,
Qs and Qd to overcoming the
237
adhesion for speeds between 0 and 50,4

km/h.
Considering also that the locomotive
speed control is constant tensile force
during the startup and since the adherence
force decreases as walking speed, axle
slippage will occur at the speed
corresponding to the thrust intersection
with adherence forces. The locomotive
traction force value during the startup,
determine the size of which will depend on
vehicle acceleration directly proportional
to the speed of movement of the train
speed. This can be seen from the diagram
shown in Figure no. 4, in which, have been
presented the curves C i i 2,...,8 the
variation of acceleration with walking
speed V of the train and that have been
calculated using the relationship (18) for
different values of constant traction force.
The boundary points A1 ; A2 ;... A8 of
acceleration correspond to the velocity at
which the train the locomotive slip curve C
which linking them actually representing
acceleration variation for adjustment after
the limited adherence force whose
experimentally determined values were
summarized in table no. 3. In order to
highlight the influence of the coefficient of
adhesion a (to V=0) over the variation of
the loads on the axles are calculated the
forces Fa and the loads, for values of the
coefficient of adhesion between 0,340 and
0,486 such us the apparent fact of table no.
4. With these values, in Figure no. 4 were
represented the variation curves of
functions Fa a and Ql a . For example
we considered a passenger car equipped
with bogies Y 32 R type at which
m0 2000 kg, Q = 59.65 kN and
geometrical characteristics: a = 1,28 m, b =
1 m, e = 0,75 m, r = 0.46 m. The pseudo
slip coefficients calculated with (23) have
the values 76,8 . A special importance
for the stability of the bogie cross has
238
elastic characteristics of the axle driving

system. R. Joly [4] indicates the speed
bogies with elastic driving axles values k x
= 107 N/m and k y = 5.107 N/m . The
equivalent transverse stiffness is set k *y =
1,481 kN/mm.
The profile of the wheel, the effective
conicity its influence on the stability of
the vehicle. A reduced taper contributes
generally to speed up critical observing
that influence effective taper the critical
speed is dependent on the values of
rigidities k x and k y . For values of k x and k y
greater than 107 N/m, the optimal effective
conicity is between 0,10 and 0,15. It adopts
effective conicity = 0,15. Critical and
critical speed pulsation calculation, was
based on equations (19) and (20). The
positive real square roots of the equation
(20) and critical pulsations are: c =
20,79836 rad/s and c = 139,40631 rad/s.
From equation (12) that the vehicle is
travelling without slipping in curves of
radius R 1552 m.
Considering the example calculation R =
1600 m is obtained yc 0 1,438 .10 3 m and
A 1,3667;
also
B 0,0439;
C 1,0179 . For Fn 0 , according to the
equation (7) gives yc1 7,061.10 3 m,
yc 2 4,044.10 3 m. The wheelsets angles
according
to
equation
(9)
are
1 2 0,786.10 3 rad. The pseudo
front wheel slippage, calculated with (10),
is: 1x 183,325.10 3 ; 1 y 0,786.10 3 .
For comparison we studied the
movement curve and a fixed axle bogie.
Thus, considering k x k y
and
k g 0 it obtain: y1 yc1 ; y2 yc 2 and for
Fn 0
it
1 2 a / R
0,8.10 3 rad;
1 y 2 y y a / R 0,8.103
result:
y1 yc 2 yc 0 . 1 f y / f x . a 2 / e 2
5,626.10 3 m;
1x 2 x x f y / f x . a 2 / e.R 1,365.10 3
There is a decrease in the angle of attack
to the elastic drive axles fixed. The
difference is small because the comparison
was made for a relatively large radius
curve. The movement of small radius
curves becomes apparent advantage elastic
management but also increases the risk of
landslides unacceptable. The pulsations
critical values determined above can be
highlighted and a graphical representation
of the function f c , by the form of Fig. 4.
Since whereas the first value of transition
from stability to instability hunting
movement of the axle, it will be taken into
account in calculating the critical speed.
Therefore, according to this pulse is
critical to obtain the vc 69,4 km/h.
5. Conclusions
By analyzing the characteristics shown

schematically in the figures above it can be
concluded that the limited force adherence
FaL is less than the adherence force F ' aL
calculation which was not taken into
account the variation of the dynamic axle
loads (shown schematically in Figure 3).
Likewise, given the dependence of
dynamic load train acceleration will result
in a worsening of the locomotive the
traction feature with increasing the train
acceleration. Finally it should be
mentioned the fact that slip axle and
consequently,
the
emergence
and
manifestation of the phenomenon of stickslip will occur especially in the case of
"strength avulsion / pull-out" in place of
locomotive train that occurs when starting
with a jolt powerful practice that can be
amplified by linking locomotive first
railway vehicle car of the train without
proper tightening torque (of the hook) the

traction, allowing a wider broad coupling

between the buffers of the locomotive and
the first car (vehicle) of the train. This
effect can be enhanced also in the case in
which load is the minimum up to the axle
of the locomotive. In this context, it is
important to note that the load Ql the axle
locomotive
downloaded
directly
proportional to speed at which the train, as
shown in the diagram shown in Figure 2.
This is due in particular to lower
acceleration with decreasing walking speed
according to the graph in Figure 4, and so
consequently, and because of the variation
of the dynamic nature of the locomotive
loads.
The circulation study results a
minimum curve radius that does not creep
at the wheel - rail. In the case thought is a
tendency by the first axle radial alignment.
The equations presented indicates radial
benefits management where small radius
curves but with a corresponding
adjustment elastic axle vehicle guidance
system.
The results obtained from this study,
they concluded that, to overcome the speed
of about 160 km / h, the vehicle movement
becomes unstable hunting phenomenon
which would lead to unacceptable shear
load of the tread, and even from
endangering traffic safety. The maximum
1 1
239
safe movement of a vehicle will be lower

with 10 - 15% from the critical velocity to
hunting, if one takes into account the
possible
change
in
the
elastic
characteristics of the system for guiding
axles. Relationships set allows to analyze
the influence of various design parameters
on the movement of the bogie hunting
constructive arranges for the extension at
higher speed drive system by hunting
stability domain. Although the method
applied is based on a number of
simplifying assumptions, it can be used for
fast performance evaluation of engineering
bogies. The calculation vests belong to the
author work, which is validated
experimentally on a number of high-speed
bogies analyzed in Railway Rolling Stock
Department
from
the
Polytechnic
University of Bucharest.
Acknowledgements
the strategic grant POSDRU / 159 / 1.5 /
S / 137070 (2014) of the Ministry of
National Education, Romania, cofinanced by the European Social Fund Investing in People, within the Sectoral
Operational
Programme
Human
Resources Development 2007-2013.
a y1 y 2
a y y2
; 2 1 1
;
R
R
2.a
2.a
(1)
F1x k x .b.1 ; F2 x k x .b.2
(2)
a y y2
M 1 2.b.F1x 2.k x .b 2 .1 2.k x .b 2 . 1 1
2.a
R
a y y2
M 2 2.b.F2 x 2.k x .b 2 .2 2.k x .b 2 . 2 1
2.a
R
(3)
F1 y k x . y1 y c1 ; F2 y k y . y 2 y c 2
(4)
240
(5)
C1 k g . y c1 ; C 2 k g . y c 2
(6)
k g 2.Q. / 0 . 2.Q / s
(7)
C1 2.F1 y 2.T1 y 0; 2.e.T1x M 1 0;

C 2 2.F2 y 2.T2 y 0; 2.e.T2 x M 2 0;
(8)
2.F1 y 2.F2 y Fn 0; M 1 M 2 2.F1 y .a 2.F2 y .a 0;
k g . y c1 2.k y . y1 y c1 2. f y . 1 0;
e
a y y2
2.e. f x . y c1 2.k x .b 2 . 1 1
0;
R
2.a
R
r
k g . y c 2 2.k y . y 2 y c 2 2. f y . 2 0;
e
a y y2
2.e. f x . y c 2 2.k x .b 2 . 2 1
0;
2.a
R
R
r
2.k y . y1 y c1 2.k y . y 2 y c 2 Fx 0;
a y y2
2.k x .b 2 . 1 1
2.a
R
2.k y . y 2 y c 2 .a 0;
a y y2
2.k y .b 2 . 2 1
2.a
R
(9)
2.k y . y1 y c1 .a
f y a2 A
F B
y c1 y c 0 .1
. 2 . a. n . ;
fx e C
4. f y C
A 1
f x .a e.
.
k x .b 2 r
k .b 2
.1 x 2 ;
k y a
(10)
B f y .a / k x .b 1;
f x . f y .a 2 e.
C 1
.
2
r
k .b 2
k .b 2
.1 x 2
k y .a
f y a2 2 A
F B2
a. n .
y c 2 y c 0 .1
. 2.
fx e
C
a. f y C
(11)

241
1 2 1 / C .a / R
(12)
f y a2 A
f y a2 A
e

1x .1 . 2 . . y c 0
.
.
fx e
r
1 / C .a / R
1y
f x . x 2 f y . y 2
(13)
f x e.R C
f .a
a2
. 1 2 . A 2 .Q
R.C
e
(14)
f .a
a 2 .A2
. 1
C. .Q
e2
..
..
..
(15)
m 0 . 1 2. .Q / v . 1 k *y . y1 k *y . y 2 k *y .a 2. .Q .1 k *y .2 0;
m 0 . 2 2. .Q / v . 2 k *y . y 2 k *y . y1 k *y .1 k *y .a 2. .Q .2 0;
I 0 z . 1 2. .Q / v . 1 k x .b 2 k *y .a 2 .1 k x .b 2 k *y .a 2 .2
k *y .a
2. .Q.e . / r . y1
2
k *y .a. y 2

k .a 2. .Q.e. / r . y kx.b
..
(16)
0;
I 0 z . 2 2. .Q.e 2 / v . 2 k x .b 2 k *y .a 2 .2 k *y .a. y1
*
y
k *y .a 2 .1 0;
(17)
.. *
4. .Q
. 2 4. .Q.1* 0;
v
.. *
4. .Q .
. 2 4.k *y . y 2* 4.k *y .a.1* 4. .2* 0;
v
2m0 . 1
2m 0 . 2
.. *
. *
4. .Q.e 2 .
e. *
2. I 0 z . 1
. 1 4.k *y .a.1* 4. .Q.
. y1 4.k *y .a. y 2* 0;
v
r
.. *
2. I 0 z . 2
4. .Q.e 2 .
e. *
. 2 4.k x .b 2 .2* 4. .Q.
. y 2 0;
v
r
(18)
242
a2
b2
A1 4.k *y .1 2 4.k x . 2 ;
e
e
a2
2
.1 2 2.4. .Q .
e.r
e
a2
b2
2
C1 4. .Q . . 4.k *y .1 2 4.k x . 2
e.r
e
e
B1 4.k *y .4.k x .
D1 4. .Q .
2
b2
e2
e.r
(19)

4. .Q .
e
e.r
b2
.4.k *y .4.k x . 2
A1 K x K y
B1 K x .K y 2.
C1 . K x K y
D1
K x .K y
a2
1 2
e
(20)
16.m04 . p 8 32.m03 .
4. f 2
6
4. f 7
4. f
. p 8.m02 .3.
.
m0 . A1 . p 4.m0 .
v
v
v
4. f 2
5 4. f 4
4. f 2
4 4. f
2
.2.
.
3.m0 . A1 . p
6.m0 ..
. A1 4.m0 .B1 . p
v
v
(21)
4. f 2
3 4. f 2
2 4. f
C1 . p D1 0
.
. A1 4.m0 .B1 . p
.B1 2.m0 .C1 . p
v
v
16.m04 .
4. f

vc
8
c
8.m02 3.
4. f
vc
4. f
6.m0 .
vc
4. f
g c
vc
m0 A1 . c6
4. f
. A1 4.m02 .B1 . c4
vc
.B1 2.m0 .C1 . c2 D1 0;
(22)
32.m03 . c6 12.m02 . A1 . c4 4.m0 .B1 . c 2 C1

8.m0 c2 A1 . c2
f c 16.m04 . c8 8.m02 .3.g c m0 . A1 . c6
g 2 c 6.m0 .g c . A1 4.m02 .B1 . c4 g c .B1 2.m0 .C1 . c2 D1
(23)
(24)

300
x y
...
243
400
3
(25)
Table 1
Axle
1
-0,707. F0
Qis
2
+0,447. F0
3
-0,311. F0
4
+0,311. F0
5
-0,447. F0
6
+0,707. F0
Table 2
V[km/h]
0
7,2
14,4
21,6
28,8
36,0
43,2
50,4
R[daN] F a [daN] F a [daN]

2696
2728
2826
2988
3215
3507
3864
4285
5405
5098
4860
4671
4516
4388
4281
4183
5639
5304
5045
4840
4672
4533
4416
4315
- Q ls
- Q ld
[daN]
3821
3604
3436
3302
3193
3102
3027
2962
[daN]
872
816
772
733
702
673
642
616
Q l [daN]
dV
m.s 2
dt
16307
16580
16792
16965
17105
17225
17331
17422
0,158
0,148
0,140
0,133
0,127
0,121
0,116
0,111
Table 3
V
[km/h]
7,2
14,4
21,6
28,8
36,0
43,2
50,4
dV
dt
2
[ m.s ]
0,1581
0,1481
0,1400
0,1331
0,1269
0,1213
0,1160
0,1106
Table 4
0,340
0,360
0,380
0,400
0,420
0,440
0,460
0,480
0,486
Fa
5513
5759
5998
6232
6459
6681
6897
7108
7170
16215
15996
15785
15580
15379
15184
14993
14807
14752
[daN]
Ql
[daN]
Fig. 1. The forces and the moments acting on the box locomotive to the circulation on a
portion of railway track curve with cant superelevation
244
Fig. 2. The forces and the moments acting on the bogie from attacking of a line portion
with an uphill declivity
Fig. 3. The curves of variation of axle loads to overcome adhesion
Fig. 4. Driving axle bogie spring curved movements

Fig. 5. Forces and moments acting on the axle and bogie frame
Fig. 6. Forces acting on an elastic driving bogie axle
Fig. 7. Establishing the graphic values of the critical pulsations
245
246
References
1. Dumitru, G. et al: The Measuring Of

The Hunting Oscillations Amplitude
For Electric Locomotive 060 EA Class
To Speeds Between 120 And 210 km/h,
The 11th Youth Symposium On
Experimental
Solid
Mechanics,
CNCSIS, ISSN: ISBN 978-606-190079-4, pp. 197 204, 30th of May
2012 2nd of June 2012, Braov,
Romania.
2. Dumitru,, G.: Consideraii asupra
unor aspecte legate de dinamica
vehiculelor motoare de cale ferat
(Observations on some aspects related
to dynamic of railway vehicle engine),
Revista MID-CF Magazine, no.
1/2008.
3. Gilchrist, A.O.: The long road to
Solution of the railway hunting and
curving problem. Proceedings of the
Conference "From Rocket to Eurostar
and beyond", 5 nov.,1997
4. Joly, R. et al : Etude de la dynamique
transversal d'un vhicule ferroviaire
.Banc exprimental de Vitry, Rapport
SNCF, division des essayes de
materiel, 1974.
5. Kalker, J. J.: A strip theory for rolling
with slip and spin, Proceedings Kom.
Akad. Wet., Amsterdam, Section B.
70, 1967.
6. Nadal, M. J.: Locomotives a Vapeur,
Collection Encyclopdie Scientifique,
Bibliothque de Mcanique Applique
et Gnie, Paris, 1908.
7. Newland, D. E.: Steering a Flexible
Railway Track in Curved Track,
Transaction of ASME, aug., 1969.
8. Prudhomme, M. A.: La Voie, Revue

Gnrale des Chemins de Fer, ian.,
1970.
9. Scheffel, H.: Conceptions nouvelles
relatives aux dispositifs de suspension
des
vhicules
ferroviare,
Rail
International, dec., 1974.
10. Sebean, I.: Dinamica vehiculelor de
cale ferat (The Dynamics Of Railway
Vehicles), Editura Matrix Rom,
Bucureti, 2010.
11. Sebean, I. et al: Vibraiile vehiculelor
feroviare (Vibrations of the railway
vehicles), Editura Matrix Rom,
Bucureti, 2010.
12. Sebean, I. et al: Studiul influenelor
vibraiilor rotorului motorului electric
de traciune complet suspendat asupra
fenomenului de hunting (The study the
influences of electric traction motor
rotor vibration completely suspended
on the phenomenon of hunting),
Revista Cilor Ferate Romne (The
Romanian Railway Magazine), nr. 2-4
/ 2003.
13. Van BOMMEL, P.: Considerations
lineares concernant le mouvement de
lacet dun vehicule ferroviare, UIC /
ORE C9, nov., 1968.
14. UIC Code 513: Guidelines for
Evaluating Passenger Comfort in
Relation to Vibration in Railway
Vehicles, 1st ed., 1.7. 1994,
International Union of Railways, Paris
1995.
15. UIC Code 518: Testing and Approval
of Railway Vehicles from the Point of
View of their Dynamic Behaviour Safety - Track Fatigue - Ride Quality,
Paris, October 2005.

ANALYSIS OF GEOTECHNICAL
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF DESULPHURIZATION OF
THERMAL POWER PLANT
UGLJEVIK 1
N. URI 1
Abstract: As part of the project environmental protection for
consequences of broadcasting
polluting particles from previously
constructed power plants, provides the construction of new plants, which are
an integral part of the existing facilities. For existing Power plant Ugljevik
1, built in the eighties of the twentieth century, it is planned the construction
of plants for flue gas desulphurisation, which in its complex has several
significant buildings. Taking into account the complexity of geological
settings, at the location of plant construction and the importance of the
objects geomechanical field research and analysis of geotechnical
conditions foundations of future facilities were performed
Key words: field exploration, geological environment, foundation objects
1. Introduction
Construction of flue gas desulphurization, is related to a project of
purification of previously constructed
power plants. The plant consists of a
complex of different buildings in
importance and dimensions. It will be
located next to the existing power plant 1,
and after its construction it will make a
unique complex of thermal power plant
Ugljevik 1.
Due to the complexity of the geological
structure of the field, determined by earlier
studies, geomechanical study of space
were carried out. There is a possibility that
at a later stage in the determination of the
exact location of the facilities, research and
1
focus on specific micro-locations would

expand.
The construction of desulphurization
plant, will improve the environment in the
region, given that TPP Ugljevik 1, has the
greatest impact on the northeastern part of
Republic of Sprpska and Bosnia and
Herzegovina. It should be noted that in this
region, in addition to these power plants, is
registered the impact of power plant Tuzla
and Obrenovac. But the biggest impact has
TPP Ugljevik 1, which the project plant
gives more importance.
2. Main geological characteristics of the
field
Faculty of Civil Enginering Subotica, University of Novi Sad
248
Natural terrain morphology is partially

modified during the construction of the
previous power plant. Relocated are the
riverbeds of
and Mezgrajica and
depression are filled with a filled material.
The whole area is a flat surface. The
terrain is characterized by frequent
changes in the lithological composition of
the smaller space. Therefore, they needed a
more detailed study, given the importance
of the facilities to be constructed.
For a fuller consideration of the
characteristics of the field, previous
studies, which are at a high level were
analyzed. For a fuller consideration of the
characteristics of the field, analyzed
previous studies, which were at a high
level. Previously done basic geological
map OGK Yugoslavia 1: 100000 with an
interpreter [1] and geotechnical field
explorations for an existing power plant,
gave a clear picture of the natural
morphology of the terrain, the lithological
composition
and
structural-tectonic
relations. The current research is based on

previous research, and the continuation of
further research for a more detailed
consideration of the characteristics of the
field.
Engineering geological mapping of the
terrain and the surrounding area is a
precursor to the exploration activities.
Registered offshoots rocks are present on
the surface and placed typical geological
profiles in which are made exploration
wells. Coring was performed in its entirety,
and on nucleus were observed lithological
changes and correlated with data obtained
by mapping the field. Experiments of
SPT, and the results of laboratory tests on
samples from individual lithological,
completed a picture of the geological
structure of the field and geomechanical
properties of the individual layers. It is
done totaly eight (8) boreholes to a depth
25.0 m, picture 1, from each lithological
change, samples were taken for laboratory
testing.
Picture 1. Position of exploratory boreholes in relation to the structures of plants
N. URI: Analysis Of Geotechnical Conditions For Construction Of Desulphurization Of

Thermal Power Plant Ugljevik 1
On the ground are separate twotypes of

relief, fluvio-storage as a plain type and
erosion-denundation as mountain type.Of
surface flows, which have an impact on
researched location, there are natural and
regulated river flows Janja and Mezgrajica.
Former riverbed of Janja provided the
central part of the plateau 2.
The structure of the ground from the
surface to a depth of research part are of
the Quaternary sediments and Tertiary age
249
2],[3. The order of sediments determined

by age is as follows:
Paleocen eocen sediments (Pc, E 1 ),
build up the slope west of the existing
thermal power facilities, while on microlocation of the studied field built the lower
horizons of the substrate at depths of 8.0 to
18.0 m. They are presented with the
sediments of marl, shale and sandstone,
picture 2.
Picture 2. Geological profile of the terrain

1 and 2. River alluvial sediments(al), 3. Neogene sediments (1M 1 1 ) , 4. Peleocen-eocen sediments
(Pc, E 1 )
Neogene sediments, the Lower

Miocenestarosti (1M 1 1 ), build a higher
Horizont into the substrate, and are
represented
by
conglomerates,
sandstones, gravelly and sandy
sediments and clayey-sandy marl with
lenses of marl clay. Sediments form a
complex that is often dismissed in
horizontal and vertical direction,
because they were created at the time
of lake sedimentation. They are
registered at depths 3,5 6,0 m.
River alluvial sediments (al), built the
near surface parts of the field.
Represented are with the typical
development of river sediments in
which the lower part of the deposit
consists of gravel and the sandy beach

and the upper part of the fine-grained
sediment flooded. The thickness of the
sediments is from 1,5 - 4,2 m
3. Analysis of geotechnical conditions
construction
For the analysis of geotechnical
conditions of design and construction plant
for flue gas desulphurisation of TPP
Ugljevik 1, it is done a detailed structural
analysis of the field in relation to the
lithological types of soils, their position
within the studied depth of field as well as
their relative position, and their condition,
composition, engineering and hydrogeological characteristics and physical -
250
mechanical properties and resistance deformable features 4. For the purposes

of detailed insight into the structure, based
on the results of field and laboratory
research and testing it has been done more
graphics, terrain modeling, depending on
the importance and location of the object
classes.
Ground
plant
for
flue
gas
desulphurisation of TPP Ugljevik 1, up to
depth, 25.0 m, build sediments
lithological members of various physical mechanical and resistance - deformable
characteristics. A detailed analysis of
lithological parameters, identifies four (4)
geological environment within which the
conditions or load shedding, behave
identical or similar.
The choice of parameters within
the geological environment, relevant for
geostatic calculations is done on the basis
of:
results of laboratory tests of
samples of soil and rock solid,
taking into account the level of
representation and test conditions
data on the actual properties of the
rock mass marl complex and
complex sandstone (lithological
heterogeneity, structural - textural
properties, the degree of cracking
and crack characteristics, the
degree of surface degradation, as
well as other important observed
characteristics)
existing
empirical
correlations
between
the
physical
and
mechanical properties, structural
properties and rock mass rating
(Analysis of Rock / Soil Strength
using RocLab).
Geological environment 1, it is built in
Quaternary sediments and alluvial
deposits. The complex consists of alluvial
sediments: clay (1a), sands (1b) and
gravels (1c). Thickness goes up to 2.7 m,
and the area of the former river Janja to 4.2

m. Continuously spread out except in the
western part of the field around the
borehole IB 6. Most are represented by
gravel and sand in layers of varying
thickness which rotate vertically and
laterally, the water bearing.
The entire complex of alluvial sediments
can be treated as an environment with
characteristics of bars environment that is
under load behaves elastically up to brittle
plastic [5],[6]. The adopted parameters for
geostatic calculations are as follows:
Clay CL CH 1a
Bulk density
= 19,75 kN/m
angle of internal friction = 180
cohesion
c = 29 kPa
compressibility module Ms (100 200)
= 4 838 kPa
Sand SW SC 1b
Bulk density
= 19,00 kN/m
cohesion
c = 0 kPa
compressibility module Mv = 13
000 kPa
Gravel GW 1c
Bulk density
= 18,36 kN/m
cohesion
c = 0 kPa
000 kPa
Loose part of environment 1, is suitable
for shallow building foundations, if the
groundwater is at a depth of 1.5 to 3.0 m.
Geological environment 2, is build

of sediments of bark spending substrate
field, represented as clay marl with
debris (2a), clayey sand with debris
(2b) and clayey gravel with debris (2c).
It is formed by the process of
degradation of the substrate surface
paleorelief field. Continuously spread
apart in the northwestern part of the
area around the borehole IB 7. The
thickness of the sediments bark

spending is variable, and is usually

from 0.8 to 1.4 m where clay marl with
debris has the largest share.
Complex of sediments of bark
spending can be treated as an
environment with characteristics of
loose environment that is under load
behaves from elastically up to
krtoplastino. The adopted parameters
for geostatic calculations are as
follows:
Clay CL CH 2a
Bulk density
= 19,5 kN/m
cohesion
c = 26 kPa
compressibility module Ms (100
200) = 4 228 kPa
Sand SW SC 2b
Bulk density
= 19,3 kN/m
cohesion
c = 0 kPa
000 kPa
Gravel GC 2c
Bulk density
= 19,3 kN/m
cohesion
c = 0 kPa
000 kPa
Loose part of the environment2 is
suitable
for
shallow
building
foundations, if the groundwater are at a
greater depth. The computational part
included the presence of groundwater,
but the run-time object should adjust
the time period when the groundwater
level may be lower.
251
of marl-sandy-clayey and soft large

clastic rocks: sandstone marl, marl
conglomerate with sandstone with cm
strips. In this environment have been
included the complex-modified layers,
decimeter
dimensions,
sandstone,
conglomerate, marl and complex
centimeter layer of clay marl, marl,
clayey marl and sandstone.
Extent of environment 3, is
characterized by different depth of
occurrence and its mightiest, which
ranges from 5.8 to 24.8 in the part of
the borehole IB 2. The highest
representation in the bottom 3 have
large clastic rocks sandstone of marl
and marl conglomerates that alternate
in the vertical column with an
occasional side of removal. Within
these two dominant members appear
interbeds of limited spreading and
lenses of fine clastic sediments of marlclay-sandy
soils
within
which
occasionally observed smaller lenses
marl clay.
Observed gradation of clastic
sediments and relative rhythmic
changes of layers gives the middle 3
characteristic of flysch in which they
developed partial sequences with
frequent lateral changes. Rocks of the
area are quite broken, cracks usually
rough and altered, usually filled with
clayey-sandy material.
Dominantly environment 3 has
properties of brittle environment.
Subordinate layers of marl and shale
rocks have the characteristics of quasiplastic protection, which was adopted
following parameters:
Geological environment 3, belongs

to a higher complex rocks into the
substrate. Build a soft fine clastic rocks
Bulk density
= 24,25 kN/m
252
Intact rock
angle of internal friction
cohesion
modul of elasticity
Poisson's ratio
= 29,33
c = 0,81 MPa
= 3,57 MPa
E = 8212 MPa
=0,210
Characteristics of this environment are

such that generally make a favorable
environment for building foundations.
Geological environment 4, build rocks
marl, marl with layers of sandstone
thickness mm to cm. This community
belonging and marly clay, which occur
in the form of larger lenses.
Cracking rocks in this environment is
expressed. Prevail the cracks along the
bedding plane, rough walls, mostly
clenched. It is also observed and cracks
whose corners falls ranging from 45
Bulk density
= 29,33
c = 0,133 MPa
= 0,225 MPa
to the subvertical. The walls are rough

to smooth, spaced. In the upper zone,
closer to povlatnim conglomerates and
sandstones, cracks are often filled with
fine sand.
The entire complex of marly rock of
environment 4 has the characteristics of
quasi-plastic environment, to a lesser
extent of the plastic in which the most
common marl are soft rocks of
moderate strength and formability. The
adopted parameters for geostatic
calculations are as follows:
= 24,29 kN/m
Intact rock
angle of internal friction

cohesion
modul of elasticity
Poisson's ratio
Converted into massiv
= 33,68
c = 1,19 MPa
= 4,42 MPa
E = 11002 MPa
=0,240
Converted into massiv

= 25,70
c = 0,182 MPa
= 0,222 MPa
As an environment for foundations of

buildings is a convenient medium. Due
to its depth of occurrence, it is realistic
to expect that they will be based deep pile, where the facilities for larger
loads permitted payload can solve the
diameter and length of the pile.
Plant flue gas desulphurization TPP 1,

consists of 14 buildings of different
sizes and importance. For the purposes
of shallow and deep foundations,
calculations were made for geostatic
capacity and settlement facility 7],
[8.
4. Geostatic budgets for foundation

of objects
Shallow foundation of buildings

For facilities to be shallow

substantiated, are proposed foundations
with the shape of the continuous strips
at a depth of 2.5 m from the ground
surface, a width of 2.0 m. Shallow
253
foundations are shown through

geological environments: 1a, 1b, 1c, 2a
and 2b. The results are shown in table
1.
Table 1.
Results for shallow foundation of objects

Label od the environment
Allowed burden(kPa)
Subsidence central point of

the foundation in(cm)
1a
1b
1c
2a
2b
362,75
244,58
676,17
321,03
819,69
1,691
0,887
3,882
1,418
4,880
Maximum differential settlement, at

allowable burden is:
4,880 0,887 = 3,93 cm
It can be concluded that the differential
settlement is not great and that the
difference in subsidence reduced,
because of the initial subsidence.
Shallow foundations can be applied to
objects that are on the ground or high
up to one floor.
Deep foundations of buildings
Deep-founded grounds, is considered
foundations on bored piles with lengths
AB 15.0 and 25.0 m. Diameter of the

pile is 0.6 m. The analysis was
performed for:
1 pile single length 15,00 m
4 piles in group length 15,00 m
1 pile single length 25,00 m
4 piles in group length 25,00 m
Results for capacity calculation and
settlement of piles of length 15.0 and
25.0 m, as well as for single pile and
pile group 4 pieces, are given in table
No. 2.
Results for deep foundation of objects

Length of pile
(m)
15
15
25
25
Single pile
1
1
Group of four
piles
4
4
Deep foundations can be applied to

objects larger loads, which will define
the design solution of the planned
system.
Load of pile (kN)

4355,78
17423.14
4282,30
17.129,20
5. Conclusion
Table 2.
Subsidence
(cm)
1,489
3,628
0,038
0,108
254
In order to reduce environmental

pollution,for the existing power plant
Ugljevik 1, the construction of plants
for flue gas desulphurisation is
planned. The complexity of geological
settings, demanded his preliminary
examination to the construction of the
plant. Conducted are field research and
laboratory testing, and performed
correlation of data from previously
conducted research for the purpose of
TE Ugljevik 1.
The
analysis
of
geotechnical
conditions of design and construction
of buildings was found that land for the
future power plants is built of four (4)
environments in depth and horizontal,
pointing in different field terraces alluvial plains and the hillside part of
the exploration space. Within each of
them, all of the lithological members in
conditions of load or relief behave the
same as or similar. For each isolated
community are adopted parameters for
geostatic calculations.
For objects of plant flue gas
desulphurisation Ugljevik 1, can be
applied shallow and deep foundations.
Shallow foundations refers to the
single-storey building or the highest
building with one floor. Deep
foundations related to the AB piles,
length of 15.00 and 25.00 m, diameter
0.6 m.
References
[1] ii,
S.,
Mojievi,
M.,
Jovanovi, ., Toki, S., Dimitrov,
P. (1980). Osnovna geoloka karta,
OGK list Tuzla 1:100000.
Beograd. Savezni geoloki zavod.
2 uri, N., Mitrovi, P., Perii M.

Elaborat
o
geomehanikim
istraivanjima
terena
za
projektovanje
i
izgradnju
Postrojenja za odsumporavanje
dimnih gasova u TE Ugljevik 1.
Ugljevik.
Bijeljina.
Tehniki
institut. (2013).
3 uri, N., uji, A., Babaji, A.,
Srkalovi, D., Tadi, S., Perii M.
Geoloke karakteristike terena na
lokaciji Termoelektrane Ugljevik 3
u Ugljeviku. Jahorina Pale. V.
savjetovanje geologa Bosne i
Hercegovine sa meunarodnim
ueem. Jahorina Pale. Zbornik
radova CD. (2013). str. 473-483.
4 uri, N., uran P., Miljanovi J.
Laboratory testing of samples at
the location of the Thermal Power
plant Ugljevik 3. Bijeljina.
Zbornik radova Arhiv za tehnike
nauke br. 9, Tehniki institut.
(2013). pp. 15-23.
5 Santra, P. Interaction of Close
Foundations. Yearbook of the
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Subotica. (2000). No. 12. pp.106114.
[6] uri, N. Hidrogeoloka i
inenjerskogeoloka istraivanja.
Subotica, Bijeljina. Graevinski
fakultet, Tehniki institut. (2011).
7 Bowles, J.E. Foundation analysis
and Desing. Fifth edition. Mc
Grav-Hill. (1996).
8 Maksimovi, M. (2005). Mehanika
tla, tree izdanje. Beograd.
Graevinska knjiga. (2005).

APPLICATION OF THE GALERKINVLASOV VARIATIONAL METHOD IN THE

STUDY OF FREE VIBRATIONS OF THE
SQUARE PLATE C-C-SF-F
M. FETEA 1
Abstract: Initially, in the case of rectangular plate it was considered that is
sufficient be taken into account only the resonance phenomenon. Later it
being understood that vibration systems located away from the resonance
can even modify and alter the structure of the materials. The literature
reflected that the assessment respectively static dynamic response of flat
plate is done taking into account the shape of the median surface, boundary
conditions, loading mode and solving method adopted.
Key words: plate, variational, free, vibrations.

1. Introduction
Calculation of flat plate to solve the
problem of free and forced vibration is
reflected in the literature with contributions
by several authors such as: Warburton G. B,
[19], [20], which presented a set of
solutions for the six cases of rectangular
plates, Janich R., resulted in [12] a complete
set of solutions for 18 of the 21 possible
combinations of boundary conditions, S.
Iguchi [9], H. Fletcher [7], whose concerns
were directed to solve free vibration using
semianalytic methods, respectively M.
Hamada [10], which has studied the plates
by variational methods.
2. Objectives
It is known that most of the
complications that appear in flat plates
solving are related to the existence of free
1
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
sides [11], [12]. These difficulties are

reflected by the impossibility of finding
functions to describe the stress in the plate
having rigorous static conditions on free
side [4], [14]. Scope of this paper is
represented by the study of free vibration
for rectangular plate clamped on two
opposite sides and simply supported and
free on the other two (SS-F-C-C).
3. Materials and Methods
Flat plate analyzed is considered as being
thin, elastic, isotropic with bending
stiffness and meets the conditions of
validity of Kirchhoff's hypothesis [4], [5],
[11], [18]. The proposed calculation
method is an adaptation of variational
method Galerkin-Vlasov [5], [16], [17], for
static flat plates and was so elaborate that
the calculations necessary to determine the
characteristics of the plate are made on the
256
basis of programs prepared by the author

[5]. The method can be regarded as a
Bubnov-Galerkin method particularization,
differing from it by the fact that the
determination of stress and displacements
are not considered the disturbance efforts
resulting from imperfection functions
chosen to approximate displacements. Is
considered a rectangular plate presented in
figure 1, with dimensions a and b clamped
in the sides x 0, x a , simply supported
on the side y 0 and free on the
side y b.
On the median surface is considered a

network in which nodes are determined the
natural vibration shapes function values
[5].
Fig.2 Median surface network

The expressions of beams shapes
functions of vibration on the X and Y
directions are [3]:
Fig. 1. Median surface of plate
x
x
x
x
Gi ( x) cosh i cos i k i sinh i sin i

a
a
a
a
y
F1 ( y ) 3
b
y
y
y
y
F j ( y ) sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j

b
b
b
b
The parameter values i , k i , j , k j ,

were determined [3].
The expressions of shapes functions [1],
[2], [3] for the plate are
ij ( x, y ) Gi ( x ) F j ( y )
with flat square plate is:
4 ij ( x, y ) ij ij ( x, y )
ij (0, y ) 0,
(2)
Sturm-Liouville problem [3] associated
(1)
ij (a, y ) 0,
ij
x
ij
x
(0, y ) 0
( a, y ) 0
M. FETEA: Application of the Galerkin-Vlasov variational method in the study of free

vibrations of square plate C-C-SS-F
ij ( x,0) 0,
2 ij
y 2
Substituting equation functions of

normal modes through their functions of
beams products, integrating relationships
across the plate and using the method of
separation of variables is obtain [6], [15],
[16]
( x ,0) 0
2 ij
2 ij
( x, b )
( x, b ) 0
y 2
x 2
3 ij
y 3
( x, b) 2
4a
3 ij
x 2 y
257
( x, b ) 0
i

(GiIV (x)dx Fj2 ( y)dy 2 i
a 0
a
0
b
b
j a
Gi (x)Gi (x)dx Fj ( y)Fj ( y)dy
b
0
0
(3)
4
b
a
b
j a 2
IV
2
Gi (x)dx Fj ( y)Fj ( y) ij Gi (x)dx Fj2 ( y)dy
0
0
0
b 0
The expression of the pulsations

parameters is [5]:
ij
2a
2
b
b
4 a
i j
2
IV
i
(Gi (x)dx Fj ( y)dy 2 Gi (x) Gi (x)dx Fj ( y)Fj ( y)dy

a 0
a b 0
0
0
4a
b
j
2
IV
Gi (x)dx Fj ( y)Fj ( y)
0
b 0
G (x)dx F
2
i
2
j
( y)dy
(4)
We adopt the notations [5], [16]:

I1 i
a
4a
[(cosh
0
x
x
x
x
cos i ) k1 (sinh i sin i )] IV
a
a
a
a
x
x
x
x
cosh i cos i k i sinh i sin i dx ,

a
a
a
a
x
x
x
x
I 2 G ( x)dx cosh i cos i k i sinh i sin i dx ,

a
a
a
a
0
0
2
i
y
y
y
y
I 3 F ( y )dy sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j dy ,

b
b
b
b
0
0
2
j
258

I4 i
a
i
0 Gi ( x) Gi ( x)dx a
2 a
x
x
x
x
0 cosh i a cos i a ki sinh i a sin i a
2a
x
x
x
x
cosh i cos i k i sinh i sin i dx ,

a
a
a
a
j b
y
x
y
y
I 5 sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j

b
a
b
b
b 0
y
x
y
y
sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j dy ,

b
a
b
b
j b
y
x
y
y
I 6 sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j

b
a
b
b
b 0
y
x
y
y
sinh j sin j k j sinh j sin j dy

b
a
b
b
By entering the integrals in the parameter

expression (4) are obtained their values.
IV
Pulsations Parameters
Table 1
4. Results and Discussions

For the square plate corresponding to the
normal modes of vibration (1,1), (2,1),
(3,1) is obtained pulsation parameter
values, shown in table 1.
The values of the natural vibration

shapes functions are shown in tables 2-4,
and their shapes corresponding to the
normal modes of vibration plate treated in
figures3-5
Shapes functions for mode (1,1)
Table 2

Table 3
Table 4
3
2
3.6
1
2.7
1.8
3.6
3.9
3.3
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.1
1.2
0.9
1.5
0.6
0.9
0
0.3
259
0
2-3
1-2
0-1
Fig. 3 Image of shape corresponding to mode (1,1)
260
4
2
0
3.6
-2
2.7
-4
1.8
3.6
3.9
3.3
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.1
1.2
0.9
1.5
0.6
0.9
0.3
-6
0
2-4
0-2
-2-0
-4--2
-6--4
Fig.4 Image of shape corresponding to mode (2,1)
5
3
1
3.6
2.7
-1
1.8
0
3.9
3.6
3.3
2.4
2.7
2.1
1.5
0.9
1.8
0.9
1.2
0.6
0.3
-3
3-5
1-3
-1-1
-3--1
Fig. 5 Image of shape corresponding to mode (3,1)

5. Conclusions.
Solution of such problems by the
classical methods is very difficult to
find, or often impossible.
Vlasovs
method
uses
linear
combinations of the eigenfunctions of
lateral beams vibrations, which are able
to satisfy most boundary conditions.
In the case of Galerkin-Vlasov
variational method adapted by the author
are highlighted as follows [5]:
The election of displacement

function approximation as a linear
combination between the natural
vibration shapes products functions
of the beams on both directions and
time function which indicates that
plate motion after a normal harmonic
vibration which is a motion that is
produce a specific pulsation;
Calculation
algorithm,
which
characterizes the method;
Pulsations parameters considered for

normal modes of vibration;

- The shapes funcions for three normal
modes of vibration.
In the literatureare are not published
results regarding normal modes of
vibration of this type of plate, the only
references that can be considered are
those presented by Leissa [13], which
states that for the case of antisymmetricantisymmetric vibrational mode (2.1),
the parameter values are close to those
determined for the case of plate clamped
on two opposite sides and free on the
other two. Also, an approximate value of
their fundamental parameter for the
square plate is given by Janich [12].
Using the Rayleigh method, Janich [12],
considered shapes functions of beams
vibrations as given by simple
trigonometric functions of the forms:
x , y cos
261
The work proposed by the author is

intended to be an attempt to validate the
Vlasov-Galerkin variational method for
flat plate considered. Variational analysis
performed to determine the natural
vibration forms function values was done
using an Excel program and for
determining the parameter values using
Matlab software.
The paper includes not only information
from the Romanian and international
literature of teachers and researchers
dynamics schools, but also the values
determined by the author on the
characteristic dynamic determined.
Table 6
x
y (5)
3x
cos
1 cos
2a
2 a
2b
By applying the Rayleigh method,

Janich, obtained for the fundamental
pulse parameter the value [12]
11 24,64
Considering the approximate percentage
deviation of the parameter values
determined by the method proposed, the
fundamental parameter, compared to
parameter value determined by Janich
[12], is 9.22%. The parameter values
determined for square plate, by the
proposed method, and the fundamental
parameter value obtained by Janich [12]
are presented in Table 6.
Content of the paper has been designed
so as to emphasize the essential
theoretical aspects with the subtleties of
physico-mathematical and practical
problems of dynamic analysis of
rectangular flat plates.
References
1. Brsan, G: Dinamica i stabilitatea
construciilor, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic Bucureti, 1979.
2. Brsan, G., M. Vibraiile i stabilitatea
plcilor poligonale. In Ph.D. Thesis
Cluj-Napoca, 1971.
3. Bia, C., Ille, V., Soare, M.: Rezistena
materilalelor i teoria elasticitii,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic.,
Bucureti, 1983.
4. Bor, I.: Aplicaii ale problemei de
valori proprii n mecanica construciilor
Sisteme finit-dimensionale, Editura
U.T. Pres, Cluj-Napoca, 2005.
5. Claassen, R., W., Thorne, C:
Transverse Vibrations of Thin
Rectangular Isotropic Plates, Nots.
Tech. Pub. 2379, NAVWEPS Rept.
7016 U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Sta.,
China
Lake,
Calif.,
Aug.
1960.Dieter, G.: Engineering Design.
Boston. McGraw Hill, 2000.
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6. Fetea, M.: Vibratiile placilor plane cu

diverse conditii de contur In: Ph.D.
Thesis, Technical University of ClujNapoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2009.
7. Filimon, I., Soare, M.: Ecuaii
difereniale cu aplicaii n mecanica
construciilor,
Editura
Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1983.
8. Fletcher, H., J: The Frequency of
Vibration of Rectangular Isotropic
Plates, J. Appl. Mech., vol. 26, no. 2,
June, 1959, p.290.
9. Hamada, M: Method of Solving
Problems of Vibration, Deflection and
Buckling of Rectangular Plates With
Clamped or Supported Edges, Bull
JSME, vol. 2, no. 5, 1959, pp. 92-97.
10. Iguchi, S: Die Eigenwertprobleme fur
die elastische rechteckige Platte,
Mem. Fac. Eng., Hokkaido Univ.,
1938, pp. 305-372.
11. Hamada, M: Compressive or Shearing
Buckling Load and Fundamental
Frequency of a Rhomboidal Plate With
All Edges Clamped. Bull. JSME, vol.
2, no. 8, Nov. 1959, pp. 520-526.
12. Ille, V., Bia, C., Bor, I.: Plci plane
dreptunghiulare avnd una, dou sau
trei laturi libere, Sesiunea tiinific a
Institutului Politehnic Iai, 1981, pag.
190-193.
13. Janich, R: Die naherungsweise
Berechnung der Eigenfrequenzen von
rechteckigen Platten bei verschiedenen
Randbedingungen, Die Bautechnik,
vol. 3, Mar. 1962, pp. 93-95.
14. Leissa, A., W: Vibration of plates,
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
NASA SP. 160, Washington, 1969.

Roca, I., C: Vibraiile sistemelor
elastice, Editura Infomarket, 2002.
Soare, M.: Ecuaii difereniale cu
aplicaii n mecanica construciilor,
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1999.
Szilard, R., Theory and Analysis of
Plates, Prentice-HallInc.,Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1974.
Szilard, R., Hubka W. F.: Static and
Dynamic
Analysis
of
Forced
Vibrations of Arbitrary Shape and
Boundary Condition, Publ. Intern.
Assoc. Bridge Struct. Eng., 25 (1965),
317-338.
Timoshenko, St., P: Strenght of
Materials, Part I Elementary Theory
and Problems, 3-rd Edition, 1962,
Part II Advaced Theory and Problems,
3-rd Edition1962, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey.
Warburton, G., B: The Vibration of
Rectangular Plates, Proc. Inst. Mech.
Eng., ser. A, vol. 168, no. 12, 1954,
papp. 371-384.
Warburton, G., B: The dynamical
behaviour of structures,Pergamon
Press, London, 1976.
Young, D.: Vibration of Rectangular
Plates by the Ritz Method, J Appl.
Mech., vol.17, no. 4, Dec. 1950, pp.
448-453.
23. Zienkiewicz C.: The Finite Element
Method in Engineering. Science,

Ed. Graw-Hill, 1971.

EVALUATION OF FOOTFALL-INDUCED
VIBRATIONS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
IN A BIOMECHANICS LABORATORY
A. FIRUS 1 H. WERKLE1 W. FRANCKE1 C. CLAUSNER1
Abstract: The ground reaction forces of the footfall are usually measured
in biomechanics laboratories, using a force plate. The accelerations of the
floor, in which the force plate is embedded, have to be limited, as they have a
major influence on the accuracy of the force measurements. A floor designed
to accommodate a force platform in a biomechanical laboratory of the
University Hospital in Tbingen, Germany, has been investigated for footfall
induced vibrations, in order to determine their influence on the precision of
the force plate measurements. For that, field measurements as well as finite
element analysis have been performed. As a result, the measuring error of the
force plate can be computed for diverse scenarios.
Key words: Floor vibrations; Force plate; Footfall induced vibrations
1. Introduction
1.1. Gait analysis
Gait laboratories serve in orthopaedic
hospitals for the study and analysis of the
human gait with medical purposes. The
investigation of the motion sequences of
living beings is a topic of biomechanics.
The biomechanical gait analyses have
diverse possible applications in medicine,
such as an exact analysis of motion
restrictions in diagnosis, or the verification
of rehabilitation measures by means of
objective criteria in the field of
orthopaedics rehabilitation [5, 11].
Biomechanical procedures are also used in
the sport science for the motion analysis
and the performance diagnostics of
athletes.
The measurements in gait laboratories
1
can be performed employing different,

complementary systems, such as video
recordings with subsequent computer
analysis, force measurements using force
plates, or neurological methods of the
electromyography (measurement of the
electrical
muscle
activity).
The
measurements of the time dependent
ground reaction forces of the footfall are
carried out using force plates embedded in
the laboratory floor. The measurement of
the force can be done piezoelectric or by
the use of strain gauges. In the case of
piezometrical measuring technique, the
piezoelectric effect (electrical charge of
crystals during mechanical loads) is used
for force measurements. The force
platforms based on the piezometrical
principle have a very high measuring
accuracy and an extremely wide measuring
range. They will be considered in the
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Applied Sciences (HTWG) Konstanz, Germany
264
following. The reaction force of the plate

in response to the footfall load is measured
as three-dimensional vector.
It should also be pointed out, that special
insoles for shoes were developed, which
measure the local pressure distribution at
the bottom side of the foot. They have
already been used in structural dynamics
applications [13].
The force platforms have to be
embedded vibration-free, as their accuracy
is affected by the accelerations of the
underfloor. The guidelines for vibrations
in hospitals refer mainly to steel
constructions and the negative impact on
the comfort of the persons [3, 4]. Therefore
separate research has been done in the
present case.
1.2. Biomechanics Laboratory at the

University Hospital in Tbingen
The biomechanics laboratory is located
in the new building of the Health Centre at
the University Hospital in Tbingen, which
has been built between 2011 and 2012
(Figure 1).
The gait laboratory is situated in an open
space area, used for office as well as for
therapeutical
purposes.
The
paper
describes the investigation of the influence
of floor vibrations, induced by footfalls in
the office section, on the accuracy of the
simultaneous measurements with the force
plate. For this, field measurements and
finite element analysis have been done.
Fig. 1. Health Centre Tbingen: Building and Biomechanics Laboratory

2. Force plate
2.1. Construction
Force plates serve in biomechanics
laboratories for the precise measurement of
the ground reaction forces in response to
the human footfall. They basically consist
of a cover plate made from steel,
aluminium or glass and the underlying

supports with the piezometrical sensors
(Figure 2). Firmly fixed plates are usually
embedded in a planned indentation of the
floor, using an installation frame. In the
present case, a Kistler force platform of the
type 9287 CA [7], with a total mass of 25
kg, has been used. The cover plate has a
mass 20,7 kg [8].
A. FIRUS et al.: Footfall-induced vibrations and their importance in a biomechanics laboratory265
Fig. 2. Force plate and installation frame in the floor indentation

Besides the abovementioned stationary
force plates, which are embedded in the
laboratory floor, there are also portable
solutions available (Figure 3), which may
facilitate methods of force measurements
that can be applied out into the field,
offering a comparable measurement
performance to mounted force plates.
which the portable platform is deployed,

alter the measuring signal. Therefore the
floor acceleration has to be limited, in
order to keep a low measuring error. The
tolerable measuring error is usually
assumed to 1% of the maximal measured
force.
Fig. 3. Portable force plate

2.2. Force measurement
The force plates measure the ground
reaction forces induced by the footfall of
the subjects. All the three force
components are determined, namely the
vertical and the two horizontal, parallel to
the plate edges. Usually, a walking and
running path parallel to the plate edges is
adopted, so that the force components are
parallel, respectively perpendicular to the
direction of movement. Figure 4 shows an
example of a force measurement for a
subject weighting G = 0.87 kN, walking
with the step frequency f s = 2 Hz.
2.3. Measuring precision
The acceleration of the floor, in which the
force plate is embedded, respectively on
Fig. 4: Force time history measured with a

force plate (G = 0.87 kN, f s = 2Hz)
The vertical eigenfrequency of the used
force plate is very high, about 500 Hz, due
to the very stiff bearing elements.
Therefore the self-vibration of the plate
can be excluded, assuming that it was
installed properly. Hence the measuring
error can be determined from the mass
force of the cover plate.
266
m Pl a g
FPers
where,
p = measuring error;
FPers = maximal measured force.

The limit value of the underfloor
acceleration for a given measuring accuracy is
FPers p
m Pl
Assuming a tolerable measuring error of

1% and a static load due to a subject with a
weight force of 0.4 kN, a limit value of the
acceleration of 0.1 m/s is obtained for an
assumed mass of the cover plate of 40 kg. For
a cover plate weighting 20 kg, the maximal
tolerated acceleration is 0.2 m/s.
The floor acceleration can be caused by
self-excitation of the subject during the
measurement or by external excitations. In
both cases the force to be measured is
proportional to the weight of the subjects,
FPers G . For the coefficient a lower
limiting value is to be used. This can be
chosen to 1.0 for static load (standing), 1.1-1.2
for walking [6], 1.8-2.2 for running and about
3.0 for jumping [12]. Hence the percental
measuring error for an external excitation
inducing the floor acceleration a g 0 is
p
m Pl a g 0
G
For a self-excitation, the maximal

acceleration of the floor is proportional to
the weight G of the subject. Employing
the acceleration normalized to the subject
weight, a a g / G , the percental error of
measurement is obtained to
m Pl a
Equation 5 gives the measuring error for the

case when both the external and the selfexcitation occur at the same time. A random
distribution of the maxima for both
acceleration time histories is assumed.
m Pl = mass of the cover plate;

a g = acceleration of the floor;
ag
ag0
m
a2
p Pl
3. Investigations in the University

Hospital Tbingen
3.1. Generals
For the investigation of the measuring

precision of the force platform, field
measurements and numerical simulations
have been carried out.
3.2. Loading scenarios
The chosen loading scenarios for this

investigation describe typical situations during
force measurements. For the case of
vibrations caused by external excitation, the
following scenario was considered:
People in the room: 5 people, weighting
0.8 kN each, are walking in the room.
Three scenarios for the self-excited
vibrations have been investigated:
Walking: The subject is walking on a
predefined path, including the force
platform.
Running: The subject is running on
predefined path, including the force
platform.
Vertical Jump: The subject stands on
the force plate, bends his knees and
performs a jump.
The weight of a subject may vary between
0.45 kN (light female runner) and 1.20 kN
(1.90m male runner). However, typical
values are 0.70-0.80 kN.

These scenarios underlie the numerical
simulations as well as the vibration field
measurements.
4. Calculation procedure
4.1. Generals
Footfall induced vibrations can be

computed using time integration methods.
Simplified procedures, which assume only
one eigenmode, are inapplicable here, because
in the case of continuous slabs, many adjacent
eigenfrequencies occur, whose eigenmodes
are relevant for the vibration response.
4.2. Loading models
The load generated by a single walking or

running subject can be described by load
functions for every step (as in Figure 4) or
simplified, using a continuous, time

dependent, single load. Werkle [15], Butz [2]
and Zivanovic [17] give overviews over
various approaches for human-induced
walking and running loads.
In the following, the time dependent load is
represented as a Fourier series:
F (t ) G G j sin 2jt f s j
Here f s is the step frequency. The subject

weight was assumed to be 0.8 kN. The
Fourier-coefficients and have been
determined by different authors. Table 1
shows values for walking and running
according to Bachmann [1].
Furthermore the heel-strike effect is relevant
for the vibration response of high frequency
floors [10]. However, this can be neglected in
the present investigation.
Values of and coefficients for walking and running
fs
Table 1
Bachmann Walking
Bachmann Running
1.5 2.5 [Hz] (Average value 2 Hz)
2.0 3.0 [Hz]
0.4
for
f s 2 Hz
0.4 + 0.1 (f s 2) / 0.4
for 2.0 Hz f s 2.4 Hz
0.5
for
1.6
f s 2.4 Hz
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.2
/2
/2
/2
/2
For the scenario Vertical Jump, the

following idealized force-time history,
developed by Werkle et. al. [16], has been

used:
2
3 T0
1
F (t ) G 1 t e t sin
t , for t
e 2
2 3
T0 t
3 T0
3 T0
G , for t
, with t 2
2 3
4 3
(7)
268
= 8.7, = 2 and T0 = 2.1 (Figure 5). The

first peak corresponds to the take-off
phase, while the second one corresponds to
the landing phase.
elements, containing 40725 degrees of

freedom [9]. The integration of the modal
equations has been made using a Mathcad
worksheet [14]. The reinforced concrete
floor has a thickness of 30 cm and is
elastically clamped in the outer walls. The
floor panels present spans between 8 and
11 m. The damping was assumed to be 1%.
4.4. Numerical computation of the
human-induced vibrations
The computations in time domain have

been performed using a modal analysis.
Table 2 shows the measured and computed
eigenfrequencies of the floor and Figure 6
shows some relevant eigenmodes.
Fig. 5. Force time history for vertical jump
Eigenfrequencies of the floor

All the load models are valid for a single
person. For an excitation induced by
multiple subjects, the acceleration obtained
for walking of a single person may be
multiplied by the factor m n , where n
means the number of the persons.
4.3. Structural model
The floor of the biomechanics laboratory

has been completely reproduced in a
detailed finite element model and a
subsequent computation with the FEProgram Sofistik (2010) has been
performed. The finite element model
consists of 6615 rectangular plate-
Table 2
Measured
[Hz]
7.27
FE-Analysis
[Hz]
7.32
7.63
7.68
8.07
8.21
11.55
11.62
12.78
12.87
13.68
13.52
13.93
13.96
16.30
16.19
17.32
17.17
10
18.90
18.58
11
19.62
19.50
Eigenmode
Fig. 6. Eigenmodes
A walking and running path has been

predefined
for
the
human-induced
vibrations. It corresponds approximately to
the path used by the subjects in
biomechanical measurements. The force
plate is situated on this path.
Figure 7 shows typical acceleration time
histories of the floor for the scenarios

walking, running and vertical jumping.
The plots correspond to the location point
of the force plate. The maximal
accelerations for various walking and
running frequencies are shown in Figure
10.
Fig. 7: Time histories for walking, running and vertical jump of a subject (FEM)
5. Vibration measurements
5.2. Footfall induced vibrations
Two stages of the construction have been

investigated experimentally: the raw
concrete floor and the final state of the
finished floor, including a layer of sound
insulation and a floating floor screed.
The vibrations caused by subjects

performing the abovementioned loading
scenarios have been measured using
extremely sensitive seismic accelerometers.
The subjects were wearing sport shoes,
which are typical for the activities in the
biomechanics laboratory. For each scenario,
acceleration time histories at different
relevant points were recorded. The results
were normalized to a subject weight of 0.8
kN. Two typical time histories of a point
corresponding to the force plate are plotted
in the Figure 8 for the unfinished floor and
in Figure 9 for the finished floor.
5.1. Eigenfrequencies
The eigenfrequencies of the floor for

both stages have been determined through
measurements of ambient vibrations and
subsequent Fourier analyses. A good
correlation between the eigenfrequencies
of the two measured construction stages
could be observed. The results are shown
in Table 2.
Fig. 8. Measured time histories for walking and running (raw concrete floor)
270
Fig. 9. Measured time histories for walking and running (finished floor)
Figure 10 shows the maximal
accelerations for walking and running at
different step frequencies for both measured
construction stages, as well as for the finite
element analysis, which was conducted only
for the unfinished floor. Excepting the
resonant effects due to the higher Fourier
terms in the computed accelerations for
running, a good correlation between the
measurements performed on the raw
concrete floor and the corresponding
computations can be observed. However the
accelerations of 0.005 m/s2 for walking and
0.03-0.06 m/s2 for running are quite low.

The highest accelerations in this stage of
construction, of about 0.07 m/s2, occur as a
response of the vertical jump.
The measurements in the final stage of the
finished floor revealed much higher
accelerations than the ones of the raw
concrete floor for the same investigated
scenarios. Possible causes for this may be
the local deformation of the soft sound
insulation layer or resonant effects of the
floating floor over the sound insulation.
Research on these effects is in progress.
Fig. 10. Maximal Acceleration of the force plate computation and measurements
6. Measurement precision of the force
platform
The measuring error of the force plate can

be determined according to Equation 5. As
the plate used in the biomechanics
laboratory at the University Hospital in

Tbingen is embedded directly in the
concrete deck, the corresponding computed
and measured accelerations for the first
construction stage will be employed. The
weight of the subject was conservatively
assumed to 0.5 kN, the mass of the cover

plate to 20.7 kg while the values of the
coefficient are considered to 1 for
walking, 2 for running and 3 for vertical
jumping. Furthermore, it was started from
the premise that both self and external
excitation occur at the same time.
According to Equation 5, the measuring
error for all the considered scenarios is
under 0.1%. Even when parameter
variations due to model uncertainties
(induced, for instance, by the shoe type) are
considered, the measuring error remains in
per mille domain and thereby very low.
If a portable force measuring plate
(assumed to have the same mass as the
fixed one) would be put into use in the
investigated biomechanics laboratory, the
measuring errors would be also lower than
the tolerable error. However, special
attention is required for the vibration
analysis in this case, as the maximal
accelerations usually occur in the form of
single peaks, which are likely to be much
higher than the average envelope of the
time history (see Figure 9 left).
7. Conclusions
The measuring error of force platforms

in biomechanics laboratories can be
computed based on experimental and
numerical investigations. Scenarios and
formulas for determining the measuring
error have been proposed. It was shown,
that the measuring precision of the force
plate from the biomechanical laboratory at
the University Hospital in Tbingen,
Germany, is not significantly influenced by
the human induced vibrations of the floor.
Further researches in the numerical
simulations
of
the
human-induced
vibrations of concrete floors are needed, in
order to obtain an accurate method for
assessing the effects of the floor finishing
accurately.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Mr.

Prof. Dr. Stefan Grau for supporting the
experimental investigations as well as for
providing measuring results of the force
platform.
References
1. Bachmann,
H.:
Schwingungsprobleme
bei
Fugngerbrcken. Bauingenieur
63, 1988, p. 6775.
2. Butz, C.; Distl J.: Personeninduzierte
Schwingungen
von
Fugngerbrcken In: Baukalender
2008. Ernst&Sohn, Berlin, 2008.
3. Hicks, S.J.; Devine, P.J.: Design
Guide on the Vibration of Floors in
Hospitals. The Steel Construction
Institute. Silwood Park, Ascot
Berkshire, 2004.
4. HIVOSS: Schwingungsbemessung
von Decken (Design of floor
vibration). Leitfaden, Research
Fund for Coal and Steel, 2007.
5. Jllenbeck, T.: Die Stellung der
Biomechanik in der orthopdischtraumatologischen Rehabilitation.
Deutsche
Vereinigung
fr
Sportwissenschaft.
Dvs
Informationen 18, 2003. Hamburg.
6. Kerr,
S.C.: Human Induced
Loading on Staircases. PhD Thesis.
Mechanical
Engineering
Department. University College
London, UK, 2008.
7. Kistler - Company: Personal
communication. Kistler Instrumente
GmbH. Ostfildern. Mail from
19.04.2013.
8. Kistler
Company:
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Wartung
aller
Typen
von
Messplatformen (operating manual
- installation and maintenance for
all types of force measuring
platforms). Kistler Instrumente AG
Winterthur.
Winterthur,
Switzerland, 2012.
9. Koloszi, S.M.: Personeninduzierte
Schwingungen
von
Stahlbetondecken
mit
schwingungsempfindlichen Gerten
(Human-induced
vibration
of
reinforced concrete floors with
vibration-sensitive
equipments).
Master Thesis. HTWG Konstanz,
2012.
10. Pavic, A.; Prichard, S.; Reynolds,
P.; Lovell M.: Evaluation of
Mathematical
Models
for
Predicting
Walking-Induced
Vibrations of High-Frequency
Floors. International Journal of
Structural Stability and Dynamics
03, 107, 2003.
J.: Ganganalyse (Gait
analysis).
Urban&Fischer
/
Elsevier, 2003.
12. Richter,
A.:
Aspekte
der
Sprungkraft und Sprungdiagnostik
unter besonderer Bercksichtigung
der Entwicklung im Kindes- und
Jugendalter (Aspects of the jumping
force and the jumping diagnostics
under the consideration of the
progress
in
childhood
and
adolescence).
PhD
Thesis.
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
(KIT), 2011.
C.; Httner S.: Ein
einheitliches
Model
zur
Beschreibung von Fugngerlasten
fr verschiedene Bewegungsarten.
Bauingenieur 79, 2009, p. 483497.
Werkle, H.: Mathcad in der
Tragwerksplanung (Mathcad in the
structural
design).
ViewegTeubner, Springer Fachmedien.
Wiesbaden, 2012.
Werkle, H.: Human induced
vibrations of steel and aluminium
bridges In: Traffic induced
environmental
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Xia H.; Calada R. (ed.). Nova
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United States of America, 2013,
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Clausner,
C.:
Einfluss
von
Deckenschwingungen
auf
die
Messgenauigkeit in Ganglaboren
In: Proceedings of the 13. D-A-CH
Conference
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Structural
Dynamics, Adam C.; Heuer R.;
Lenhardt W.; Schranz C. (ed.),
Vienna, Austria, 2013.
Zivanovic, S.; Pavic A.; Reynolds
P.: Vibration Serviceability of
footbridges under human-induced
excitation: a literature review.
Journal of Sound and Vibration
279, 2005, p. 174
13. Seiler,
14.
15.
16.
11. Perry,
17.

ANALYSING THE HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN

A FIRE DRILL. COMPARISON BETWEEN
TWO EVACUATION SOFTWARE:
FDS+EVAC AND PATHFINDER
Z. C. GRIGORA 1
Abstract: The paper presents the numerical simulation of a fire drill on an
educational building using two egress models implemented in different
software products. The purpose of this case study is to establish if the
computed travel times are comparable and to identify if the crowd movement
is similar in both numerical simulations. An important issue is presenting the
main concepts and methods used by the two evacuation models. Following
the numerical analysis it was concluded that for the considered scenario the
differences between the results are acceptable.
Key words: FDS+Evac, Pathfinder, fire drill numerical simulation.

1. Introduction
Fires are the natural disasters with the
greatest losses of human lives and material
losses. Protecting people and goods in case
of fire was a concern of society since
ancient times.
Fire safety of buildings is the second
essential requirement according to the
European [1] and Romanian legislation [2].
The prescriptive approach to fire safety
(used by many countries) do not sufficient
use the full possibilities of a building for
safe human evacuation in case of fire.
The engineering approach to fire safety
engineering use mathematical models that
describe human behaviour in fire situations
with a high degree of reliability.
The behavioural response of individuals
in fire incidents has been examined for
approximately 50 years by researchers [3]
and the mathematical modelling of human
1
behaviour in case of fire has been

developed with the use of computers in
research and building design.
Numerical simulations of human
behaviour in case of fire are useful tools
for ensuring the safe design of evacuation
routes from buildings.
Fire protection engineers often use one
model the simulate the evacuation process
and this could lead to mistakes caused by
its weak points or the lack of experience. A
comparative analysis performed with
different egress models can provide a
design with a high degree of reliability.
2. Objectives
This study was motivated by the need to
compare and verify the results obtained
from the numerical simulation of the
human evacuation process.
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Tehnical University of Jassy,
Romania, zeno.grigoras@gmail.com
274
The aim of this study is to present that

egress models having different approaches
can compute similar results by modelling
the most complex phenomena: human
behaviour.
This study may represent a starting point
for engineers who want to improve the
design of evacuation routes from buildings.
3. Material and Methods
In this paper it is analyzed the 1st floor of
an education building (the main house of
Building Services - Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Building Services from
Jassy, Romania) having approximately

35.00 x 37.00 m and 3.50 m height. The
building has two exits (main and
secondary) located on the ground floor
near the two staircases (main and
secondary).
It was considered a number of 7 rooms
with 219 people inside them. The floor
plan is presented in Figure 1.
As input data, besides the geometry of
the analyzed space (which is the same in
both programs) it was considered the
following properties for building occupants
(adult person) [4,5]:
Fig. 1. The analyzed floor of the building with the number of users per each room

- speed: uniform distribution 0.95 1.55

m/s and an 0.80 speed factor for ramps;
- body dimension: uniform distribution
R d =0.44-0.58 m, R s =0.19m, R t =0.3m for
FDS+Evac; R s =0.44-0.58 m for Pathfinder
(for more details see 3.1.2. and 3.2.2.).
geometry.
3.1. FDS+Evac 2.5.0

FDS+Evac (Fire Dynamics Simulator
with Evacuation) is the human evacuation
module implemented in FDS. FDS (Fire
Dynamics Simulator) is a Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model of firedriven fluid flow.
FDS+Evac is a research tool used for
studying human evacuation in buildings. It
allows simultaneous simulation of fire and
evacuation process but it can also be used
to simulate only fire drills [5].
This software consider the analogy
between large crowd movement and fluid
dynamics [5].
FDS+Evac is developed by VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland and
it is available for free (no charge).
3.1.1. Mesh
FDS+Evac approximates the analyzed
space geometry on a rectilinear mesh. The
agents are moving only in two-dimensional
horizontal planes representing the floors of
the building [5]. Moving agents from one
floor (mesh) to another floor (mesh) is
done (manually by the user) using a
internal door connection [5]. This method
is time consuming and can easily generate
errors.
Using rectilinear grid is also due to the
analogy agent-fluid particle where the
Finite Volume Method is used in
calculation.
The rectilinear grid is suitable for
buildings because their geometry is mainly
rectangular. Figure 2 presents the
computational mesh of the analyzed
Fig. 2. FDS+Evac computational mesh

3.1.2. Agent Movement Model
FDS+Evac treats each person as an
individual agent whose movement is
treated by an equation of motion; each
agent have its own personal properties and
escape strategies [5].
Each agent is represented by three circles
which approximate the elliptical shape of
the human body (Figure 3).
Fig. 3. The human body shape (left )and

the visual representation (right) for agents
used by FDS+Evac [5]
The agent movement algorithm is based
on Helbings
model modified by
Langston. This model is also called the
social force model because a force is
used to keep reasonable distances to walls
and other agents (Figure 4) [5].
276
nice directional field for egress towards the

chosen exit door [5] shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 4. The social force concept [5]

Cording to [5] (for a fire drill) the force
acting on agent i is:
fi Fmotive Fagent agent Fagent wall . (2)
Fig. 5. Bi-dimensional flow field used to

guide agents towards exit [5]
where:
Fmotive
mi
0
i
vi .
(3)
motive force on the agent;
Fagent agent fijsoc f ijc f ijatt .
(4)
i j
agent-agent interaction force;
Fagent - wall fiwsoc fiwc .
(5)
agent-wall interaction force;

Parameters involved in equations (3), (4)
and (5) are:
mi - mass of agent i;
i - relaxation time parameter (strength of

the motive force);
vi0 - walking speed of agent i;
fijsoc -
social
force
for
agent-agent
interaction;
fijc - attraction/repulsion force for agentagent interaction;
fiwsoc - psychological wall-agent force for
agent-wall interaction;
fiwc - physical wall-agent force for agentwall interaction;
Due to agent-fluid particle analogy the
movement of a crowd towards an exit, in
FDS+Evac, is similar to the flow of a fluid
caused by a fan. This method produces a
This method will guide more agents to

the wider escape routes than on the
narrower ones because the field is a
solution to an incompressible flow. This
analogy (an incompressible fluid flow) is a
good starting point to find the movement
directions of large crows [5].
FDS+Evac uses a Verlet algorithm to
solve translation and rotational equations
of motion [5]. Verlet integration are often
used in molecular dynamics simulation to
calculate trajectories of particles [6].
3.1.3. Exit Selection
According to [3] real life evacuations
support the fact that people will prefer
familiar routes even if shorter and faster
unfamiliar routes are available and clearly
visible. Another observation is that many
occupants tend to select the exit where the
majority of the others are heading. This
behaviour is called herding.
The
exit
selection
algorithm
implemented in FDS+Evac can take into
account the herding behaviour and also the
tendency to favour familiar routes.
According to [5] the agents observe the
actions of the other and select the exit
through which the travel time is estimated
to be the shortest. The travel time for an
agent is calculated from the distance to the
exits and the congestion in front of the
exit.
Z. C. GRIGORA: Analysing The Human Behavior In A Fire Drill. Comparison Between Two 277
Evacuation Software: FDS+EVAC and Pathfinder
3.2. Pathfinder 2014.2.0806

Pathfinder is a human movement
simulator used to studying human
evacuation from buildings. This software
can only simulate fire drills, no occupantfire interaction can be considered [7].
Pathfinder provides two option for
occupants movement: an SFPE mode and a
steering mode [7]. This paper focuses only
to the steering approach because it can
generate more realistic results.
Pathfinder is developed by Thunderhead
Engineering USA and it is not available for
free (payed access).
because it can easily approximate rounded

surfaces and ramps/stairs. The obstacles
(like walls) are represented as gaps in the
mesh [7].
3.2.2. Agent Movement Model
In Pathfinder a behaviour is assigned to
each occupant; this behaviour dictates the
goals that be must achieved in the
simulation by each occupant [7]. This goal,
for example, can be reaching an exit.
Each occupant is represented by a circle
which approximates the shape of the
human body (Figure 7) [8].
3.2.1. Mesh
Pathfinder use a 3D triangular mesh to
approximates the movement environment
[7]. The mesh consist of continuous 2D
triangulated surfaces which can be
horizontal or inclined. The occupants can
move from a floor to another floor by
using ramps belonging to the same
general mesh.
Figure 6 presents the computational
mesh of the analyzed geometry.
Fig. 7. The human body shape (left) and

the visual representation (right) for agents
used by Pathfinder
To reach a destination an person must
follow a path taking
into
account
collision avoidance with other persons.
Pathfinder assumed that an occupant has
a global knowledge of the building
(distance to the doors) and calculate the
cost of a specific door; a path is then
generated to the targeted door and the
occupant moves towards [7]. The resulting
path is as a series of points on edges of the
triangular mesh. To smooth out the path a
special algorithm is used by the software
[7].
Fig. 6. Pathfinder computational mesh

The 3D triangular mesh is very suitable
for buildings with complex geometries
Fig. 8. An occupants planned path [7]
278
An occupant will evaluate a set of

discrete movement direction and choose
the direction that minimizes a cost
function. The cost function is evaluated by
combining several types of steering
behaviour to produce a cost. The
implemented steering behaviour are [7]:
- seek behaviour that steers the occupant
to travel along a seek curve;
- separation
behaviour
that
steers
occupants to maintain a desired distance
away from other occupants;
- avoid wall behaviour that detects walls
and steers the occupant to avoid collisions
with walls;
- avoid occupants behaviour that steers an
occupant to avoid collision with other
occupants.
3.2.3. Exit Selection
The occupants are moving towards the

exit of the building that can minimize the
travel time according the movement
algorithm:
- FDS+Evac: the social force model and
the fluid flow - large crowd movement
analogy;
- Pathfinder the steering behaviour and
minimising the cost of an exit.
Both movement algorithms identify that
the evacuation through the main staircase
and the main exit can provide the
minimum travel time.
Results of the numerical simulations are
presented in Table 1: the time needed for
the first occupant to leave the building
(t 1st ), the time needed for all occupants to
leave the building (t trav ) and the simulation
running time (t run ).
Results
Time
t 1st [s]
t trav [s]
t run [s]
FDS+Evac
24
178
562
Table 1
Pathfinder
22
159
20
Figure 11 presents the number of

occupants in the computational domain in
both simulations.
Occupants
The occupants are selecting an exit by

calculating the lowest cost for the targeted
exit [7]. The criteria used to calculate the
cost are [7]:
- current room travel time (the time
necessary for an occupant to reach the door
at maximum speed ignoring all other
occupants);
- current room queue time (the time
estimated for an occupant will have to wait
in a room)
- global travel time (the time necessary for
an occupant to travel at maximum speed
from the target to the current seek goal
ignoring all other occupants);
- distance travelled in room (the distance
the occupant has travelled since entering
the current room).
At the start of both simulations the
occupants begin to travel towards the main
staircase, reach the ground floor of
buildings and leave the computational
model when they reach the main exit.
Time [s]
Fig. 9. Number of occupants in the
computational domain
Figures 10 and 11 presents the human
Z. C. GRIGORA: Analysing The Human Behavior In A Fire Drill. Comparison Between Two 279
Evacuation Software: FDS+EVAC and Pathfinder
evacuation process in both simulations.
Fig. 10. FDS+Evac evacuation
Fig. 11. Pathfinder evacuation

Following the performed numerical
simulation it can be observed:
- all occupants are using the same
evacuation route;
- the time for the first occupant to leave the
building, t 1st , is approximately the same;
- the travel time, t trav , is approximately the
same;
- the different density of people on escape

routes (Figure 10 and 11) can be explained
due to the different approximations used
for the human body shape;
- the simulation time for FDS+Evac is
much higher than Pathfinder because a
Computational Fluid Dynamics software
will use more hardware resources.
280
5. Conclusions
The paper presented the numerical
simulations of a fire drill on an educational
building. The simulatiosn were done using
two software products that have different
approaches on modeling the human
evacuation: FDS+Evac use the social force
model and the analogy fluid flow - large
crowd movement compared to Pathfinder
that use steering behavior and minimizing
the cost of an exit.
The paper concludes that the travel times
are comparable and the occupants are
moving in similar ways in both of
simulations.
Acknowledgements
This paper is made and published under
the aegis of the Research Institute for
Quality of Life, Romanian Academy as a
part of programme co-funded by the
European Union within the Operational
Sectorial Programme for Human Resources
Development through the project for Pluri
and interdisciplinary in doctoral and postdoctoral programmes Project Code:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The author is grateful to Thunderhead

Engineering Consultants Inc. USA for
providing the free educational license for
PyroSim (graphical user interface for
FDS+Evac) and Pathfinder.
*** , Council Directive 89/106/EEC of 21

December 1988 on the approximation of
laws, regulations and administrative
provisions of the Member States relating
to construction products. Accessed:
03.10.2014.
*** , Legea Nr.10 din 18/01/1995 privind
calitatea n construcii (Low No. 10 from
18/01/1995 regarding quality in
constructions). Accessed: 03.10.2014.
DiNenno, P.J., Drysdale, D. et al.:
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, Third Edition, Published
by the National Fire Protection
Association, Massachusetts, 2002.
*** CFPA-E No 19:2009 Fire safety
engineering concerning evacuation
from buildings. Accessed 07.10.2014.
Korhonen,
T.:
Fire
Dynamics
Simulator
with
Evacuation:
FDS+Evac, Technical Reference and
Users Guide (FDS 6.1.0, Evac 2.5.0,
draft), VTT Technical Research Centre
of Finland, 2014.
Verlet integration http://en.
***
wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlet_integration
Accessed: 06-10-2014
Technical
*** Pathfinder 2014
References
http://www.thunderhead
eng.com/wp-content/uploads/downloa
ds/2014/08/Pathfinder_2014_tech_ref.
pdf Accessed: 06-10-2014.
*** Pathfinder 2013 User Manual
http://www.thunderheadeng.com/wpcontent/uploads/downloads/2013/10/us
ers_guide.pdf Accessed: 06-10-2014.

FIRE RESISTANCE ASSESSMENT

ACCORDING TO THE THERMAL
INSULATION CRITERION AN
ENGINEERING APPROACH
Z. C. GRIGORA 1
D. DIACONU-OTROPA1
Abstract: The paper presents the numerical simulation of a fire in a

conference hall and the analysis of temperatures on opposite sides of the
walls and slab of the fire space. The purpose of this case study is to establish
if a fire can develop in the adjacent rooms of the conference hall due to the
heat transfer (verifying fire resistance of the enclosure elements for the
thermal insulation criterion). Using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
simulations it was concluded that for the considered fire scenario the
materials in contact with the enclosing elements of the fire space cannot
ignite.
Key words: CFD, FDS, HRR, fire safety engineering, heat transfer.
1. Introduction
Numerical simulations of the various
phenomena in different fields has become
and essential part of science and
engineering. Due to high cost of real scale
fire experiments the CFD analyzes are
often used both by fire protection
engineers and fire researchers to help
predict and optimize product behaviour
and validate designs.
This case study is based on the
assumption of starting a fire in a
conference hall of a building intended for
teaching activities for higher education.
The analyzed building (Figure 1) is the
main house of the Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Building Services from
Jassy, Romania, and the main futures of
the building are presented in Table 1.
1
Fig. 1. Analyzed building

The ground floor plan of the building is
presented in Figure 2.
The main futures of the building Table 1
Floor
G
1st 3rd
4th
Description
3 lecture halls + 1 conference hall
3 lecture halls + 1 laboratory
1 lecture hall
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Tehnical University of Jassy,
Romania.
282
Fig. 2. Ground floor plan of the building

The furniture from the conference hall
(Figure 3) is specific to the office type
spaces and the combustible materials are
mainly wood.
The dimensions of conference hall are
7.10 x 16.00 m and 3.80 m height.
-
Fig. 3. Conference hall
The conference hall has a 1.20 x 2.10 m

door and 3 windows of 5.00 x 3.00 m.
2. Objectives
The objectives of this paper are:
- defining the HRR (Heat Release Rate)
according to the European legislation;
- numerical simulation of the fire using a
CFD software;
- temperature analysis on the walls and
slab which separates the fire space from
the rest of the building;
- establishing
if
the
combustible
materials from the adjacent rooms can
ignite due to heat transfer (radiation and
convection throught the fired environment,
conduction through and the walls and
slab).
Z.C. GRIGORA et al: Fire Resistance Assessment According To The Thermal Insulation
Criterion An engineering Approach
283
3. Material and Methods

The research instruments used in this
case study are special software used both
by fire protection engineers and fire
researchers.
The development of fire from the
conference hall is described using a wood
fuel and the heat release rate according to
the European legislation.
3.1. FDS 6.1.1
FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator) is a
CFD model of fire-driven fluid flow. FDS
solves numerically a form of the NavierStokes equations appropriate for low-speed
(Ma < 0,3), thermally-driven flow with an
emphasis on smoke and heat transport
from fires [1].
The
partial
derivatives
of
the
conservation
equations
of
mass,
momentum and energy are approximated
as finite differences, and the solution is
updated in time on a three-dimensional,
rectilinear grid. Thermal radiation is
computed using a finite volume technique
on the same grid as the flow solver [2].
FDS was subjected to verification [3]
(the equations are being solved correctly)
and validation [4] (comparing model
results with experimental measurement).
Heat Conduction for Solids
FDS assumes that solid surfaces consist
of multiple layers (each layer composed of
different materials), with each layer having
its own thermal properties and thermal
degradation reactions (each reaction can
produce multiple gas and solid species)
[2].
Heat conduction for a solid is assumed
only in the direction normal to the surface
(direction x pointing into the solid, x 0
represents the surface). The temperature
value of the surface at the x depth and at
the t time is presented in [2]:
s cs
Ts Ts '''
ks
q s .
t x t
(1)
where:
s cs - average volumetric heat capacity
value of the layered surface;
k s - average conductivity value of the
layered surface;
qs''' - volumetric heat flux consisting of the
chemical reactions following the pyrolysis
process, q s''',c , and radiative absorption and
emission in depth, q s''',r , is [2]:
qs''' qs''',c qs''',r .
(2)
In case of the present paper the

component due to pyrolysis is not
considered (no combustible materials are
used) only the radiative absorption
component is considered.
The boundary condition on the surface in
contact with the fire is [2]:
ks
Ts
qc'' qr'' .
t
(3)
where:
qc'' - convective heat flux;
qr'' - radiative heat flux;

On the opposite surface, two possible
boundary conditions may be declared:
if the surface is open either to the
computation domain (Equation 3);
if the surface is perfectly insulated [2]:
ks
Ts
0.
t
(4)
284
Radiation Heat Transfer to Solids

If it is assumed that the thermal
radiation from the gaseous environment is
absorbed within an infinitely thin layer at
the surface of the analyzed element, then
the radiative heat flux, qr'' , is [2]:
qr'' qr'' ,in qr'' ,out .
(5)
where:
qr'' ,in - incoming radiative heat flux;
qr'' ,out - outgoing radiative heat flux (the
C - coefficient for natural convection (1.52

for horizontal plane and 1.31 for vertical
plane);
Nu - Nusselt number.
For the present case (planar surfaces) the
Nusselt number is [2]:
Nu C1 C2 Ren Pr m .
(8)
where:
Re - Reynolds number;
Pr - Prandtl number;
case of transparent materials).
C1 0, C2 0.037, n 0.8, m 0.33.
Convective Heat Transfer to Solids

In FDS the convective heat flux can be
computed in two different ways:
DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation);
LES (Large Eddy Simulation);
For the current study a LES was used to
significantly reduce the simulation running
time.
For LES the Empirical Natural/Forced
Convection Model is also available. The
convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is
based on a combination of natural and
forced convection correlations [2]:
3.2. PyroSim 2014.2.0807 and

Smokeview 6.1.11
qc'' h(Tg Tw ).
(6)
k
h max C Tg Tw 3 ,
Nu .
L
(7)
where:
qc'' - convective heat flux;
h - convective heat transfer coefficient;

Tg - gas temperature in the center of the
first gas phase cell;
Tw - wall surface temperature;
k - thermal conductivity of the gas;

L - characteristic length related to the size
of the physical obstruction;
FDS dont have a user interface; all input

data is entered using command lines.
PyroSim is a graphical user interface for
FDS that helps to quickly create and
manage the details of complex fire models
[5].
Smokeview is a software tool designed
to visualize numerical calculations
generated by FDS. It can display contours
of temperature, velocity and gas
concentration in planar slices [6].
Smokeview was also subjected to
verification [7] (verifying the various
visualization capabilities).
3.3. Combustion using the Heat
Release Rate
The fire load density was considered
according to the European legislation [8],
420 MJ/m2, corresponding to office
occupancy (common objects can be found
in the conference hall).
For this case study the design value of
the fire load density was 951 MJ/m2 [9].
The total energy released by the
combustible materials from the storage
room is 108400 MJ and the maximum heat
release rate is 80,159 MW.

According to [9] the heat release rate of
the design fire considered in this fire
scenario is presented in Figure 4.
For this analysis a user-defined fuel was
used. It is assumed that the burning objects
from the storage room are predominantly
cellulosic/wood.
According to [10] a wood fuel has the
proprieties presented in Table 2.
80,159
HRR [MW]
285
Generally the D*/x values ranged from

4 to 16 [11].
In this analysis it was considered a 0,30
x 0,30 x 0,30 m cell size corresponding to
a fine grid size:
Q * 5,538
18, 461 .
x 0,30
(9)
The fire mesh is extended with 0,90 m

from conference hall (the red dashed
rectangle from Figure 2) and its boundaries
were declared open to better capture the
spread of smoke through the windows.
growth
3.5. Thermal properties
59
45 46
TIME [min]
Fig. 4. Heat Release Rate

Fuel properties
Table 2
User input data

Carbon atoms
Hydrogen atoms
Oxygen atoms
Critical Flame Temperature
Heat of combustion
Soot Yield
Hydrogen Fraction
Value
3,4
6,2
2,5
1427,0 C
17500 kJ/kg
0,015 kg/kg
0,1
3.4. Grid cell size and boundary

conditions
For the fire simulation that involves
buoyant plumes, a measure of how well the
flow field is resolved is given by the nondimensional expression D*/x, where D*
is a characteristic fire diameter and x is
the nominal size of a mesh cell [1].
FDS can solve heat conduction in solids

only if the wall/slab is less than or equal to
one mesh cell thick and if there is a nonzero volume of computation domain on the
other side of the wall [1].
The component layers of the analyzed
elements are presented in Table 3 and the
thermal properties of the used materials are
presented in Table 4 [12, 13].
Enclosure elements properties Table 3
Enclosure
elements
Concrete
slab
Concrete
wall
Brick
wall
Layer thickness
Concrete/
Plaster
Plaster
Brick
2.5 cm
15 cm
2.5 cm
2.5 cm
20 cm
2.5 cm
2.5 cm
20 cm
2.5
Thermal
properties
of
materials
considered in the analysis are [12, 13]:
Materials thermal properties
Properties
Density
[kg/m3]
Specific Heat
Table 4
Plaster
Materials
Concrete
Brick
1800
2500
2000
0.84
0.84
0.87
286
[kJ/(kgK)]
Conductivity
[W/(mK)]
Emissivity
[-]
0.93
1.74
1.16
0.88
0.95
0.94
The ignition temperatures [14, 15] of

materials that can be in contact with the
opposite surfaces of the walls and slab of
the conference hall are presented in Table
5:
Ignition temperature Table 5
Material
Cardboard
Celluloid
Cellulose
Paper
Leather
Polystyrene
Polyurethane foam
Polyvinyl chloride
Wood
Ignition temperature
[C]
300 ... 360
125 ... 190
160 ... 170
165 ... 363
400 ... 450
340 ... 345
310
455
> 250
Fig. 5. The spread of smoke and the back

wall temperature
Maximum temperatures
Enclosure
element
Concrete slab
Concrete wall
Brick wall
Table 6
Maximum
temperature [C]
Interior
Exterior
surface
surface
707
22
661
21
771
21
It can been seen that the exterior surface

temperature is well below the ignition
temperatures from Table 5 and there is no
danger for the fire to propagate to the
adjacent rooms due to heat transfer.
Following the numerical analysis the
temperature profiles in the thickness of the
analysed elements (concrete wall, brick
wall and concrete slab) are presented in
Figure 6, 7 and 8.
Exterior
Interior
Temperature [C]
The CFD analysis supports that the

spread of smoke on conference hall facade
is free (without accumulation in the
computational domain) and the back wall
temperature map support the fact that the
temperature not evenly distributed on the
analyzed elements (Figure 5).

Following the numerical analysis the
maximum temperatures of the analysed
elements are presented in Table 6.
Depth [cm]
Fig. 6. Temperature profile in the concrete slab
287
Exterior
Interior
Temperature [C]
Depth [cm]
Exterior
Interior
Temperature [C]
Fig. 6. Temperature profile in the concrete wall
Depth [cm]
Fig. 7. Temperature profile in the brick wall

5. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
The paper presented a case study about

verifying the thermal insulation criterion
using a CFD software.
The results obtained from the numerical
simulation show that common combustible
materials, in contact with the exterior
surface of the conference hall, can not
ignite.
For the considered fire scenario there is
no danger for the fire to propagate due to
heat transfer through the fire environment
(due to radiation and convection) and
through the walls and slab (due to
conduction).
The authors are grateful to Thunderhead

Engineering Consultants Inc. USA for
providing the free educational license for
PyroSim.
This paper is made and published under

the aegis of the Research Institute for
Quality of Life, Romanian Academy as a
part of programme co-funded by the
European Union within the Operational
Sectorial Programme for Human Resources
Development through the project for Pluri
and interdisciplinary in doctoral and post-
288
doctoral programmes Project

POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086
Code:
References
1. McGrattan,
K.,
Hostikka,
S.,
McDermott, R., et al.: Fire Dynamics
Simulator Uses Guide, NIST Special
Publication 1019 Sixth Edition, USA,
2013.
2. McGrattan,
K.,
Hostikka,
S.,
Simulator Technical Reference Guide
Volume 1: Mathematical Model,
NIST Special Publication 1018 Sixth
Edition, USA, 2013.
3. McGrattan,
K.,
Hostikka,
S.,
Volume 2: Verification, NIST Special
2013.
4. McGrattan,
K.,
Hostikka,
S.,
Volume 3: Validation, NIST Special
2013.
5. *** PyroSim 2014 User Manual,
Avaible
at:
http://www.thunderheadeng.com/pyros
im/pyrosim-resources/ . Accessed: 1108-2014.
6. Forney, G. P.: Smokeview (Version 6)
Atool for Visualizing Fire Dynamics
Simaltion Data Volume II: Technical
Reference Guide, NIST Special
Publication 1017-2, USA, 2013.
7. Forney, G. P.: Smokeview (Version 6)

Atool for Visualizing Fire Dynamics
Simaltion Data Volume III:
Verification Guide, NIST Special
Publication 1017-3, USA, 2013.
8. *** SR EN 1991-1-2: Eurocode 1
Actions on Structures, Part 1-2:
General Actions Actions on
structures exposed to fire, Annex E
Fire load densities. Accessed:
11.08.2014.
9. Grigora, Z.C., Diaconu-otropa, D.:
Defining the design fire according to
SR EN 1991-1-1-2 Annex E. In AICPS
Review (2014), No. 1-2, p. 150-156.
10. Rinne, T., Hietaniemi, J., Hostikka, S.:
Experimental Validation of the FDS
Simulations of Smoke and Toxic Gas
Concentrations,
VTT
Technical
Research Centre of Finland, 2007.
11. Stroup, D., Lindeman, A.: Verification
and Validation of Selected Fire Models
for Nuclear Power Plant Applications.
NUREG-1824, supplement 1, United
States
Nuclear
Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC, 2013.
12. *** C107/12005: Normativ privind
calculul coeficienilor globali de
izolare termic la cldiri de locuit.
Accessed: 24.09.2014.
13. *** Emissivity Values for Common
Materials. Available at: www.infraredthermography.com/material-1.htm
Accessed: 24-09-2014.
14. Diaconu-otropa, D: Bazele securitii
la
incendiu
n
construcii
(Fundamentals of Fire Safety for
Buildings).
Iai.
Politehnium
Publishing House, Gheorghe Asachi
Tehnical University of Iai, 2014.
15. *** PVCs Physical Properties.
Available at: www.pvc.org/en/p/pvcphysical-properties Accessed: 25-092014.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 7 (56) - 2014

Series I: Engineering Sciences
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A COMPOSITE

BEAM
E. KORMANKOV 1
K. KOTRASOV1
Abstract: Bridges and railroads made of composite laminates are affected

by moving loads. Therefore, it is very important to analyze this effect which
would find practical applications in engineering designs. This paper explains
the theoretical formulation that governs the dynamic response of a composite
beam subjected to a moving load. The Mori-Tanaka method for
determination of effective material characteristics is used. The governing
equations for the laminated composites are explained here.
Key words: fibre reinforced composite, laminate, bridge deck, vibrations.
1. Introduction
The rapid growth in the use of composite
materials in structures has required the
development of the theory of mechanics of
composite materials and the analysis of
structural elements made of composite
material. Composite materials have higher
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight
ratios than metals and find many
applications such as composite bridge
decks. Therefore, it is very important to
understand the response of composite
bridges to vehicle-induced vibrations.
2. Modelling and analysis of composite
laminated beam
The analysis of structural elements can
be performed by analytical and
semianalytical approaches or by numerical
methods. The advantage of analytical
solutions is their generality allowing the
designer to take into account various
design parameters. Analytical solutions
may be either closed form solutions or
1
infinite series and may be exact solutions

of the governing equations or variational
approaches.
However, analytical solutions are restricted
to the analysis of simple structural
elements. Otherwise numerical methods
have to be applied more general for
structural analysis [7].
We consider composite laminated beam
under lateral loading. The elementary or
classical beam theory assumes that the
transverse shear strains are negligible and
plane cross-sections before bending remain
plane and normal to the axis of the beam
after bending (Bernoulli-Euler beam
theory).
The assumption of neglecting shear strains
is valid if the thickness h is small relative
to the length l (h/l <1/20). For thick beams
(h/l >1/20) the shear deformation theory is
used. The governing equations of the shear
deformation theory for composite beams
are considered. The differential equations
will be developed in detail for bending
only, the equations for vibration will be
described.
Institute of Structural Engineering, Civil Engineering Faculty, Technical University of Koice.
290
Laminate beams with simple or double

symmetric cross-sections are most
important in engineering applications. The
derivations are therefore limited to straight
beams with simple symmetric constant
cross-sections which are predominantly
rectangular. The bending moments act in
a plane of symmetry. Also cross-sections
consisting of partition walls in and
orthogonal to the plane of bending.
The analysis and results of the classical
laminate theory are sufficiently accurate
for thin beams. Such beams are often used
in civil engineering. For moderately thick
beams we have to take into account the
shear deformation effects, at least
approximately. The theory of laminate
beams corresponds then with the
Timoshenko's beam theory [1-3].
However, since Timoshenko's beam theory
assumed constant shear strains through the
thickness h a shear correction factor is
required to correct the shear strain energy.
In this section we study the influence of
transverse shear deformation upon the
bending of laminated beams. When it is
applied to beams, the first order shear
deformation theory is known as
Timoshenko's beam theory.
Based upon the kinematical assumption of
the first order shear deformation theory the
displacements of the beam have the form
u x , z u x z x
(1)
w x, z w x
(2)
with strains
x x, z x x z x x
xz x, z x wx
(3)
x x
d x
dx
relationship is x w x and that is

the Bernoulli's kinematics.
Consider a laminate beam element consists
with N layers (Fig. 1). The layers are
symmetrical sequence to the midplane.
Fig. 1. Laminate N-layered element

Constitutive equations are following form
M x D11 x
(7)
Vxz k s A55 xz
(8)
Substituting the constitutive equations for
M x , V xz into the equilibrium equations of
the moments and transverse force
resultants results in the following set of
governing differential equations for a
laminated composite beam subjected to a
lateral load p 3 and including transverse
shear deformation
2
w
D11 2 k s A55
0
x
x
(9)
2 w
k s A55
2 p3 0
x x
(10)
(4)
where ks is transverse shear deformation

parameter.
(5)
D11 n E11
where
du
x x
dx
When the transverse shear strain is

neglected it follows with xz 0 that the
n 1
(6)
z 3 n 1 z 3
3
A55 n E t55 h
n
n 1
D 11 is bending stiffness coefficient,
(11)
(12)
E. KORMANKOV, K. KOTRASOV: Dynamic response of a composite beam
A 55 is transverse shear stiffness coefficient,

E 11 is coefficient of elastic matrix,
More often products and structures are
subjected to vehicular dynamic loads. In
the linear-elastic range, dynamic effects
can be divided into two categories: free
vibrations and forced vibrations, and the
latter can be further subdivided into onetime
events
or
receiving
loads.
Mathematically, natural vibration problems
are called eigenvalue problems. They are
represented by homogeneous equations,
for which nontrivial solutions only occur at
certain characteristic values of a parameter,
from which the natural frequencies are
determined. In a natural vibration the
displacement field comprises a normal
mode.
The shear deformation theory can be used
for modeling and analysis of forced
vibrations of laminate beams. In the
general case of forced vibrations the
displacements w, the rotation and the
transverse load p 3 are functions of x and t.
When in-plane loading is not considered
but in-plane displacements, rotary and
coupling inertia terms have to take into
account for unsymmetrical laminate beam.
The governing equations for the
calculation of natural frequencies of
especially orthotropic beams made of
symmetric layers without coupling effect
D11
2
w
2
k
A
55
2
x 2
x
t 2
(13)
2 w
2w
2 m h 2 0
k s A55
t
x x
m
1 N n n n 1
( z z),
h n 1
m h 3 1 N n n n 1 3
I2
( z z)
12
3 n 1
where
(14)
(15)
291
m is mass density of the laminate

I 2 is rotational inertia term.
3. Transient dynamic analysis
This type of analysis is also known as
time-history analysis. This method is
generally used to determine response due
to time varying loads. Through this
analysis, we can find the time varying
stresses, strains, and deflections produced
when a system responds to the transient
loads. A transient analysis is more
complex and time consuming method
compared to a static analysis, as it requires
more engineering input data and better
understanding of the system response. An
analyst must have a good insight of the
problem involved in the analysis.
Solving of force vibration means to solve
the equations of motion
m D .v(t ) bv (t ) kv (t ) F (t )
(16)
The equations we can solve by numerical
methods. The program MATLAB serves
procedure for the solving the differential
equations of the first order by the RungeKutta-Fehlberg method. Therefore the
equations of motion are the second order
we can transform them by the applicable
substitution to the first order equations.
From the equation (16) we get
v(t ) F (t ) bv (t ) kv (t ) / m D
(17)
After substitution we have
v t y1 t
v t y2 t
vt y 2 t
(18)
Than we solve the system of equations the
first order
y1 t y2 t
y 2 t vt f t , v, v
(19)
Modeling of a beam made of composite
materials is a more difficult task. Special
attention has to be paid in defining the
material properties, orientations of the
292
myt 2mb y t ky t F t
layers and the element coordinate systems.

Boundary conditions are the constraints
and loads that can simulate the effect of the
environment surrounding a body. Loads
are applied in the form of forces and
temperatures. Since, improper application
of boundary conditions can create
problems such as increased stiffness, rigid
body motion, and high local stresses. In the
present paper, the simply supported beam
is used for analysis. A symmetric cross-ply
laminated beam, [0/90] , made of
(21)
The equations of the road profile are
assumed
v x t y x t ht x t y t ht (22)
boron/epoxy is analyzed as a cross-section

of the bridge. In this type of analysis a
discrete beam model is presented. In the
discrete beam model, the bridge is
modeled as one lumped mass connected by
massless beam elements. In this beam
model, the effects of shear deformation
and rotary inertia are neglected. The beam
has a constant cross section and mass per
unit length with damping. The vehicle is
assumed to move from one end to the other
with constant velocity. The model of
vehicle consists of two masses with
damping (Fig. 2).
r1 t ys1 t
r2 t ys3 t
25s
v x t y x t ht x t y t ht (23)
The shape function of the deflection curve

is
ct
sin t
l
x t sin
(24)
where c is speed of the vehicle in [m/s].

There will be avoided the next substitution
y t ys5 t
r1 t ys2 t
r2 t ys4 t
y t ys6 t
Then we can solve six

equations of the first order
ys1 t ys2 t
y s3 t ys4 t
y s5 t ys6 t
(25)
differential
ys2 t r1 t
ys4 t r2 t
ys6 t yt
(26)
4. Solution, Discussion and Results
A symmetric cross-ply laminated beam,

[(0/90) ] , made of boron/epoxy is
25 s
Fig. 2. The model of vehicle made of two

masses with damping
The equations of vehicle motion have the
form
m1r1 t b1 r1 t r2 t k1 r1 t r2 t 0
(19)
m 2 r2 t b1 r1 t r2 t b2 r2 t v x t
k1 r1 t r2 t k 2 r2 t v x t 0
(20)
The equation of bridge motion has the
form
analyzed next. The thickness of the

laminate bridge deck is 120 mm. The
geometric and material properties of this
model are listed in Table 1. The simply
supported beam is used for analysis (Fig.
3).
Parameters of the vehicle T148:
m 1 = 18000 kg, k 1 = 3145762 N/m,
b 1 = 260197 kg/s,
m 2 = 2120 kg, k 2 = 9600000 N/m,
b 2 = 10987.2 kg/s,
g= 9.81 m/s2,
V= 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 km/h.
Parameters of the bridge:
m= 6442 kg/m, I= 0.231099 m4,
E= 1.15.1011 Pa, L= 37 m,
b = 0.23321 rad/s.
Boundary conditions:
E. KORMANKOV, K. KOTRASOV: Dynamic response of a composite beam
293
t=0, r 1 (0)= 0.02 m, r 2 (0)= 0.0033 m,

y(0)=0.0 m, r 1 (0)= 0.0 m/s.
Fig. 3. Model of bridge [4]

Material properties of composite laminate
Property
Mass density of the composite,
Longitudinal modulus, E
Transverse modulus, E
Table 1
Value
3
2100 kg/m
214 GPa
18.7 GPa
Longitudinal shear modulus, G
4 GPa
12
Major in-plane Poissons ratio,
0.27
12
Fiber volume fraction,

Effective moduli of laminate [(0/90) ] , E = E
25 s
x
y
Effective shear modulus of laminate [(0/90) ] , G
25 s
Effective in-plane Poissons ratio of laminate,
0.55
115 GPa
xy
xy
The natural frequencies of the vehicle

The first natural frequency of the bridge
4.8 GPa
0.035
1.819 Hz, 12.386 Hz
2.334 Hz
Dynamic magnification factors for moving load on composite beam Table 2

Velocity
(km/h)
20
40
60
80
100
120
t max.
(s)
3.3419
1.6985
0.8144
0.7973
0.7731
0.3671
t
(s)
6.66
3.33
2.22
1.665
1.33
1.11
Dynamic
deflection (m)
0.00782
0.00796
0.00816
0.00907
0.009
0.00895
Dynamic
magnification factor
1.00057
1.01846
1.04167
1.16115
1.15153
1.14478
294
5. Conclusion
The use of composite materials in the

modern engineering applications has been
increasing rapidly. Bridges, aerospace
structures are few examples of their
application. Steel bridges are replaced by
composite materials due to their superior
qualities like higher strength-to-weight
ratio. Bridge structures are constantly
being exposed to various types of loads.
The major loads that influence the life of a
bridge is dynamic moving loads.
Effective material characteristics were
established using the program HELP [810]. This program works under MoriTanaka method.
The modal analysis and forced vibration
analysis of laminated composite beams
under the effect of moving loads using the
program MATLAB [4-6] was investigated.
The program MATLAB serves procedures
for the solving the differential equations of
the first order by the Runge-KuttaFehlberg methods.
The dynamic magnification factors of
composite beams were calculated (Table
2). The maximum dynamic magnification
factor occurs at the velocity of 80km/h.
Acknowledgement
This research has been supported by the

Projects No.: VEGA 1/0201/11.
References
1. Altenbach, H., Altenbach, J., Kissing.

W. Structural analysis of laminate
and sandwich beams and plates.
Lublin: 2001.
2. Barbero, E., J. Finite element analysis
of composite materials. USA: CRC
Press 2007. ISBN-13: 978-1-42005433-0.
3. Dek, V., Sga, M., mindk, M.

Some
Aspects
of
Structural
Optimization by Finite Element
Method.
Proceedings
of
the
International Scientific Conference:
Innovation and utility in the Visegrad
Fours, Vol. 3, 2005, pp. 605-610,
Nyregyhza, Hungary.
4. Melcer J., Lajkov G. Application of
program system MATLAB by the
solving of dynamical problems of
Buildings (In Slovak), University of
ilina, 2011.
5. Melcer, J. Dynamical calculations of
bridges at structural communications.
(In Slovak), University of ilina, 1997.
6. Melcer, J., Lajkov, G. Comparison
of finite element and classical
computing models of reinforcement
pavement,
Advanced
Materials
Research, Volume 969, 85-88, 2014.
7. Sumec, J., Jendelovsk, N. StressStrain Distribution in the Contact
Surface of a Two-Layered RC
Structural
Element.
Composite
Construction - Conventional and
Innovative. Inter. Conference Sept.,
1997, Innsbruck, Austria.
8. ejnoha, M. Initial failure of
unidirectional
fiber
reinforced
laminates subjected to bending.
Building Research Journal, Vol. 48,
No.1, 2000.
9. Skora J., ejnoha M., ejnoha J.
Homogenization of coupled heat and
moisture transport in masonry
structures
including
interfaces,
Applied
Mathematics
and
Computation, 219 (13), 7275-7285,
2013.
10. Vorel J., ejnoha M. Documentation
for HELP program, Theoretical
manual and User guide, Czech
Technical University in Prague,
Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2008.

TESTING AND NUMERICAL MODELING STEEL TRUSS OF THE SPORTS HALL

D. KUKARAS 1
M. BEEVI1
D. NADAKI1
A. PROKI1
Abstract: The paper shows comparative analysis of data obtained by

numerical simulation and by field testing of main girder of a gymnasium
roof. Testing was conducted during construction as soon as the roof structure
and the roof cover were erected. Total weight of applied load represented full
design load of the truss. Obtained measurements were compared against
three numerical models: classical plane model and two models in which the
roof structure was modeled as a space frame and roof cover was represented
by plate elements. Results obtained by numerical modeling verified findings
from the field measurements in which thin corrugated roof cover significantly
increased the stiffness of the main steel truss.
Key words: field testing, numerical modeling, steel truss, roof, stiffness.
1. Introduction
This paper deals with issues related to
the field testing of the sports hall
(gymnasium) of the elementary school in
town of Mol (Vojvodina, Serbia) [1]. Since
the hall is to be used by school children
and for public venues with greater number
of spectators Serbian codes demand that
main structural elements have to be
subjected to tests by trial loads. Current
domestic code that defines this procedure
is SRPS_U.M1.047. Upon request made by
the owner of the hall, the team of experts
from the Faculty of Civil Engineering
made a survey of the structure and
prepared a testing program [2]. The
program was aimed at testing of the main
roof girder. At time of testing, Figure 1,
major construction works at the hall were
completed while works on the final surface
finishing and installations were about to be
1
started. Foundation works, bottom concrete

layer of the floor, masonry works, concrete
columns walls, upper layer of the roof
cover and roof structure were completed.
At this stage the roof structure was ready
for testing since it carried only its self
weight and the weight of thin corrugated
roof cover, [3].
The structure of the hall covers the area
of approx. 2836 meters and it consists of
reinforced concrete foundations, columns,
beams, masonry walls and main roof girder
- steel truss. RC columns have dimensions
4053 cm. The columns are connected by
horizontal RC beams (4260 cm) within
masonry walls. Steel trusses of main roof
girders are positioned with spacing of 5.0
meters between every truss. The main span
for all steel trusses is 27,88 m while the
height of the truss in the middle of the span
is 3,00 m. Roof cover is made by thin
Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, University of Novi Sad, Serbia.
296
corrugated steel plates that rest on

longitudinal beams made from cold formed
steel
beams,
box
size
140/80/3
(height/width/thickness [mm]). These
beams rest on top of the main steel truss
and are designed as simple span or
continuous beams, depending on the
construction conditions. All members of
the main steel truss are made from cold
formed steel box profiles as follows: upper
members from two CFS110110 with

thicknesses of 5, 4 and 3 mm, vertical
members from one CFS6060 with
thicknesses of 4 and 3 mm, diagonal
members from one CFS6060 with
thicknesses of 3 mm, bottom members
from two CFS110110 with thicknesses of
5, 4 and 3 mm.
Fig. 1. Photos of the sports hall prior to testing under trial loads
2. Testing under trial loads
Testing program was based on main
design project of the hall, control
calculations and current state of the
structure. The codes require that intensity
of the trial load must amount to remaining
design permanent and variable load of the
structure excluding the load already placed
on the structure prior to testing. In this
case, remaining design load came from:
installations, finishing surfaces, snow and
wind load. In total the trial load was 16
tons. Since the contractor had enough

cement bags on construction site it was
decided that using these bags was the best
and most precise way to apply the load,
Figure 2. Testing/loading was conducted
on one randomly chosen steel truss while
neighboring trusses were monitored.
Testing was divided into six stages of
loading and five stages of unloading with
three additional stages of measurements:
initial stage prior to loading, four hours
observation after maximum loading and
final stage after unloading.
Fig. 2. Cement bags as the 16 tons trial load
D. KUKARAS et al.: Testing And Numerical Modeling - Steel Truss Of The Sports Hall
Total load was divided into eight parts,

each weighing 2 tons. Sequence of the
loading was predefined in order to induce
maximum strains and stresses within
critical sections of the steel truss. Strain
and stress measurements were conducted
on three members near the support region
and three members within the mid-span
region. Deflections were measured on five
locations of the loaded truss and in the
middle of the neighboring trusses.
3. Results of testing
Measured deflections [mm]

Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
Left
truss
0.95
1.35
2.45
3.38
4.83
6.11
Based on measured results the ratio of load

distribution among three observed trusses
was: 13.33% - 72.97% - 13.70%.
4. Numerical verification of the testing
results
Initial numerical verifications relied on
numerical models used within the main
design project [1], Figure 3.
Basic calculations
Stage
Detailed description of the testing and

obtained results are given in the reference
[2], while for the purpose of this paper,
measured deflections were chosen as the
main representative of the structural
behavior. Since the main topic of the paper
is related to comparison of the numerical
and measured data without inclusion of the
time dependant phenomena, measured
results given in the Table 1 are for the
loading stages only and for the deflections
of the middle of the truss span.
Loaded
truss
4.34
8.76
13.64
18.58
26.29
33.45
Table 1
Right
truss
0.98
1.52
2.57
3.42
5.03
6.28
Measured results revealed that, although

only one truss was loaded and its
connection to neighboring trusses was just
by roof cover and rather soft joints with
longitudinal roof beams, deflection of the
neighboring trusses was noticeable. This
showed that both loaded truss and
neighboring trusses contribute to the load
carrying capacity of the loaded truss.
297
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 2
Mid-span deflections
[mm]
8.93
17.86
27.18
36.50
52.95
67.36
Significant differences can be observed

between measured and calculated results.
There are number of reasons for these
differences. This simulation is rather basic
and it includes plane model for the truss
where loads are defined by means of
simple transfer from one element to the
supporting elements without inclusion of
possible composite actions of the two, e.g.
roof cover transfers its load to longitudinal
roof beams, the beams transfer the load to
trusses... This model also could not
account for the deflection of the
neighboring
trusses.
These
results
motivated more precise numerical models
to be developed that can give better
prediction of structural behavior for this
structure. For this purpose several
additional numerical models were created.
All models were defined as space frames
with roof cover modeled with plate
elements. Testing of the real structure
confirmed linear elastic behavior of the
trusses so numerical simulations took no
nonlinearities into account.

Fig. 3. Model 1 -Basic numerical model - 2D plane truss
Fig. 4. Model 2 - 3D model with loads only on the middle truss
Fig. 5. Model 3 - 3D model with loads on all trusses

Out of number of 3D numerical models,
for the purpose of this paper two models
were chosen. Both models are based on the
same geometry and boundary conditions
while only the loads were different: one

model has loads only on the middle truss,
Figure 4; and one model has loads applied
on all trusses, Figure 5. It is relatively easy
D. KUKARAS et al.: Testing And Numerical Modeling - Steel Truss Of The Sports Hall
to develop these 3D models from the basic

one but still these two gave much better
predictions of the structural behavior. First
3D model was used for verification of the
testing results and for calibration. The
second one represents possible situation in
which full design load is applied on three
trusses. The results of these simulations are
given in Tables 3 and 4.
Model 2 - deflections [mm]
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
Loaded/middle
truss
4.87
9.69
14.78
19.84
28.71
36.43
Model 3 - deflections [mm]

Stage
Middle truss
1
2
3
4
5
6
6.66
13.32
20.25
27.17
39.50
50.34
Table 3
Left/Right
truss
0.93
1.79
2.73
3.64
5.33
6.86
Table 4
Left/Right
truss
6.28
12.56
19.58
25.59
37.22
47.45
Comparisons of results obtained from

testing and from the Model 2 show good
agreement and point out to a conclusion
that structural elements that were not taken
into account by Model 1 significantly
contribute to structural stiffness. Model 2
and similar models show composite action
of the corrugated roof cover and the steel
truss. This does not imply that practical
design of similar strictures should be
carried out by taking into account this joint
action. It rather shows that evaluation of
load
bearing
capacity
based
on
significantly
smaller
stresses
and
deflections, when comparing testing results
and results from Model 1, without
299
considering the effect of the roof cover

could lead to unsafe evaluations when, for
instance, additional load is to be approved.
Table 1
Testing vs. Model 1

Stage
Testing
Model 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
4.34
8.76
13.64
18.58
26.29
33.45
4.87
9.69
14.78
19.84
28.71
36.43
Difference
[%]
12.2
10.6
8.4
6.8
9.2
8.9
Comparison of results obtained from

testing, from Model 1 and from Model 3
show that results obtained from loading
one truss and monitoring neighboring two
could be used for evaluation of the load
bearing capacity. In this case, numerical
results should be compared to testing
results in a way that testing results from
the loaded truss are increased by the
portion of the load that was distributed on
neighboring trusses, as opposed to
comparison with directly measured results
from the loaded truss only.
5. Conclusions
This paper shows results obtained by
testing a 28 meters span steel truss roof
girder of a sports hall (Figure 6) under trial
testing loads. The total weight of the
applied load was 16 tons and it was applied
through six stages and then unloaded in
five stages. Testing results showed that
load is partially transferred from the loaded
truss to neighboring trusses with
distribution ratio of 13.3% - 73.0% 13.7%. Initial numerical results, obtained
from simple, plane, model of the structure
that was used for the design purposes,
showed significantly different behavior of
the structure when compared to testing
results. Measured results were approx. one
300
half of the results obtained by the Model 1.

Slightly improved numerical models in 3D
that included joint action form neighboring
trusses, longitudinal beams and corrugated
roof cover showed much better agreement
with the measurement results. The
differences between results obtained by
testing and by Model 2 were approx. 9.4%.
Results obtained from 3D models (Model 2
and Model 3) verified findings from the
field measurements in which thin
corrugated roof cover significantly
increased the stiffness of the main steel
truss. This observation has significant
effect on the evaluation of the load bearing
capacity of the tested structure. It shows
that evaluation of load bearing capacity
based on significantly smaller stresses and
deflections, when comparing testing results
and results from simple plane truss models,
without considering the effect of the roof
cover could lead to unsafe evaluations

when, for instance, additional load is to be
approved. Since the design load can appear
on all trusses at once, it can be concluded
that either the measured results of the
loaded truss have to be increased by the
measure of load that was distributed on
neighboring trusses or minimum three
neighboring trusses have to be loaded by
trial loads in order to asses the load bearing
capacity of the roof structure. Application
of the trial loads on three trusses at once
can be, not only expensive but, very time
consuming and difficult. Analysis given in
this paper shows that it is possible to apply
loads on one truss and, with slightly more
sophisticated numerical models, obtain
good insight into structural behavior and
make good evaluation of the structural load
carrying capacity.
Fig. 6. Tested sports hall after completion

References
1. E. Apro, E. Tai: Main architectural
and structural design of the
gymnasium with an annex, Prostor Co.,
Ada, Serbia, 2007.
2. D. Kukaras: Report on testing of the roof
structure under static trial testing loads,

Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica
University of Novi Sad, Subotica, 2012.
3. *** Construction
site
technical
documentation,
Javornik
Co.,
Subotica/Mol, 2012.

ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATE LOAD

CAPACITY OF SHORT RC AND
COMPOSITE COLUMNS
A. LANDOVI 1
M. BEEVI 2
Abstract: This paper gives an overview of comparative experimentaltheoretical analysis of ultimate load capacity for centrically compressed
reinforced concrete columns and composite steel and concrete columns. The
aim of this research was to experimentally determine ultimate load bearing
capacities (failure forces) and to make subsequent comparisons with
European standards. Analysis of obtained experimental results gave
necessary guidelines for better understanding and application of Eurocodes.
Key words: Short columns, reinforced concrete, composite section.
1. Introduction
This paper gives an overview of
comparative
experimental theoretical
analysis of ultimate load capacity for
centrically compressed reinforced short
concrete columns and short composite
steel and concrete columns.
Reinforced concrete columns with
squared cross section represent one of the
oldest types of structural elements. Aims
of presented experiments were to provide
better understanding of column behaviour
under ultimate load state and to compare
effects of different cross section size and
reinforcement ratio on ultimate load
capacity.
Composite columns made from steel
tubes filled with concrete represent one of
the first types of composite structures.
Round steel pipes with concrete infill have
many structural advantages compared to
classical reinforced concrete columns. A
1
2
composite
column
shows
great
performance in terms of rigidity, strength,
ductility and resistance to fire. The main
advantage of steel tubes filled with
concrete is better interaction between two
materials [5],[6].
Outer shell or steel tube enables that, due
to coupling effect with concrete, a hoop
stress state forms what increases
significantly the composite action and load
bearing capacity. Hoop stress effects cause
biaxial stress state within steel and triaxial
stress state within concrete core, while the
concrete core itself local buckling of steel
tube inwards. Effect of increased load
capacity in columns made of concrete
filled steel pipes is more pronounced in
short axially compressed columns.
Ultimate load capacity of composite
columns depends on mechanical properties
of its materials, concrete compressive
strength and steel tensile strength [7].
The dimensions of columns in conducted
Aleksandar Landovi, Ms, BsCE, Prof. Miroslav Beevi, Phd, BsCE

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaracka 2a, Serbia
experiments were selected so that they

correspond to real structure with a ratio
1:3,3. Model represented a typical real RC
structure with squared concrete columns
with dimension 3040 cm, height of
around 280 cm and reinforcements
consisting of 19mm and stirrups of
10mm spaced 10cm and 20cm. Column
with composite section correspond to steel
tube with outer diameter of D=525mm and
wall thickens of t=6.6mm with concrete
infill. This experiment was prepared with
respect to exact geometric similarity.
All experiments were conducted in
hydraulical testing machine by direct
application of force on column models.
Columns were loaded in steps until
ultimate load capacity was achieved and
recorded.
2. Reinforced concrete columns
Experimental analysis was performed on
a model of reinforced concrete column
with square cross section. The testing was
conducted with centrically applied load on
columns constant cross section and hinges
on both ends. Experimental research
included eight short reinforced concrete
columns divided into two groups. First
group of three samples consisted of
reinforced concrete columns that had
square cross section with dimensions
1010 cm and length of 85 cm. Columns
were made of concrete with cube mean
strength of f ck =57.2MPa and module of
elasticity E cm =30Gpa.
Second group of five samples had square
cross section with dimensions 1212 cm,
length of 90 cm and were made of concrete
f ck =50.7MPa, E cm =30.7GPa.
Main reinforcements of first group were
45mm and second group were 86mm as
it was shown on figure 1. Stirrups of both
group of 4mm were spaced 3cm at the
top and the bottom 20cm of the column
length and spaced 6cm in the middle. Steel
tensile strength of reinforcement bars were

f y =500MPa.
All RC columns were designed with
slenderness ratio of approx. =25, in order
to eliminate buckling effects.
1 3O6
2 UO4/6
12
302
1 2O6
1 3O6
10
12
Fig. 1. Cross sections with reinforcement

bars and stirrups
For all 8 samples acquired and analyzed
results included: changes in the stress and
strain state, ultimate load bearing capacity,
shape of the global deformations at failure,
load carrying engagement of each material
within cross section. Local deformations
(strains) were measured at the middle of
the column's height with strain gauge on
each model.
Fig. 2. Column samples of the first group

before testing
Reinforcement ratio of the first group
was =1.0%, while second group had
=1.6%.
A. LANDOVIC et al.: Analysis Of Ultimate Load Capacity Of Short Rc And Composite Columns
303
600
P [kN]
500
400
300
V
H
200
V-12
H-12
100
[10-6mm/mm]
0
500
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
Fig. 3. Characteristic deformation

response of RC columns
Reinforced concrete columns of the both
group showed linear behavior during
whole loading process until failure (Figure
3). This behavior corresponds fully to one
described in other literature, proving that
Fig. 4. Column samples of the first group

after testing
axially compressed columns and high
grade concrete columns show that their
stress/strain diagram does not deviate
much from the straight line [3].
Fig. 5. Column samples of the second group after testing

Comparison of ultimate load forces for tested RC columns
Nu [kN]
Experimental value
3. Composite steel and concrete columns

The composite columns were made from
circular welded steel tube with outer
diameter of D=159mm and wall thickness of
t=2mm with length of 850mm. Yield
1010cm
368
Table 1
1212cm
592
strength of the steel taken from steel tube

was experimentally determined to be
f y =250Mpa with module of elasticity
E s =207Gpa. Infill was made of concrete
f ck =60MPa and E cm =34GPa.
Tubes were formed with cold forming
304
process and low-carbon welding process.

Ratio of outer diameter and wall thickness
was D/t=79.5 and it was chosen so that limit
conditions for circular tubes filled with

concrete are met as defined by EC4, ACI
318-08 and AISC 360-08 [12-14].
Fig. 6. Column samples of the first group before testing

900
P [kN]
800
V
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2000
[10-6mm/mm]
1000
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
-6000
Fig. 7. Characteristic deformation response of the composite column

Experimental testing was conducted on
three column models which were loaded
across of all parts of the cross section.
Measuring points for the registration of
specific strains are located in the middle of
the length of the column, and placed
symmetrically relative to the longitudinal
axis.
Mean value of ultimate load force for
composite columns were Nu =876.0 kN.
Comparison of strains shows that
composite columns had somewhat larger

strains relative to RC column what is to
expect regarding higher ductility of
composite cross sections. Ration of main
strains of the steel tube remained constant
all the way up to failure and stresses within
middle height cross section do not reach a
steel yielding limit [8], [9].
Stress state analysis for each sample was
conducted for cross section positioned at
middle height for the load which is
A. LANDOVIC et al.: Analysis Of Ultimate Load Capacity Of Short Rc And Composite Columns
305
equivalent to maximum exploitation load.

For evaluation of stress state within steel
tube plane stress state assumptions were
used. Measured strains were used then to
determine stress state. Compression
stresses
were
registered
for
the
longitudinal axes of the column, while
tangential stresses were tension stresses.
Obtained stressed yield a conclusion that
certain load distribution appeared between
the tube and the core column as well as
hoop stress effect within the tube itself.
Transfer of load between materials within
the composite cross section was a result of
friction forces at the adjacent surfaces of
the cross section, i.e. steel and concrete
Ultimate bearing capacity of the column
with composite steel-concrete section
under regulations Eurocode 4 [14] was
determined by the expression (1), taking
into account the increase of the strength of
concrete due to triaxial effect:
N pl , Rd a
Aa f y
N pl , Rd
Ac f ck
t fy
1 c
(1)
d f ck
a
c
858.32kN
Reduced capacity for the appropriate

buckling model is:
N pl , Rd 846.40kN
Comparing ultimate bearing load of
composite
column
obtained
from
experiment and calculated value using EC4
it can be seen that difference is around 4%.
This suggests that these regulations, with
appropriate partial safety coefficients,
provide very good approximation of the
ultimate bearing capacity of the composite
columns [11], [4].
4. Conclusion
This paper gives a short comparative
presentation of experimental and numerical
analysis of ultimate limit failure forces of
centrically compressed RC and composite

columns. The aim of this research was to
experimentally determine the values of
ultimate limit failure forces and to make
comparisons. Detailed analysis of obtained
results gave necessary guidelines for
future, more extensive, research related to
optimal and most efficient methodology
for RC column strengthening [10],[1] and
[2].
Experimental results largely depend on
assumptions made prior to design and
forming of test samples what implies that
conclusions refer to exactly defined
boundaries. According to results obtained
through experimental-theoretical analysis
of samples following conclusion are made:
RC columns from the control group
have almost linear stress/strain relationship
all the way to the failure.
Columns made from steel tubes filled
with concrete show considerably more
ductile behavior and are capable of
withstanding larger deformations relative
to classical RC columns.
Failure of the control RC columns
occurred as a result of cracking and
crushing of the concrete at the location of
load application, while failure of
composite columns occurred as a result of
the combination of concrete crushing and
local buckling of the steel tube at the
location of the load application at the top
of the column.
References
1. Vlaji Lj., Landovi A., Kukaras D.:
Experimental and theoretical analysis
of the behaviour of the composite
section columns of steel and concrete
loaded with local compression force,
Journal of Faculty of Civil Engineering
vol.20, Subotica, Serbia, 2011., pp. 8799.
2. Bilinc M.: Behavior analysis of
composite section columns of steel and
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
concrete loaded by local centric

compression force, Graduate work,
Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica,
Serbia, 2010., pp. 74.
Vlaji Lj., Beevi M., Kukaras D.,
Ostoji M.: Experimental limit bearing
capacity analysis of short columns
made of steel and RC strengthened
with prestressed bolts, FRP sheets and
FRP laminates, Journal of Faculty of
Civil Engineering vol.15, Subotica,
Serbia, 2006.
Landovi A., Beevi M.: Analysisof
the bearing capacity of the composite
column as the function of the base
material, Journal of Faculty of Civil
Engineering vol.24, Subotica, Serbia,
2014., pp. 69-75.
Han Lin-Hai, Liu Wei, Yang You-Fu:
Behaviour of concrete-filled steel
tubular stub columns subjected to
axially local compression, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 64,
2008., pp. 377387.
Sakino K.; Nakahara H., Morino S.,
Nishiyama I.: Behavior of Centrally
Loaded Concrete-Filled Steel-Tube
Short Columns, Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 2, February
2004., pp 180188.
Yang
You-Fu,
Han
Lin-Hai:
Experiments on rectangular concretefilled steel tubes loaded axially on a
partially stressed cross-sectional area,
Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 65, 2009., pp. 1617-1630.
Vlaji Lj., Landovi A.: Analysis of
methods for strengthening reinforced
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
concrete columns coupled with steel

tubes, 13th Congress of Serbian
society of structural engineer, ZlatiborCigota, Serbia, 2010, pp. 433-438.
Landovi
A.:
Experimental
theoretical model analysis of posibility
for strengthening axialy compressed
RC columns with steel tubes, Masters
Thesis, Faculty of civil engineering,
Subotica, Serbia, 2010, pp. 110.
Vlaji, Lj., Beevi, M., Landovi, A.,
Kukaras, D.: Experimental analysis of
reinforced
concrete
columns
strengthened with steel tubes. The 5th
PSU-UNS International Conference on
Engineering and Technology, Phuket,
Thailand, 2011.
Vlaji Lj., Beevi M., Landovi A.,
Kukaras D.: Numerical analysis of
steel-concrete composite columns
under axial load, Serbian journal
Izgradnja 64 (9-10), 2010, pp. 513520.
ACI-318M-08 Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete
And Commentary, ACI Committee
318, USA, 2008, pp. 479.
ANSI/AISC 360-05 Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings 2005,
American
Institute
Of
Steel
Construction, Fifth Printing, 2009. pp.
537.
Eurocode 4,
EN
1994-1-1:2004:
Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
Part
1-1,
European
Committee for Standardization, 2004,
pp. 225.

WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK USED FOR

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF
CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE
D.F. LIMAN 1
Abstract: With recent developments in the field of wireless sensor networks
(WSN), the author presents in this paper a solution for complex monitoring
systems, that can be used to perform structural health monitoring (SHM) of
different categories of bearing structures. As an experimental part of the
authors research activity the author has developed a test system.
The system under testing uses wireless sensors and the main contributions of
the author to the research teams efforts are customizing the hardware to
deal with the time synchronisation of information received from several
sensors, dissemination of sensor configuration information, storage of
acquired data and the development of a software application able to interpret
and present mandatory measures that have to be taken in order to maintain
structural health.
Key words: WSN, SHM, Infrastructure.
1. Introduction
On a global scale, a significant part of
civil and commercial bearing structures are
affected
by
certain
degrees
of
deterioration. Due to the global crisis, it
has become obvious to civil engineers the
fact that there are insufficient funding
solutions for immediate replacing or
renovation of all affected structures. Thus,
accurate information about the status of
these structures is necessary in order to be
able to optimize and prioritize the available
resources.
This
information
helps
accurately classify which structures need
replacement, which require immediate
maintenance and which are in good
condition and are normative compliant.
Integrating
sensors
into
bearing
1
structures is the main solution for

performing SHM. SHM can be performed
periodically or continuously based on the
decision of structural engineers and
experts. Both types of monitoring imply
several activities like mounting the
sensors, installing power supplies or the
connection of sensing devices to the mains
of the structure or installing cable runs for
the power supply and for the transmission
of the data signals. On the long term, all
the above mentioned activities can imply
high installation and operation costs.
Moreover, long bundles of wire cables or
fiber optics are subject to periodic rupture
or even connector failure. Wires also limit
the number of sensors that can be mounted
or there may be situations where cable runs
cannot be mounted on certain parts or
Structural Mechanics Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
308
sections of the structure due to the

structure's shape or its purpose.
Nevertheless, the integration of sensors
into bearing structures has many benefits
to the owners and users of the structures,
including prediction of damages or
catastrophic failures, improved emergency
response, increased homeland security or
reduced operation costs in the long term.
As a result, in the previous decade
several private research companies,
universities
and
international
standardization institutions have started the
development of wireless sensor networks.
These networks are composed of devices
called nodes having in their composition a
processing unit, a wireless communication
device and one or several sensors for data
acquisition.
The recommended features of a WSN
node are low power consumption, fast data
acquisition capabilities, reliability, long
term accuracy, reduced acquisition costs,
very little or no maintenance over time and
the possibility for remote configuration
and programming. These features are not
easy to implement because real-life
structural monitoring applications and
problems have different requirements.
Selecting the appropriate sensors and the
wireless communication protocol have a
strong impact on the overall performance
of a node and the lifetime of the energy
source.
Nowadays a single integrated circuit is
able to encompass a radio communication
device, a processing unit and additional
digital electronics. Very good examples of
such integrated circuits are produced by
leading industry companies like Atmel,
Texas Instruments or MicroChip [1], [2],
[3].
According to the definition given in [4],
a WSN is composed of a series of wireless
nodes equipped with different types of
sensors, placed in different locations on the
structure, which communicate with one or
several gateways using one or several

different
wireless
communication
protocols. A gateway or a basestation is the
main collection point for the data sensed
by the nodes. The data sensed by the nodes
is transmitted directly or via other nodes to
the gateway. In order to obtain small
communication periods and thus lower
energy consumption of nodes, the
transmitted data is usually compressed.
The data collected by the gateway is then
fed as input to different software
applications for further processing and
information interpretation is performed by
expert systems in conjunction with human
experts in the structural engineering
domain.
2. WSN Principles
This section encompasses a brief
description of the hardware components of
a WSN node, the communication
possibilities available, the energy supply
options and power consumption related
issues.
2.1. Node Components
The basic hardware components that make
up a WSN node are presented in Figure 1 and
are compliant with the descriptions given in
[4]. It can be observed that the components
are modular and this architecture empowers
the node's design with versatility and
flexibility to requirements from different
SHM applications.
The sensing devices are mounted on the
prototyping board of the wireless node and
can range from simple temperature, humidity,
noise or dust sensors to more complex sensors
able to detect cracks, crack propagation, linear
displacements, accelerations or ultrasound
sensors capable of distance measurement [5],
[6]. The data acquired by the sensing devices
is than fed into the conditioning module. This
module is necessary because the sensed signal
D.F. LISMAN: Wireless sensor network used for structural health monitoring of civil
Infrastructure
may be too weak or too noisy to be fed

directly into the data storage devices. The
most common circuits used for signal
conditioning are conditional bridge circuits.
Fig.1. Structure of a WSN node

Multiplexing and amplifying circuitry is
used in order to boost the conditioned signal
which at the conditioning circuit's outputs can
be as low as 10V with corresponding
temperature drifts of 0.1V/C. The most
common circuits used at this point are
precision operational amplifiers. Multiplexers
are used in order to combine the inputs from
several sensing devices and then feed them as
input to the analog digital (A/D) converters.
The A/D converters are responsible for
performing the digitization of the analog
signals. The input signals are converted
from an analog voltage range into a
sequence of binary digits using several
output channels of the A/D converters.
Common resolutions for the A/D
converters are 12, 14 or 20 bits.
The majority of nodes currently available
on the market use 8-bit AVR RISC-based
microcontrollers
with
operating
frequencies between 8 - 16 MHz, capable
of running in temperature conditions
between -40C and + 85C which fit the
majority SHM scenarios. The microcontroller has the following main functions
[7]: WSN protocol management, sensor
data acquisition management, power
supply management, transmission of data
from the sensor interface to the physical
309
communication layer and read/write

controller operations for the local storage
media.
The microcontroller units are directly
coupled with different types of wireless
communication interfaces. These include
the IEEE 802.15.4 compliant interface,
GSM/GPRS interface, Bluetooth or IEEE
802.11 interfaces.
In addition, the nodes provide the
possibility for local data storage by using a
flash memory mounted on the board. In the
majority of node implementations SD,
miniSD or microSD cards are used. These
cards have capacities ranging up to a few
GBs but they also have some strict timing
constraints [8]. Due to these constraints
some of the sensor data can be stored to
the flash memories if the timing constraints
are not too strong for the flash memory
write delay to comply to. For example, the
flash storage is suitable for temperature
sampling which is performed once every
few minutes as opposed to acceleration
sampling which may take place several
times a second.
From the point of view of the energy
supply, several options are available
including: batteries (Li-Ion or Li-polymer
rechargeable), fixed or flexible solar
panels, auxiliary 3V no-rechargeable
batteries or the possibility of connecting an
AC/DC adapter to the mains, depending on
the monitoring application.
2.2. Wireless Communication Options
A wireless sensor networks usually has no
or very little infrastructure. It is composed of a
given number of nodes ranging from a few to
tens or even thousands working together in
order to obtain information about the bearing
structure under monitoring. Several standards
and protocols have been developed to sustain
the specific requirements of wireless sensor
networks communication including: IEEE
802.15.4/ZigBee standard compliant [2], [9],
310
IEEE 802.11 b/g /Wifi standard compliant,

GSM/GPRS, Bluetooth and RFID/NFC.
2.3. Energy Supply and Power
Consumption
One of the major concerns in designing
feasible WSN deployments for bearing
structure's SHM are the node power
consumption and the available options for
power supply of the node. According to
studies performed in [4] and [11], from the
total power consumption of a node, an
average of around 80% is spent by the
wireless transmitter/receiver, around 4-5%
by the sensing devices and the rest is
consumed by the processing unit and on
board electronics.
Generally, SHM applications are continuous or span over long periods of time
(e.g. one or several years). Thus, it is
desirable that the energy source is able to
serve the node without servicing for the
entire monitoring period. In addition, a
proper operational scheme has to be
designed for the hardware of the node and
tuned algorithms have to be implemented
at the operating system and application
level in order to minimize power
consumption.
The most important concerns are with
the wireless transmission/reception part
and the related algorithms, due to the fact
that it is the most power consuming
component of the node. The following
actions must be considered during
implementation [4]:
Implementation of strict power
management
strategies
and
functioning modes (sleep mode,
power-down mode, suspend mode);
Reduction of transmitted/received
data through the use of compression
algorithms
and
through
data
reduction;
Reducing the frequency of data
transmissions;
Reducing the wireless transceiver

duty cycle;
Transmission of data only when
sensor events occur (e.g. transmit
displacement data or temperature data
only when an increase/decrease of the
sampled data occurs);
Reduce the administrative overhead
of the transmitted data (reduce the
amount of data that is not related to
the sensed data).
Significant research has been performed
on the topic of energy sources for wireless
sensing nodes. In the typical scenario,
when the energy source of a node is almost
depleted, the node will shut down and will
disconnect from the network. This can
have a limited or significant impact on the
SHM system depending on the node
placement and the initial redundancy
considered in the network design [12]. As
a solution, researchers have sought energy
harvesting solutions besides energy
conservation techniques and algorithms.
The typical energy source for a wireless
node is a rechargeable or non-rechargeable
battery. The most common rechargeable
batteries used in the nodes are Li-Ion or Lipolymer. The second category is preferred
due to lower manufacturing cost,
adaptability to a wide variety of packaging
shapes, reliability, and ruggedness. In
addition, the self-discharge rate is lower at
around 5% per month as compared to 8%
for classical Li-Ion batteries.
Even if rechargeable batteries are used in
the design, they need servicing at certain
time intervals by either replacing the
batteries or recharging them. By using
energy harvesting there exists a solution
for online recharging. Energy harvesting
involves the replenishing of the energy
capacity of a nodes energy source.
Research has been conducted on different
methods like use of solar energy, vibration,
thermal energy, acoustic noise or fuel cells
[11], [13], [14].
Infrastructure
The current mature energy harvesting

technology is using solar cells and panels.
There exist rigid solar panels capable of
supplying 500mA at a voltage of around
7V and flexible solar panels capable of
supplying 100mA at the same voltage. The
acquisition cost is still high with prices
starting from 20-25 Euros/pc. Even if it is
a mature technology, solar energy
harvesting has the main drawback that the
results of the harvesting are proportional to
the existing sunlight or to the existing
artificial light.
3. WSN Architecture
The network architecture of a WSN
depends greatly on the type of structural
health monitoring application to be
implemented. Several factors influence the
architecture chosen for in situ deployment
including but not limited to the type of
structure under monitoring, structural
dimension, structural materials or expose
of nodes to natural elements.
In the following subchapters first a
presentation of the most commonly met
topologies for wireless sensor networks is
detailed, followed by a description of node
roles and details about the software
architecture and its main components.
3.1. WSN Topologies
One of the most common topologies used
in civil engineering structural health
monitoring applications is the star topology,
where all the sensor nodes transmit
information directly to a special station
called gateway [15]. The gateway or the
basestation acts a direct data sink which
receives all the information from the
wireless nodes and can be accessed using a
variety of internet communication options
including Wi-Fi, GSM/GPRS or broadband
technologies. A star topology is presented
in Figure 3.
311
Another topology used in case of

monitoring applications that need strong
connectivity between sensing nodes is the
mesh topology, already presented on Figure
2(b). In this topology nodes are connected
to one another, to the closest neighboring
nodes as well as to one of several gateways
(data sinks). Such a topology ensures that
the redundancy criteria are met, but at a
higher cost, due to additional hardware and
energy cost in terms of wireless
communication volume.
In all topologies the data sink nodes or the
gateways require a computing device with
enough processing power and enough
storage space. In addition, they must act as
a remote gateway for the users of the
structural heath monitoring system in order
to allow remote connectivity, retrieval of
data and data analysis software tools to run
interpretation algorithms on the data. Last
but not least, they must allow the structural
expert to perform custom queries on the
sensed data according to the criteria that he
or she considers fit for the purpose of the
monitoring.
Mesh
topologies
are
especially
appropriate for monitoring bridges and
tunnels due to the fact that in these
applications the primary concerns are to
acquire data about the long-term changes
in performance in a number of different
locations on the structure. This requires a
wireless sensor network composed of
closely positioned nodes that sample data
at a low time frequency of the order of
minutes or even hours [16]. Due to the fact
that in such monitoring application, nodes
are closely positioned, it is not feasible to
use wireless transmitters that need the
power to communicate directly to the
gateway. It makes sense using multi-hop
communication inside a mesh topology
whose nodes can communicate with one
another as well as to the gateway in order
to minimize the requirements in terms of
transmission distance and thus reducing
312
the overall energy consumption of the

nodes.
3.2. Node Types
In bridge or tunnel monitoring, as well as
for other types of applications for bearing
structures health monitoring, typically the
following types of nodes are used:
environmental nodes, deformation nodes,
accelerations nodes [16], crack and crack
propagation nodes [6], [18] and
inclinometer nodes [17].
3.2.1. Environmental Nodes
Usually the steel wires and strands that
compose the main cables of a bridge are
exposed to the natural elements and it is
important to have relative humidity
information at the surface of the cables.
This information can be obtained by
directly mounting the sensors on the
surface of the cables. In addition,
environmental nodes are equipped with
temperature sensors, particle and light
sensors.
Humidity sensors can measure 0100%RH with an accuracy of 4%RH (at
25C, range 30 ~ 80%), <6%RH (range 0
~ 100) and a response time under 15s
according to [18]. The temperature
sensors can measure temperatures in the
range between -40C and +125C with a
stepping of 0.5C and an accuracy of 2C
(range 0C ~ +70C), 4C (range -40 ~
+125C). These properties are sufficient
to study temperature gradients across the
cable length or at boundary regions. The
light sensors have a spectral range
between 400 - 700 nm and operate in
environments with temperatures between
-30C and +70C with a energy
consumption closely to 0A.
3.2.2. Deformation Nodes
Deformation nodes are nodes equipped

with sensors able to measure the amount of
deformation of the monitored structural
element. In [17] the research team presents
a fiber optics based sensor capable of
performing the measurement. The idea
behind this sensor is that it differentially
measures the time required by a laser
impulse to travel through a fiber optic
wrapped around the monitored structural
element. If the structural element suffers
deformation, the time needed by the signal
to travel becomes longer.
Some advantages of this type of
deformation measurement device are the
facts that it is a minimally invasive
measurement method, it does not suffer
from electromagnetic noise and it can be
used to measure the deformations of a wide
range of elements, for example from a
single 1 foot element up to an entire
structure [17].
Supplementary, this type of node contains
a temperature sensor in order to measure the
instantaneous temperature in order to
perform coordination to the amount of
deformation at the measurement point.
3.2.3. Acceleration Nodes
The majority of nodes can be equipped
with an acceleration sensor. Acceleration
sensors are capable of measuring
accelerations in the range: 2g (1024
LSb/g) / 6g (340LSb/g) at frequencies of
40Hz/160Hz/640Hz/2560Hz
[6].
Acceleration data is high-volume data and
has to be stored immediately after
sampling. Acceleration nodes are able to
sustain a 500Hz sampling rate while
writing the data on the microSD card
without loses. This requires nodes
designed to support bursts of high-rate data
having strict reliability requirements.
The acceleration sensor in the case of a
wireless node is a MEMS device (microelectro-mechanical
system)
with
Infrastructure
dimensions in the scale of maximum 1

millimeter.
These
are
low-power
inexpensive alternatives to classical
sensors very suitable for implementation in
an energy-constrained wireless sensor
node.
3.2.4. Crack and Crack-Propagation
Nodes
These nodes are equipped with sensors
capable of detecting the appearance of
cracks and measure the magnitude and 2D
orientation of these cracks. Crack detection
gages have lengths between 15 and 56 mm
and widths between 3 and 6 mm [18]. The
operation temperature typical to this type
of sensor is between -195C and 120C.
The sensor consists of a small conductive
strand with a very low resistance value
embedded in a fiber-glass film. In the case
of a crack development, the sensor shall
break thus interrupting a closed electric
circuit. This event will be signaled to the
node's central processing unit. In order to
mount such a sensor to a surface, it has be
fixed using a special adhesive. The use of a
protective coating is recommended in long
term installations.
The crack-propagation sensor that is
mounted on this type of node has the same
operation principle, with the difference that
it is composed of a small conductive strand
which contains several parallel grid lines
that break progressively with the
propagation and enlargement of a crack's
width. Several options are available for the
distribution of the grids. There are be
sensors having: 10-grid lines with 0.25 mm
between grids, 20-grid lines with 0.25 mm
between grids or other formats depending
on the specifics of the structural health
monitoring application in terms of crack
propagation data [18].
313
3.2.5. Inclinometer Nodes

These nodes are equipped with sensors
able to measure the inclination sustained by
structural elements. These nodes are
especially used in the case of bridge, tunnel
or road structural elements with relatively
high success in determining the changes
that appear at the relative position of
structural elements.
4. Software Running on WSN Nodes
On top of the hardware of wireless sensor
nodes runs a very compact operating system
(OS). This is a distributed operating system
and must be perceived as an operating
system working on the entire network as a
whole. Abstracting the capabilities of the
hardware is a basic OS responsibility.
The majority of OSs are developed using
the nesC programming language which
makes them portable on many types of
hardware platforms.
The basic services provided by the OS
are:
hardware abstraction;
timers/alarms;
memory management;
sensor primitives;
communication primitives.
One of the main goals of a hardware
abstraction is to provide programmers with
the facility of easy traversing the
software/hardware boundary by allowing
some software components to be replaced
by hardware components with real
hardware modules and vice versa.
Timers and alarms are used by
applications running on top of the OS in
order to get an event or a piece of data when
the timer expires. Alarms are used to signal
the applications running on top of the
operating system about events that have
occurred and must be processed
immediately by the monitoring software
applications.
314
The memory management function is

responsible for the allocation of memory to
the structural health monitoring applications
running on top of the operating system. It is
also responsible for the efficient allocation
of memory in order to reduce memory
waste. The fact that the memory resources
of the node are reduced as compared to
smart phones for instance, has to be noted at
this point.
The sensor primitives provide an abstract
interface to the physical hardware sensors
and the underlying node platform. At least
five functions of this interface can be called
by a monitoring application: sensor
activation, sensor deactivation, get sensor
value, configure sensor and get sensor
status. In addition, when sensors are
deactivated, the sensor API has support for
turning off the power to the sensors, thus
conserving energy of the sensor board.
Communication primitives are abstracted
under the form of messages. Messages are
preceded by a small identifier that is
attached to each message, specifying the
action that needs to be taken on the
receiver's side when a given message has
been received followed by sensed data,
timestamps and other data fields. Usually
the nodes transmitting the information are
the sensing nodes and the receivers of
information
are
the
sink
nodes.
Nevertheless, communication can take
place in the other direction too, for
configuration and administrative related
tasks.
In the test setup used in our research, the
structural health monitoring applications are
developed directly on top of the operating
system by making use of the operating
system's functions. Still, there exists in
other implementations of monitoring
application another layer between the OS
and the user applications. This layer is
called a middleware layer and performs
further abstractions on top of the OS's
abstractions [17].
5. Conclusions
Intelligent monitoring of bearing
structures by using wireless sensor
networks proves to be a cost-effective
solution that can be deployed on a wide
range of infrastructure projects including
but not limited to water-supply and aerial
sewage infrastructure, bridges, tunnels,
towers or road segments. They can supply
civil engineers with real-time critical data
on the health status and the performance
degree of the monitored structures.
In the test phase our research team is
implementing
a
structural
health
monitoring application on a sewage-pipe in
Cluj County. The pipe is suspended using
wire ropes. Monitoring is performed on the
health of the bearing cables by obtaining
information about relative humidity,
accelerations and deformations. This is
done by using three types of wireless
sensing nodes: environmental, acceleration
and deformation nodes.
Environmental nodes sample humidity,
temperature and dust readings. The
purpose is to analyze the daily, weekly and
seasonal temperature readings and match
them to the contractions of the bearing
cables. Humidity readings are performed in
order to determine the exposure of
sustaining and connection elements and
braces to corrosion. Relative humidity
values above 60% accelerate corrosion
processes.
The acceleration nodes are recording
information about the vibrations induced in
the bearing cables by wind and nearby
traffic. The analysis of acceleration records
will be done by a custom application and
will help understand the dynamic behavior
of the suspended bearing structure. From
the theoretical point of view, the vibration
response of the test structure is not
random, but it is situated along some
frequencies known as natural frequencies.
Deformation nodes supply an average
Infrastructure
value of the last 20 deformation readings.

This average is performed due to irrelevant
character of single samples. These tend to
fluctuate. Elongation of the vertical
sustaining cables is an indication of
deterioration and will be automatically
detected and signaled by a software
application under development.
Using a combination of data supplied by
environmental,
acceleration
and
deformation
nodes
a
monitoring
application will be developed in the next
research phase, which will, hopefully, be
able to perform strain analysis on the
bearing cables. Nevertheless, there is a
wide research field left uncovered when
discussing
about
structural
heath
monitoring
applications
based
on
intelligent networks composed of wireless
sensing nodes.
An ongoing development of the test
WSN, an image acquisition node is being
tested. This node is responsible with
gathering images of the wire cables. The
images are then fed to a new software
application embedded into the existing
package. The application uses advanced
object detection and recognition algorithms
for processing the input images.
Currently a database of undamaged
cables (wire ropes) is being populated
followed by the implementation of
machine learning algorithms that will be
able to compare new images of cables to
the existing models and decide with a high
degree of certainty if the images contain
damaged cables and the degree of the
damage.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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CORRELATION OF SOME PARAMETERS

IN SITU DETERMINED DURING
EXECUTIONS OF GHIMBAV BRAOV
RUNWAY AIRPORT
M. MNTULESCU 1
I. TUNS1 F-L. TMA1
Abstract: This paper aims is to establish a correlation between two test

methods made for roads, which could lead to greater efficiency in economic
terms. The road structure dimentions in the art of comunications routes can
be made at least by two ways based on deflectometer test with Benkelman
beam, or, analytical, involving the test by the plate bearing. The two types of
tests that were performed on the Ghimbav Brasov runway airport , in the
same position, on the stabilized ballast layer by 10 to 10 meters alternately
on both sides of the runway to 10 meters away from the center line. Each row
of test points was evaluated separately because of the execution technolog,
the different time period execution and runway gradient.The best value was
achieved that the best standard deviation corresponding and was found as a
second-degree polynom.
Key words: Benkelman beam, plate bearing test.
1. Introduction
Establishing
the
road
structure
dimentions in the art of comunications
routes can be made by ways . The first
variant
is given by reference to an
admissible value of deflection, which
involves making the deflectometer test
with Benkelman beam. A second variant is
based on the analytical calculation of a
bilayer structure, respectively the ratio of
the two deformation modules from two
layers which involves the establish of the
linear deformation module, respectively
the bed coefficient with static test by plate
bearing.
The deflectometer test with the
Benkelman beam above aims to
1
determinate the bearing capacity of the

structure to a specific level road and check
the execution, in this case. The
interpretation of results is based on
empirical relations, that were based on
some landmark allowable values
established by a large number of test
experiments.The Benkelman test
was
developed in the seventh decade, being
currently used extensively in Europe. The
method became imposed by low costs and
high speed in the test execution..
An analytical dimensioning of the road
structure is based on static test with
bearing plate, with which can be establish
the deformation of the land in relation of
the applied pressure .The
Reaction
module, K0 is determined using this type
Civil Engineering Faculty, Transilvania University of Braov.
318
of test representing the ratio of

deformation module and plate diameter.
The value obtained is not an intrinsec
characteristic of the land, being dependent
by the diameter of the plate, respectively,
by the dimensions of the foundation or the
element that generates the overload.
This paper aims is to establish a
correlation between the two methods,
which could lead to greater efficiency in
economic terms. Concerns in this regard
are older, starting with the establishment
of the deflection by the Benkelman test.
The results of the correlation in this regard
led to a quite severe limitations of their
applicability. It was noted that a much
better correlation is imposed by various
factors such as: type of structure tried
(spring, half-spring, plastic), seasonal
variations of temperature, by humidity or
by the layers thickness of road structure.
As a result result that we present have
limited applicability to the specific
conditions under which the tests were
conducted.
mechanical and physical characteristics of

the layers forming the structure of airport
consistent with the requirements in the
specifications.
The Benkelman beam is a deflectionmeasuring device developed in 1953 by
A.C. Benkelman of the Bureau of Public
Roads [1]. In operation the load truck
moves ahead at a creep speed and the total
pavement deflection between the dual tires
as they pass the probe foot is read from the
indicating dial.The test was done according
CD 31-2002 romanian norm, which refers
to flexible and semi-rigid road structures,
also applicable and rigid concrete
structures.
Deflections road are caused by a vehicle
used for testing. This should be a truck
which can be loaded to the prescribed axle
weight on a single rear axle with dual tires.
It is suggested that a 9-ton axle load be
used. The load should be equally
distributed between the two wheels, and it
shold be produced by one of the rear
wheels 57.5 kN double standard vehicle
with a rear axle load of 115 kN [3].
2. Tests made during exeution on

stabilised ballast layer
The runway for landing and takeoff of
International Airport Ghimbav-Brasov was
designed as a rigid concrete structure due
to good behavior on high stresses and to
the increased durability compared to a
semi-rigid or flexible road structure.
The runway structure consists of
different structural layers as follows (from
bottom up to):
- Stabilized soil (with Dorosol)
- shape layer thickness of 30 cm;
- ballast, foundation layer thickness
40cm;
- ballast stabilized, thickness 25 cm;
- concrete, thickness 41 cm
During execution several tests were
performed on the runway for landing and
takeoff, to determine and verify the
Fig. 1. Benkelman beam test

The characteristic value of defexion is
calculated with the equation:
M. MANTULESCU et al.: Correlation Of Some Parameters In Situ Determined During

Executions Of Ghimbav Braov Runway Airport
319
3. Interpretation of the results
d c d M 20 t s 20
(1)
Where:
d M 20 is the normal medium deflexion

according to the measuring used technique;
s 20 standard deviation;
t coefficient that depends on the
probability of some deflexion values and to
the technical class of the road
(1) interpretation of results we

To the
selected data from the two types of tests
that were performed in the same position
on the stabilized ballast layer. The medium
deflexion, tests were made by 10 to 10
meters alternately on both sides of the
runway to 10 meters away from the center
line.
The plate bearing test was performed

according to NP 034-99 (romanian
standard for rigid structures airport roads
designing). The plate diameter is about 750
mm. It was applied two-stage loads of 10
KPa and 70KPa, each of them maintained
until settelments plast was stable (<0.05
mm / min)
Subgrade modulus of was calculated
according to the formula:
70
50
K
0 C C 75
1
0
distance
m
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
420
Fig. 2. Plate bearing test

Results are presented on the below
table :
(2)
Test results on stabised balast
Table 1
Position from the axis

Axis
ks
Bkt
-2
[mm ]
[MPa]
97.73975
137.705 94.66473
82.36461
141.415 93.63972
144.005 90.56469
91.5897
143.385 97.73975
86.46465
Right 10 meters
ks
bkt
-2
[mm ] [MPa]
137.25 85.43964
145.83 81.3396
141.89 89.53968
148.94 81.3396
141.89 89.53968
145.83 99.78977
136.36 83.38962
Left 10 meters
ks
bkt
-2
[mm ] [MPa]
136.36 97.73975
138.16 103.8898
143.84 83.38962
140.94 97.73975
139.07 99.78977
137.25 93.63972
140.94 95.68974
140
89.53968
320
480
540
600
660
720
780
840
900
960
1020
1080
1140
1200
1260
1320
1380
1440
1500
1560
1620
1680
1740
1800
1860
1920
1980
2040
2100
2160
2220
2280
2340
2400
2460
2520
141.89
137.25
141.89
140.94
136.36
144.83
146.85
145.83
143.84
142.86
145.83
144.83
138.16
141.89
147.89
139.07
144.83
145.83
136.36
138.16
139.07
140.94
138.16
143.84
142.86
154.41
151.08
141.89
143.84
144.83
145.83
151.08
147.89
146.85
152.17
95.68974
79.28959
97.73975
91.5897
87.48966
85.43964
95.68974
93.63972
91.5897
89.53968
105.9398
87.48966
99.78977
83.38962
83.38962
87.48966
101.8398
89.53968
99.78977
97.73975
81.3396
87.48966
93.63972
89.53968
95.68974
81.3396
93.63972
97.73975
97.73975
97.73975
89.53968
87.48966
95.68974
99.78977
89.53968
140.025
139.125
142.39
140.155
144.855
144.835
145.865
145.9
142.505
146.36
141.495
140.47
140.51
145.9
150.12
147.955
143.86
143.35
147.385
148.965
146.86
94.66473
86.46465
96.71475
96.71475
81.3396
92.61471
88.51467
89.53968
94.66473
94.66473
104.9148
85.43964
95.68974
90.56469
94.66473
85.43964
100.8148
89.53968
89.53968
88.51467
84.41463
93.63972
92.61471
85.43964
91.5897
90.56469
91.5897
98.76476
97.73975
97.73975
91.5897
90.56469
97.73975
96.71475
94.66473
138.16
139.07
136.36
143.84
139.07
135.48
142.86
143.84
147.89
148.94
146.85
147.89
146.85
136.36
144.83
148.94
138.16
142.86
148.94
148.94
137.25
140
142.86
141.89
148.94
145.83
144.83
145.83
142.86
145.83
148.94
146.85
145.83
150
151.08
93.63972
93.63972
95.68974
101.8398
75.18955
99.78977
81.3396
85.43964
97.73975
99.78977
103.8898
83.38962
91.5897
97.73975
105.9398
83.38962
99.78977
89.53968
79.28959
79.28959
87.48966
99.78977
91.5897
81.3396
87.48966
99.78977
89.53968
99.78977
97.73975
97.73975
93.63972
93.63972
99.78977
93.63972
99.78977
M. MANTULESCU et al.: Correlation Of Some Parameters In Situ Determined During

Executions Of Ghimbav Braov Runway Airport
BKT-K0 left
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
134
136
138
140
142
144
146
148
150
152
154
156
K 0 [ M pa ]
Fig. 3. Left side results (delexions vs. subgrade modulus)
y = 0.0007x2 - 0.8596x + 203.5

R2 = 0.441
BKT-K0 right
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
130
135
140
145
150
155
K0 [ M p a]
Fig.4 . Right side results (delexions vs. subgrade modulus)

y 0.0474 x 12.918 x 782.39
2
R 0.2323
2
321
322
BKT-K0 axis
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
136
138
140
142
144
146
148
150
152
K0 [ M p a]
Fig. 5. Axis results (deflexions vs. subgrade modulus)

y 0.1476 x 42.345 x 2941.1
R 0.169
2
4 Conclusions
References
Values were statistically interepreted

elimiating those values that are depassing
20% of the mean value, as being gross
errors.
For each of the three sets of values were
determined trendline equation separately.
The best value was achieved that the best
standard deviation corresponding and was
found as a second-degree polynom. We
was considered that each row of test points
must be evaluated separately because of
the execution technology, the different
time period execution and runway
gradient.
The average of the three equations is:
y 0.0648 x 18.1347 x 1173.33

2
(4)
1. Kruse C. G., , Skok E.L.: Flexible

Pavement Evaluation with the
Benkelman Beam, Investigation no
603, Summary report - 1968. Office of
Materials, Minennesota Department of
Highways.
2. *** NP 034-99: Normativ de proiectare
pentru structurile rutiere rigide
aeroportuare.
3. *** CD 31-2001: Normativ pentru
determinarea prin deflectografie i
deflectometrie a capacitii portante a
drumurilor cu structuri rutiere suple i
semirigide cu deflectograful Lacroix i
deflectometru cu prghie Benkelman..

BEHAVIOUR OF ELEVATED
CONCRETE WATER TOWER
UNDER DYNAMIC LOADS
T. MILCHI 1
I. BOR1
Abstract: Loads on elevated water towers during an earthquake produce a

complex stress field into structure. The mechanically differences properties
of two principal materials, reinforced concrete and water are the main cause.
Finite element method using coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) model
approach can provide the wanted answers. Two cases are considered in this
paper. The water can freely move inside the water tower and in the other
case without the movement on the water (the water is just a mass added to
the structure). The conclusions are highlighted using the displacement values
in the highest points of the structure.
Key words: water tower, Eulerian-Lagrangian model, water sloshing,
dynamic analysis.
1. Introduction
Elevated water towers are structures that
generally are located in the critical points
of an water-supply network, in highly
populated areas in most of the cases. The
main purpose is the water supply and fire
safety regulations [1]. For that reason, the
water towers should be fully operational
during and after an major earthquake. The
technical solutions for pipe joints and
foundation dimension is not the main
objective in this paper. Only the behaviour
during a dynamic load is studied. To
determine the values of maximum
displacements of an water tower is the
main goal.
Water towers can vary from different
geometrically shapes or structural system
design; truncated cone model is studied in
present paper.
1
For soil-structure interaction problems

and fluid-structure interaction a lot of
mathematical models can be found in
numerous papers accomplished by other
researchers from various countries. A very
interesting technological solution for the
centre core of the tower is showed in [2],
with interlocking panels. The numerical
models are based on the mass adding
approach with elastic resorts with different
axial stiffness values that connect the
added mass to the structure of the tower. A
detailed analysis of an cylindrical water
tower considering a free movement of the
water volume (water sloshing) was done
also in [3] recently in with the fluidstructure interaction is studied in detail. A
more classical approach is done in [4] with
the main aim to study metallic water
storage where the buckling phenomenon is
evaluated for that types of structures
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
324
during an earthquake action without the

considerations of dynamic load effect of
the moving water in the tank. Gareane et
al. [5] has made a good approximation of
water tank dynamic response to
earthquakes with harmonic (sinusoidal)
loads patterns (artificial ground motions
accelerations). The numerical simulations
were made considering the adding
impulsive mass to the walls of the tower.
2. Method formulation
The approach using numerical models is
a highly computational time consuming for
complex models. The analyses can take up
to several days, even in our days, for very
complex models.
In this paper we present a comparison of
two numerical models using FEM with
Abaqus CAE. The dynamic performance
of the same water tower is analysed in
hypothesis that the water has a free
movement (free surface) during a lateral
dynamic load; an earthquake for example,
and another hypothesis in which the water
volume is considered only a death load
(gravity load only).
The reinforced concrete tower is
considered a Lagragian numerical model
and the water volume is Eulerian model.
Coupling these two models in a FEM
analysis is the main issue. Thus, an
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
formulation is used for mathematical
model.
Lagrangian models are based on the
assumptions the material moves coupled
with the mesh the mesh points are
attached to material nodes. In an Eulerian
model the material moves but the mesh
remains fixed the material passes through
the mesh. Mesh distortion isnt an issue for
that, because the mesh never changes. For
ALE the most important advantage is that
an element can handle more than one
material inside it [6]. A new coordinate
system is attached to the Lagrangian and

Eulerian coordinates system. The material
derivative relations is [7]:
f ( X i ,t ) f ( xi ,t )
f ( xi ,t )
( vi ui )
t
t
xi
f ( xi ,t )
f ( xi ,t )
,
wi
t
xi
(1)
where X i is the Lagrangian coordinate,
xi is the Eulerian coordinate and wi is the

relative velocity. And vi is the material
velocity and ui is the referential
coordinate velocity. The ALE formulation
can be expressed by the following
equations:
(1) The conservations mass equation:
i wi
,
t
xi
xi
(2) The
equation:
momentum
(2)
conservation
vi
v
ii , j bi wi i ,
t
x j
(3)
Stress vector ii, j in an Newtonian fluid

is:
vi
v
ii , j bi wi i ,
t
x j
(4)
Boundary conditions relations are:
ii j 0
ui ui0 .
(5)
On free boundary 1 is the first condition

from Eq.(5) and the second one in
2 which represent the constrain boundary
T. MILCHIS et al.: Behaviour of Elevated Concrete Water Tower Under Dynamic Loads
on velocity ui0 . The normal vector on the

traction free boundary 1 is represented by
j.
(3) The total energy conservations

equation:
E
E
ii , j bivi wi
,
t
x j
(5)
where is the material density, bi is

the body force and E is the energy.
A numerical model was created with
Abaqus/Explicit. Explicit dynamics is a
mathematical technique for integration of
the equations of motions through time.
Abaqus explicit has the capability to solve
a variety of problems: high speed
dynamics for short period of time (drop
test and crash), quasi-static analysis with
high nonlinearities (deep drawing,
assembly
simulations),
coupled
temperature-displacement (heat transfer),
structural acoustic. For wave propagation
is the recommendable choice.
The dynamic equilibrium equations are
simplified written:
Mu( t ) P( t ) I ( t ) ,
(6)
where Mu , P, and I are inertia force

vector, applied force vector and the
internal force vector from stress field.
Nodal accelerations can be easily
obtained from relation (6):
1
u( t ) M P( t ) I ( t ) .
(7)
Sequential integration of relation (7)

returns the velocity and displacement
vector, u( t ) and respectively u ( t ) . An
obvious advantage of explicit procedures is
that no iterations are required in the
equation solver for the accelerations,
325
velocities and displacement vectors values.

The solution becomes unstable (diverge) if
the time increment is too big. An
estimation of stable time value can be
considered by:
Le
t min
cd
(8)
where Le is the characteristic length of

the element and cd is the dilatational wave
speed of the material:
cd
(9)
Decreasing Le values reduces the stable

time increment, thus the total time
necessary to complete the analysis decrees
significantly.
Relation (6) is applied to any physical
model with highly nonlinear behaviour. A
set of nonlinear equilibrium equations are
solved at each time (t) increment. Time
incrementation can be done in two ways:
automatic
time
incrementation
automatically adjustment of stable time

increment during the analysis and fixed
time incrementation a constant time
increment is used.
3. Numerical models
Geometry of reinforced concrete water
tower is: 41m total height. The shaft has
30m in height. Maximum diameter of the
reservoir is 30 m. Thickness of the wall`s
shaft is 40 cm and the reservoir wall is 30
cm. In Figure 1 the geometry of the model
is presented.
326
Fig.1 Water tower geometry

Two cases were considered. In the first
model, the water volume is considered to
be a dead load. Thus, only a static pressure
is considered to the walls of the tower
reservoir.
In the second model, the water volume is
considered to be able to move freely inside
the reservoir.
In the first model only solid finite
elements were used in Abaqus type
C3D10M; a 10 node modified quadratic
tetrahedron. The material is a reinforce
concrete with mass density 2500kg/m3,
Young modulus 3e10 N/m2, Poisson
coefficient 0.3.
A dynamic load is considered trough an
acceleration diagram inserted as a tabular
values
representing
the
ground
accelerations, recorded in 1977 Vrancea
earthquake. The total time is 40.14
seconds. Thus, a time-history analysis type
has been done. The amplitudes of the
acceleration diagram are modelled as a
boundary condition (displacements) at the
base of the tower [8].
In the second model, where the ALE is
used, the water volume is considered to be
able to freely move inside the tower
recipient. An Eulerian domain it is defined

to achieve this. The water volume occupies
approximately three quarters of the total
volume of the recipient. Volume that isnt
occupied by water is consider a void
volume
(no
material
definition).
Suspended water reservoirs have a
minimum volume of water inside then
necessary for extinction of possible fires.
Analysing an empty reservoir isn`t a
plausible hypothesis. The most interested
case is when the volume of water is at the
maximum level of service.
For the mast and the reservoir of
reinforce concrete the same finite element
type was used, C3D10M Lagrangian
domain, which is the only type that can be
coupled with an Eulerian domain.
The water volume was modelled using
the linear U S- U P Hugoniot form of the
Mie-Gruneisen equation of state (EoS).
Material parameters for the water are
showed in Table 1 :
Parameters for water material Table 1
Parameter
Value
density
100 [kg/m3]
viscosity
1e-3 [Ns/m]
c0
1483 [m/s]
The coefficient c 0 represent the speed of
sound of the material, in our case, water.
The speed of sound of the fluid is inversely
proportional to the fluid`s compressibility.
For nearly incompressible fluids, using the
physical
compressibility
is
highly
computational expensive. The speed of
sound is infinite in an incompressible fluid.
Decreasing the value of the speed of sound
will increase the stable time increment
value, but will increase the compressibility
of the fluid, which is not recommendable.
A various physical experiments that
involves fluids can be numerically
simulated. The large domain in witch the
Lagrangian-Eulerian coupled approach has
been used confirm this.
T. MILCHIS et al.: Behaviour of Elevated Concrete Water Tower Under Dynamic Loads
327
displacements values on direction x is

showed in Figure 3.
4. Results and discussion

Numerically studies have been done,
considering two models, described in the
above paragraph. A time-history analysis
type was done, considering the same
accelerations values for the ground motion.
In the first numerical model, more
simple, the water volume in the tower
reservoir is considered a static load, thus,
only a static pressure is take into
consideration. In Figure 2 is shown the
node`s location on the tower geometry.
Fig.3 Displacement values(Lagrangian)
node of
interest
For the same geometrical and

mechanical proprieties, only that in the
second case the water volume is modelled
using an Eulerian numerical model, the
values of displacements of the same node
are revealed in Fig.4.
Fig.2 Node displacement that is studied

The node is situated in the most right
side of the reservoir on de direction of the
load vector.
The mesh density in the contact zones
and the loss of material are the true
problems in an numerical model. A highly
dense mesh is very costly in computational
terms. The ratio of deformation speed of
material to wave speed is one of the most
important parameters in solving the
mathematical problem. Errors can appear
during the analysis. Mesh refinement is a
solution, but it doesnt guaranty a
successful finished job.
The results consisting in he values of
Fig.4 Displacement values (Eulerian)

It is easily to observe that the amplitudes
of horizontal displacements have lower
values in case of model two confronted
with model one. The different variation of
displacement vectors are very different.
The main cause for this is the eigenvectors
of the dynamic proprieties from the tower.
The acceleration diagram is showed in
Figure 5.
328
from Interlocked Panels under

Different
Loading
Conditions.
International
Journal
of
Engineering and Technology, 4(5),
649652, 2012.
Fig.5 Accelerations values (Vrancea 77)

4. Acknowledgements
The authors grateful to prof. C. Chiorean
and his research team for their support
from the department of Structural
Mechanics - Faculty of Civil Engineering
from Cluj-Napoca.
5. Conclusions
For complex models, in witch
Lagrangian approach can easily fail, the
coupled Lagrangian-Eulerian model is the
key solution. For fluid flow problems is
highly recommendable. The results
accuracy using and Eulerian model is
slightly less then a Lagrangian one, but we
can say that the compensations can bypass
those gaps.
References
1. Pslrau, I., Rotaru, N., Teodorescu,
M.: Alimentri cu ap (Water supply).
Bucureti. Editura Tehnic, 1981.
2. Gurkalo, F., Poutos, K.: Dynamic
Properties of Watertowers Assembled
3. Sarokolayi, K., Navayineya, B.,

Hosainalibegi, M., Amiri, V.: Dynamic
Analysis of Water Tanks With
Interaction Between Fluid And
Structure. The 14th World Conference
on Earthquake Engineering, Beijing,
2008.
P.,K., Wenk, T.,
4. Malhotra,
Wieland, M.: Simple Procedure for

Seismic Analysis of Liquid-Storage
Tanks. Structural Engineering
International, vol. 2, pp. 197-201,
2000.
5. Gareane,A.,I., Algreane, G., A.,
Osman, S.,A., Karim,O., and Kasa, A.:
Study the Fluid Interaction due to
Dynamic Response of Elevated
Concrete Water Tank. Australian
Journal of Basic and Applied Science,
vol. 5, no. 9, pp.1084-1087, 2011.
6. Souli, M., Ouahsine, A., Lewin, L. :
ALE formulation for fluidstructure
interaction
problems.
Comput.
Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 190,
659675, 2000.
7. Zhao, C., et al., FSI effects and seismic
performance evaluation of water
storage tank of AP1000 subjected to
earthquake loading. Nucl. Eng. Des.
(2014)
8. Chira, A., Buru, M.: Analiza neliniar
a structurilor (Nonlinear analysis of
structures). Cluj-Napoca. Editura
U.T.Press, 2014.
INTERNATIONAL
SCIENTIFIC
CONFERENCE
Bulletin of the Transilvania
University
of Braov CIBV
Vol. 72014
(56) 2014
7-8
November
2014, Braov
Series
I: Engineering
Sciences
STUDY OF EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS

CAUSED BY RAILWAY TRAFFIC TO
BUILDINGS
R. NERIANU1
D. DRGAN2
M. SUCIU3
Abstract: The paper presents the manner in which railway traffic

affects the buildings in the vicinity of the railways. Railway vehicles in motion
produce high intensity vibrations. The way such vibrations affect the buildings
depends upon the distance at which constructions are placed, the traffic speed
of the rolling material, the axle load, the state of the railway, the kind of soil
and last but not least the type of the foundation. The paper is divided into two
parts, a theoretical part dealing with building dynamics, magnitudes
quantifying vibrations, characteristics of vibratory motion, and a practical
part where the results of the measurements are presented (regarding
acceleration, speed, displacement, frequency) to highlight the detrimental
effects of vibrations produced by the rolling stock in motion upon the buildings
in the neighbourhood of the railways. Relevant photos are also given.
Key words: vibrations, rolling stock, in depth waves, surface waves,
buildings
1. Introduction
The activity in contemporary society
cannot be imagined today without
transportation which expanded in time
together with the increase of demands to
displace both people and goods.
Transports have an important weight in the
economy of states and are seen as integrant
part of the environment. However, their
impact upon the environment and upon the
buildings in the neighbourhood of
communication ways is diverse and intense.
The paper highlights the negative effects
that transport systems, especially railways,
produce upon constructions. There will be
shown: the calculation of the vibrations
produced by the rolling stock in motion, the
1
propagation of the vibrations in the soil, the

results of the measurements performed with
the purpose of highlighting the detrimental
effects as well as relevant pictures.
2. Theoretical notions
2.1. Characteristics of vibrations
The vibratory motion or the vibration
represents a type of behaviour of the rolling
stock, appearing because of repetitive
relative motions around the position of
equilibrium and according to specific
variation laws.
Vibrations are elastic waves transmitted
through solid environments, which brings
in their name as solidian waves.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
2
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Experimentally, vibrations can be

measured with respect to displacements,
speeds and accelerations. The parameters
defining vibrations are:
displacement (X), expressed in m, cm and
mm;
velocity (v), expressed in m/s, cm/s and
mm/s;
Xef = Xrms = X =
2
X
2 max
= 0,707 Xmax
Mention should be made that the

measuring instruments of vibration
measurement devices are gauged in
effective values.
The kinematic parameters (X, v, a) are
expressed through specific absolute values
or through values called levels, defined by
relationships of the form below:
L = 20 lg
m
m0
(2)
where:
m is the measured value of the
kinematic parameter in question;
m0 is the reference value for the same
parameter..
In order to characterize the effects of
vibrations as influenced by frequency, one
makes use of the concept of vibration
intensity level. This is expressed through
the magnitude called intensity of vibration,
which can be defined by the relationship:
A=
a2max
f
=162 v2 X2max
(3)
A
A0
[number of vibrations]
(1)
where, A0=10-1 cm2/s3 represents the
reference value.
Vibration intensity level can also be
calculated with respect to any kinematic
parameters measured at frequency f, with
the relationships:
S = 20 lg
S = 20 lg
S = 20 lg
X
X0
v
v0
a
a0
+ 30 lgf
(5)
+ 10 lgf
(6)
+ 10 lgf
(7)
where: X0 = 0,008cm; v0 = 0,05cm/s;

a0 = 0,316cm/s2.
For the protection to vibrations effects,
one uses the concept of equivalent
vibration intensity level, Sech, which also
considers the duration of the vibrations,
through the number of cycles. The formula
for Sech is the following:
10
Sech =10lg m
i=1 ni 10
Si
where A is expressed in cm2/s3, amax

represents the maximum acceleration in
[cm/s2], and f, frequency is expressed in
[Hz];
or,
S = 10lg
acceleration (a), expressed in m/s2,cm/s2

and mm/s2;
frequency (f), expressed in Hz.
In order to define the amplitude of these
vibrations, peak values can be used, such as,
Xmax, vmax, amax or effective values. Between
the maximum and effective values, there
occurs the relationship:
(4)
(8)
2.2. The vibrations of vehicles on rails

In order to keep the railway transportation
as a very important one, it is necessary to
reach higher and higher traffic speeds and
to consistently improve the comfort of the
passengers.
As compared to the dislevelments of the
roads, those of railways are very small.
NERIANU et al.: Study of Effects of Vibrations caused by Railway Traffic to Buildings
However, because of the unsuspended large

weights and because wheels and rails are
made from steel even these small
dislevelments can lead to relatively large
shocks.
Other sources of shock and vibrations can
be:
the variation of the displacement speed;
rail joints play;
dislevelments;
curves;
excentricities and shape deviations of the
running surfaces of tires;
the pulls during manoeuvres, breaks and
accelerations.
Horizontal and vertical vibrations in the
suspension vehicle gear box are given by
the periodic horizontal and vertical
movements of the axles. As they are
periodical and permanent during running,
the vibrations form, in fact, the basic
vibrations of the vehicle box having a
decisive importance for the running quality.
The vibrations present frequency ranges
between 8 and 20 Hz, much higher than
basic frequencies.
The own frequencies of the vibratory
systems of the vehicles depend upon their
constructive features, size, weight and
inertia moments. They are not affected by
the travelling speed. At a certain speed, the
3313
frequency of forced vibrations can be equal

to own vibrations frequency, leading to the
resonance phenomenon.
In such a case, for the degree of freedom
in question, very high amplitude and
acceleration values are met.
One cannot act upon the frequencies of
disturbing vibrations produced by the
rolling track. It is for this reason that are
searched solutions to intervene upon the
vehicle own vibrations frequencies.
2.2.1. Own vibrations of rail vehicles
In order to study the own vibrations of a
vehicles on the railway, we will take the
diagram from Figure 1, where the vehicle is
considered to travel along a completely stiff
runway and the gravity centre of the
unsuspended part does not coincide with the
axis of symmetry of the car box, that is
and .
The system under discussion has three
degrees of freedom, with generalised
coordinates z, and , where z represents
the vertical displacement of the car box,
is the rotation angle (galloping, pitching) of
the box around the cross section axis
O1 - O1 and is the rotation angle (rolling)
around the longitudinal axis O3 - O3 .
Fig. 1. Diagram for the calculus of the own vibrations of a railway vehicle
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In Figure 1, we also noted: , , i
the displacements of the elastic elements

of the suspension, k the elastic constant of
a spring; I1 i I2 the moments of inertia of
the vehicle box with respect to axes O1 - O1 ,
respectively O3 - O3 ; M vehicle weight.
The differential equations defining own
vibrations are of the form:
Mz = - kz1 + z2 + z3 + z4
I1 = - z1 + z2 kl2 + z3 +z4 kl1
I2 = z2 +z3 ka2 -z1 +z4 ka1
(9)
The full calculus of the own vibrations of

the rolling stock in motion is presented in
paper [1]. All the results of this calculus
depend upon displacements.
2.2.2. Forced vibrations of rail vehicles

We go on with the presentation of forced
vibrations in the case of a vehicle moving
along a railway with dislevelments and
whose values for the rolling wheels are zk1 ,
zk2 , zk3 , respectively zk4 (Figure 2).
The differential equations defining the
forced vibrations of the system take the
form:
z +b1 z+b2 +b3 = A1 -B1 cost-1
+b4 +b5 z+b6 = A2 -B2 cost-2 (10)
+b7 +b8 +b9 z = A3 -B3 cost-1
Fig. 2. Calculus of forced vibrations of a railway vehicle

The values of the coefficients A1, A2, A3,
B1, B2, B3, b1, b2, , b9, and the full calculus
of forced vibrations of the rolling stock are
given in detail in reference [1].
2.2.3. Propagation of vibrations in the
foundation ground
Vibrations are produced by large forces
exerted between rails and wheels. These
forces fluctuate as a consequence of wheel
and rail roughness, in a wide range of
frequencies. Moreover, the distribution of
the axis load, in the trains, produces an

additional excitation force because the axis
passes through a fixed point. This effect
leads to excitations that have frequencies
corresponding to vehicle in traffic
frequencies. Their effect is harmonic, when
the forces corresponding to wheel and rail
roughness possess a period determined by
the vibration wavelength caused by
roughness and the vehicle rolling speed.
The mixed vehicle-rail system is quite
complex and has many own frequencies.
When one of the frequencies of the
disturbing forces corresponds to one of the

own system frequency, a very strong
vibration occurs. Strong vibrations appear
also when one of the frequencies of the
disturbing force or a natural frequency of
the system corresponds to the frequency
which appears when vehicles pass over the
cross ties. Own frequencies are not
dependent upon the rolling speed, while the
frequency occurring when crossing the
cross ties increases proportionally to the
rolling speed. When the rolling speed
increases, a coincidence of frequencies
takes place, the vibration reaches the
maximum value and then it diminishes.
5
333
Hence, vibrations do not constantly grow

with speed and the reduction of the speed
can sometimes worsen the vibrations.
Vibrations propagate from the railway to
the ground as compression waves,
transverse waves and surface waves
(Rayleigh waves). For every kind of wave,
the energy diminishes with the increase of
the distance to the source. This happens
because of the geometrical damping and of
the capacity to absorb energy of the ground.
At least, low frequencies are damped. The
mechanism of the propagation of main
surface railway induced vibrations as
Rayleigh waves is drawn in Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Propagation of vibrations in surface railways
3. Case study
In order to show the effect of vibrations
upon constructions, measurements of
kinematic magnitudes were performed, in
dwelling buildings placed in the vicinity of
the railways.
Measurements were performed with the
help of the PULSE Type 3560-C Portable
Data Acquisition Unit, up to 17 Input
Channels and of the accelerometers
Miniature DeltaTron Types 4507 and 4508.
The results of the measurements have

been processed with the software PULSE
Labshop.
Measurements
concerned
constructions situated at a distance between
10 and 30 meters from the railway. The
measuring device mentioned earlier
measures the accelerations of the
vibrations. The values found and the
software PULSE Labshop were then used to
find the values for speeds, displacements
and frequencies. The effects of the
vibrations upon dwelling buildings in the
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neighbourhood of the railway are also

presented in relevant pictures shot on the
ground.
3.1. Results
For the kinematic values measured, we
calculated vibration intensity level, when
N = 1 and N = 106 cycles.
Apahida commune slow train 5 cars;
distance to the source = 18m (figurile 4, a,
b, c, d).
Fig. 4, a. Accelerations diagram
Fig. 4, b. Velocities diagram
Fig. 4, c. Displacements diagram
3357
Fig. 4, d. Values for amplitudes and frequencies

Calculus of the vibration intensity level, S [no. of vibrations] for N=1
v1
v2
a2
A0
0,1462
0,2166
0,02137
0,04692
99,95
301,4
0,00021
0,00016
0,10
0,10
S
-26,699
-28,078
Calculus of the vibration intensity level, S [no. of vibrations] for N=106
Table 2
0,1462
0,2166
Si 10
Si
1010
0,01462 1,034236832
0,02166 1,051138637
1/N
106
106
1E-06
1E-06
3.2. Relevant pictures

See Figure 5.
4. Conclusions
Following the measurements performed
and the results, we found that the vibrations
intensity level as calculated exceeds the
admissible vibration intensity level.
Consequently, we propose the revision of
existing standards for the admissible values of
vibration intensity as well as the protection
against vibrations of buildings, or, is
necessary, of the rolling way.
0,00214
0,00156
lg AA0
-2,6699
-2,8078
Si a
v1
v2
AA0
Table 1
ni
106
106
lg
6,01462 60,1462
6,02166 60,2166
References
1. Darabon, A., Iorga I., Viteanu, D.,
Simaschevici, H.: ocuri i vibraii:
aplicaii n tehnic (Impacts and
Vibrations: Applications in Technics).
Bucureti. Editura Tehnic, 1988.
2. Esvelt, C.: Modern Railway Track, 2nd
Edition.
Delft,
University
of
Technology, MRT Productions, 2001.
3. Nerianu,
R.:
Studiul
efectelor
duntoare ale sistemelor de transport
asupra construciilor (Study of harmfull
Effects of Transport Systems upon
Constructions) tez de doctorat. 2014.
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Fig. 5. Dwelling building damage due to railway traffic

CONDITIONS REGARDING THE USE OF

ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS IN BASE
ISOLATION
D. OANEA (FEDIUC) 1 M. BUDESCU1
V. M. VENGHIAC1
Abstract: In recent years, base isolation has become one of the most used
methods for the seismic protection of buildings and bridges. Base isolation
systems are used in new structures as well as to secure old buildings.
Base isolation consists of installing a system of mechanisms with the purpose
of "bearings" which provides the separation of the structure from the
infrastructure so that the seismic forces transmitted to the superstructure are
reduced. There are many types of supports, such as: supports with balls, with
rollers placed on two directions, springs, elastomers etc. The elastomeric
bearings reinforced with metal plates are among the most common.
Elastomeric bearings are characterized by high vertical stiffness and low
horizontal stiffness which increase the fundamental period of the seismic
isolated system. The use of elastomeric bearings requires a good knowledge
of their characteristics in order to increase operational safety.
This paper presents the research on some elastomeric bearings with different
characteristics carried out in the laboratories of the Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Building Services from Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iasi.
Key words: structural safety, elastomer characteristics, experimental tests,
seismic action.
1. Introduction
Base isolation consists of installing a
system of bearings which provides the
separation of the structure from the
infrastructure so that the seismic forces
transmitted to the superstructure are
reduced.
The current interest for seismic base
isolation system has greatly increased. The
study of these systems behaviour is of
major importance because this method
provides safety and comfort.
1
There are many types of bearings used in

base isolation, such as: supports with balls,
with rollers placed on two directions,
springs, elastomeric bearings etc. The
elastomeric bearings reinforced with metal
plates are among the most common. The
idea of introducing metal plates as
reinforcement in elastomeric bearings
belongs to the French engineer Eugne
Freyssinet [2].
This paper presents some conditions on
the design of elastomeric bearings and a
series of experimental tests on the
Dept. of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services of Iasi.
338
mechanical properties of elastomers and

elastomeric bearings with different
characteristics.
2. Observations on the
elastomeric bearings
design
of
Specific requirements on the elastomeric

bearings are specified in design codes,
such as: Romanian design code P100-12013 (Section 11), European codes SR EN
1998-1:2004 (Section 10), SR EN 13373:2005 (Section 3) and SR EN
15129:2010, Italian code Ordinanza
3274:2003 (Section 10), American codes
UBC 1997 and FEMA 356:2000 (Section
9), etc.
The parameters which influence the size
and behaviour of elastomeric bearings are:
the load bearing capacity, the vertical
stiffness and the horizontal stiffness.
The studies conducted so far have shown
that a correlation between vertical and
horizontal stiffness must be achieved to
prevent the vertical oscillation discomfort
and swinging phenomenon of the seismic
isolation system.
The ratio between vertical and horizontal
stiffness of the bearing is indicated to
satisfy the condition [12]:
KV
150.
KH
(1)
where: K V is the vertical stiffness of the

bearing, K H is the horizontal stiffness of
the bearing.
Usually, in base isolation design, the
number of bearings required to take over
the vertical loads is determined and the
horizontal stiffness required by the system
to obtain a high fundamental period, which
is the key element to achieve the seismic
base isolation, is taken into account [3].
The correlation between vertical and

horizontal stiffness is sometimes difficult
to implement in terms of relationship (1).
In addition, increasing the lateral
flexibility can lead to high bearings that
may cause stability loss. In such situations,
multi-stage elastomeric bearings may be
used, which provide a stable behaviour at
large lateral displacement compared with
conventional bearings with an equal
volume of elastomer.
The elastomeric bearings design involves
determining the diameter (bearing sides),
the number of layers, the total thickness of
elastomeric layers from bearing, the shear
modulus of elastomer, the area and the
total height of the bearing.
The bearings design is performed
starting from the limitation of compression
normal stress, thus obtaining the required
dimensions. Then, the shape factor of the
bearing S 2 (the ratio between the bearing
diameter and total height of elastomeric
layers from the bearing) is selected and the
bearing height is obtained.
The values of bearing shape factor are
selected greater than 4 to avoid buckling of
the bearing. The diameter (bearing sides)
must be three times larger than the total
height of the bearing to prevent instability
[1].
The isolation system design is achieved
by an equivalent linear or simplified
calculation depending on the fulfilled
conditions provided in norms (P100, EC8).
Under these conditions, the base isolation
design is an iterative process.
Thus, based on the design spectrum, the
required displacement from the bearings
level is determined and checked with the
capable displacement. If this is exceeded,
the bearings are resized and the design
process repeated.
The displacement must be restricted so
that the bearing can carry the vertical
loads. The limit imposed for horizontal
D. OANEA (FEDIUC) et al.: Conditions regarding the use of elastomeric bearings in base
isolation
displacement of the bearing is equal to 0.7

times the total height of elastomeric layers.
The failure of elastomeric bearings may
be caused by the fatigue phenomenon of
the elastomer, breakage or failure of
reinforcement plates, detachment between
the outer metal plates and bearing or
buckling of the bearing [8].
The diameters of the elastomeric
bearings used in base isolation have values
between 200 and 1200 mm depending on
the vertical load bearing capacity. The
thickness of the elastomeric layers is
usually between 8 and 20 mm and the
thickness of metal plates is 2-3 mm.
339
3.1. The elastomers hardness
The determination of hardness was

performed with Zwick/Roell 3114..17
device, Figure 2, according to SR ISO
7619-1:2011 [13].
3. Experimental research to determine

the mechanical characteristics of
elastomers
The experimental tests, performed in the

laboratories of the Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Building Services of Iasi,
were carried out on elastomeric specimens
with different compositions and hardness:
natural rubber/butadiene rubber (NR/ BR),
chloroprene/neoprene rubber (CR), natural
rubber (NR), natural rubber/butadiene
rubber/styrene butadiene rubber and
polyamide/polyethylene fibres (NR/ BR/
SBR+ PA/ PE fibres), Figure 1.
Fig. 2. The Shore hardness tester [4]

The measurement of elastomer hardness
depends on several factors, such as: the
viscoelastic properties of the elastomer, the
elastic modulus, the thickness of the test
sample and the pressure exerted on
elastomer.
The hardness values, obtained for the
four elastomer samples, are shown in
Table 1:
Table 1
The elastomers hardness
Fig. 1. The elastomer specimens [8]

The materials were provided by S.C.
FREYROM S.A., which services in the
fields of: civil engineering, roads, bridges
and rehabilitation of historical monuments.
The laboratory tests on elastomers
consisted in the determination of: hardness,
elastic moduli and their dynamic modulus.
Elastomer
type
Hardness
[Shore A]
CR
NR
BR
SBR
64
65
63
65
3.2. The compression modulus of

elastomers
The aim of this study was to define the

relationship between the compression and
shear modulus, shape factor and hardness
of the elastomers analysing the difference
between the compression modulus
experimentally determined according
340
ASTM D 395-03 [9] and theoretically

determined with the relationships proposed
by Rocard (eq. 2), Gent and Lindley (eq. 3)
and Derham (eq. 4), [4]:
1 k1 S 2
Ec1 3 G
2 S 2 .
2
1 k2 S
(2)
Ec 2 E0 (1 2kS 2 ).
(3)
Ec 3
H 1.9 1 9 S 2
2 S 2 ksi.
2
6700 1 4 S
(4)
where: E c is the compression modulus of

the elastomer;
G - the shear modulus of the elastomer;
k 1 =4.8, k 2 =4 - their values depend on the
variation of the shape factor;
S - the shape factor;
E 0 - is Youngs modulus, E 0 =3G for
unfilled, low-damping elastomers and
E 0 =4G for high-damping elastomers with
carbon black filler;
H the elastomer hardness
ksi - the kilo pound per square inch, 1 ksi =
103 psi 6.89475 MPa.
The results indicated experimental values
of the compression modulus, E c,exp , close
to theoretical values (Table 2), [4].
The compression modulus
Elastomer
type
CR
NR
BR
SBR
E c1
[MPa]
6.82
7.03
6.60
7.03
E c2
[MPa]
7.40
7.75
7.04
7.75
carried out in four cases to analyse the

influence of metal plates: first, the
elastomeric samples were bonded with
epoxy adhesive to metal plates, second, the
elastomeric samples were fixed without
adhesive on two metal plates, third, the
samples have not been provided with
plates and fourth, a thin layer of lubricant
was applied between the elastomeric layer
and the test machine platens, Figure 3, [5].
Fig. 3. The compression test of elastomers

The stress-strain curves of the elastomer
samples are shown in Figures 4 up to 7 [5].
Table 2
E c3
[MPa]
6.35
6.54
6.16
6.54
E c,exp
[MPa]
7.55
7.72
6.53
7.72
In conclusion, many relationships were

developed to determine the compression
modulus, however it is necessary to carry
out experimental tests according to the test
standards to verify the characteristics of
the elastomers [4].
The compression test on elastomers was
Fig. 4. The stress-strain curves of CR
isolation
341
because those materials have different

fillers (PA/PE fibres) [5].
3.3. The shear modulus of elastomers
Fig. 5. The stress-strain curves of NR
The shear moduli of elastomers were

determined according to ASTM D 40142003, Annex A [11]. The shear test was
carried out on four specimens bonded to
metal plates, Figure 8.
Fig. 6. The stress-strain curves of BR

Fig. 8. The shear test of elastomer [7]
The values of shear modulus are
presented in Table 3:
The shear modulus
Fig. 7. The stress-strain curves of SBR

The compression modulus of elastomers
was determined according to SR EN 13372006 [14].
Following laboratory tests, it was found
that the highest values of the compression
modulus were obtained in the case when
the specimens were bonded to metal plates,
thus the role of reinforcement of the
elastomers used in base isolation bearings
was
highlighted.
The
NR
and
NR/BR/SBR+PA/PE fibres have the same
hardness, but different values of the
compression modulus were obtained
Elastomer
type
G [MPa]
Table 3
CR
NR
BR
SBR
0.9
0.87
1.1
0.96
The shear modulus depends on the

elastomer composition and the amount of
filler materials. In the case of elastomers
with the same hardness, NR and
NR/BR/SBR+ PA/PE fibres, the shear
moduli have different values due to the
different chemical composition [7].
In conclusion, the hardness is not a
sufficient indicator of elastomer quality or
performance, although it is easy to
measure. In the scientific literature, the
values of elastomer moduli in compression
and shear are given only as information in
terms of hardness [7].
342
3.4. The dynamic modulus of elastomers
According to ASTM D 945-92, the

specimens made of two elastomer samples
bonded between parallel metal plates were
used to determine the dynamic shear
modulus [10].
The method to determine the dynamic
characteristics consists in compressing the
elastomer specimen, allowing free
vibrations and pursuing the material
behaviour at different loads and
frequencies, Figure 9 [6].
The experimental test consisted in

measuring the compression and shear
modulus and the vertical and horizontal
stiffness of an elastomeric bearing.
The tested elastomeric bearings had
100x100 mm plane dimensions and
consisted of 6 elastomer layers with 8 mm
thickness interspersed with metal plates
with 95x95 mm plane dimensions and 3
mm thickness. The outer metal plates have
8 mm thickness, Figure 10.
Fig. 10. The elastomeric bearing
Fig. 9. The equipment for the dynamic test

The elastomers are viscoelastic materials
and have a phase angle between the
applied sinusoidal force and the resulting
strain between 0 and 90. The phase angle
between the action and response occurs
due to the damping characteristics of the
material.
Considering that the dynamic shear
properties of the viscoelastic materials
depend on the excitation frequency, the
temperature of the material and
environment, the amplitude of stress and
strain, the most effective method for
estimating these parameters is to carry out
experimental tests [6].
4. Experimental research to determine
the mechanical characteristics of
elastomeric bearings
The compression force applied on the

elastomeric bearing had the value of 60 kN
and the horizontal displacement was 0.7
times the elastomer layers thickness,
Figure 11.
Fig. 11. The elastomeric bearing

displacement
The force-displacement curves of the
elastomeric bearings are shown in Figure
12.
The elastic moduli values and the
isolation
stiffness of the elastomeric bearing are

presented in Table 4.
G
[MPa]
0.58
KH
[N/mm]
117.04
Ec
[MPa]
35.62
343
KV
[N/mm]
7186.95
The elastic moduli and the stiffness of the

bearing
Table 4
Fig. 12. The force-displacement curves of elastomeric bearings

5. Conclusion
This paper presents some principles and

observations on base isolation design, on
elastomeric bearings, for structures located
in seismic areas. These observations are
backed up by a series of experimental
researches carried out in the laboratories of
the Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Building Services from Gheorghe
Asachi Technical University of Iasi.
The experimental tests were performed
on elastomers made available by the S.C.
FREYROM S.A. company. Therefore, four
types of elastomers were tested: natural
rubber/ butadiene rubber (NR/BR),
chloroprene/ neoprene rubber (CR), natural
rubber (NR), natural rubber/ butadiene
rubber/ styrene butadiene rubber and
polyamide/
polyethylene
fibres
(NR/BR/SBR+PA/PE fibres).
The best compression and shear
behaviour of the elastomers was obtained
in the case of NR/BR/SBR+PA/PE fibres,
due to the fillers which improve the
mechanical properties of elastomers.
Base isolation, as a protection method to

seismic actions, in addition to an analysis
of elastomers, involves a careful study of
the bearing location to avoid dysfunctions,
such as high flexibility of the bearing, with
effects on the sway of structure, the loss of
lateral stability and the allowable
maximum displacement which is very
often neglected.
References
1. Ahmed, M.S.: Buildings with Base

Isolation Techniques. Canada. Civil
Engineering Department - Ryerson
University, 2012.
2. Kelly, J.M., Konstantinidis, D.A.:
Mechanics of Rubber Bearings for
Seismic and Vibration Isolation. United
Kingdom. Wiley, 2011.
3. Oanea (Fediuc), D., Budescu, M.,
Venghiac, V.M., et al.: Observations
on the Design of Elastomeric Bearings
in
Used
Base
Isolation.
In:
Proceedings of the 11th International
Symposium, Ed. Societii Academice
344
4.
5.
6.
7.
Matei-Teiu Botez, Iai, Romnia,

May 2013, p. 75-82.
Oanea (Fediuc), D., Budescu, M.,
Fediuc, V., et al.: Compression
Modulus of Elastomers. In: Bulletin of
the Polytechnic Institute of Iai (2013)
Tomul LIX (LXIII), Fasc. 2, p. 157166.
Venghiac, V.M.: The Behaviour under
Compression of Elastomers Used in
Base Isolation Bearings. In: Bulletin
of the Polytechnic Institute of Iai
(2013) Tomul LIX (LXIII), Fasc. 6, p.
119-125.
Venghiac, V.M.: The Determination of
Dynamic Properties of Elastomers
Used
in
Base
Isolation.
In:
Proceedings of the C60 International
Conference, Ed. U.T. PRESS, ClujNapoca, Romnia, November 2013, p.
155-157.
Venghiac, V.M., et al.: The Shear
Modulus of elastomers used in base
isolation. In: Proceedings of the 14th
International Scientific Conference
VSU2014, Sofia, Bulgaria, June 2014,
p. 240-246.
8. Yoon, H., Kwahk, I.J., Kim, Y.J.: A

Study on the Ultimate Performances of
Elastomeric Bearings in Korea. In:
Journal of Civil Engineering 17 (2013)
No. 2, p. 438-449.
9. *** ASTM D 395-2003 (2008):
Standard Test Methods for Rubber
PropertyCompression Set1.
10. *** ASTM D 945-92: Standard Test
Methods for Rubber Properties in
Compression or Shear (Mechanical
Oscillograph).
11. *** ASTM D 4014-2003: Standard
Specification for Plain and SteelLaminated Elastomeric Bearings for
Bridges, Annex A1: Determination of
Shear Modulus.
12. *** P100-1-2006: Cod de proiectare
seismic Partea I Prevederi de
proiectare pentru cldiri.
13. *** SR ISO 7619-2011: Rubber,
Vulcanized or Thermoplastic
Determination of Identation Hardness,
Part 1: Durometer Method (Shore
Hardness).
14. *** SR EN 1337-2005: Aparate de
reazem pentru structure. Partea 3:
Aparate de reazem din elastomeri.

IMPLEMENTATION OF MECHANISTIC
EMPIRICAL PAVEMENT DESIGN GUIDE
ME-PDG IN ROMANIA
E-L. PLESCAN 1
C. PLESCAN1
Abstract: This paper describes the most important aspects of the

implementation of Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide MEPDG method, developed in United States. After a short presentation of the
advantages of this method, in comparison with actual ones used in roads
design practice, the main concepts and criteria of this method are described
in detail. The specific climatic and traffic conditions of Romania public road
network, characterized by sever winters and very hot summers, are tacked
into consideration at creation of specific climatic and traffic database that is
proposed. Finally specific recommendations for implementation of the
methodology in Romania are considered.
Key words: pavement structural design, concrete pavement, long lasting
rigid pavements- LLR, traffic loading, climate conditions.
1. Introduction
There is an attempt to harmonize the
design method of pavement structures at
the European level by taking into account
the traffic loads and the climatic conditions
existing in Europe, as well as the new
types of pavement structures [1].
Pavement engineers are continually
looking for an effective analytical tool to
assist in analysing pavement structures,
taking into consideration the in-service
condition of the road. Such a tool will
facilitate the establishment of a
performance-based design, capable of
extending the service life of roads. An
ideal design tool consists of a structural
model capable of predicting the state of
stresses and strains within the pavement
structure under the action of traffic and
1
environmental loading. To carry out such

analysis effectively, the design tool should
be equipped with material models capable
of capturing the mechanistic response of
the various materials used to construct the
road structure. Such a model is considered
a mechanistic model [2].
The concept of sensitivity can be defined
function of various parameters that are
taken into consideration at the structural
design of pavements: traffic loads, climate
conditions, failure criteria and design life.
The objective of pavement design is to
select pavement features, such as slab
thickness,
joint
dimensions,
and
reinforcement
and
load
transfer
requirements, which will economically
meet the needs and conditions of a specific
paving project.
Department of Civil engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.
346
Our research activity is based on a

comparative study, which aims to examine
various structural design methods for rigid
pavement, currently used in road practices,
and to identify the parameters that
significantly influence their sensitivity. In
addition to the issues presented above, a
study regarding the implementation and
the development in the specific traffic and
climatic conditions of Romania (severe
winters and hot summers), and a new
design method for rigid pavement is
proposed.
Traditionally, concrete pavement design
has focused on slab thickness. A more
integrated approach to pavement design
considers all components of the pavement
system (Figure 1) that affect performance.
Pavement performance is generally
described in terms of structural and
functional performance [2]:
Structural performance of concrete
pavements is influenced by many factors,
including design-related variables for
structural
Fig. 1. Components of the pavement system

Performance at a given level of
traffic is slab thickness, reinforcement,
concrete strength, elastic modulus, and
support conditions.
Functional
performance
is
thought to consist of ride quality and
surface friction, although other factors
such as noise and geometrics may also
come into play. Functional distress is
generally represented by a degradation of a
pavements driving surface that reduces
ride quality.
Nowadays, the new structural design
methods for pavements are adopting a
more integrated approach, which considers
key pavement features as well as durable
concrete mixtures, constructability issues,
and it is reflected in the long-life pavement
concepts. This integrated approach can
also be observed in the thickness
determination concepts incorporated into
the Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical
Design of New and Rehabilitated
Pavement Structures [3].
2. Mechanistic Empirical Pavement

Design Method
The new design methodology, commonly
termed
the
Mechanistic-Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (M-E PDG), is

based on mechanistic-empirical principles.
Structural responses (i.e., stresses, strains
and deflections) are mechanistically
calculated (using multilayer elastic theory
or finite element methods) for given
material
properties,
environmental
E-L. PLESCAN et al.: Implementation Of Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide

Me-Pdg In Romania
347
conditions, and loading characteristics.

Thermal and moisture distributions are
also mechanistically determined. These
responses are used as inputs to empirical
models
for
predicting
permanent
deformation, fatigue cracking (bottom-up
and top-down), thermal cracking, and
roughness [4].
A benefit of M-E analysis is that it
predicts specific distress types as a
function of time or traffic. Cracking,
faulting, and changes in smoothness are
estimated. Threshold values for each
distress type are input by the designer
based on experience, policy, or risk
tolerance.
Structural response model to

compute critical responses;
Performance models or transfer
functions to predict pavement
performance over the design life;
Performance criteria to set
objective goals by which the
pavement performance will be
judged;
Design reliability and variability.
M-E design procedures typically start with
a trial design with an initial set of inputs.
The inputs are fed into structural models to
predict pavement responses of interest to
the design process.
The choice of the critical responses to be
Figure 2. Design chart for ME-PDG

[3]
evaluated is directly related to the

performance indicators of interest
pavement distresses, smoothness, and so
onto the design procedure being adopted
[4].
The major components of the mechanisticempirical pavement design are as follows:

InputsMaterials, traffic, climate,
structure;
348
3. The advantages of mechanisticempirical

pavement
design
procedure
The basic advantages of a
mechanistic-empirical pavement design
procedure over empirical approaches are as
follows [3]:
Direct consideration of axle
types, tire types and pressure, axle weights,
and changing traffic load types (also ability
to consider special loadings);
A better utilization of available
materials (often substandard materials);
The ability to accommodate new
materials;
The improvement of reliability of
design for design extrapolation;
More
consideration
of
construction effects and variations;
Material properties that relate
better to actual pavement behaviour and
performance;
An improved definition of
existing pavement layer properties;
Direct consideration of seasonal
and aging effects on materials and designs;
More adequate consideration of
rigid pavement joints, reinforcements, base
course support, and thermal/moisture
effects on slab curling;
Direct consideration of key
distress types as primary performance
indicators.
Based on the discussion presented, it
is obvious that adopting a mechanistic
approach for pavement design will help
agencies adapt better to the ever-changing
highway environment among other
advantages.
The major components of the
mechanistic-empirical pavement design are
as follows:
InputsMaterials,
traffic,
climate, structure;
Structural response model to

compute critical responses;
functions to predict pavement
performance over the design life;
Performance criteria to set
objective goals by which the pavement
performance will be judged;
Design reliability and variability.
4. Implementation of ME-PDG in
Romania
The Mechanistic Empirical Pavement
Design Guide (MEPDG) is a significant
advancement in pavement design, but
requires significantly more inputs from
designers. Many data sets need to be preprocessed before their use in the MEPDG
procedure, such as Weigh-In-Motion
(WIM) traffic data [6].
The adoption of the M-E PDG by
Romanian
will
have
significant
ramifications for material testing and
pavement
design
procedures.
The
mechanistic-empirical procedures upon
which the ME- PDG is based will require
greater quantity and quality of input data in
four major categories: traffic; material
characterization
and
properties;
environmental influences; and pavement
response and distress models. The new
M-E PDG provides agencies the greatest
possible flexibility for applying and
calibrating the design procedures to local
conditions and approaches. Local material
properties and traffic characteristics in
particular are expected to receive
significant attention. Local calibration of
distress prediction models is also being
considered by many agencies. The
Romanian agencies will need to evaluate
the quality and quantity of existing
historical data for use in the new
procedures. This will undoubtedly require
establishment of a data collection program
to ensure that any gaps in current material,
E-L. PLESCAN et al.: Implementation Of Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide

Me-Pdg In Romania
349
traffic, environmental, and other data are

addressed during the implementation of the
new M-E PDG [4].
In table 1 is presented a summary of
proposed
ME-PDG
implementation
activities.

functions to predict pavement performance
over the design life.
Table 1. Summary of proposed MEPDG implementation activities

No.
Activity
1
Compile existing Romanian WIM
data
2
Collect supplementary traffic data
3
Develop catalogue of typical traffic
load spectra for the New M-E
Pavement Design Guide
4
Romanian Climate Data for the New
M-E Pavement Design Guide
5
Develop procedure for better
reflecting benefits of M-E design
procedure
6
Compile existing unbound MR data
7
Catalogue of Material Properties for
Pavement
Design1
8
Develop database of PCC design
input data
9
Evaluate suitability of Romanian
PMS data for local calibration of ME PDG
10 Perform local calibration of M-E
PDG
11 Develop M-E design criteria
12 Monitor/evaluate future M-E PDG
enhancements and software releases
Performance criteriato set

objective goals by which the pavement
performance will be judged.
The
corresponding
major
components
to
implement
this
mechanistic-empirical pavement design
methodology are [6]:
Inputstraffic,
materials, others.
climate,
Pavement response modelsto

compute critical responses.
Design
reliability
and
variabilityto add a margin of safety for
the design.
Softwareto implement the

mechanistic-empirical
models
and
calculations in a usable form.
Currently, the MEPDG includes
empirical distress models that have to been
calibrated using a national database. Most
of the data used for the national calibration
were obtained from the Long Term
Pavement Performance (LTPP). It is
therefore necessary that calibration of the
MEPDG models be undertaken using local
pavement condition data. In order to
successfully calibrate and validate the
MEPDG procedure to local conditions,
pavement performance data are required.
The process involves the replacement of
the of the national calibration coefficients
in the empirical distress prediction models
with values more suited to local
conditions. The calibration process usually
requires the selection and identification of
a set of experimental pavement sections;
MEPDG inputs, such as traffic,
environment, and material properties, can
be well quantified and for which a history
of pavement performance data, such as
rutting, fatigue cracking, and roughness,
are available. All of the above mentioned
pavement distresses need to be calibrated
to local conditions. Studies have shown
that local calibration of the MEPDG
procedures can be very beneficial in
improving
pavement
performance
predictions for local conditions [7].
Database tables proposed for the
implementation of the new ME-PDG
350
method for pavement design are as

follows:
General tables;
Traffic tables;
Climate data;
Water table depth;
Elevation;
Material:
asphalt
concrete,
Portland cement concrete, stabilized base,
unbound, subgrade and bedrock.
Conclusion
The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement
Design Guide (MEPDG) is an
overwrought method for pavement
distress, but it is computationally difficult
to evaluate.
Analyses requiring large numbers of
MEPDG evaluations, such as sensitivity
analysis and design optimization, become
impractical due to the computational
expense. These applications are important
in achieving robust, reliable, and costeffective pavement designs.
The adoption of the M-E PDG for
Romanian pavement design will have
significant ramifications for material
testing and pavement design procedures.
The mechanistic-empirical procedures
upon which the M-E PDG is based will
require greater quantity and quality of
input data in four major categories: traffic;
material characterization and properties;
environmental influences; and pavement
response and distress models. The new ME PDG provides agencies the greatest
possible flexibility for applying and
calibrating the design procedures to local
conditions and approaches.
References
[1] Elena Loredana Puslau,

Studies concerning the
sensitivity of various structural
design methods of rigid

pavements, The Young
European Arena of Research,
2010
[2] Peter C. Taylor, Steven H.
Kosmatka, Gerald F. Voigt, et
al. Integrated Materials and
Construction Practices for
Concrete Pavement: A State-ofthe-Practice Manual Federal
Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C., 2007, pp. 722
[3] Introduction To MechanisticEmpirical Design of New and
Rehabilitated Pavements,
National Highway Institute,
March 2002
[4] Charles W. Schwartz,
Implementation of the NCHRP
1-37A Design Guide, Final
Report, University of Maryland,
2007
[5] Andrei R., Boboc V., Puslau E.,
Boboc A., Actual status and
implementation of the risk
management on roads in
Romania, International
PIARC Seminar on Managing
Operational Risk on Roads,
2009
[6] Osman Ali, Evaluation of the
Mechanistic Empirical
Pavement Design Guide
(NCHRP 1-37A), 2005
[7] George
Dzotepe,
Khaled
Ksaibati, Implementation of
the
Pavement
Design
Guide
(MEPDG), 2010

INTEGRATED DESIGN, THE SOLUTION

FOR SAVING TIME, ENERGY,
RESOURCES AND CO 2
C. POPA 1
Abstract: The following article present the current problems a structural
engineering office is facing, which are the short delivery time for the project
and the required reduction of required material. The current practice is
analysed, the modern approach is described and in the end the risks and
costs of this change are analysed.
Key words: BIM, Interoperability, CAD/CAE, Parameters, Optimization.
1. Introduction
The current market requires the delivery
of cost-efficient structures in very little
time.
A structural engineer is judged by the
efficiency of his design which is translated
into the bill of material he actually has to
provide before finishing the project.
In the traditional method a simplified
calculating with the most safe and
overestimating methods and interpolation
between similar projects can result in large
uncompetitive quantities.
This traditional approach can lead to
losing the contract in case another designer
can bid with lower quantities.
The reason for this rush from the
investors comes from the fact that they
need to do a loan from the bank in most
situations and the more the construction
process take, the more interest the banks
apply to the loan, thus reducing the
profitability of the investment.
Another problem of the traditional
design methods are the site modifications
1
which appear due to the lack of

cooperation between disciplines.
The average waste of materials on a
traditional site sums up to 30% of the total
of material ordered.
This problem affects more than just the
investors and the final beneficiaries but
also our planet.
The construction industry is responsible
for creating more than 40% of the total
CO2 production.
2. BIM, more than a concept?
Charles Eastman first used the term
Building Product Model in his papers and
book in the late 1970s. [1]
Mechanics of Structure, Tehnical University of Civil Engineering
352
software in order to permit this workflow

based on software operability. Thus open
BIM was created along with the IFC file
format.
Software providers that intended to be
part of this association had to obtain a
certification for the data exchange (import
and export).
3. Nemetschek, a BIM solution before
BIM was invented
Fig. 1. Eastman C., Building Product

Models: Computer Environments
Supporting Design and Construction, CRC
Press, Boca Raton FL (1999).
The term BIM, which stands for
Building Information Modelling, was first
coined by Jerry Laiserin, an A/E/C
industry analyst and editor of the Laiserin
Letter. He defines BIM as Building
Information modelling is a process of
representation,
which
creates
and
maintains multidimensional, data-rich
views throughout project lifecycle. [2]
The objectives of BIM are the following:
Communication
Collaboration
Simulation
Optimization
In order to apply this concept in 1995 a
private alliance was created which
implemented a standard for CAE and CAD
The future of building lies in the

concerted interaction of those involved in
the network
Prof. Georg Nemetschek
Nemetschek Allplan used an integrated
working method before BIM was
introduced into the building industry.
It came as a software program which
works on a single unique 3D model for
which every discipline had a few modules
with specific functions.
For examples the architects used
architectural elements, the structural
engineers provided the 3D reinforcement
and the HVAC engineer introduced all the
required elements for heating/cooling,
ventilation, electrical.
After the 3D model is completed it can be
checked for collisions between elements
and corrected, the exact quantities can be
automatically obtained.
The execution plans are obtained by
generating associative views of the 3D
model which can be automatically updated
in case changes occur.
All the correlations are done in 3D no
need for overlapping plans and doing the
same modifications by every participant.
When everything is approved by the
checkers and the investors the project will
be ready for building, having all quantities
calculated and every detail created.
C. POPA: Integrated design, the solution for saving time, energy, resources and CO2
Fig. 2. Accessing information in different ways; BIM made by Allplan

3.1. Structural model to analysis model
A major challenge for the structural
engineer is to be able to calculate the 3D
model designed by architect and update in
with the new information and modify it
should changes occur.
The problem in this field is the fact that
CAD programs work with volumes, while
CAE programs work with analysis lines.
An operation of aligning this calculation
axes is required to be able to do the
conversion from Structural
Model
(Architectural Model) to Analysis Model
(FEM Model).
This process is called Round-trip
Engineering and can be done, for
example, between Allplan and Scia
Engineer via a set of tool that belong to a
special module called BIM ToolBox.
Fig.3. Joining close axis in nodes
353
354
Fig.7. Align to slab planes globally

Fig.4. Align elements to 2D elements
reference plains
Fig.8. Inputting the maximum angle

between plates.
Fig.5. Align elements to User Coordinate
System
Fig.6. Align elements to beam local

coordinates system
3.2. Advanced FEM calculation methods

Linear calculation The calculation is
done on initial geometry and efforts and
strains have an elastic distribution.
Non-Linear calculation Here 3 types
of non-linearity can be considered:
Geometric non-linearity the
calculation is done on the
deformed shape, second order
effects
are
taken
into
consideration.
Material non-linearity the
efforts and strain have plastic
distribution, also plastic hinges
can be inputted
Local non-linearity where certain
elements are design to have a

special stiffness matrix. Good
examples can be tensors, which
are design to take only tension,
or relaxation of cables, which
can be model with a gap. Cables
also require special FEM
elements that take in account the
changes in geometry in order to
develop only pure tension.
Types of local non-linearity
Table 1
3.3. Interpretation of results

After running any of the described above
methods results obtain results which are
reaction, nodal displacements, tensions,
strains, efforts on 1D/2D elements.
With these results the traditional
structural engineer has to peak up the
combinations for each element and run his
own design sheet to do the checks specific
for each material with regard to the current
design codes.
This traditional approach where the
designer programs his own calculation
forms in Excel/Mathcad/MatLab has the
advantage that the designer has to have a
355
good comprehension of the design code

and will always know where the input data
has to be placed.
However, there is a major drawback to
this method which is the required time and
the large grouping of elements.
The designer has to do grouping
according to mean efforts and has to
choose a few sections on the mean element
and check with a number of combination.
The alternative is using the design
software full capability. This means using
the implemented checks according to code
for all elements and then takes some
design decision based on unity checks
diagram instead of analysing effort
diagrams.
An example for this approach is the
optimization of a steel hall beam.
In this situation we can select a profile
for the span area and the for the beam
endings we can choose a hunch based on
the moment diagram. We can optimise to
be close to a unity check and we know all
the sectional and stability maximum unity
check at a glance.
The drawback of this method is the fact
that the user has to have a good
comprehension of the design codes and
also has to have professional training in
using the software. Otherwise the output
dimensions are as correct as his input data.
Another aspect might be the fact that the
software producer may have his own
priorities into developing checks for every
country and we may not find a certain
check implemented yet.
To solve this problem Scia Engineer
adopted a strategy called Open Design.
Basically the developed a software called
Scia Design Forms which gives the
engineer full programing power with all
needed tools and without special
programing skills. Also they bring
databases of materials, bolts, user interface
and most important direct integration with
the FEM Analysis software.
356
Fig.8. Unity check for a hunched beam according to SR EN 1993-1

So the user can program a check that he
can find in a scientific study and obtain a
graphical representation of unity checks.
This custom check can also be available
in the final engineering report, and is
automatically updated should changes
occur in the model.
3.4. Structure optimization
There are 3 levels of optimization: [3]
I) Cross-section optimization of
element
Fig.9. Cross-section optimization

according to material type
II) Global Optimisation

III) Engineering Optimization
Template: Advanced
Parametric Optimization
The basic level optimization is the crosssection optimization.
The second level of optimization can be
applied to a group of elements (columns,
beams, bracings) and becomes very useful
when working with static undetermined
structures where changing a member affects
the moment distribution.
The second level of optimization can use
all the available tools displayed for the first
level optimization.
The third level of optimization implies
using parameter that can define numerous
attributes: it can define node geometry,
force values, stiffness values, load position
points and basically and information that is
usually manually inputted can be replaced
with parameters.
These parameters can be independent or
dependent through user defined formulas.
The user can define the variation range
and the step of increment and the software
will generate through its genetic algorithms
random values that will converge on the
solution. As result the software can modify
the shape of a structure in order to minimise
mass.
357
Fig.10. Advanced auto design, where a group elements can be optimised according to
slenderness ratios inputted by the user.
Fig.11. Defining a models parameters
358
proper training, these modern techniques

can be applied with great success.
Acknowledgments
Fig.12. Defining a value generation

strategy, an objective and additional
restrictions.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the developments in
technology have to embrace with caution.
Software will never be able to replace an
engineer and the engineer has to see the
software as only a tool that saves him time.
The results are highly dependent on user
input, and the user is the only one
responsible for his own project.
However,
if
there
is
enough
responsibility and experience along with
Pictures from chapter 2 are taken from

Nemetschek Internal Manual entitled:
BIM made by Allplan.
All pictures in chapter 3 are screenshots
from Scia Engineer software.
References
1. C., E. (1999). Eastman C. Building
Product
Models:
Computer
Environments Supporting Design and
Construction. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
P. 1-2.
2. Nemetschek manual: BIM made by
Allplan
3. Popa C., Advanced parametric
optimization
AICPS
Review,
Romania, May 2014, p.150-158.

PNEUMATIC AIR SPRINGS FOR

RAILWAY VEHICLES
G. POPA 1
C. N. BADEA 2
A. BADEA 3
Abstract: The pneumatic springs are used in different applications in order

to eliminate vibrations and shocks (suspension vehicles and equipment) as
actuators machinery, producing shocks and vibrations (presses, pneumatic
hammers, looms, etc.). The pneumatic spring consists of a pliable rubberreinforced metal elements fixed on or within the composite which is air which
normally acts as a damping spring. In the generally the upper and lower steel
elements are attached to the frame, so that not replaced. Besides comfort, has
the advantage of allowing the vehicle to change the height depending on the
dynamic stresses to which the material is subjected rolling stock. Diaphragm
pneumatic actuators springs are easy to install and secure, thanks to their
elasticity and flexibility, which allows a large vertical displacement. The
metal plate fixation can be of two types: conical or crimped. When fixing the
conical top plate is embedded in the membrane pressure; replacement of the
latter can be reused. Attaching crimped arc prevents breakage from extreme
stress; the upper plate is fixed through crimping on the edges of the
membrane. The main advantages of Pneumatic springs are allowing internal
pressure variation to provide a high level of comfort while driving. It also
allows the vehicle height control box to the path, or keeping constant load
variation or change it automatically by dynamic loads occurring during the
movement. Thanks to the special conformation of the pneumatic spring type
circumvolut (Figure 5) and the structure characteristic of the pneumatic
spring with a reduced height to obtain a high run. Maintaining the operating
conditions, reducing wear, achieving long operating period of the suspension
system is determined by the operating conditions and the quality of the
components which are included in the railway vehicle suspension.
Key words: circumvolut, wear, stress tension, air suspension
1. Introduction
A railway vehicle will travel easily
loaded with a reduced air pressure in the
Pneumatic springs (Fig. 1), while a heavy
loaded vehicle will require a high pressure.
Changing Pneumatic pressure springs from
a low level at high one is automatic
1
Politehnica University Bucureti.

Politehnica University Bucureti.
3
Military Technical University Bucureti.
2
through special valve sensors. They are

made of natural rubber or neoprene, with
temperatures between - 40 and + 65 C,
Pneumatic springs can function as
actuators, at a pressure of max. 7 bar,
racing with up to 225 mm, as well as
vibration isolators.
Another detail concerns the stationary
360
periods, lower or higher depending on

planned activities that negatively affect the
suspension characteristics of the rolling
stock (engine traction motor or trailer).
The suspension characteristics and
proper functioning of this system can
affect other parts of the railway vehicle
reliability. A suspension spring, with good
cushioning and shock and vibration
attenuation significantly reduce tire wear
and fatigue fracture decreases the number
of parts of locomotives and wagons
subassemblies.
It is necessary to make a comparative
analysis of classical solutions and solutions
to improve, on the one hand in terms of
static behavior by studying the effects of
loading on stress and strain states to
establish the critical phenomena using
finite element analysis and dynamic
behavior by development of functional
models. At the same time, the essence of
stress analysis by finite element
deformable body is the replacement or
actual content through an articulated
structure whose subregions are called finite
elements which are actually parts of that
body.
The direction application of force is the
vertical value -6000 N on both surfaces.
The same boundary conditions were
applied to other constructive solutions
analyzed. The analysis results are
presented as 3D charts the colors represent
the quantities studied. The quantities
studied for structural analysis stresses
(Tresca and von Mises criteria),
displacements and deformations. In
practice it is found that fracture critical
areas correspond to those found in the
analysis.
The trend of improvement in equipment
that participate in the running is to increase
traffic speed in maximum safety
conditions, particularly the economic
motivations as this will lead to more
customers who want to move or to
transport goods quickly and safely and

long distance. On the other side, by
increasing the speed of movement of
railway vehicles is a change of regime
vibrations due to different speed bumps
going through the same, that is a change of
excitation in the contact wheel - rail, which
is manifested by regime increase her level
of vibration that favor such transfer of load
between the two wheels of the same axle,
thus amplifying the vibration of the vehicle
emphasizing the negative safe running.
According to the Nadal's relationship
guide relationship between force and axle
load must not be shorter than certain
values not permissible according to traffic
data in the tread or more switches, values
derived from measurements made in
within the Committees ORE B 55 and B
136.
In order to reduce level of these
vibrations at high speeds of movement, it
is necessary to adopt appropriate
constructive technical solutions to be able
to maintain the acceptable limits of safety
and comfort parameters in accordance with
international standards mentioned above.
2. The pneumatic springs
The air suspension springs (Fig. 3) are
used with force and energy absorber role
due to thermodynamic transformations in
air suspension air but also have a role to
maintain the vehicle at a height desired
box especially on the platform. The springs
are also used rubber that rely on rubber
hysteretic nature, thus having also an
energy absorber. As a leading technology
in countries with tradition in terms of
railways have developed several variants
based on the heating pad that uses
electromagnetic
characteristics
of
components running the MAGLEV
solution, thus eliminating contact between
the fixed and the mobile part of the
dynamic system which was responsible for
G. POPA et al.: Pneumatic Air Springs For Railway Vehicles
generating vibration during runs.

During the driving movement, the
vehicle is subjected to the action of
vibrating pulses, with adverse effects on
the quality of work. The vehicle responds
to impulses generated in the process of
running through the suspension, which is
intended to mitigate the effect of
acceptable values. A source of vibration in
rail vehicles is the irregularity of the track
vertical and transverse discontinuities and
the joints (Fig. 2). By the fixing ride of
both two wheels on the same axle and
inverted taper of tread cause hunting of the
axle movement that sprung mass of the
vehicle forward. Wheel defects that
eccentricity and flatness of the running
surfaces are also important sources of
vibration.
For provide the passenger comfort
vibration and integrity of goods
transported and vehicle construction
depends crucially on the quality of the
vehicle suspension. With the suspension
depends on the ability to isolate the vehicle
from disturbing impulses arising in the
axle rolling about, in the vertical direction
and transverse. The suspension of the
railway vehicle must ensure a stable and
dynamic behavior going straight and stable
dynamics behavior with little guiding force
when passing through curves.
The suspension should help to decrease
the mutual forces between the vehicle and
the path, keeping them within the limits
determined by the traffic safety and the
need to ensure protection of both the
rolling and tread. Walking in curved
centrifugal forces cleared box moving
vehicle and bowed transverse spring
suspension, there is a danger leaving the
overall. On vehicles that do not have
special
devices
cant
deficiency
compensation path, this function is
performed by the vehicle suspension. This
compensation is also required for limiting
the transverse acceleration so as to ensure
361
comfort when running in curves, and the

changes in wheel load.
The traction vehicles, axle load
variations due to wheel vibration and mode
of transmission of traction force and thus
influence adhesion weight of vehicle
traction performance. The suspension
should help reduce these load variations
through appropriate design solution, but
that does not jeopardize the quality of the
vehicle running. In addition to the
suspension to dampen shocks and
vibrations have longitudinal velocity
variation caused by walking, to start
braking and maneuvering.
3. The functional modeling constructive
suspensions. Comparative analysis of
conventional rolling stock suspension
This model allows the simulation of the
effects of elasticity and damping change
oppress finding values for these quantities.
It is also possible to test the system
response to certain unevenness of the road
surface. For this model was introduced for
calculating block fuction force generated
by a pneumatic cylinder used to the role of
shock absorber.
The first measurement practice bench
suspension incurred for the design of sheet
springs and brackets, the second
measurement was performed for the design
of air springs. The last measurement was
performed dynamic, bench suspended for
the design classic.
On the vehicles with variable load
suspension must provide an arrow in the
task buffer height limits. However, if the
suspension is not progressive type, then
change the static arrow leads to
diminishing opportunities for vibration
isolation and thus worsening the quality of
work. The suspension is made up of elastic
elements and damping elements connected.
These elements are mounted, according
to the construction of the vehicle, between
362
within bogie and the running gear, between

the running gear and the vehicle box,
between within bogie and the railway
vehicle box.
The elastic suspension elements are
metal (steel), rubber or pneumatic (Fig.4).
These are designed to accumulate some
energy vibration and then play it in time,
thereby reducing dynamic loads acting on
the sprung mass and unsprung vehicle. The
connecting elements consist of clocks,
rings or straps carts, tee, etc. Links
pendulum swing form, like rings or straps
connecting the leaf springs with spring
supports the stringers bogie or vehicle box,
fulfill the role of elastic elements, taking
transverse and longitudinal shocks. The
longitudinal balancer arches or transverse
suspensions are widely used in the
construction of locomotives.
The conjugation of the springs by
balancer arches makes load springs to
maintain a constant ratio, and their result to
be permanent at the same point, called
fictitious point suspension. In the
suspension study, the group of the tee joint
springs may be replaced by an equivalent
spring placed in the notional point of
suspension. Suspended weight of the
vehicle is considered supported by actual
suspension points without rocking, and the
points fictional suspension. The damper
vibrations, the resistant forces that create,
dissipates vibration energy and contribute
to their depreciation. Rail vehicles used in
general hydraulic and friction dampers.
Leaf springs, rubber and pneumatic
fulfill his role of damping elements. The
number of combinations of elastic
elements working in series (stage
suspension), suspension can be single,
double, triple or even quadruple.
4. Conclusions
It was found that no matter how wellchosen dimensions, weight and other
features of the vehicle, can not completely

remove the shocks. Thus, to protect
passengers and cargo from shocks required
several aspects to ensure smooth
movement of rolling stock. Moreover,
another aspect of which must be taken into
account is the fact that the oscillations
caused by the railway vehicle, both the
longitudinal and angular would be even
greater, should be as small wheelbase.
Therefore, a longer wheelbase the
springs reactions will be equal if the
masses are distributed evenly.
It was also found that the length of the
wheelbase of the vehicle does not result in
smooth movement of the rail without the
existence of an appropriate suspension and
the suspension is best ensured by one of
the following types of springs that sheet,
coil, torsion bar (provided that the
diameter of the wire that runs bow section
rods, sheets the correct length, proper
placement of the front wheel the springs
and suspension joints to rolling stock). The
property also have very soft springs is
mainly related to their length and small
cross section of the arch elements, deoarce
bow should bend, to stretch, to compress,
to twist due to shocks transmitted wheel
and thus absorb some of the shock energy,
sending him weak body or not to transmit
at all.
The features and suspension parameters
largely determine the proper functioning of
the systems and vehicle aggregates
composition. Decrease its functional
parameters can lead to vibration,
oscillations in operation and could thus
jeopardize road safety, busy about. Note is
the fact that none of the types of
suspension spring slats sheet, coil, air
cushion can not simultaneously meet all
the technical requirements. The air
suspension provides a better stability of the
vehicle on the road by changing pressure
cushions by charging status. If the
suspension is mixed is that besides
G. POPA et al.: Pneumatic Air Springs For Railway Vehicles
suspension leaf springs, a vehicle equipped

with a second suspension system with air
springs, the payload is intended to
supplement, but chose to go into action
363
when original suspension is damaged

seriously, allowing the vehicle in question
to continue operating smoothly track and
road safety.
5. Tables
The material properties of arc
Table 1
The reaction forces of the pneumatic spring experimentally determined
Table 2.
6. Figures
Fig. 1. The structure of the pneumatic spring
Fig. 2. The schematic representation the classic railway vehicle suspension
364
Acknowledgements
Fig. 3. The air springs without membrane

the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/
137070 (2014) of the Ministry of National
Education, Romania, co-financed by the
European Social Fund - Investing in
People, within the Sectoral Operational
Programme
Human
Resources
Development 2007-2013.
References
1. SEBEAN, I.: Dinamica vehiculelor
Fig. 4. The pneumatic spring diaphragm

with metal plate
Fig. 5. The circumvolute air springs
feroviare (The Dynamics Of The Railway

Vehicles), Editura MatrixRom, Bucureti,
2011.
2. SEBEAN, I. & Hanganu, D.:
Proiectarea suspensiilor pentru vehiculele
pe ine (The Design Of The Suspension Of
Rail Vehicles), Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti,
1993.
3. SEBEAN, I: Cercetarea Experimental
a Vehiculelor de Cale Ferat (The
Experimental Investigation Of Railway
Vehicles), Editura Institutului Politehnic
Bucureti, 1992.
4. SEBEAN, I.: Teoria sistemelor elastice
(The Theory Of Elastic Systems), Editura
MatrixRom, 2011.
5. BURADA. C.: Elemente si structuri
portante ale vehiculelor de cale ferat
(The elements and load-bearing structures
of railway vehicles), Ed. Tehnic 1980.

BOLTED CONNECTIONS ON CIRCULAR

END PLATES
D. PREDA 1
S.I. MINEA 2
Abstract: Bolted connections on circular end plate are used on

column with circular pipe cross-section joints, ducts joints and other
member joint.
SR EN 1993-1-8:2006 and technical specialized literature do not
contain reglementations in the case of circular end plate. This code
develops in detail the rectangular end plate calculus, which presents
conceptual deficiencies, with negative effects on the structural
security (end plate plastification scenarios, plastic distribution of the
bolt tensile forces). This paper presents the circular end plate
constitution and calculus, as required in steel structural designing;
the relations are based on the end plate elastic behaviour and on
elastic distribution of the bolt tensile forces.
Key words: steel, member, end plate joint, connection, bolt.

1. Application Field
column with circular hollow section
joints;
duct joints;
other member joints.
2. Composition and Calculation
Principle
Joints components:
circular end plate, transmitting stresses
from structural member to bolts;
bolts;
member active area (compression
stresses zone balancing tension stresses
in bolts.
Calculation parameters:
active area length [z 0 ];
1
2
resulting tension stresses in bolts [N a ];

resulting compression stresses on active
area of structural member cross section
[N c ];
rows number of active bolts.
Equations system:
plane sections hypothesis equation, in
elastic calculus of joint components;
equivalence equation between strains and
stresses [M y ; N];
the equations system has no explicit
results; consequently an iterative solving
is necessary, which is difficult for the
designing practice.
a calculus solution, including the
following stages is suggested in this
work:
- member strength checking in joint
Professor, PhD, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Faculty of Building Services
Professor, Technical College of Architecture and Public Works, I.N. Socolescu
366
adjacent section;
- rotation centre and active area length
determination;
- stresses determination and checking in
joint section.
3. Member strength checking
The strength checking is performed in

joint adjacent section, in composed
[M y ; N];
The parameters [m y ; n; ] are to be used
in the joint components calculus;
In the calculus relations [the algebric
sign] is used as follows:
- [upper algebric sign] when [N] is a
tension stress;
- [lower algebric sign] when [N] is a
compressing stress.
Wey
D3
1 04
32
Wey
A
- represents central core radius
The design moment resistance and
tension resistance:
M ey ey R
Ne A R
Checking:
my
My
M ey
1, 0
N
1, 0
Ne
m y n 1, 0
n
4. Active area length evaluation
N
My
d
D
Fig. 1
D outer diameter
t thickness
d middle diameter
d=Dt
2t
0 1
D
Elastic cross-section characteristics:
D2
1 02
4
The active area means compression zone

of member cross-section, defined by the
length [z 0 ], (fig. 2a);
The active-area length [z 0 ] is evaluated
by considering the rotation center [0] on
the middle diameter [d] of the hollow
section (fig. 2a);
The [d s ] circle diameter on which the
bolts are located,
d s = d + 2e
where: [e] represents the distance to
the hollow section.
D. PREDA et al: Bolted Connections On Circular End Plates
ds
d
My
4
2
z0
3
z1 = l0
My
Nc
zn
Ni
N1
0
zi
z1 = l0
b
Fig. 2.
Characteristics in [z i ] coordinates
z1 = l0
z 2 = 0,5d + 0,5d s cos
z 3 = 0,5d
z 4 = 0,5d 0,5d s cos
z i = z1 2 z 2 z3 ...
z i2 = z12 2 z 22 z32 ...
where:
l 0 represents the distance between the
rotation centre [0] and the maximum
tension bolt;
bolt angle;
The calculus includes only the [z i ]
coordinates with positive algebric sign.
Position of the resulting tensile forces
[N a ] in bolts,
z i2
zn
zi
M ey
N a m y 1 n
zn
where:
0,5 d
1
[upper algebric sign] when [N] is a

tensile force;
The resulting compression forces [N c ]
z 0,5 d
2 n
M ey
N c m y 2 n
z
n
0,5 d
Na
367
where:
tensile force;
Checking in [N],
N a N c = N
The checking is implicitely performed if
[N a ; N c ] are right calculated
Checking in [M],
N a z n 0,5 d N c 0,5 d M y
The checking is implicitely performed if
[N a ; N c ] are right calculated
Maximum force [N 1 ] (fig. 2b),
z
N1 N a 1
zi
Bolts necessary diameter,

0,5
1, 25 N1
d 1,3
R ib
where: [R ib ] represents the design value
of resistance in [] stresses.
Bolts checking,
N e1 As R ib
368
n1
1, 25 N1
1,0
N e1
My
0,5 d
0,5 ds
Evaluation [z 0 ],
R A
n1
0,75
ib s
my n R Ab
Na
1 z1
1 d
z0 d
where:
[R] represents the design value of
structural steel resistance;
[R ib ] design value of bolt resistance;
[A s ] tensile stress area, of a bolt;
[A b ] nominal area of a bolt;
d2
Ab
4
b
Fig. 3.
l0
1 z0
z0
Characteristics in [z i ] coordinates
z 1 = [l 0 ] z 0
z 2 = [0,5d + 0,5d s cos] z 0
z 3 = [0,5d] z 0
z 4 = [0,5d 0,5d s cos] z 0
z i = z1 2 z 2 z3 ...
z i2 = z12 2 z 22 z32 ...
only the [z i ] coordinates having positive

algebric sign are introduced in calculus.
My
3
[z n ] position of the resultant [N a ],

z i2
zn
zi
z1
e0
l0
Nc
e1
zi
0,5 d
zc
z1
calculus
characteristics
are
The
determined as per axe [1-1], which
defines the member cross-section
compression area (fig. 3a).
e2
N1
5. Calculus characteristics of joint

section
0,5 ds
e0
h0
zn
[e 0 ] position,
e0 0,010 0, 240 d
[z c ] position of the resultant [N c ],
zc = z0 e0
[h 0 ] level arm,
h0 = zn + zc
[A 0 ] equivalent area of the compression
surface of the member cross-section,
- for [ 0,5],
arccos 1 2
A
A0
2
D. PREDA et al: Bolted Connections On Circular End Plates
6. Efforts. Joints members resistance

checking.
[N a ] resultant of tensile efforts in bolts.

e 1 = 0,5d e 0
e
1 1
M ey
N a m y 1 n
h
0
where:
tensile force.
Checking in [N] axial force,
N a N c = N
Checking in [M 0 ] bending moment,
N a z n N c z c M y N 0,5 d z 0
Checking of the bolt with [N 1 ] maxim

effort,
z
N1 N a 1
zi
N e1 A s R ib
N
n1 1 1,0
N e1
Checking of the compressed zone of
7. Bolt location on the end plate.
The location of bolts defines the

determining way of the end plate
thickness [t 0 ] (fig. 4),
s
e1
e1
p
z
where:
tensile force.
[N c ] resultant of compression efforts on
the member cross-section active area,
e 2 = (h 0 + e 0 ) 0,5d
e
2 2
M ey
N c m y 2 n
h
cross-section member,
N ec A 0 R
N
n c c 1,0
N ec
[z 0 ] re-evaluation,
n R A
1 ib s
nc R Ab
1 z1
1 d
z0 d
My
- for [ > 0,5],
arcsin 2 1
A 0 0, 250
A
2
where:
[] represents active zone coefficient;
[A] member cross-section area.
369
Fig. 4.
The dimension [e] measured between
bolts axis and the medium circle of
hollow section,
d
e 0,5 sin m d
2 d
where:
[d] is the medium diameter of hollow
section;
[d m ] medium diameter of bolts head;
370
[] angle between radius of two bolts

consecutive;

;
; ;
;
;....
2 4 6 8 10
The dimension [e 1 ] measured between
bolts axis and the end plate edge,
e1 1, 25 d m
The distance [p] measured on [d s ] circle,
p 2 e dm
p r (effective distance)
It is recommended to provide end plate
stiffness between bolts.
8. The thickness of the end plate.
The end plate thickness [t 0 ],

0,5
R ib
t 0 k 0 0 n1
As
R
1
0
d
1 m
2e
where:
k 0 dimensioning coefficient
N
n1 1
N e1
In cases when the level arm effect is
taken into account,
3
k0
, for dimensioning through
2
elastic calculus;
k 0 1, 0 , for dimensioning through
plastic calculus.
In cases when the level arm effect cannot
be taken into account,
k 0 3 , for dimensioning through
elastic calculus;
k 0 2 , for dimensioning through plastic
calculus.
The level arm effect can be taken into
account under the following conditions:

a) Bolts are located as per item 7;
b) The end plate remains plane after
welding;
c) The end plate fulfills the contact
conditions on erection.
The end plate thickness [t 0 ] may be
determined by plastic calculus only for
secondary members, without imperative
requirements on the members continuity
in joint.
It is recommended:
3
k0
2
Conclusions
The calculus proposed in the paper is
necessary for practice design, because the
codes and technical specialized literature
do not contain reglementation in this cases.
The calculus is based on principles entire
necessary in calculus connections (elastic
behaviour
principle,
plan
sections
principle, ....).
Based on these principles we arrived in
this paper to a correct calculus favourable
for the structural security (active area,
maximum efforts in bolts, end plate
thickness.
SR EN 1993-1-8:2006 contains in
general provisions with negative effects on
the structural security.
References
EN
1993-1-8:2006:
1. SR
Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures Part 1-8: Design of
joints.
2. SR
EN
1993-1-1:2006:
Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings.

A NEW FINITE ELEMENT CONSIDERING

SHEAR LAG
A. PROKIC 1
M. VOJNIC PURCAR1 D. LUKIC1
Abstract: A new model of describing the shear lag phenomenon in

composite thin-walled beams with arbitrary open or closed cross sections is
defined. This phenomenon is unable to calculate using the classical theory of
thin-walled beams based on the assumption that shear strains in the middle
surface can be neglected. Therefore, this paper is based on facts presented in
the papers of Prokic. He proposed the new warping function valid for both,
open and closed cross sections and it does not require assumption of
neglecting shearing strains. The general approach to the solution of the
problem is based on the finite element method. The principle of virtual
displacements has been used to give a new linear stiffness matrix.
Key words: shear lag, finite element, thin-walled.
1. Introduction
Thin-walled composite structures are
widely used in many fields of aerospace,
automotive, nautical and other industries.
Over a past few decades they became
broadly adopted in civil engineering due to
many advantages of this material, like
lightweight feature in relation of
resistance, corrosion resistance, low
thermal expansion, good mechanical
characteristics, etc.
This significant increase in the use of
thin-walled composite structures requests
comprehensive analysis approach and
many researchers work on this theme but,
to the authors knowledge, only few of
them dealt with the phenomenon known as
shear lag. Shear lag effect may bring a
non-uniform distribution of normal stresses
in the beams, different from that predicted
by the Bernoulli hypothesis. Ignoring this
effect in the analysis of the mechanical
1
behavior of thin-walled structures can lead

to overestimated values of capacity,
unacceptable from the standpoint of
structural safety. This suggests that the
effect of shear lag must be paid special
attention.
The phenomenon of shear lag has been
extensively studied in order to develop a
reliable model for its analysis. The
classical theory of thin-walled beams [1] is
based on the assumption that the shear
strains in the middle surface can be
neglected. While this results offer a simple
analytical solution, it is unable to reflect
phenomenon such as shear lag.
Reissner [2] developed method based on
the principle of minimum of potential
energy to describe shear lag phenomenon.
Moffat and Dowling [3] used finite
element method to describe effective
breadth concept, they first set up design
rules for steel box girders, based on
effective breath.
Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, University of Novi Sad.
372
Papers dealt with investigation of shear

lag in composite materials are much less
represented. Some solutions to this issue
are presented in the works of Takayanagi
[4] and Lopez-Anido and GangPao's [5].
They examined the influence of shear lag
on the I beams, and the thin-walled
prismatic orthotropic composite beams.
Recent paper was presented by Wu [6], he
proposed solution of single-cell thinwalled composite-laminated box beams
under bending loads with consideration of
both shear lag and shear deformation. The
lack of this solution is limited use. It is
aplicable only on a symmetric composite
single-cell box beams.
In this paper, the finite element
describing the shear lag phenomenon is
presented. It is defined on the basis of the
warping function presented by Prokic
[7,8]. This warping function is valid for
open and close cross-sections. The
assumption of neglecting the shear strain in
the middle plane is not necessary, shear
stresses can be directly determined from
the relevant strains. The distribution of
normal stresses caused by deplanation is
not specified by warping function but the
displacement parameters of nodal points.
This allows analysis the influence of shear
lag effect on girders.
2. Basic theory
A straight, thin-walled beam with an
open or closed cross section is considered.
The midline of cross-section is idealized
by a number of straight lines connected by
discrete points (nodal points of crosssection) i=1,2,...,n.
As usual, the two coordinate systems are
used in the analysis of thin-walled beams.
Descartes' coordinate system xyz, of the
right orientation, where the z axis is
parallel to the axis of the rod, and x and y
axis lie in the cross section plane, and the
curvilinear coordinate system esz, also of

the right orientation, with unit vectors n, t
and iz , Fig.1.
Fig. 1. Thin-walled beam of arbitrary
cross section
The present theory is based on the
following assumptions:
1. the cross-section is perfectly rigid in its
own plane,
2. the longitudinal displacements caused
by warping vary linearly between any two
adjacent nodal points
3. the relative warping in relation to the
midline is qualitatively defined with the
solution of Saint-Venants torque.
According to the first assumption the
cross-sectional behavior can be described
by only three displacement components,
two translations u and v and an angle of
twist of center of gravity (Fig. 2). From
geometric considerations, normal and
tangential displacements of an arbitrary
point S with coordinates x and y on the
contour, where the angle of twist is
sufficiently small, are
* v sin u cos hn
* v cos u sin h
(1)
where denotes the angle between the x

and n axes, hn represents the
A. PROKIC et al: A New Finite Element Considering Shear Lag
373
Fig.2. Displacement component

perpendicular distance from normal at
point S to the point C given by
hn x sin y cos
(2)
and h represents the perpendicular distance

from tangent at point S to the point C given
by
h x cos y sin
(3)
hn and h are positive when normal n and

tangent t respectively are rotating
counterclockwise about the center of
gravity, when observed from positive z
direction.
Displacement of cross-section at z
direction can be described in the following
form:
w* w y x x y wwarp
(4)
The last term of (4) defines warping of the

cross-section as suggested by Prokic [7,8].
s
e
wwarp wwarp
wwarp
(5)
where
s
wwarp
wi z i x, y
(6)
represents warping along the midline of

cross-section. Unknown parameters wi
are displacements of arbitrary points on the
midline. Those points are nodes of the
section and their number determines the
number of unknown parameters of
displacements.
Function i depends on the mode of
displacement change between the nodes of
polygonal cross-section. If this change is
linear, according to the second assumption,
which is in conformity with the classical
theory of thin-walled beams, then the
function i has a simple geometrical
meaning, as shown in Fig. 3. The function
i exists only along parts between the
point i, where it takes the value 1, and
adjacent nodes, where it takes the value 0.
374
x, y hn e
(8)
Now, for the total

displacement we obtain:
longitudinal
w* w y x x y i wi
(9)
Fig. 3. Warping function
3. Finite element
The second term on the right side of (5)

determines the relative warping in relation
to the midline of the cross-section, and,
according to the third assumption, is equal
to:
wde x, y z
(7)
A typical thin-walled element is shown

in Fig.4. The element has 6+n degrees of
freedom
at
each
end
node
ui , vi , wi , vi , ui , i , w1i , w2i , ... , wni
Equation (1) and (9) can be converted to
matrix form
where
Fig.4. Finite element
0 sin 0 hn
* cos
sin 0 cos 0 h
*
w* 0
0
x
y 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Let us denote the vector of generalized

nodal displacement (Fig. 4) in the
following way
...
...
375
u
u

v

v
... 0

... 0
w
... n
w1

wi

wn
0
0
...
(10)
Where
qu u1 , u1 , u2 , u2
qv v1 , v1 , v2 , v2
q qu , qv , q , qw , qw1 , qwi , ... , qwn (11)
q 1 , 2
(12)
qw w1 , w2
qwi wi1 , wi 2
i 1, 2,...., n
Hermitt polinomials are adopted as a

interpolation functions for displacements u
and v, and a linear displacements function
is adopted for , w, w1 , ... , wn
N u 1 3 2 2 3
N v 1 3 2 2 3
N 1
L 2
L 2 2 3
2
L 2 3
2
3
2
3
3 2
L
3 2 2 3
(13)
376
Substituting (14) into (10) displacement

of an arbitrary point of cross-section could
be obtained in terms of nodal parameters
Then, we can write

u N u qu
v N v qv
Nq
(14)
w Nqw
wi Nqwi i 1, 2,...., n
* cos N u
sin N
u
*
w* xN u
sin N v
cos N v
yN v
hn N
hN
0
0
N N
qu
q
v
q

0
...
0
0 qw
0
...
0
0 qw1 Aq (15)
1 N ... i N n N

qwi

qwn
where
1
6 6 2
L
1
N v 6 6 2
L
1
N 1 1
L
N u
L 1 4 3 2 6 6 2
L 1 4 3 2 6 6 2
Considering
assumptions,
strain
components different from zero are:
where
zs
zn
L 2 3 2
w*
z
* w*
zs
z
s
w
zn * *
z
e
(16)
4. Stiffness matrix
L 2 3 2
(17)
(18)
Substituting (16) into (18) we obtain
Bq
(19)
377
Where
B 0
z
xNu yN v
A 0
0
s
0
0
z
0
N 1 N ... i N n N
h 2e N 0 1,s N ... ,is N ,ns N
0
0
0
...
0
0
(20)
where
1
6 12 L 4 6 6 12 L 2 6
L2
1
N v 2 6 12 L 4 6 6 12 L 2 6
L
N 0 0
N u
We denote matrix of reduced stiffnesses

with D
Q
Q16
11
D Q16 Q66
I xx K1
Q55
Linear stiffness matrix may be

represented in the following form
(22)
I xy K 2
I xe K 4
S x K4
I yy K 3
I ye K 5
S y K5
1
I ee
K6
symm
(21)
Se K 6
FK 6
I x K 4
I y K 5
I 1y K11
I e K 6
I 1 e K 7
S K 6
S1 K 7
1
I K 6 I K 7
1
3
I
K8 I
K9
I 1x K10
(23)
378
5. Numerical example
Acknowledgements
To test the accuracy of the proposed

method a numerical example was analysed.
A simply supported girder of cross-section
shown in Fig.5 was subjected to a moment
of torsion. Displacements of the centroid
and shear center are shown in Table 1.
Results show there is no need for leading
in the shear centre because the
displacements are close to zero.
Paper is part of the project ON174027

supported by Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Serbia
References
1. Vlasov, V.,: Thin-walled elastic

beams. Jerusalem. Israel Program for
Scientific Translation, 1961
2. Reissner, E.,: Analysis of shear lag in
box beams by the principle of
minimum potential energy. Q Appl
Math 4(1946), p. 26878.
3. Moffatt, KR., Dowling, PJ.,: Steel box
girders.
Engineering
Structures
Laboratories, 1972.
4. Takayanagi, H., Kemmochi, K.,
Sembokuya, H., Hojo, M., Maki, H.,
Shear lag effect in CFRP I-beams
under three-point bending. ExpMech
34 (1994), p. 100-7.
5. Roberto, L-A., GangaRao, HVS.,:
Warping solution for shear lag in thinwalled orthotropic composite beams.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
Fig.4. Cros- section
ASCE 122 (1996), p. 449-57
6. Yaping, W., Yuanming, L., Xuefu, Z.,
Yuanlin, Z.,: A finite beam element for
analyzing shear
lag and shear
Displacement Displacement
deformation effects in compositein x direction in y direction
laminated box girders, Computers
and Structures 82 (2004), p. 763771
centroid
2.778
1.523
7. Prokic, A.,: New warping function
for thin-walled beams. I: Theory.
Shear
-0.115 0
-0.071 0
Journal
of Structural Engineering,
center D
ASCE 122 (1996), p. 143742.
Table 1
8. Prokic, A.,: New warping function for
Displacements of the centroid and shear
thin-walled beams. II: Finite element
center
method and applications Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 122
(1996), p. 144352.

FAILURE MODES AND DESIGNING

PROCEDURES OF THE TUBULAR TRUSS
BEAMS WELDED JOINTS ACCORDING
WITH EN 1993-1-8
D. RADU 1
A. SEDMAK 2
Abstract: The paper presents the particularities of the truss elements

welded joints failure modes and design for RHS or CHS diagonals and IPE
or HEA chords. The design of these joints is regulated by Eurocode EN 19931-8 standard.
Regarding the designing and manufacturing of the steel structures, the
implementation of the European standards in Romania led to a design with
complex checking possibilities, taking into account different failure modes.
Also the implementation of EN 1090-2 standard for quality control, produced
a better manufacturing control of the steel structure joints. The most
economical solution to join tubular cross section truss elements is with direct
welding no additional steel plate. The joining type can vary from T or Y to
K or N type with overlapping or with gap between the welded elements.
Key words: Steel truss beams joints, welded joints, steel structures
1. Introduction
From the global analysis point of view,
as for any truss beam type, it is considered
that the truss elements are pinned end
connected to the continuous upper and
lower chords. The distribution of the axial
forces is done taking into account this
assumption.
The main problem that appear in the
truss beams joints is the axiality of the
forces. In case of eccentricities, these are
producing additional bending moments in
nodes and elements. The main concern in
the designing of a joint is to identify the
importance of these residual efforts which
can lead to different types of joint failure.
1
2
The truss element joining technology

plays a major role in the tubular cross
sections structures performances. The most
common and economic solution for
rectangular hollow section profiles is
directly through weld without any gusset
or additional steel plate. This solution is
the most efficient regarding the
maintenance and anticorrosive protection.
The joints can be easily manufactured,
considering that the joining elements must
be only cut in shape and welded together.
Following this procedure, can be made
various types of joints from T and Y for
the in plane truss beams to double K and
duple X for the reticular truss structures.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Transylvania Brasov

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade
380
2. Design of the joints and failure modes
(d) Failure of the truss element (diagonal)

through local yielding and buckling.
In design practice there are commonly

met several types of tubular truss beams
elements welded joints (Figure 1). Each
type presents several failure modes which
are the basis of the Eurocode checking
procedures.
(a)
Fig. 1. Welded joints types for CHS or

RHS truss elements with the I or H type
truss chord
In case of eccentricities which introduce
secondary bending moments, these can be
neglected for the design of the joints and
for the truss elements if the geometrical
conditions are satisfied [1]. Also the truss
diagonals can be considered as pinned in
the upper and lower chords and the chords
can be considered as continuous beams
pinned in the end joints.
In a truss beam with RHS/CHS
diagonals and I or H type chords, failure
modes under axial force of the joints
(figure 2) can be classified as following:
(a) Failure of the web of the chord under
compression effect of the diagonal
(b) Failure due to share of the chord
(c) Failure of the diagonal on an effective
area (cracks in the welding or diagonal)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2. Failure modes of the joints for
truss beams with RHS/CHS diagonals and
I or H chord profile type.
D. RADU et al.: Failure Modes And Designing Procedures Of The Tubular Truss Beams
Welded Joints According With En 1993-1-8
2.1. Failure of the web of the chord

under compression effect of the
diagonal
The diagonal axial force is transmitted
through an effective area toward the chords
web in the position where the walls of the
diagonals are connected to the flange of the
chord (figure 3).
The failure mode is assessed through a
dissemination of the stresses shown in figure
3, resulting the assimilation with beam to
column joint.
Fig. 3. Model of the chord web failure

under compression effect of the diagonal
381
Thus the checking is:
N i sin i f y 0 t w bw M 5 ,
where bw
hi
5 t0 r
sin i
(1)
(2)
2.2. Failure due to share of the chord

The EN 1993-1-8 presents an interaction
formula for the share and axial force
combined effect. The share effect appear in
the space between the diagonals joints. In case
of small gaps between the diagonals joints,
when the chords web is yielding, also the
chords flange takes the share effect.
Considering these effects, the European
normative [1], conditions the gap dimension
to g t1 + t2 , where t1 and t2 represents the
diagonals walls thickness. Also the
eccentricity must be lower than 0,25 h0 ,
where h0 represents the height of the truss
beam chord profile.
Fig. 4. Model of the chord in share failure

The bending moment in the flange is:
382
Mf
Vf g
(3)
The interaction formula for the chord is:

2
Mf
M
pl , f
Vf

V
pl , f
1,0
(4)
where:
2
b t
M pl , f 0 0 f y 0
4
f y0
and V pl , f b0 t0
3
(5)
(6)
element itself.
For structural joints it is used the arc
welding with filling material. There are some
exceptions where the contact welding is used
(e.g. Nelson bolts).
The most common welding types are corner
or V with preprocessing of the elements
edges.
In case of corner welding, the internal
stresses are decomposed in parallel and
normal stresses type in critical section of the
welding strip (figure 5).
Replacing the terms in the above equation,

it results:
Mf
M pl , f
Vf
V pl , f
2 g
t0 3
(7)
The solution of the equation is:
Vf
V pl , f
1
4 g2
1
2
3 t0
(8)
Thus, for a I or H chords profile, the active

area which is take into consideration is:
b0 t0
where:
1
4 g2
1
2
3 t0
(9)
f y 0 Av
3 sin i
Considering an uniform distribution of the

stresses in the critical section of the welding
strip, the following tangential and normal
stresses appear:
- Normal stress perpendicular to the
For high profiles, the effective area of the

chords profile is narrowed to area of the web
without taken into account the flanges of the
chord.
The checking of the share failure is:
N i ,Rd
Fig. 5. Stresses of the corner welding
M5
critical section of the welding strip

// - Normal stress parallel to the welding
strip axis
(10)
2.3. Failure of the joint weld

In order to avoid the weld failure, is
recommended that the welds to be designed at
a resistance force higher than the effective
element force the capable force of the
- Tangential stress in the critical cross

section of the welding strip perpendicular to
the welding strip axis.
// - Tangential stress in the critical cross
section of the welding strip parallel to the
welding strip axis.
D. RADU et al.: Failure Modes And Designing Procedures Of The Tubular Truss Beams
Welded Joints According With En 1993-1-8
The design of the welding can be done with

two methods:
- directional method
- simplified method
According with directional method, the
strength of the welding will be sufficient if
there are fulfilled two conditions:
2 3 2 II2
and
fu
w M 2
0,9 f u
M2
N i 2 f yi t i beff M 5
383
(15)
where:
beff t w 2 r 7
f y0
f yi
t0
(16)
In case of b eff>b i, conservatively is taken

also the perimeter of the joint (figure 7).
(11)
(12)
where w represents a correlation coefficient

according to steel type (Table 4.1. [1]), and
fu is the nominal value of the tension
resistance of the weakest part of the joint.
The Eurocode [1] presents also a simplified
procedure in order to assess the welding
resistance without considering the load
direction (figure 6). Thus, irrespective of the
welding designed area orientation toward the
applied force, the resistance force Fw,Rd , can
be determined with relation:
Fw, Rd f vw,d a
(13)
Where
f vw,d
fu
3 w M 2
(14)
Fig. 6. Simplified method for corner

welding design
2.4. Failure of the truss element
(diagonal) through local yielding
and buckling
It can be applied the same procedure as for
the beam to column joint. Thus:
Fig. 7. Model for Failure of the truss

element (diagonal) through local yielding
and buckling
3. Conclusions
The increasing of the use of tubular
cross section elements for structural
purposes, lead to the development and
implementation of general design rules for
truss beams joints.
The Eurocode 1993-1-8 implementation
384
in the designing of the welded joints, have

the advantage of a correct dimensioning /
check for these type of connections and the
possibility of large scale use of the in
contact welded solution (without any
gusset).
References
1.
SR-EN 1993-1-8:2006 Proiectarea

structurilor de oel. Partea 1-8:
Proiectarea mbinrilor, Editura ASRO
2.
EN1090-2:2008 Execution of steel

structures and aluminum structures
Part2: Technical requirements for steel
structures.
3. Calculul i proiectarea mbinrilor
structurale din oel n conformitate cu
SR-EN
1993-1-8.
Recomandri,
comentarii i exemple de aplicare
Redactarea II, Timioara 2010
4. L. Wardenier, J.A.Packer, X.-L.Zhao
and G.J.van der Vegte: Hollow
Sections in Structural Applications,
CIDECT, Geneva 2010

ADHERENCE STUDY BETWEEN

ANCHORING MORTAR AND CONCRETE
FOR POST-INSTALLED
REBARS IN HARDENED CONCRETE
B. ROSCA 1
Z. KISS 2
V. COROBCEANU1
Abstract: This paper presents a study of performance evaluation of

adherence between anchoring cement-based mortar and concrete for postinstalled steel reinforcing bars. A series of nonstandard tests were performed
with the objective of assess the adherence at the boundary between
anchoring mortar and support concrete. Pull-out test were performed to
determine the adherence resistance mortar-to-concrete. The bond strength at
this interface is assessed. The results are useful at the design phase of the
post-installed rebar connections between and old concrete member and a
new one.
Key words: adherence; cement mortar; anchoring;rebars; pull-out.
1. Introduction
The adherence between the anchoring
material and concrete is very important for
the post-installed grouted anchors and the
post-installed rebars. The grouted anchors
are post-installed anchors with special
mortars in a hole with diameter at least 1.5
times greater than nominal diameter of the
anchor. The anchor can be a threaded rod
or a headed rod.
A post installed rebar is a steel
reinforcing bar installed with a special
mortar in a hole with the diameter greater
or equal to one than the nominal diameter
of rebar. There are special resin mortars
which allow a ratio r between diameter of
the hole h o and nominal diameter of the
rebar d s smaller than 1.5. Nowadays in a
doctoral study at UTCN and UTI the
behaviour of the rebars, which are installed
1
2
into the hardened concrete with cementbased mortars, having maximum aggregate
size between 2 and 4 mm respectively is
under way. Within this study the ratio r is
greater than 1.5, for all rebars connection.
There is a difference between anchor
theory and the rebars design. The anchor
theory is based on theory developed by
Eligehausen [1], Cook [2], Rehm [3] and
supposes shallow embedment lengths, in
general smaller than 10d s and the pull-out
of the concrete cone is allowed.
Unlike the anchor theory, the rebars
design is based on classical bond theory
developed by most concrete structures
standard [4], [5].
Regardless for a grouted anchor or a
rebar connection the bond stress between
concrete and the anchoring mortar is
important for the capacity of the created
joint.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Depart. of Concrete, Materials and Technology, Technical University of Iai.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Structures, Technical University of Cluj Napoca.
386
In both cases there is a failure mode

which includes the failure by surpassing
the bond strength between these two
hardened materials. Therefore, in this
study, the considered failure mode is by
pulling-out of the mortar from concrete.
2. Objectives
The main objective was to determine the
maximum bond stress at the boundary
between concrete and the anchoring mortar
using a head connector, so that the failure
to occur at this interface. Besides, the hole
cleaning effect on the bond stress at
mortar-to-concrete interface was studied.
3. Materials and methods
The anchoring mortars are Portland
cement-based mortars, which were
developed into laboratory within the
doctoral study foregoing mentioned. The
constituents of the mortar are the Portland
blended cement, sand, water and chemical
admixtures. The cements used was blended
Portland cements. In this study mineral
admixtures, as the limestone and fly ash,
added at the manufacturing of the blended
cement are involved.
There were two blended cement used in
this study namely, Portland-composite
cement CEM II/A-LL 42,5 which include
6-20% limestone grounded with the
Portland clinker at manufacturing and
CEM II/AV 42,5 with 6-20% fly ash,
respectively.
The aggregate consist of sand and was
divided into two categories coarse and fine
sand. The natural river sand, which is
considered round and less rough, was used.
The maximum size of the coarse sand was
2 mm. A particular granular shape of the
sand was developed in order to increase de
fluidity of the mixture and the packing
density of the aggregate.
The used chemical admixture is the
polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE).

The properties of the anchoring mortars
are presented in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1
Properties of limestone cement mortar
Compressive
strength
Tensile
strength
Elasticity
modulus
Dry shrinkage;
max. strain 56 days
7 days
28 days
7 days
28 days
43 MPa
52.5 MPa
3.75 MPa
4.05 MPa
37000 MPa
740 m
Table 2
Properties of fly ash cement mortar
Compressive
strength
Tensile
strength
Elasticity
modulus
Dry shrinkage;
max. strain 56 days
7 days
28 days
7 days
28 days
53.5 MPa
63.5 MPa
3.91 MPa
4.25 MPa
37000 MPa
670 m
In Table 1 and 2 the average values of

strength was rounded to 0.5MP and
0.1MPa for the compressive strength and
tensile strength, respectively. The average
value of elasticity modulus was rounded to
500 MPa.
A head connector, which consist of a rod
threaded at the both end and a circular nut
of 28mm diameter screwed at one end,
was embedded into a hole of 30mm
diameter, see Fig.2. The embedment
effective length was quite short equal to
45mm in order to avoid the yielding of the
steel rod. The length of the hole was 55mm
because the depth of the nut is 10mm. The
plate nut assured the verticality of the
connector.
3.1. Installation of the connectors
The operations involved into the
installation process are similar with the
B. ROSCA et al.: Adherence Study Between Anchoring Mortar and Concrete for Post-Installed387
Rebars in Hardened Concret
operations for bonded anchors. The

involved operations into the process are:
- Hole drilling. There are many ways of
drilling holes. For concrete, hammer
drilling makes use of the hammer function
of professional hammer drills and is best
suited technology. Diamond core drilling is
another method, but is less used for dry
drilling, mostly for wet drilling. The
hammer drill method was used.
- Hole cleaning. It is of critical
importance to almost all adhesive anchor
installations. If hole cleaning is not
properly carried out in practice, then is
frequently a major source of poor adhesive
anchor performance. There are some
cleaning procedures usually used to clean
the drilled hole and the selection of it
depends on the type of the bonding
material used. Thus, for chemical adhesive
anchors brushing with a stiff metal or
nylon brush and blowing with sufficient
compressed air is suitable, unlike the
mortar grouted anchors where the brushing
operations can be followed by water jet. In
this study, for cleaning of the debris, a
brushing operation followed by a water jet
was used. After cleaning, in the case of
mortar grouted anchors the hole must
remain with water for 24 hours and the
water must be evacuated a few hours
before the installation. Thus, the mortar
shall be placed in a damp hole.
- Mortar preparing. A mixer of 5l
capacity
having
manual/automat
capabilities was used to prepare the
anchoring mortar, see Fig.1. The
construction of the mixer fulfils the
requirement of the standard SREN 196-1.
The superplasticizer was added after the
75% of water was previously mixed with
the solid components.
At the time of installation, standard
mortar samples (prisms 40x40x160mm)
were poured. The prove samples was
tested at the same day with the test of the
connectors, seven days age. The
compression and indirect tensile tests were

performed according to standard SREN
196-1.
Fig. 1. Mortar mixer with manual/automat

functions according to SREN 1961 produced by ELE company
- Rebar installation. First, the connector
was inserted into the damp hole and
second, the mortar was poured filling the
empty space. The holes was drilled into
200mm concrete cubes of C20/25 class.
Fig. 2. Installation of the head connector

into the 30mm damp hole.
- Curing conditions. The surrounded
area of embedded connector were
protected with a double thin sheet of
388
plastic and the entire block of concrete was

kept at the room temperature and humidity
of (212)oC and (6010)% RH,
respectively.
A number of six installations were
carried out. The installations are presented
in Table 3.
Four type of mortars were involved. The
mortar labelled ML is a limestone cementbased mortar and the mortar MV is a fly
ash cement-based mortar. The composition
of these two type of cement-based mortars
are given in [6]. In this study each type of
mortar was prepared with a water/cement
ratio equal to 0.39 and 0.36 respectively.
Two install conditions were considered,
clean and damp hole and unclean hole.
Installat
ion
Installation characteristics
1
2
3
4
5
6
confined tests concrete cone failure is

eliminated by the transferring the reaction
force close to the anchor into the concrete,
see Fig.3.
Table 3
Install
Characteristic
Mortar
Diam. Embed Type W/C conditions
length
(mm) (mm)
Clean
ML1 0.39
0.36 &Damp
ML2
0.36 Unclean
30
45
Clean
MV1 0.38
&Damp
MV2 0.36
Unclean
3.5. Assess method of the bond

The selected method to assess the
maximum bond stress at the boundary
between anchoring mortar and concrete
was pull-out method.
Because of this adherence study is done
within a larger study about behaviour of
post-installed rebars with cement-based
mortars, the pull-out method was applied
based on the information given in EOTA
TR023 and SREN 1881. Both standards
are limited to reinforcing steel bars
designed in accordance with SREN 1992-1
The confined test is recommended by
TR023 for pulling-out the rebars. In
Fig.3. Example of a tension test rig for

confined tests according to [8]
Based on the indication furnished by
Fig.3, a tension test rig, which can be fixed
on a universal testing machine, was
developed. The tension test rig used at tests
is given in Fig.4.
Considering the shallow embedment
length in this study a confinement steel
plate was added in order to avoid the
influence on the failure mode of a small
concrete cone, see Fig. 6.
Series of five specimens were involved
into the test. The confined pull-out test
were performed according to ETAG001
Part5 recommendations. The test was
performed in load control and the pull out
load was increased progressively in such
away that the peak load occurred after 1 to
3 minutes from start time. Two mechanical
displacement devices was used to assess
the displacement of the loaded end of the
connector. The recording frequency of the
displacement was 0.25Hz.
f bmt
N um
d lv
(1)
with
f bmt
average bond strength in the test
series
N um average value of the failure N u(fc)
Fig.4. Developed tension test rig for

confined tests
SREN 1504-6 and SREN 1881 impose
that the displacement of the loaded end to a
characteristic load, called the load control,
shall be less than 0.6mm.
4. Assessing of the post-installed head
connector
The test was developed so that the
induced failure mode consist of pulling-out
of the mortar with the connector, and thus
to calculate the developed bond stress at
the boundary between concrete and mortar.
The embedment length of the mortar was
set quite small to avoid the yielding of the
steel rod and to calculate the maximum
bond stress based on the uniform bond
stress model, which is quite accurate for
shallow embedment lengths.
4.1. Calculation of the bond strength
The uniform bond stress is the most
involved assessment model concerning the
shear stress due to bond. The greater the
embedment length the smaller the accuracy
of the bond stress model.
According to CEB-FIP [4], [5] , from the
results of the tension tests the average
bond strength is calculated according to
Equation (1)
loads in the test series

d rebar diameter
lv embedment length of the rebar in
concrete
N u ( fc ) failure (peak) load of an
individual test
The peak load was considered as that
indicated by TR023 because the results of
this study are applied to the behaviour and
the design of the post-installed rebars
connections. Therefore, according to
TR023 the failure peak load of the test is
set conventionally as follows:
If peak load is reached at a displacement
1 , then use peak load as failure load.
load at > 1 , then use load at 1 as failure
load. The limit 1 is called maximum
acceptable displacement and according to
TR023 depends on the diameter of the
rebar. In this adherence study, the
considered 1 limit was equal to 1.5 mm.
Additionally according to SREN 1881
the displacement of connector to the load
control F c , was measured. Based on the
bond stress level and the installation
configuration emphasized by SREN 1881,
the resulted control force for the
installation configuration used in this study
is equal to 20KN.
The unique recorded failure mode was at
the boundary between concrete and mortar
(C-M). In Fig. 5 the failure mode of the
pull-out connectors is shown. In Fig. 6 the
influence of the confinement steel plate on
390
the failure mode of the head connectors is

shown. Without steel plate confinement a
small concrete cone, which can influence
the results, is developed.
In Table 4 and Table 5 the experimental
results of the pull-out tests of the
connectors installed in a clean and damp
hole with limestone cement-based mortar
and fly ash cement-based mortar,
respectively, are given.
Table 4
Pull-out results at 7days; limestone mortar
N um
C20/25
h ef 45mm
Diam 30mm
Mortar
ML1 ML2
3.46 3.80
f bm
8.05
8.95
c min.
mm max
max min.
mm max
F max,failure
(tf)
0.51
0.64
1.50
1.50
3.65
0.35
0.47
1.5
1.5
3.92
Characteristic
Average value of the

failure loads N u(fc)
Average bond
strength of the test
Displacement at the
control load
Max. displacement at
the failure loads N u(fc)
Average maximum
failure force
Failure mode through:
C-M C-M
Table 5
Pull-out results at 7 days; fly ash mortar
Fig.5. The pull-out connector and the
embedded mortar after the test
The bond resistance mechanism at the
tension force consists in a strong adherence
of the anchoring mortar to concrete and the
friction between these two hardened
materials. The friction starts where the
adhesion is broken.
Fig.6. The pull-out connectors with (left)

and no (right) steel plate
confinement.
N um
C20/25
h ef 45mm
Diam 30mm
Mortar
MV1 MV2
3.91 4.10
f bm
9.21
9.64
c min.
mm max
max min.
mm max
F max,failure
(tf)
0.31
0.49
1.26
1.50
0.20
0.42
0.43
1.50
4.27
4.42
Characteristic

Average bond
Displacement at the
control load
Average maximum
failure force
C-M C-M
The displacement of the connector at the

control load is smaller than 0.6mm for all
clean and damp hole cases. The maximum
recorded displacement is even less than 0.5
mm for mortar ML2 and MV2.
The maximum bond stress (bond
strength) is greater for fly ash cementbased mortar than limestone cement-based
mortar. The difference is approximate 1-2
MPa.
In both cases the maximum bond stress
is greater for mortar mixture prepared with

a smaller water/cement ratio. However, the
difference is less than 1 MPa.
In Fig.7 and Fig. 8 examples of bond-slip
behaviour of the post-installed head
connector with limestone mortar to tension
are plotted. Thus according to TR023, see
4.1, in Fig. 7 is plotted a bond-slip
behaviour where the failure load is equal to
maximum failure force and in Fig. 8 the
failure load is equal to the corresponding
force of a maximum admissible
displacement l equal to 1.5mm.
Fig.8. Bond-slip behaviour; mortar ML2

Table 6
Pull-out results; uncleaned hole
N um
C20/25
h ef 45mm
Diam 30mm
Mortar
ML2 MV2
1.46 1.98
f bm
3.44
Characteristic
Fig.7. Bond-slip behaviour; mortar ML1

In Table 6 the experimental results of
the pull-out tests of the connectors
installed in the uncleaned hole with
limestone cement-based mortar and fly ash
cement-based mortar, respectively, are
given.
In the unclean hole case the bond
strength is strongly reduced more than
50% and the failure load is smaller than
control load.

Average bond
Displacement at the
control load
Average maximum
failure force
4.66
c min. mm max max min. 1.5 1.50

mm max 1.5 1.50
F max,failure
1.46 1.98
(tf)
C-M C-M
6. Conclusions
Within the behaviour of the postinstalled rebars to tension force, the
adherence between anchoring hardened
mortar and the concrete is important,
because in some circumstances the failure
mode of the rebar connections could take
place at the interface between the two
392
materials.
The adherence study was carried out
with two types of mortar developed into
laboratory. By designing of the mixture,
special flowing and stability characteristics
were established. Also, the mortars provide
high strength and elasticity modulus.
The study is limited to one installation
configuration
concerning
to
the
embedment length, the hole diameter and
the concrete strength class. More studies
with greater embedment lengths and with
concrete of higher class should be
performed.
The bond stress values provided by
adherence of the two materials assure a
good level of safety against the failure at
the concrete-mortar interface for rebars to
tension load where the ratio between hole
and the rebar diameter is greater than 1.85.
For smaller ratio r doesnt have
information, but based on the equation (1)
the bond stress level at this interface
increases very close the bond strength
presented in Table 4 and 5.
It is strongly recommended to clean the
hole before installation of the rebar. If the
rebar is installed in a uncleaned hole, the
capacity of the rebar connection is strongly
reduced and the failure mode shifts from
the rebar-mortar to the concrete-mortar
interface.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
References
11.
1. Eligehausen, G.: Anchorage in
Concrete Construction. Ernst & Sohn
GmbH & Co.KG, 2006.
2. Cook, R., Fagundo F.E., Biller M.H., i
Richardson D.E.: Tensile behavior and
design of single adhesive anchors.
Report FL/DOT/RMC/0599-3668, Civil
Engineering Department, University of
Florida, SUA, Gainesville, 1991.
3. Eligehausen, R., Mallee R, and Rehm
12.
G.:. Fixing formed with resin anchors.

Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik, No. 10,
No. 11, No,12, 1984.
CEB-FIP: Model code 2010, First
complete draft, Volume No.1, Bulletin
No. 55. March, 2010
CEB-FIP: Bond of Reinforcement in
Concrete, State of the Art Report,
Bulletin, No. 10 August, 2000.
Rosca, B., Experimental study on the
behaviour of post-installed rebars with
cement-based mortar in hardened
concrete. Research Report No. 01,
Concrete, Materials and Technology
Departement, Technical University of
Iasi, 2014
TR023: Assessment of post***
installed rebar connections. European
Organization for Technical Approvals
EOTA, 2006.
*** EN 1881: Produse i sisteme pentru
protecia i repararea structurilor de
beton.
Metode
de
ncercare.
ncercarea
produselor
pentru
ancorare prin metoda smulgerii,
ASRO, 2007.
SR EN 1992-1: Eurocod 2:
***
Proiectarea structurilor de beton.
Partea1-1: Reguli generale i reguli
pentru cldiri, ASRO, 2006.
*** ETAG001-Part5: Guideline for
European technical aproval of metal
anchors for use in concrete. Part 5
Bonded anchors. EOTA, 2002
*** SR-EN1504-6. Produse i sisteme
pentru
protecia
i
repararea
structurilor de beton - Definiii,
condiii, controlul calitii i evaluarea
conformitii. Partea 6 - Ancorarea
barelor de oel pentru armare. ASRO,
2008.
***CEN/TS 1992-4-1: Design of
fastenings for use in concrete. Part 41: General. CEN, 2009.

PORTLAND LIMESTONE CEMENT-BASED

MORTAR FOR POST-INSTALLED
REBARS IN HARDENED CONCRETE
B. ROCA 1
Z. KISS 2
P. MIHAI1
Abstract: This paper presents a study of performance evaluation of fluid

cement-based mortars containing limestone used as structural bonding
material for fixing reinforcing steel bars in hardened concrete. A series of
standardized tests were performed during the experimental setup with the
objective of assessing the performance of the mortars in terms of fluidity,
cohesiveness and early age strength. This experimental work also
investigates the strength at 7 and 28 days of the fluid mortars used as
bonding material. The bond strength of the rebars at 7 days is assessed. The
study results were positive showing that it is feasible to anchor resistance
steel rebars in concrete of low and medium strength with this mortar.
Key words: limestone, cement mortar; anchoring; sand, admixture.
1. Introduction
A cementitious mortar intended for use
in structural anchoring should meet several
performance criteria concerning initial
properties fluidity, cohesiveness, stability
and final properties as strength, stiffness,
deformation volume and durability.
Performance properties are made
possible
by
reducing
porosity,
inhomogeneity and microcracks in the
cement mortar and transition zone. This
can be achieved using superplasticizers
and admixtures materials such as silica
fume, fly ash, superfine fly ash, natural
puzzolan or even limestone fine
granulated. Superior mortar properties
obtained in systems in which silica fume is
added
in
combination
with
superplasticizers is well known. However,
the silica fume is an expensive material
1
2
and quite rare in the Romanian building

materials market. There are cheaper
alternative materials that can be included
in the mixture to achieve a good
flowability, cohesiveness and high
strength. Mineral admixtures as limestone
are cheap and available materials in many
countries including Romania.
In plastic stage, the anchoring mortar
should be fluid in order to be poured into a
hole and to allow easily the insertion of the
rebar up to the bottom of the hole. The
mixture must be cohesive and resistant to
segregation. To satisfy these requirements,
the mixture qualitatively must be rich in
paste, and from rheological considerations,
the yield stress should be quite low and
plastic viscosity quite high too.
In the hardened stage, the anchoring
mortar must provide high strength,
stiffness and low volume deformation. To
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Depart. of Concrete, Materials and Technology, Technical University of Iai.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Structures, Technical University of Cluj Napoca.
394
avoid great shrinkage strains the mixture

should include as much as possible a small
amount of mixing water, a greater amount
of aggregate versus a smaller amount of
cement, or must to include a low shrinkage
admixture.
Furthermore,
the
low
water/cement ratio mixture provides in the
first 24 hours a great amount of strain due
to autogenous shrinkage [3].
2. Objectives
The general objective is to develop
performance anchoring materials using
ordinary blended cements available into
the European market. Particularly in this
study the limestone is the involved
supplementary cementitious material. The
study evaluated the workability and
mechanical properties of the proposed
cementitious mixes. The bond strength of
the reinforcing bars (rebars) is evaluated.
The anchoring mortar is a mixture of

Portland-composite cement, aggregate,
water and chemical admixture.
The blended cement used in this study is
the Portland-composite cement CEM II/ALL 42,5 which include 6-20% limestone
grounded with the Portland clinker at
manufacturing.
The aggregate consist of sand, which is
divided into two categories coarse and fine
sand. The natural river sand, which is
considered round and less rough, was used.
The maximum size coarse aggregate was
2mm, and in Table 1 the particle size of
coarse and fine aggregate is given.
Fine sand
Coarse sand
3.1. Design of the mixture

Because of the required properties of the
anchoring mortar, see Table 2, which are
similar with a concrete of strength class at
least C45/55, the used design method of
the mixture contains many elements from
concrete design method. In fact this
mixture can be seen as a micro-concrete
mixture.
Both the Dreux-Gorisse and absolute
volume method were used to design the
mixture. The aimed properties of the
anchoring mortar are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Aimed properties of the anchoring mortar
3. Materials and methods
Size of the coarse and fine sand
The used chemical admixture is the

polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE).
The used methods are concerning to
design of the mixture, assessment of fresh
properties and hardened properties.
Besides, the appropriate method for bond
strength was used.
Table 1
0,2 0,4 mm
0,4 0,63 mm
0,63 0,8 mm
0,8 1,0 mm
1,0 2,0 mm
Consistence
Cohesivness
Compressive
strength
Tensile
strength
Bond strength
220 mm (flow table)

Good
7 days
45 MPa
28 days
50 MPa
4 MPa
16 MPa
The known data about constituent

materials are given in Table 3. The blended
cement was delivered by Taca Bicaz
cement plant.
Table 3
Properties of the constituent materials
CEM II/A-LL 42.5
Standard Strength
42.5 MPa
Absolute density
3.0kg/dm3
Aggregate Maximum size MSA 2.0 mm
Bulk loose density 1.43kg/dm3
Absolute density 2.65kg/dm3
Superplasticizer HWRA
Chemical
admixture
1% of composite cement
Cement
B. ROSCA et al.: Portland Limestone Cement-Based Mortar for Post-Installed Rebars in

Hardened Concrete
The method Dreux-Gorrise, called also

the French method, is basically of an
empirical nature, unlike the previous
Faurys method, which was based upon
Caquots optimum grading theory [1].
Dreux made an extensive enquiry to collect
data about satisfactory concretes. More
about Dreux-Gorisse method in [2].
The designing steps of the anchoring
mortar mixture are:
- determination of the target compressive
strength, see Table 2.
- selection of fresh concrete consistency
(fluid).
- selection of the maximum size of
aggregate, see Table 2.
- calculate the water/cement ratio using
the Bolomeys equation. This equation
incorporates the cement strength, plus an
adjustable aggregate factor.
- calculate the cement dosage using a
nomograph, as a function of cement/water
ratio and slump. At this step the nomograpf
given by authors is useless since is limited
to a cement dosage of 400 kg/m3.
Therefore, a conversion chart, claimed by
Cement Concrete Association was used [3]
The chart converts the cement/aggregate
ratio into cement dosage based on
water/cement ratio. In order to find out an
estimated value of the cement/aggregate
ratio, which provides a great workability to
the mixture some trial tests were
performed. It is known that the greater the
volume of paste into the mixture the
greater is the workability. Some trial test
revealed that for cement/aggregate ratio
smaller than 2.5 the workability
significantly increases.
Based on this data the Cement Concrete
Associations chart reveals that for
aggregate with specific gravity 2.6 kg/m3
and a cement/aggregate ratio between 2
and 2.5 the minimum cement dosage is 600
kg/m3.
- calculate the (total) water content. It is
calculated from the knowledge of cement
395
content and cement/water ratio. At this

step, a correction can be made concerning
to maximum size of aggregate MSA (the
water content increases when MSA
decreases). Therefore, the amount of water
was increased at least with 15%
considering that MSA is 2.0mm based on
information provided by Dreux [2].
- calculate of the aggregate dosage. The
absolute volume method was used to
calculate the dosage.
Sand grading was carried out based on a
specific discontinuous distribution shape
developed by laborator studies. A
discontinuous granular shape was adopted
to increase the packing density of the
aggregate by approaching the particle of
coarse sand. Also the percent of coarse
sand was increased to increase fluidity for
the same amount of water. The negative
effect induced by a discontinuous granular
shape is compensated by a great dosage of
cement resulted from the design of the mix
To avoid the segregation due to an
increased amount of chemical admixture, a
constant 1% of superplasticizer HWRA of
cement dosage was considered. Therefore,
the required adjustments concerning the
workability, see Table 2, were made, the
cement dosage was adjusted for a constant
water/cement ratio.
In Table 4 the mix proportions, by
weight of cement, are given.
Table 4
Mortar mix proportion (weight of cement)
Mix
1.
2.
Cement Aggregate Water HRWA

1
1.75
0.39 0.01
1
2.18
0.36 0.01
3.2. Assess method of the fresh

properties
The flow table method based on the
indication given by SREN 13395-1 and
SREN 1015-3 was used to assess the
workability.
396
3.4. Assess methods of the deformation
Fig. 1. The flow table method emphasized

by SREN 1015-3
3.3. Assess methods of the strength
properties
The method emphasized by SREN
12190, which is based on the method used
by SREN 196-1, was applied to assess the
strength of the hardened mortar. The
specimen involved into the experimental
setup was the 40x40x160mm prism.
Hydraulic testing machines were used to
perform the tests. A control force testing
machine with maximum capacity of
0.1MN (100KN) and three scale of
assessment of the force was used to
perform the bending of the specimen. The
used maximum force scale was 0.02MN
(20KN). The precission on this scale is
10N.
A testing machine manufactured by
Technotest, 2006 year of fabrication, with
maximum capacity of 3MN was used to
compress the specimens. The applied rate
of loading was 0.75MPa/sec. The
compressive strength of the mortars was
measured using steel plates (40x40mm)
applied on the end prism. Strength
measurements for specimens cured in
water were conducted to ages of 3, 7 and
28 days. The results are reported as an
average of six specimens.
The elasticity modulus is an important

characteristic of the material. The method
emphasised by SREN 13412 was used to
assess the elasticity modulus of the
hardened mortar. The test in compression
was performed on mortar prism
(40x40x160mm). The secant modulus
according to directives given in the
foregoing standard was determined.
Drying shrinkage is caused by loss of
moisture during curing. Shrinkage can lead
to the formation of cracks, which may
affect the long-term performance of the
mortar. The method emphasised by SREN
12617-4 was used to assess the linear dry
shrinkage of the hardened mortar. The
method involves preparing of mortar prism
specimen, curing one day into the mold
and afterwards measuring length changes
during 55 days using a device of 0,001mm
precission, see Fig.2. Length changes of
the prism were determined daily.
Fig. 2. Device to assess the dry shrinkage

according to SREN 12617-4
3.5. Assess method for rebar bond
strength
The bond strength of the rebars was
determined based on the information given
in EOTA TR023 and SREN 1881. Both

Hardened Concrete
standards are limited to reinforcing steel

bars designed in accordance with SREN
1992-1 (EC2). Many tests which are
required for usual bonded anchors (ETAG
001, Part5) can be omitted because the
tests will only prove that post-installed
rebar connections have a comparable
behaviour
as
cast-in-place
rebar
connections under different influences.
Also, only tension load can be transferred
to
cast-in-place
rebar
connections
according to EC2, shear loads on the rebars
will not be considered [8].
The tests are done with deformed rebars
with properties according to Annex C of
EC2 with f yk 500 MPa and a related rib
area f R between 0.05 and 0.10 in noncracked concrete.
The confined test is recommended by
TR023 for pulling-out the rebars. In
confined tests concrete cone failure is
eliminated by the transferring the reaction
force close to the anchor into the concrete.
397
length equal to 10 and 7.

Series of five specimens were involved
into the test. The confined pull-out test
were performed according to ETAG001
Part5 recommendations. The test was
performed in load control and the pull out
load was increased progressively in such
away that the peak load occured after 1 to
3 minutes from start time [11].
Fig.4. Developed tension test rig for

confined tests
4. Assessing of the post-installed rebar
Fig.3. Example of a tension test rig for

confined tests according to [11]
The developed tension test rig used at tests
is given in Fig.4. The concrete specimens
consist of block of 300x300x250mm.
Diameter bars (14mm) of BST500 steel
were embedded within the specimens a
Based on information provided by

EOTA TR023, in general it shall be shown
by the tests that the post-installed rebar
system can develop the same design values
of bond resistance with the same safety
margin as cast-in-place rebars according to
EC2 [8].
In the Table 5 the required bond strength
for post-installed rebars in hardened
concrete are given. It can be seen that the
required bond strength for post-installed
rebars is at least forth times greater than
the design values provided by EC2 for preinstalled rebars.
398
Table 5
Required bond strength for
Concrete
strength class post-installed rebars according
to TR023
MPa
7.1
C12/15
8.6
C16/20
10.0
C20/25
11.6
C25/30
13.1
C30/37
14.5
C35/45
15.9
C40/50
17.2
C45/55
18.4
C50/60
4.1. Determination of the bond strength

According to EOTA TR23 from the
results of the tension tests the average
bond strength is calculated according to
Equation (1)
t
bm
N um
d lv
0.08

f
R
0 .4
(1)
with
f bmt
Values of the 1 limit

d s (mm)
<25
25 to 40
>40
Table 6
1 (mm)
1.5
2.0
3.0
SREN 1881 impose requirements on the

displacement of the loaded end of the rebar
at a conventional load, called in this paper
control load, for a certain anchorage
configuration. SREN 1881 states that the
maximum displacement of the loaded end
shall be 0.6mm for a 16mm rebar
embedded 150mm in concrete into a hole
of 30mm diameter, which is tensioned by a
force equal to 75KN. That means,
according to the uniform stress bond
model, the bond stress level for 75KN is
approximate 9.94MPa. For an equal stress
level, correspondent control forces of the
others installation configurations can be
calculated.
average bond strength in the test
series
N um average value of the failure N u(fc)
loads in the test series

d rebar diameter
lv embedment length of the rebar in
concrete
f R relative rib area of the tested rebars
N u ( fc ) failure
(peak)
load
of
an
individual test converted to concrete class

C20/25 or C50/60.
The failure peak load of the test is set
conventionally as follows:
1 , then use peak load as failure load.
load at > 1 , then use load at 1 as failure
load. The limit 1 is called maximum
acceptable displacement and according to
TR023 depends on the diameter of the
rebar, see Table 6.
In Table 7 the flow table test results of

the two mixture mentioned in this paper
are given. The spread mixtures on the flow
table exhibit a well cohesiveness and no
sign of segregation. It can be assert that the
flow values of the mixtures assure a well
embedment of the rebar into the hole.
Flow table results
Mix
1.
2.
Table 7
Flow d (mm)
270
220
In Table 8, 9, 10 the strength properties of

the two mixtures mentioned in this paper
are given. Specific gravity is given too.
Average compressive strength
Table 8
Mix Specific Compressive strength in MPa

gravity
24h
7 day
28 day
2230
18.5
43.0
52.5
1.
2300
22.5
48.5
57.5
2.

Hardened Concrete
The compressive strength of the

hardened mortars fulfils the aimed
requirements given in Table 2.
Table 9
Average tensile strength by bending
Mix
1.
2.
Tensile strength by bending in MPa

24h
7 day
28 day
4.40
6.90
7.67
4.89
7.80
8.61
Table 10
Average tensile strength by splitting
Mix
1.
2.
Tensile strength by splitting in MPa

24h
7 day
28 day
2.47
3.97
4.37
2.78
4.16
4.50
Based on the conversion relationship

between the tensile strength by splitting
and the axial tensile strength of concrete
given by clause (8) of EC2, the calculated
axial tensile strength is 3.93MPa for the
mortar no.1 and 4,05 MPa for mortar no.2.
In Table 11, 12 the deformation
properties for the two mixture mentioned
in this paper are given.
Table 11
Average value of the elasticity modulus
Mix
1.
2.
Elasticity modulus in MPa

7 day
28 day
34000
36000
35500
37000
Table 12
Value of dry shrinkage after 55 days
Mix Value of the dry shrinkage after 55days
mm/m
m/m
0.820
820
1.
0.740
740
2.
In Table 13 and Table 14 the

experimental results of the pull-out test for
rebars installed with the mixture no.2 are
given. The test are carried out for a ratio r
between the hole and the rebar diameter
equal to 1,86. In the confined test the bond
399
failure occurs either at the boundary

between rebar and the mortar (S-M) or at
the boundary between the concrete and
mortar (B-M) or through failure of the
rebar.
Table 13
Pull-out experimental results at 7 days
N um
C35/45
Embed 10d s
Diameter
14
7.81
f bm
12.67
ft bm
14.61
Characteristic

Average bond
Average bond
strength - TR023
Displacement at the
control load
Average yielding
force
Average maximum
failure force
c
mm
max
mm
F ym
min.
max
min.
max
(tf)
0.61
0.85
1.50
1.50
7.85
F max,failure
(tf)
9.23
Rebar
Table 14
Pull-out experimental results at 7 days
N um
C35/45
Embed 7d s
Diameter
14
7.75
f bm
17.96
ft bm
20.71
Characteristics

Average bond
Average bond
strength - TR023
Displacement at the
control load
Average yielding
force
Average maximum
failure force
c
mm
max
mm
F ym
min.
max
min.
max
(tf)
0.31
0.40
1.50
1.50
7.80
F max,failure
(tf)
8.98
S-M
400
6. Conclusions
A performance Portland limestone
cement-based mortar can provide a good
balance between flowability, strength and
deformability.
In the fresh stage the mortar exhibit no
bleeding or segregation and good
flowability. The viscosity of the mortar
mixture allows introducing of the rebar
without difficulties up to the bottom of the
hole.
The hardened mortar exhibits high
compression strength and satisfactory
elasticity modulus.
The strain due to the dry shrinkage is
comparable with the shrinkage strain of the
ordinary concrete and much lower than the
ordinary mortar. The autogenous shrinkage
that had developed in the first 24h was not
assessed.
The bond strength recorded for an
average value of failure load N um
according to the TR023, provides a good
anchoring of the steel rebars into the
hardened concrete of any strength class
between C12/15 up to C50/60.
From this study and other study
performed by author, the maximum bond
strength at tests was recorded for an
embedment length smaller or equal to 7
regardless of concrete class greater than
C20/25. For greater embedment lengths the
bond strength decreases because the failure
load is defined conventionally i.e. is based
on the maximum admissible displacement
1 . When the 1 is surpassed, the failure
force is equal to the steel yielding force.
The failure modes recorded at tests are
valid for a ratio r between the hole and the
rebar diameter greater than 1.86.
References
1. Dreux, G.: Nouveaux guide du beton et
de ses constituants. Paris, Eyrolles,
Huitieme Ed., 1998.
2. de Larrard F.: Concrete Mixture

Proportioning. London, Ed. E & FN
Spon, 1999.
3. Neville, A.M.: Proprietile betonului.
Ed. a IV-a. Bucureti, Ed. Tehnic,
2003.
4. *** SR EN 13395-1: Produse i sisteme
pentru
protecia
i
repararea
structurilor de beton. Metode de
ncercare. Determinarea lucrabilitii.
Partea 1 Curgerea mortarelor
tixotropice. ASRO, 2003.
5. *** SR EN 12190: Metode de ncercri
Determinarea
rezistenei
la
compresiune a mortarului de reparaii,
ASRO, 2002.
6. *** SR EN 13412: Produse i sisteme
pentru
protecia
i
repararea
ncercri. Determinarea modulului de
elasticitate la compresiune. ASRO,
2008.
7. *** SR EN 12617-4: Produse i sisteme
pentru
protecia
i
repararea
ncercare Partea 4: Determinarea
contraciei i dilatrii, ASRO, 2002.
8. *** TR023: Assessment of postinstalled rebar connections. European
Organization for Technical Approvals
EOTA, 2006.
9. *** SR EN 1881: Produse i sisteme
pentru
protecia
i
repararea
ncercare. ncercarea produselor
pentru
ancorare
prin
metoda
smulgerii, ASRO, 2007.
10. *** SR EN 1992-1: Eurocod 2:
Proiectarea structurilor de beton.
Partea1-1: Reguli generale i reguli
pentru cldiri, ASRO, 2006.
11. *** ETAG001-Part5: Guideline for
European technical aproval of metal
anchors for use in concrete. Part 5
Bonded anchors. EOTA, 2002

INFLUENCE OF FLY ASH ADDITION ON

THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
CONCRETE
M. RUJANU 1
M. BARBUTA1
Abstract: In the paper is analyzed the influence of fly ash dosage on the
compressive strength of concrete. Five mixes were prepared, one witness
without fly ash and the others with fly ash addition in dosages varying
between 10% and 35% as replacement of cement. The cement type, water
quantity, water/cement, water/cement+fly ash, aggregates dosages, type and
dosage of superplasticizer were maintained the same for all mixes. The
experimental results showed that the concrete mix with 10% fly ash had an
increase in compressive strength of about 23.2%, in comparison with the
witness. The mix with 35% fly ash replacement of cement had the
compressive strength smaller than the witness with about 39%.
Key words: fly ash; cement concrete; compressive strength.
1. Introduction
During the last decades a lot of studies
had shown that different types of additions
used in the concrete mix can improve some
of their characteristics [1-5]. In the
producing high strength concrete there is
necessary to introduce an active addition
such as silica fume, fly ash, etc., [6-7]. In
other cases, the active addition can replace
a part of cement, contributing to the
environment protection and construction
sustainability. In the case of geopolymer
concrete, the active addition which can be
a by-product material rich in silicon and
aluminium, totally replaces the cement in
the mix and it is chemically activated by a
high-alkaline solution to form a paste that
binds the coarse and fine aggregates [811].
It is known that in the construction
1
industry there are used different types of

concretes, with ordinary or performing
characteristics. A concrete of high strength
can be obtained by using near cement
some active additions, in combination or
not, but taking into account that the
modifying of the content of fine part
suppose a changed process of shrinkage, so
the changing of microcracking process of
cement stone [12-13]. There is a strong
connection between strength and structural
characteristics of concrete: compactness,
porosity [14].
In the paper is analyzed the influence of
fly ash dosage as replacement of cement
on the compressive strength of concrete
having in view to obtain cheaper concrete
and to develop environmentally friendly
construction materials.
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi.
402
2. General aspects regarding the

influence of fly ash addition on
compressive strength of concrete
The cement influences the concrete
structure by its nature and by its dosage in
the mix. The strength characteristic of a
concrete can be obtained in different ways,
but in conditions in which the economical
aspect is predominant, it is important to
analyze the concretes with active additions.
In this way the cement proposed for the
study is CEM I-42,5R. As active addition
in the mix was used fly ash from CET
Holboca Iasi. The fly ash is a material of
siliceous-aluminous nature, which has fine
granules and in the humidity presence
reacts with calcium hydroxide forming
compounds with binder properties.
Hydrosilicates will contribute to an
increase of volume of new gel formations
which during hardening results in an
intensive microcraking process. In this
direction it is recommended to keep the
concrete under water until complete
hardening for preventing contractions and
in the same time to contribute to a better
compaction [8].
Previous studies had shown that even the
mechanical strengths slowly increase;
finally they present values near of that of
cements without addition. The researches
which were made had used cements with
additions under 40% from clinker content
and in these conditions, the following
observations were done:
- Because of the high content of mixing
water which was imposed by the fly ash
with a great specific surface, there is the
tendency of displacement of poses size of
0.5-1 mm to higher sizes;
- The volume of capillary pores increases
by increasing the fly ash dosage.
These modifications are unfavourable to
the structure formation of concrete and
also to the structural characteristics that
imposes a correlation between the cement
and addition dosages. This means that fly

ash dosage is influenced by the cement
dosage in such way that fine part does not
exceed for both some limits and in the
same time it must consider that the mix
water quantity and the ratio between water
and cementitious material to be kept in
small limits by using tension-active
additives.
3. Experiment Program
For the test experiment the actual norms
[15] are considered.
For preparing the 5 mixes of concrete
were used the following materials:
River aggregates with maximum
granule size of 16 mm.
Cement type CEM I-42.5R produce in
Romania.
Fly ash from CET Holboca Iasi [16].
The dosages of components of concrete
are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Components
W/C+F Consistence
Fly
Mix Cement
W
Ash
Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg
cm
360
0
172 0,48
S2(1,5)
A1
324
36 172 0,48
S2(1,5)
A2
306
54 172 0,48
S2(1,0)
A3
288
72 172 0,48
S2(1,0)
A4
234
126 172 0,48
S2(1,0)
A5
The test samples were cubes shape with

141 mm, 6 samples for each mix, which
were kept in standard conditions 28 days
before testing.
4. Experimental Results
The results of compression tests at 28
days are given in Table 2.
M. RUJANU et al.: Influence of fly ash addition on the compressive strength of concrete
Table 2
Sample
W/C+F Cement
-
A1
0,48
A2
0,48
A3
0,48
A4
0,48
A5
0,48
Fly
Ash
Average
fc
fc
Kg/m3 Kg/m3 MPa

360
0 32,90
40,36
42,85
324
36 45,29
47,28
37,93
306
54 38,08
35,56
37,36
288
72 35,26
33,05
22,65
234
126 22,66
22,65
MPa
36,63
45,14
37,19
35,22
22,65
The graphical representation is given in

Fig. 1.
Compressive strength N/mm2
Additiondosage
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
36
54
72
22,65
A5
35,22
A4
37,19
A3
45,14
A2
A1
126
36,63
Fig. 1. Compressive strength of concrete

with fly ash dosage
403
The experimental results presented in

Fig.1 showed that the concrete mix with
10% fly ash (A2) had an increase in
compressive strength of about 23.2%, in
comparison with the witness (A1). The mix
with 35% fly ash replacement of cement
(A5) had the compressive strength smaller
than the witness (A1) with about 39%.
4. Conclusions
The analysis of experimental results
shown the following conclusions:
The mixes A5 with a higher fly ash
addition (35% from cement dosage) had a
value of compressive strength under the
level of concrete grade strength in
conditions in which were kept the same
consistency characteristics, the same
compounds and the test were at 28 days.
The mix A3 with a dosage of fly ash of
15% from cement dosage had the
behaviour like the witness. In these
conditions the compressive strength of
concrete with fly ash is equal to that of mix
A1.
The mixes A3 and A4, which had a
similar mix, presented the characteristics
of fresh and hardened concrete with close
values, with a smaller value of
compressive strength of mix A4 which had
a reduced cement dosage.
From the economical efficiency way, by
the compressive strength interpretation, the
mix A2 is good. In this case, for a cement
dosage of 324 kg/m3, in comparison with
360 kg/m3 and fly ash 36 kg/m3, in the
conditions of a ratio W/C+F = 0.48 the
increase of compressive strength at 28 days
is highest.
In conclusion the concrete mix with a fly
ash replacement of 10 % from cement
dosage had the best behaviour from the
mechanical property point of view.
404
References
1. Bolden J., Abu-Lebdeh T., Fini E.,
Utilization of recycled and waste
materials in various construction
applications, American Journal of
Environmental Science, 9 (1) 2013,
p:14-24.
2. Barbuta M, Harja M, Babor D.,
Concrete polymer with fly ash.
Morphologic analysis based on
scanning
electron
microscopic
observations. Rev Rom Mat., 2010,
40:337345.
3. Harja M, Barbuta M, Rusu L.,
Obtaining and Characterization of
Polymer Concrete with Fly Ash. J Appl
Sci., 2009, 9:8891.
4. Harja M, Barbuta M., Influence of
different additions on frost-thaw and
chemical resistance of polymer
concrete. Adv Sci Lett., 2013, 19:455
459.
5. Brbu M, Harja M, Cretescu I,
Soreanu G., Influence of wastes
content on properties of polymer
concrete. 7th International Symposium
on Cement Based Materials for a
Sustainable
Agriculture,
Canada,
2011,18-21 septembrie.
6. Magureanu C, Negrutiu C. Performance
of concrete containing high volume coal
fly ash - green concrete. 4th Int Conf
Comp Methods Exp Mat Charact, Proc
Paper 2009, 64, p: 373-79.
7. Barbuta M., Effect of different types of
superplasticizer on the properties of
high strength concrete incorporating
large amounts of silica fume, Bullettin
of the Polytechnic Institute of Iasi,
construction and Architecture Section
51 (1-2), 2005, p: 69-74.
8. Sofi, J.S.J. van Deventer, P. A. Mendis,
G.C. Luckey, Engineering properties of
inorganic concretes, Cement and
Concrete Research, 37, 2007,251-257
9. Hardjito D., Steenie E. Wallah S. E.,

Dody M. J. Sumajouw D. M .J.,
Rangan B. V. -On the Development of
Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete,
Materials Journal, 2004, 101,6, p: 467472
10. Harja M, Barbuta M, Gavrilescu M.,
Utilization of coal fly ash from power
plants II. Geopolymer obtaining. Env
Eng Manag J., 2009, 8:513520
11. Barbuta M, Harja M., Use of
geopolymers for preparing concrete.
Proceedings of IV-th National
Conference The Academic Days of
Academy of Technical Science in
Romania, Iasi, 2009, 2:23-29.
12. Neville, A., H., Properties of
Concrete, Longman Group Limited,
London, 1997
13. Barbuta M, Harja M, Baran I.,
Comparison of Mechanical Properties
for Polymer Concrete with Different
Types of Filler. J Mater Civ Eng.,
2010, 22:696701.
14. Rujanu, M., PhD Thesis, Facultatea de
Construcii i Arhitectur Iai, 1993
15. Cod de practica pentru executarea
lucrarilor din beton, beton armat si
beton precomprimat, Partea 1:
Producerea betonului, Indicativ NE
012-1:2007, Elaborat de INCDCECBucuresti
16. Bucur R. D., Cimpeanu C., Barbuta M,
Ciobanu G., Paraschiv G., Harja M., A
comprehensive characterization of ash
from Romania thermal power plant,
Journal: Food, Agriculture and
Environment (JFAE),2014, Vol. 12, 2:
943-949.

SOME IMPLICATIONS OF STRONG

MOTION ACCELEROGRAMS OBTAINED
IN ROMANIA
H. SANDI 1
I. S. BORCIA 2
Abstract: The regulatory literature concerning the earthquake protection

reveals the fact that the design parameters are prescribed assuming
implicitly a linear performance of the ground structure interface.
Thereafter, the upper part of the ground structure system may be eventually
designed recognizing explicitly the post-elastic performance of the upper part
referred to. On the contrary, the scientific concern during recent decades has
shown that non-linear interaction during strong earthquakes is frequently
unavoidable and, perhaps, even beneficial for the capacity of structures to
withstand strong seismic action. The data at hand reveal the fact that nonlinear dynamic interaction had to occur in some cases, at least in terms of
partial uplift of foundations. The implications of potential occurrence of nonlinear performance of ground structure systems lead logically to the need
to revise the philosophy of regulatory documents. This requires at its turn an
examination of the topology of transfer to ground of the seismic forces.
Key words: soil structure interaction, foundation uplift, transfer
topology, code philosophy.
1. Introduction
A look to the regulatory literature
concerning the earthquake protection of
buildings and other structures reveals the
fact that the parameters concerning the
specification of design loading are
routinely prescribed assuming implicitly a
linear performance of the ground
structure interface (or contact system).
Thereafter, the upper part of the ground
structure system may be eventually
designed recognizing explicitly the postelastic performance of the upper part
referred to. In agreement with the scientific
impact of the modern philosophy of the
1
2
New Zealand school on earthquake

resistant design, the ground performance
should be, implicitly, in a mandatory way,
linear. On the contrary, the scientific
concern during recent decades on ground
structure interaction (which has become
feasible due to the progress of calculation
capabilities), has shown that non-linear
interaction during strong earthquakes is
frequently unavoidable and, frequently,
even beneficial for the capacity of
structures to withstand strong seismic
action. Note here some representative
papers, [2], [3], as well as two early
representative papers of Romania, [4], [1].
After
some
methodological
Romanian Academy of Technnical Sciences, e-mail: horeasandi@yahoo.com

INCD URBAN-INCERC, Bucharest, Romania. e-mail: isborcia@yahoo.com
406
considerations, the data at hand on

structural performance of some buildings,
as revealed by simultaneous accelerograms
obtained at ground and at top level, reveal
the fact that non-linear dynamic interaction
had to occur, at least in terms of partial
uplift of foundations.
The implications of potential occurrence
of non-linear performance of ground
structure systems lead logically to the need
to revise the philosophy of regulatory
documents. Prior to specifying the seismic
loading parameters, the weak links of
ground structure systems are to be
identified, and this requires at its turn an
examination of the topology of transfer to
ground of the seismic forces.
2. Some methodological references
The references to the case studies
presented in next section make use of some
methodological developments that are to
be briefly recalled. They are related to:
1. Ways of characterizing the seismic
motion of ground and/or structures.
2. Ways of dealing in a simplified
manner with the kinematics of dynamic
systems analysed.
Some brief data on these developments
are presented subsequently.
2.1. Ground motion characteristics used
The basic full characterization of actual
ground motions is provided by the
accelerograms recorded. Since we are
interested in the spectral content as well as the
destructive potential of ground motion, it is
most useful to undertake some appropriate
ways of processing referred to.
The most usual way to do that is to
determine the response spectra for absolute or
relative
accelerations,
velocities
or
displacements, depending upon the type of
analysis performed. These functions refer
usually to ground motions. They may be of
interest even for some locations on structures,

in case one installs there some valuable and
vulnerable components of equipment.
Another way of high interest to analyse the
features of ground motion, as well as of
motion of various objects, is represented by
the Fourier spectra, (complex or absolute).
This approach makes it possible to analyse in
a comprehensive way the features of seismic
motion of ground or other objects and to
derive in a reversible way the motion
characteristics of various objects of interest in
one sense of passage or in the opposite sense.
It is usable as far as the systems dealt with
present a linear performance.
Besides the ways widely known and used
referred to, it may be interesting to use also
the intensity spectra [9]. This approach makes
it possible to get a condensed and flexible
characterization of the severity of ground
motion, providing a synthetic view capable to
generalize in terms that are of interest for
engineering activities, of the destructive
potential of ground motion, for various
spectral bands and also for various directions.
This approach is not used in this paper, due to
overall length limitation. Details on this
subject can be read in [5], [7].
2.2. Dealing with the kinematics of the
systems analysed
The systems analysed in this view are
relatively tall residential buildings like
those of Fig. 2. Some general data on their
ambient oscillation were given in [10]. The
structures dealt with are assumed to be
dynamically symmetrical with respect to
two (orthogonal) vertical planes (referred
to as longitudinal and transversal main
planes). The main components of their
deformation analysed on the basis of full
scale experimental results refer to the
features of motion in a principal
(longitudinal or transversal) vertical plane.
The structures dealt with are considered
vertical macro-cantilevers. The full scale
H. SANDI et al.: Some implications of strong motion accelerograms obtained in Romania
experimental data at hand were referred to

this basic model. The types of macrodeformation of these systems are:
a) Rigid tilting (due to ground
deformation);
b) Pure bending;
c) Pure shear.
The full scale experimental data have
shown that, for oscillations in the
longitudinal plane, the pure shear
contributes with around 50% of the
amplitude of displacements at the top,
while for oscillations in the transversal
plane the contribution of tilting and or pure
bending is usually more than 50%. In spite
of accepting a quite crude idealization, the
oscillations of these dynamic systems will
be assumed to correspond purely to rigid
tilting.
An exercise in dealing with the
relationship between pure rigid tilting and
vertical motions is presented for the simple
case of a vertical macro-cantilever. The
interface with the ground is a rectangle of
dimensions a and b respectively and the
height is h (from the centre of ground
structure interface to the top). The axes Ox
and Oy have an origin located at the centre
of the rectangle referred to, while the axis
Oz with a coordinate (increasing upwards)
corresponds to the intersection of the two
main vertical planes mentioned. The
(infinitesimal) rotations considered are
(rotation from Ox to Oz) and (rotation
from Oy to Oz) respectively. The
displacements along the axes Ox, Oy and
Oz are u, v and w respectively. The angles
of rotation are
= w/x = - u / h
(1.a)
= w/ y= - v / h
(1.b)
The vertical displacement at a current

point of coordinates x and y (assuming no
vertical displacement at the origin of axes)
is
w (x, y) = x + y
(2)
407
The vertical displacements at the corners

of the horizontal plane section are, under
these assumptions,
w ( a /2, b / 2, t) =
= (t) a / 2 (t) b / 2
(2)
The equation (2) may be used for

displacements, velocities or accelerations.
The time variable during the seismic event,
t, was explicitly introduced just in the
equation (2), but it is self-understood that
it may be introduced already in former
equations. The functions characterizing the
variable position of the ground structure
interface during an earthquake are the
vertical displacements at the four corners,
w ( a /2, b / 2, t). Due to the dynamic
symmetry assumed for the dynamic system
dealt with, the order of the interface
corners is not significant.
3. Some case studies
The data referred to subsequently rely on
the strong motion information at hand,
obtained from the accelerographic network
in operation during last decades. This
network pertains to the Building Research
Institute INCERC Bucharest and consists
of analog accelerographs (mainly SMA-1).
Romania was subjected during last
decades to three strong Vrancea
earthquakes, as shown in Table 1. While in
1977 the strong motion network of
INCERC consisted of a very small number
of accelerographs, the situation changed
totally thereafter, mainly due to the
generous aid provided in 1978 by the
Agency of International Development of
the State Department of USA.
Data on earthquakes referred to Table 1
No
1
2
3
Earthquake
M GR = 7.2
M GR = 7.0
M GR = 6.7
h (km)
109
133
91
Date
1977.03.04
1986.08.30
1990.05.30
408
The strong motion network that provided

records during the earthquakes referred to
consists currently of analog instruments,
most of them of SMA-1 type, produced by
Kinemetrics (USA). The location of towns
where instruments are installed is shown in
Fig. 1. The results concerning the features
of ground motion, obtained by the network
referred to were presented and discussed in
several papers, [6], etc., but less attention
was paid to date to the performance of
structures, as revealed by motion records
obtained at the top level of several
buildings. A recent publication on this
subject was [8]. Since the main object of
this paper is to identify some features of
the non-linear performance of buildings,
attention is paid to some cases concerning
buildings like those of Fig. 2, subjected to
some of the earthquakes mentioned in
Table 1.
directions. The Bucharest - INCERC and

Bucharest Balta Alb, data of
1977.03.04, are given together in Fig. 3.1,
since accelerographic information at that
date was available only for ground level at
Fig. 2.1. BUCHAREST, Balta Alb, E.5,

BLA
Fig. 2.2. BUCHAREST, Alexandria 114,

OD1 Bldg., RAH
Fig. 2.3. PLOIETI WEST, 149 C Bldg.,

PLS
Fig. 1. Analogical strong motion network

of Romania
The time histories of horizontal
accelerations recorded are given in Fig. 3.
for some cases, if possible together for
ground and top levels of a same building
dealt with, for the two horizontal
Fig. 2. Buildings where non-linear

performance apparently occurred during
recent earthquakes.
INCERC and top level at Balta Alb. This
arbitrary latter combination was adopted
because only these records were available
for the event of 1977.003.03, while for
other cases the accelerograms are given
Fig. 3.1. Accelerograms at top level of

building of Fig. 2.1. and at ground level,
at INCERC, on 1977.03.04.
409
Fig. 4.1. Fourier spectra of accelerograms at

top level for building of Fig. 2.1, for both
directions, for the event of 1977.03.04.
Fig. 3.2. Accelerograms at top and ground

levels of building of Fig. 2.3 on 1986.05.30.
Fig. 4.2.a Fourier spectra of accelerograms

at top level for building of Fig. 2.3, for the
longitudinal direction, for the event of
1986.08.30.
Fig. 3.3. Accelerograms at top and ground

levels of building of Fig. 2.2. on 1990.05.30.
Fig. 3.4. Accelerograms at top level of

building of Fig. 2.2. on 1990.05.30.
Fig. 3. Accelerogams referred to in the

paper.
Fig. 4.2.b.Fourier spectra of accelerograms

at top level for building of Fig. 2.3, for the
transversal direction, for the event of
1986.08.30.
410
Fig. 4.3. Fourier spectra of accelerograms at

top level for building of Fig. 2.2, for both
directions, for the event of 1990.05.30.
Fig. 5.3. Vertical accelerograms derived for

the corners of building of Fig. 2.3, for the
event of 1990.05.30.
Fig. 4. Fourier spectra for some buildings

and events

event of 1990.05.30.

event of 1977.03.04.

event of 1986.
Fig. 5. Vertical accelerograms derived

assuming rigid body motion for the
buildings and events referred to.
together for ground and top levels for the
various cases. The accelerograms for the
cases of Bucharest - INCERC and
Bucharest Balta Alb, on 1977.03.04, are
given together, since accelerographic data
and Fourier spectra were quite similar for
other events [6].
The acceleration amplitude Fourier
spectra are given in Fig. 4. It was estimated
that, given the limited length of the paper,
other characteristics of motion, like
response spectra or intensity spectra,
should not be presented here.
Some comments on the figures
presented:
- The buildings dealt with are quite
similar and are also representative for and
important part of mass construction
achieved in Romania, during three

decades, from about 1960 to 1990;
- Data provided by accelerograms,
available and used, characterize some of
the most severe cases of earthquake effects
obtained to date in Romania during the
strong earthquakes and locations for which
recording instruments were installed.
While the earthquake of 1977 was
destructive, having a magnitude return
period of around 50 years, the other two
events referred to were severe too, but not
destructive, and had return periods in the
range of 10 to 30 years. This means that
the Vrancea sesimogenic zone is able to
generate also more severe earthquakes,
during which non-linear performance of
the soil and ground structure interface
should be characterized by higher uplift
amplitudes and, perhaps, by severe local
deformation of soil, generated by
compressive stresses.
- The graphs of Fig. 3.2 reveal the well
known fact that, for a given building, the
amplitude of seismic accelerations at the
top level are much more severe than those
of ground level.
- The graphs of Fig. 4.2 reveal a similar
fact, that amplitudes of oscillations at the
top level of a building are much more
severe than those of ground level.
Moreover, they reveal the fact that the
dominant periods (or frequencies) of
motion at top level do not coincide with
those of ground level, while a paramount
influence of the dynamic characteristics
may be remarked, especially for the plots
of Fig. 4.2 (especially Fig. 4.2.b).
- A look at Figures 5 shows that partial,
transient, uplift should have occurred
during the earthquakes and at the locations
considered. It is most likely that the
phenomenon
of
non-linear
soil
performance should have occurred in
several cases.
411
4. Final considerations
1. A look at literature shows that, while
about three to four decades ago, literature
devoted to non-linear dynamic interaction
was at its beginnings, by now the concern
for non-linear dynamic ground structure
interaction during strong earthquakes has
increasingly become a recognized,
important, branch / component of
earthquake engineering. In numerous
cases, the concern for non-linear
performance of ground structure
dynamic systems appears to be a key
component of measures of earthquake
protection of structures. Note here as
representative the references [2] and [3].
2. The analysis of performance of
structures in case of occurrence of
phenomena of non-linear soil performance
shows that there may be many situations
for which the non-linearity of interaction
turns out to be favorable. The non-linear
performance of the interface of relatively
tall buildings leads to a decrease of
overturning stiffness as well as of
overturning moments. A new problem is
raised instead in case of relatively slender
buildings: the risk of overturning of
structures. This represents a problem of
stability of position.
3. The concern for non-linear
performance of ground structure systems
implies a need of methodological
reconsiderations. In principle, the seismic
design loading should no longer be
prescribed assuming that it may be
specified irrespective of possible nonlinear ground interaction. On the
contrary, one should investigate the ground
structure interface, in order to determine
weak links of the system.
4. It turns out that it would be correct and
necessary to investigate the topology of
ground structure transfer of seismic
effects. Moreover, in case the system dealt
with includes also critical pieces of
412
equipment, the view on the topology

referred to should be extended, by deciding
which should be the most appropriate
sequence of failure of parts of ground,
structure, equipment etc. in case of
overloading.
5. It is highest time to reconsider the
philosophy of codes and, correspondingly,
the procedures of design or of evaluation
of vulnerability and risk of existing
structures, adopting an appropriate
methodology.
6. The problems raised by the
methodological modifications required are
quite complex and, in order to reach
satisfactory
solutions,
research
of
analytical nature should be organized. Of
course, in depth analysis of the actual
performance of structures, paying special
attention to instrumental information will
be necessary.
References
1. Constantinescu, D., Dimitriu, D.: Efecte
ale rotirii fundaiei pe teren asupra
rspunsului dinamic al structurii.
Construcii, 6, 1985.
2. Gazetas, G.: Apostolou, M.: Nonlinear
SoilStructure Interaction: Foundation
Uplifting
and
Soil
Yielding,
Proceedings Third UJNR Workshop on
Soil-Structure Interaction, March 2930, 2004, Menlo Park, California,
USA.
3. Pecker, A.: Non-linear soil structure
interaction: impact on the seismic
response of structures.Godynamique
et structure. OECD / NEA IAGE IAEA
ISCC Workshop on SSI, Ottawa, 2010.
4. Sandi, H.: Interaciunea dinamic

dintre structur i terenul de fundare
(Dynamic
interaction
between
structure and soil). Construcii, 4-5,
1985.
5. Sandi, H., Borcia, I. S.: Intensity
spectra versus response spectra. Basic
concepts and applications. Pure and
Applied Geophysics, Springer, 2011,
Volume 168, Numbers 1-2, Pages 261287, ISSN 0033-4553.
6. Sandi, H., Borcia, I. S.: "A summary
view of instrumental data on recent
strong Vrancea earthquakes and
implications for seismic hazard". Pure
and Applied Geophysics, 2011,
Volume 168, Numbers 3-4, Pages 659694, ISSN 0033-4553.
7. Sandi, H., Borcia, I. S.: An attempt to
recalibrate instrumental criteria for
intensity assessmeent. Proc. 15-th
European Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Istanbul, 2014
8. Sandi, H., Borcia, I. S.: Some
implications of full scale data obtained
during
recent
strong
Vrancea
earthquakes on the assessment of
seismic risk. Proc.Comportarea in situ
a construciilor, Braov, 2014
9. Sandi, H., Floricel, I.: Some alternative
instrumental measures of ground
motion
severity.
Proc.
11-th
European Conf. on Earthquake
Engineering, Paris, 1998
10. Sandi,
H.,
erbnescu,
Gh.:
Experimental results on the dynamic
deformation of multi-story buildings.
Proc. 4-th World Conf. on Earthquake
Engineering,
Santiago,
1969.

CASE STUDY REGARDING EVALUATION

AND CONSOLIDATION OF BUILDINGS
INFRASTRUCTURE
M. SOLONARU 1 M. BUDESCU1
D. OANEA (FEDIUC)1
I. LUNGU 2
Abstract: Rehabilitation solutions in terms of increasing the footing

dimensions and foundation depth can be established by correlating the
present soil parameters with the new loading conditions. Following the
Eurocodes provisions, the evaluation of the geotechnical conditions of the
existing buildings, results in stronger restrictions than the ones of previous
norms. The paper presents a case study on correlating increased footings
with natural soil conditions while rehabilitation regards the entire building.
Key words: geotechnical evaluation, infrastructure of buildings, soil
parameters.
1. Introduction
The assessment of the technical
condition of existing buildings is
performed when it presents a significant
degree of damage due to external factors
that endanger the safety of operation, when
changing the beneficiary or if required by
the builder structural changes, additions or
disposal of storey, or changes of the
destination of the building. In any of these
cases, it may be necessary structural
rehabilitation of the building, in order to
meet the requirements of strength and
stability of the existing structural
assembly.
The present paper aims, through a case
study, to evaluate the need for
infrastructure interventions when changing
the destination of the building, introducing
1
an additional level and retrofitting the

superstructure. As a consequence of failure
to
fulfill
resistance
restrictions,
strengthening solutions for shallow
foundations are analyzed in order to
increase the bearing capacity for taking
over new loads, either by enhancing the
width of the foundation, or the foundation
depth or simultaneously by both.
2. Geotechnical assessment outcomes for
the building infrastructure
In this case study, the infrastructure of a
building
consisting
of
continuous
foundations under the walls is subjected to
analysis. In terms of original technical
design, the existing infrastructure, has met
safety threshold. Initial data used to assess
the bearing capacity of the foundation is:
Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services of Iasi.
Department of Transportation Infrastructure and Foundations, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building
Services of Iasi.
2
414
- Permanent load, P=450 kN;

- Variable load, Q=150 kN;
- Width of foundation, B=3 m;
- Depth of foundation, D f =1.40 m;
- Characteristics for the first layer of soil
where the active zone is forming: bulk
weight of the soil, 1 =18kN/m3, internal
friction
angle,
1 =15,
cohesion,
c 1 =12kPa and the height of the layer,
H 1 =2.90m.
Thus, the bearing capacity checking
relation [3], [5] is as follows:
(1)
Q m R
Where,
Q Design load on the foundation soil,
derived from the most unfavorable group
actions;
m Coefficient for working conditions;
R Bearing capacity / design resistance of
the foundation soil.
Q ( 7 0 0 .8 k N ) m R ( 7 2 3 .8 1 6 k N )
Although safety is achieved at the level

of the footing, the superstructure presents
degradations and therefore for comparison
purposes, the geotechnical assessment is
performed in current conditions, based on
Eurocodes design rules, according to the
design approach GEO as an ultimate limit
state. Requirement that must be fulfilled
[2], [4] is:
Vd R d
(2)
Where,
V d Design value of the vertical load or
normal component of resultant of the
actions applied to the base of foundation;
R d Design value of the resistance against
action.
Calculation at ultimate limit state GEO
[4] is performed based on the three design
approaches that differ through applying of
partial safety factors for actions, materials/
soil and resistances. Since the second
design approach leads to intermediate
values, for this case study, the values of the
first (which has two combinations of
calculation AC 1 C 1 and AC 1 C 2 ) and the
third design approaches (AC 3 ) will be

compared. The values involved for
checking the relation of the bearing
capacity for each design approach are:
- First design approach, combination one,
with the notation AC 1 C 1 : V d =968.58 kN;
R d =820.774 kN relation (2) unfulfilled.
- First design approach, second
combination, with the notation AC 1 C 2 :
V d =745.8 kN; R d =565.194 kN relation
(2) unfulfilled.
- Third design approach, with the notation
AC 3 : V d =968.58 kN; R d =565.194 kN
relation (2) unfulfilled.
By evaluating the infrastructure under
the current conditions, lack of safety is
observed, as the criterion is not achieved in
any of the design approaches. It is
recommended to redo the geotechnical
study, which reveals the effect in time of
the compaction under load over the
strength parameters of the soil.
The new values for the soil resistance
parameters are: =18 and c=18kPa. The
results after re-evaluating the building
infrastructure are the following:
AC 1 C 1 : V d =968.58 kN; R d =1329 kN
relation (2) fulfilled;
AC 1 C 2 : V d =745.8 kN; R d =866.011 kN
relation (2) fulfilled;
AC 3 : V d =968.58 kN; R d =866.011 kN
relation (2) unfulfilled.
It is noted an increase of the resistance
design values, but not sufficient for the
third design approach. Thus, taking into
account the unfulfilled safety criterion
under initial load conditions and the new
loads that will follow from adding a storey,
the change of the building destination and
the rehabilitation of the superstructure, the
strengthening of the foundation is imposed.
3. Technical solutions for the
geotechnical rehabilitation of the
foundation
Structural
rehabilitation
of
the
M. SOLONARU et al.: A study case regarding evaluation and consolidation of buildings infrastructure 415
infrastructure by increasing the width of

footing is one of the most common
technological methods for getting an intake
of bearing capacity, although to a limited
extent. The new data involved in the
calculations in this phase is: the permanent
load from strengthening the superstructure,
P c =200kN, permanent load by adding a
storey, P s =250kN, variable load from the
change of the building destination,
Q sd =50kN, and the characteristics of the
second soil layer that will be included in
the active area (internal friction angle,
2 =18, cohesion, c 2 =12kPa and the bulk
weight, 2 =20kN/m3).
According to contribution brought through
the variation of the foundation depth and
the increased foundation dimensions, the
ratios between the resistance values and
the design values of the load transmitted to
the foundation (Rd/Vd) are graphically
represented for each the design approach
according to Eurocode 7.
Figure 1 shows the effect of increasing
the foundation width. The area above the

horizontal line from the unit value level
represents the safety area of the
strengthened foundation fulfilled for each
design approach.
It is noted that simultaneously, the three
approaches only satisfy the condition of
safety at a width of 5.60m, thus the use of
this technical solutions in the geotechnical
rehabilitation being irrational. Figure 2
shows the effect of increasing the depth of
foundation. As in the previous case, the
area above the horizontal line from the unit
value level represents the safety area of
reinforced foundation.
Looking at graph it can be observed that
the
safety
threshold
is
attained
simultaneously for all the three approaches
for a value of 4.30m for the depth of
foundation, a value that can only be
justified only if the beneficiary requires
that a basement should be added at the
existing
construction.
Fig. 1. Consolidation of the foundation by increasing the foundation width
416
Fig. 2. Consolidation of the foundation by increasing the foundation depth

The rehabilitation solution of the
foundation, both by increasing the width
and depth of foundation, with the results
deducted by calculation is presented
below. Tables 1-3 summarize the results of
the ratios between the design values of
resistance and design values of the loads
transmitted to the foundation per meter (Rd
/Vd) for all possible combinations of the
values of the foundation width (horizontal
direction) and of the depth of foundation
(vertical direction). The ranges for these
values are of 3.20m-5.60m for the width of
foundation and of 1.50m-3.60m for the
foundation depth. The maximum extreme
values of these structural dimensions
(5.60m and 3.60m) are the first values that
exceed the safety threshold in the most
restrictive design approach.
In order of appearance, the tables
correspond to the first design approach
with the two possible combinations and to
the third design approach.
The area in the tables with values

fulfilling the safety criterion is separated
from the ones not fulfilling it through a
diagonally thicker line.
Values marked by yellow represents all
the values that do not satisfy the condition
of resistance for first approach, first
combination; similarly, values marked
with red do not satisfy the safety criterion
for the second combination from the first
design approach and values marked with
blue do not verify the criterion for the third
design approach.
The gray boxes of the tables with solid
values include the first values that satisfy
the condition of bearing capacity for all
design approaches at the same time. The
strengthening solution can be achieved by
choosing any value below the thicker line,
which separates the safety area and the
uncertainty area, this value being
corresponding to a pair of values for a
width (B) and a depth of foundation (Df).
M. SOLONARU et al.: A study case regarding evaluation and consolidation of buildings infrastructure 417
3.2
0.876
0.889
0.902
0.914
0.926
0.938
0.95
0.962
0.973
0.985
0.996
1.007
1.018
1.029
1.04
1.465
1.479
1.493
1.507
1.52
1.534
3.4
0.936
0.949
0.962
0.974
0.987
0.999
1.011
1.023
1.035
1.047
1.058
1.069
1.081
1.092
1.103
1.555
1.57
1.583
1.597
1.611
1.624
3.6
0.9959
1.0088
1.0222
1.0348
1.0472
1.0601
1.0722
1.0841
1.0965
1.1086
1.1201
1.132
1.1432
1.1542
1.1657
1.645
3.8
1.056
1.07
1.083
1.096
1.109
1.122
1.134
1.146
1.159
1.171
1.182
1.194
1.206
1.217
1.228
1.73
4
1.118
1.131
1.144
1.157
1.17
1.183
1.196
1.208
1.221
1.232
1.244
1.256
1.268
1.279
1.29
1.822
4.2
1.179
1.192
1.206
1.219
1.232
1.245
1.258
1.27
1.282
1.294
1.307
1.318
1.33
1.341
1.352
1.91
4.4
1.2406
1.2542
1.2681
1.2805
1.294
1.3072
1.3197
1.3319
1.3445
1.3565
1.3688
1.3802
1.3916
1.4033
1.4144
2
4.6
1.3025
1.3166
1.3303
1.3432
1.3565
1.3696
1.3818
1.3945
1.4064
1.4186
1.4301
1.4419
1.4538
1.4653
1.4761
2.089
1.6585
1.6732
1.6868
1.7003
1.7145
1.747
1.762
1.777
1.79
1.804
1.837
1.851
1.865
1.879
1.892
1.926
1.941
1.954
1.968
1.981
2.0148
2.0289
2.0428
2.056
2.0695
2.1032
2.117
2.1305
2.1439
2.1571
4.8
1.3656
1.3793
1.3929
1.4061
1.4193
1.4315
1.4441
1.4567
1.4688
1.4809
1.4926
1.5044
1.5152
1.527
1.5376
2.1771
2.1918
2.2047
2.2184
2.2314
2.2448
5
1.4289
1.4425
1.4559
1.4687
1.4816
1.4943
1.5073
1.5195
1.5307
1.543
1.5547
1.5661
1.5774
1.5881
1.599
2.2659
2.2796
2.2932
2.3054
2.3185
2.3314
1.547 1.638 1.7276 1.818 1.906 1.995 2.0828 2.1696 2.2573 2.3441
Rd/Vd
5.2
1.492
1.505
1.519
1.532
1.545
1.56
1.569
1.581
1.593
1.606
1.617
1.628
1.639
1.65
1.66
2.354
2.368
2.381
2.393
2.406
2.418
5.4
1.557
1.569
1.583
1.596
1.609
1.62
1.633
1.644
1.656
1.667
1.679
1.69
1.701
1.711
1.722
2.442
2.456
2.467
2.48
2.492
2.504
5.6
B
1.621
1.634
1.647
1.659
1.672
1.684
1.696
1.707
1.719
1.73
1.74
1.751
1.762
1.773
1.783
2.53
2.543
2.554
2.566
2.578
2.59
Rd/Vd
DA1C1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Df
2.43 2.516 2.601

D A 1C 1
The degree of meeting the ULS condition for the variation of B and D f according to
DA 1 C 1
Table 1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Df
3.2
0.748
0.76
0.773
0.785
0.797
0.809
0.821
0.832
0.844
0.856
0.867
0.878
0.889
0.9
0.91
1.237
1.25
1.264
1.277
1.291
1.303
1.316
3.4
0.797
0.81
0.823
0.836
0.848
0.86
0.872
0.884
0.896
0.908
0.919
0.931
0.942
0.953
0.964
1.31
1.324
1.338
1.352
1.365
1.378
1.391
3.6
0.8465
0.8598
0.873
0.8853
0.8988
0.9107
0.9239
0.9363
0.9478
0.9605
0.9717
0.9834
0.995
1.0064
1.017
1.384
3.8
0.896
0.91
0.923
0.937
0.95
0.963
0.975
0.988
0.999
1.012
1.024
1.036
1.048
1.059
1.071
1.46
4
0.946
0.96
0.974
0.987
1.001
1.013
1.026
1.039
1.051
1.064
1.076
1.088
1.1
1.111
1.123
1.529
4.2
0.997
1.011
1.025
1.038
1.051
1.065
1.077
1.09
1.103
1.116
1.128
1.14
1.152
1.164
1.176
1.6
4.4
1.047
1.0609
1.0746
1.0889
1.1021
1.116
1.1288
1.1422
1.1547
1.1677
1.1798
1.1916
1.2042
1.2157
1.2278
1.673
4.6
1.0973
1.1114
1.1261
1.1398
1.1533
1.1673
1.1803
1.1932
1.2065
1.2189
1.2312
1.244
1.2558
1.2675
1.2797
1.744
1.3978
1.4123
1.4256
1.4388
1.4521
1.465
1.471
1.485
1.498
1.512
1.526
1.539
1.543
1.558
1.571
1.585
1.598
1.612
1.616
1.629
1.643
1.657
1.671
1.684
1.688 1.759
1.7016 1.7733
1.7162 1.7874
1.7294 1.8013
1.7425 1.8144
1.7565 1.8279
Rd/Vd
4.8
1.1485
1.1637
1.177
1.1917
1.2052
1.2187
1.2318
1.2456
1.2575
1.2709
1.2831
1.2945
1.3073
1.319
1.3313
1.8154
1.8299
1.8437
1.8578
1.8711
1.8848
1.8978
5
1.2
1.2145
1.2287
1.2427
1.2565
1.27
1.2833
1.2963
1.3092
1.322
1.3342
1.3465
1.3585
1.3703
1.382
1.8868
1.9008
1.9145
1.9287
1.942
1.9551
1.9686
5.2
1.252
1.265
1.28
1.294
1.308
1.32
1.335
1.347
1.361
1.373
1.386
1.398
1.41
1.422
1.433
1.958
1.971
1.985
1.998
2.013
2.025
2.039
5.4
1.303
1.317
1.332
1.346
1.36
1.373
1.386
1.399
1.412
1.424
1.437
1.449
1.461
1.473
1.484
2.027
2.041
2.055
2.068
2.081
2.094
2.106
5.6
1.354
1.369
1.384
1.397
1.411
1.424
1.438
1.45
1.464
1.475
1.488
1.5
1.511
1.523
1.534
2.098
2.111
2.125
2.137
2.15
2.164
2.176
Rd/Vd
DA1C2
D A 1C 2
DA 1 C 2
Table 2

DA3 3.2
1.5 0.571
1.6
0.58
1.7
0.59
1.8 0.599
1.9 0.608
2
0.617
2.1 0.626
2.2 0.635
2.3 0.643
2.4 0.652
2.5 0.661
2.6 0.669
2.7 0.677
2.8 0.685
2.9 0.693
3
0.942
3.1 0.952
3.2 0.962
3.3 0.972
3.4 0.982
3.5 0.991
3.6 1.001
Df
3.4
0.608
0.619
0.628
0.637
0.647
0.656
0.665
0.674
0.683
0.692
0.701
0.709
0.717
0.726
0.734
0.998
1.008
1.018
1.028
1.038
1.048
1.058
3.6
0.6462
0.6557
0.6661
0.6754
0.6851
0.6945
0.704
0.7133
0.7224
0.7315
0.7399
0.7492
0.7574
0.766
0.7744
1.053
3.8
0.684
0.694
0.704
0.714
0.724
0.734
0.743
0.753
0.761
0.771
0.779
0.789
0.798
0.806
0.815
1.11
4
0.722
0.732
0.743
0.753
0.763
0.772
0.782
0.792
0.801
0.81
0.819
0.828
0.837
0.846
0.854
1.163
4.2
0.76
0.77
0.781
0.791
0.801
0.811
0.821
0.831
0.84
0.849
0.859
0.867
0.877
0.886
0.894
1.22
4.4
0.7981
0.809
0.8196
0.8296
0.8399
0.85
0.86
0.8693
0.879
0.8885
0.8979
0.9067
0.9158
0.9248
0.9336
1.272
4.6
0.8367
0.8477
0.8586
0.8688
0.8788
0.8891
0.8988
0.9083
0.9182
0.9274
0.9364
0.9459
0.9551
0.9638
0.9728
1.326
1.0634
1.0742
1.0842
1.0941
1.104
1.1137
1.119
1.129
1.14
1.149
1.16
1.17
1.174
1.184
1.194
1.204
1.214
1.225
1.228
1.239
1.249
1.259
1.27
1.279
1.2826 1.3364
1.2933 1.3469
1.3038 1.3572
1.3135 1.3675
1.3237 1.377
1.3338 1.3869
Rd/Vd
4.8
0.8759
0.8866
0.8971
0.9075
0.9182
0.9277
0.9376
0.9478
0.9568
0.9666
0.9758
0.9849
0.9938
1.003
1.0117
1.3794
1.3901
1.4004
1.4107
1.4207
1.4308
1.4405
5
0.9147
0.9256
0.9363
0.9463
0.9567
0.9668
0.9768
0.9866
0.9958
1.005
1.0146
1.0238
1.0328
1.0411
1.0499
1.4333
1.4437
1.454
1.4639
1.4739
1.4837
1.4938
5.2
0.954
0.964
0.975
0.986
0.996
1.01
1.016
1.025
1.035
1.044
1.054
1.062
1.072
1.08
1.088
1.487
1.497
1.507
1.517
1.527
1.536
1.546
5.4
0.993
1.003
1.014
1.025
1.035
1.045
1.055
1.064
1.074
1.083
1.092
1.101
1.11
1.119
1.127
1.539
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.579
1.589
1.598
5.6
1.032
1.043
1.054
1.064
1.074
1.084
1.093
1.103
1.113
1.122
1.131
1.139
1.148
1.157
1.165
1.593
1.603
1.612
1.622
1.631
1.64
1.65
Rd/Vd
418
DA3
DA 3
Table 3
4. Conclusions
The objective of this paper is to analyze
the possibilities of intervention over the
infrastructure of a building proposed for
rehabilitation of the superstructure, the
addition of a storey and the change of its
destination, in order to obtain structural
safety in operation and to satisfy the
demands of the beneficiary.
After the calculation analysis, increasing
the width of foundation proves to be
irrational through the excessive values
resulted and enhancing the depth of
foundation is justifiable only in case of
adding a basement to the existing structure.
The optimal solution recommends
enhancing both the width and the depth of
the foundation. The third design approach
dictates the strengthening solution, being
the most restrictive in the case study.
References
1. Budescu, M., ranu, N., et al.:
Building
rehabilitation.
Iai.
Academic Publishing Society "MateiTeiu Botez", 2003.
2. Lungu, I.: Asupra evalurii strii
geotehnice a terenului de fundare de
sub fundaii n vederea reabilitrii. In:
The 12th National Conference of
Geotechnical and Foundations, Stanciu
et al., Politehnium Publishing House,
2012, p. 721-726.
3. Stanciu, A., Lungu, I.: Fundaii
(Foundations). Bucureti. Technical
Publishing House, 2006.
4. *** SR EN 1997-1-2004: Geotechnical
design Part 1: General rules.
Accessed: 09.09.2014.
5. *** STAS 3300/2-1985: Geotechnical
design Part 1: General rules.
Accessed:
09.09.2014.

TOWARDS THE INFLUENCE OF THE

LOCAL COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS TO GENERATE
PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE
D. STOICA 1
Abstract: After the total or partial collapse of several important buildings
the specialists in civil engineering began to treat more seriously and accuracy
the problem of completely avoiding progressive or general collapse or just in
the first instance in order to ensure complete evacuation of people and / or
important goods. Considering these aspects, in this paper Ill present two
parallel study cases for buildings with 5 and 10 levels, which is supposed to
have a local collapse of one first floor column (corner, marginal or central)
realizing simple or complex analysis in order to identify problems that ascend
on the whole building.
Key words: collapse; local; progressive; ductility; hinges

1. Introduction
The main objective of these studies was
the assessment of influence of local/partial
collapse to generate progressive collapse.
In this consideration all the evaluations
were performed according to the following
parameters:
The number of levels of structure: two
identical structures were selected with
two different height levels: a low-rise
structure (with 5 levels) and a medium
high-rise structure (with 10 levels).
The structural damage cases: according
to emergency scenarios from GSA
(General Service Administration
October 24, 2013): were removed
separately, one corner column, one
marginal
column closer to the
midpoint of the structure and one of
1
the central columns located as close to

the center of the structure.
Adopted analysis methods: usual static
linear calculations were performed,
followed by nonlinear static analysis
(pushover) for a better interpretation of
phenomena.
The secondary objective was to
determine the worst damage scenario. The
following steps have been completed in
order to accomplish analysis:
Evaluation of structural composition,
materials and loads to be taken into
account;
A pre-design of all the structural
elements;
Determining the status of sectional
efforts and deformations using ETABS
program;
Buildings Department, UTCB Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
420
Designing the stiffness through the

lateral forces by checking the
Serviceability Limit State (SLS) and
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) according
to Eurocode 8 (EC8);
Designing all the reinforcement types in
beams and columns;
Choosing the scenarios generating local
collapse under GSA recommendations
in the field;
Checking the drifts for the damaged
structures;
Beams behavior analysis after the
columns collapse in agreement with
the chosen scenarios;
Performing pushover nonlinear static
analysis that followed the steps of:
defining the potential plastic hinges for
beams and columns; defining the load
cases
for
nonlinear
analysis;
calculation of target movement
according EC8.
Due to a better understanding of the
structural behavior of materials and with
increasing the computational power, the
modern structures are better designed than
in the past. This optimization resulted in
the reduction of inherent safety margins,
but still due to this the capacity to resist for
unexpected events decreased. This
increased vulnerability may be associated
with modern construction methods
targeting at reducing the costs and also
because of the modern architectural design
directions with lightweight construction
and large spans. Lastly, the increased fear
for terrorist threats highlighted the need to
consider the design of unforeseen events
such as: blasts, external impact,
detonations, etc.
2. Computation Strategies
The buildings studied have RC frame
structure, occupying an area plan with
dimensions 25x25 m2, with five spans and
five bays of 5 m. The height of 3m is set

for all the levels. The building
functionality were set as offices. Exterior
curtain walls and interior drywall partitions
were used. The concrete slabs have a
thickness of 13 cm, ensuring the required
strength and acoustic comfort. The
buildings location were set in a region with
a horizontal design acceleration (a g ) of
0.30g, according to EC8. The importance
and exposure class is II ( e, = 1.0). The
periods T B =0.16 sec, T c =1.60 sec and the
ductility class was set at high class (HD).
The snow zone: s o ,k = 2,0 kN/m2.
Execution technology: monolithic RC
(including floors).
Fig.1. Axes sketch

Used materials:
Concrete characteristics Table 1
Concrete
C25/30
C35/45
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
GPa
25
35
33
43
2.6
3.2
1.8
2.2
31
34
Steel Characteristics
Steel
S500
N/mm2
500
N/mm2
550
Table 2
N/mm2
2.1E+8
D. STOICA: Towards The Influence Of The Local Collapse Of Structural Elements To

Generate Progressive Collapse
Seismic load it was

defining the design spectrum:
421
considered
(1)
and if
(2)
As can be seen the design spectrum is

obtained from the elastic spectrum by
reducing the range of it with the behavior
factor q for values of the period T> TB.
For periods T TB design spectrum is
determined by a behavior factor q, q = 1 it
reaching T = 0.
Fig. 3. Structural model in ETABS:

a) 5 levels, b) ten levels
3. Scenarios
Collapse
That
Generate
Local
The scenarios presented in this paper

on the removal of the columns from the
ground floor are confirmed with the
recommendations of the GSA [5].
This design guide has the following
structural failures: removal of a corner
column; removal of a marginal column
located at midpoint; removal of a central
column.
Fig.2. Comparison between elastic

spectrum (red) and design spectrum
(dark blue) q= 4.73 and T= 1.6s
To determine the structural elements
efforts of the building, the structural
analysis program ETABS [15] were used.
Dimensions obtained from the pre-design
stage defined the structural elements in the
program: beams and columns as linear
FRAME finite elements and the slabs as
planar SLAB finite elements. It was
considered that concrete were cracked: for
beams
and for columns
.
Fig. 4. Structural damage types applied

to models
422
Fig. 5. Initial 5 stories structure drifts
a)
b)
Fig.6. 5 levels scenario cases SLS drifts
Fig. 8. ETABS model removed:

a) corner column; b) central/marginal
column
Fig.7. 5 levels scenario cases ULS drifts

These cases are in accordance with the
below scenarios:
Fig. 9. Initial 10 stories structure drifts

Fig.10. 10 levels scenario cases SLS drifts
423
Fig. 12. b) ETABS model removed

central/marginal column
Joints deflection above the Table 3
removed columns
Joint deflection
Fig.11. 10 levels scenario cases ULS drifts

These cases are in accordance with the
below scenarios:
Above the
removal corner
column
Above the
removal
marginal
column
Above the
removal central
column
5
levels
10 levels
1.25
cm
0.91 cm
1.13
cm
0.62 cm
0.68
cm
0.32 cm
Beams deflection
Fig. 12. a) ETABS model removed

corner column
Table 4
5 levels
10 levels
Defle
ction
Removed corner column
f<
f= 12.6mm f =
8.0mm
f adm
f
f adm = 12.5mm adm 12.5mm
OK
OK
Removed marginal column
f= 12.9mm f >
7.2mm
f<
f adm
f adm
f adm = 12.5mm Not 12.5mm
OK
OK
Removed central column
f= 10.7mm f <
8.2mm
f<
f
f adm
f adm
12.5mm adm 12.5mm
OK
OK
=
424
From all the analysis did, in the paper

some synthetic and simple tables are
presented in the followings:
Beams bending moments check

in case of marginal column
Table 6
The 5 levels case:

in case of corner column
Table 5
Level
s
M
1-3
4-5
Level
s
Envelope
Case of a corner column
failure
Levels M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field
1-3
OK
4-5
OK
Not OK
1-3
4-5
Envelope - Case of a marginal

column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field
OK
Not OK Not OK
Not OK Not OK Not OK
Gravitational - Case of a
marginal column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field

Table 7
Not OK
Not OK
OK
Gravitational
Case of a corner column
failure
Levels M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field
1-3
Not OK
Not OK
OK
4-5
Not OK
Not OK
OK
Envelope - Case of a central

column failure
Levels
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support 1 Support 2 Mid field
1-3
OK
OK
Not OK
4-5
OK
Not OK
OK

Level
s
1-3
4-5
central column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field
Not OK Not OK
OK

425
Table 9
The 10 levels case:

in case of corner column
Table 8
M
Levels
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Levels
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Envelope - Case of a corner

column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support Midfiel
1
2
d
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
corner column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Mid
1
2
field
Not OK Not OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
Level
s
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Level
s
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Envelope - Case of a marginal

column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
1
2
d
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK
OK
marginal column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
1
2
d
Not OK Not OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
426

Table 10
Level
s
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Level
s
10
8-9
6-7
2-5
1
Envelope - Case of a central

column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Midfield
1
2
OK
Not OK
OK
OK
Not OK
OK
OK
Not OK Not OK
OK
Not OK
OK
OK
Not OK
OK
central column failure
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Ed <
M Rd
M Rd
M Rd
Support Support
Midfield
1
2
Not OK Not OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
Nonlinear static analysis (pushover)

was chosen to perform in good condition
for RC frame structures in ETABS [15].
This analysis involves the gradual

annoyance of displacements on the
structure until it forms a plastic
mechanism. As it grow the structural
displacements as gradually develops
plastic hinges. Plastic hinges used are of
two types: beams plastic hinges (joints
bending moment M 3 ) and columns plastic
hinges (joints M 3 bending moment and
axial force P), defined at both ends of
elements. To define the performance
ranges the plastic hinges rotations were
definite based on the requirements of
FEMA 273. For columns plastic hinges
the moment-axial force interaction curve
must be defined and will be introduced by
points. The push-over analysis involves
two assumptions: a situation where the
structure is loaded by gravity load; a
situation
where
the
structure
is
progressively loaded horizontally. This
hypothesis run after the first one. The
maximum number of steps and the number
of null steps are the parameters which
control the run time. Reaching the
maximum number of steps or null steps the
analysis stops. The meaning of null steps is
that a plastic hinge yield and determined
the yielding of other plastic hinges.
4. Nonlinear Static Analysis Responses
Interpretation
The initial unaffected structures Following the analysis it was found that:
Structures were properly conformed
because the plastic hinges occurs first
at the beams edges and then at the
columns bases;
Until the target displacement is reach
there are not occurred plastic hinges to
compromise the safety of the buildings
(the most requested items arrive to
stage LS = Life Safety).
The structures develop plastic hinges for
C collapse stage for not much larger

displacement
than
the
target
displacements.
The analysis of the three scenarios for
generating local collapse (removing
the corner, marginal and central
columns) is justified. Just several steps
of each case are shown in this paper.
Plastic hinges occurrence for
the initial structures
5 levels
Table 11
10 levels
Step 7
5 levels
Step 6
Step 8
Step 9
occurs from the first step (step 2 d =

0.024 m);
At the beams above the removed column
plastic hinges occurs corresponding to
stage LS-CP (Life Safety-Collapse
Prevention) before reaching the target
displacement;
If the beams reach near the limit of CP or
exceed, the structure is likely to have a
progressive collapse;
Once reaching the target displacement in
the beam above the removed column C
collapse stage.
removed central column case
Step 5
427
Table 12
10 levels
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 7
The case of removed central column Following the analysis it was found that:
At the column base (the column above
the removed column) plastic hinge
Step 8
Step 8
428
The case of removed corner column Following the analysis it was found that:
Structure behaves properly until the
target
displacement,
the
most
requested structural elements arrive to
stage LS = Life Safety;
After exceeding the target displacement
next item to be damaged is the
marginal (central) column, as can be
seen in step 9 where d = 0.175 m, at
the column base and a C-collapse
plastic hinge occur.
removed corner column case
5 levels
Table 13
10 levels
Step 6
Step 8
The case of removed marginal column Following the analysis it was found that:
As well as the disposal of the center
column at the base of the column
above the column removed the plastic
hinge occurs (step 2 with d = 0.024
m);
In the beams above the removed column
LS-CP stage (Life Safety-Collapse
Prevention) before reaching the target
displacement;
Table 14
removed marginal column case
5 levels
10 levels
Step 6
Step 6
Step 7
Step 7
collapse
Step 9
Step 8
Step 8
Step 9

In step 7 d = 0.144 m <d t = 0.145 m, at

the beam above the removed column
plastic hinges occurs to C - collapse
stage. Immediately in the next step,
this beam and the one above it reaches
point D (section suffered major
irreversible degradation and retains
only a residual strength);
Compared to the situations described
above (removing the corner column
and removing central column), the
case where the marginal column is
damaged is the worst.
5. Final Considerations
The linear and nonlinear static analysis
found that higher structure (10 levels)
has a better behavior in all three
studied damage scenarios than the
lower one (5 levels).
After removing the columns a
redistribution of moments in the
beams, adjacent to removed columns,
were observed. The tensile fiber is
reversed in these elements so that
when the mid span bottom bending
moments becomes larger and (in many
cases) exceeds the bending moment
capacity of the section. The mode of
failure was characterized by splitting
the bottom longitudinal reinforcement.
In the case of marginal removed column
the level relative displacements are
larger and are no longer in accordance
within the allowable values prescribed
by codes.
The joints above the removed columns
have smaller displacement for 10
levels building than those with lower
height (5 levels).
After removing the columns on the
ground floor, the beams deflections
429
fall within acceptable limits (f

f adm =0.0125 m), aside from the case of
marginal column removal at 5 levels
building.
Nonlinear static analysis (pushover)
allows to have a clearer picture of the
behavior of structures.
Analyzing the damaged structures by
comparison, for 5 levels building, it
can be seen that when the corner
column is removed, the structure has a
behavior similar to the original
(undamaged). The problems start to
occur when eliminating marginal
column because in the beams above it
plastic hinges occurs suitable to stage
C - Collapse before reaching the
displacement target. In addition, in the
column above the one removed several
plastic hinges occurs which reach up to
the stage LS = Life Safety.
Structures with 10 levels have a better
behavior, but also removing the
marginal column is the worst case
(similar with the 5 levels structure).
References
1. Kokot, S and Solomos, G. Progressive
collapse risk analysis: literature
survey,
relevant
construction
standards and guidelines, European
Laboratory for Structural Assessment,
2012. ISBN 978-92-79-27734-4.
2. Smith, M. Progressive Collapse
Assessment-Non-linear behavior of
concrete structures in damaged state,
Master Thesis, 2007.
3. (NIST)., U.S. National Institute of
Standards and Technology. Best
Practices for Reducing the Potential
for Progressive Collapse in Buildings,
430
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Technology
Administration,
U.S.
Department of Commerce, 2007.
EN 1990. Eurocode 0 - EN 1990:
Basis of structural design. 2002.
Guidelines. GSA. GSA Progressive
Collapse Analysis and Design
Guidelines for New Federal Office
Buildings and Major Modernizations
Projects,
General
Services
Administration (GSA), 2003.
ASCE. ASCE 7: Minimum design
loads for buildings and other
structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 2005.
National Building Code of Canada.
Burnett, E.P. The avoidance of
progressive collapse: Regulatory
approaches to the problem. 1975.
Elingwood, B.R and Dusenberry, D.O.
Building Design for abnormal loads
and progressive collapse, Computer
Aided Civil and Infrastructure
Engineering, 2005.
Starossek, U. Typology of progressive
collapse, Engineering Structures,
2007, Vol. 29.
STO 008 02495342 2009
Prevention of progressive collapse of
reinforced
concrete
monolithic
structures of buildings. 2009.
12. Kaewkulchai, G. and Williamson, E. B
Beam Element Formulation and
Solution Procedure for Dynamic
Progressive
Collapse
Analysis,
Computers & Structures, 2004, Vol.
82.
13. Sasani, M., Bazan, M., and Sagiroglu,
S Experimental and Analytical. s.l.:
Structural Journal, American Concrete
Institute, 2007, Vol. 104.
14. Sadek, F., Main, J.A., Lew, H.S.,
Robert, S. D., Chiarito, V, El-Tawil, S.
An experimental and analytical study
of steel moment connections under a
column removal scenario, NIST
Technical Note 1669, 2010.
15. CSI. ETABS Nonlinear V 9.7.4-User
manual.
16. Europe, Star Seismic. Design check of
BRBF system according to Eurocode
8: Use of pushover analysis,
www.starseismic.eu.
17. Sagiroglu,
S.
Analytical
and
experimental evaluation of progressive
collapse resistance of reinforced
concrete
structures,
Thessis,
Northeastern University, 2012.

A CONCEPT FOR USING RECYCLED

RUBBER GRANULES IN NOISE
REDUCTION CONCRETES PANELS
R.G. ARAN 1 M. BUDESCU1 D. COVATARIU1
Abstract: In traffic areas, from the outskirts of residences, systems for noise
attenuation (induced by auto vehicles and trains) are necessary. Because
these panels serve mostly the urban environment, its must have aesthetic
aspect but in the same time must have to be easy to mount and to auto sustain
themselves. Replacing the natural aggregates with recycled rubber granules
it result a rubberized plain concrete used mostly in non-structural
constructions. Reuse of rubber from used tyres can help prevent
environmental pollution and, at the same time, contribute to building
developments with lower costs. The concrete with recycled rubber has an
energy absorption capacity proportionally increased. Deformation and
energy absorption increases with the dimension of the rubber particle.
This paper proposes manufacturing of new protective panels systems made
only from concrete with recycled rubber particles.
Key words: sound absorbent panels, recycled rubber, panels from concrete
with recycled rubber.
1. Introduction
In general the construction materials
have low absorbent capacity. The curtains
and other textiles, furniture even people
have a contribution at the total quantity of
absorption. Together they form the natural
absorption, which is not enough. This
manner it shows up the need to use special
conceived performant absorbents.
The perceived sounds are made from two
components:
1) the direct sound the sound that
propagates directly towards the ear from
the origin point;
2) the indirect sound the sound that
arrives to the ear after it was reflected once
or many times by certain surfaces.
1
When the sound collides on the surface

of a material, a part of its energy is
absorbed, a part is transmitted and the rest
is reflected back. The surfaces with
common tough finishes, like dry plaster,
wet plaster, concrete and glass absorbs
very little sound. Sound-absorbent
materials are designed such that it absorbs
a percentage of the incidence energy of the
sound. Therefore, the function of a soundabsorbent material is to reduce the
reflected sound, and the degree we want
this depends, mainly, on the area.
Absorption mechanisms
The noise absorption represents the
transformation of the kinetic energy of the
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
432
sound waves in thermic energy. A small

part from a sound wave with high
frequency is absorbed by the air.
The natural absorption is not enough to
create an acoustic confort imposed by the
norms. There are two manners to absorb
the sound waves: Porous absorption and
resonance.
1.1. The importance of materials for
insulation
When it is considered to adopt a solution
for insulation, the choosing of the
materials for insulation to be used has a
very important role. Previously, it is
necessary an evaluation of the noise
generating source and, taking into account
the results, it must be choosen those
materials with the acoustic and technical
properties which satisfy the insulation
requirements for the source. Depending on
the requirements, the insulation and soundabsorbing materials can be used as such
but they can be used also as components
for sandwich panels, panels that can be
jointed to realise the noise barriers.
Soundproofing panels from the sound
barrier structure are designed according to
the characteristics of the noise sources and
the characteristics of location of area, the
traffic being an important element that
must be considered when design a sound
barrier.
Equally important as the insulation
materials are the fixture. For the best
results it is proper that at the assembling of
Acoustic materials:
Fibres (absorb high frequencies)
Panels (absorb average frequencies)
some soundproofing walls or of a floating

floor, to use special vibration proof
systems for each type of structure.
It is ideal that when the insulation
materials are chosen, besides the acoustic
performances, to give importance also to
the following aspects:
- the durability of the material/of the
panel in time;
- impact strength;
- maintenance needs;
- fireproof properties;
- aggressive meteorological factors
proof;
- mounting means.
Due to these multiple properties, to the
importance and according to the
destination area, the material gets different
aspects. It has performing different
functions, has the capacity to reflect the
light, are resistant against fire propagation,
is durable and easy maintenance.
Therefore, today there is a big range of
sound-absorbent materials and structures,
with multiple shapes, adequate to different
requirements from an architectural project
for zones with the most various
destinations.
2. Acoustic and Soundabsorbing Panels
Acoustic and sound-absorbing panels can
be mounted on the side of the roads,
highways or railroads, near factories with
noisy productive activity or in industrial
areas.
R.G. ARAN et al.: A Concept for using Recycled Rubber Granules

in Noise Reduction Concretes Panels
433
Resonators (absorb adjustable

frequencies)
Smooth surface (reflect sounds)
Sound-absorbing
panels,
besides
insulation, have high impact strength
(extremely important in case of access
routes delimitation for roads and railroads),
no maintenance required and does not
permit fire propagation (having fireproof
properties), can be positioned on bridges
and walkways.
Fig. 1. Model of a sound absorbent panel

Sound absorbing panels from concrete
with rubber are highly resistant to extreme
atmospheric conditions, both at very low
temperatures, and very high temperatures,
without damages.
At the moment there are a lot of areas
affected by the noise pollution. Urban
zones crossed by railways, areas close by
depots have to be soundproofed, because
the moving trains, especially at the passing
over the switches, generate a very high
noise pollution.
Also, the construction of some

underground or aboveground passages in
cities and highways constructions makes it
necessary to use some sound-absorbing
panels to protect the population.
2.1. Shape optimization of acoustic

barriers
The conducted researches from all over
the world leaded to the identification of
numerous shapes of barriers that are much
better than the usual barriers, made from a
single panel with small thickness, flat and
reflective. Due to the shape improvement,
on a height of 2 m, it can be obtained a
noise reduction, caused by the traffic,
between 1.5 3.5 dB. We distinguish two
different types of panels:
acoustic barriers with a single
reflecting edge of different shapes;
acoustic barriers with multiple
reflecting edges.
From acoustic barriers with a single
reflecting edge we can remember the T or
Y shape barriers, barriers with arrow-shape
profile, feather, etc. In all these cases, the
height of barrier and the type of the terrain
on which they are placed must to be
considered for the efficiency of the
barriers. Also between the strong reflecting
barriers, the ones with vertical faces offers
better performances than the ones with
slightly inclined sides.
434
Fig. 2. Models of enhanced acoustic barriers

T profile barriers provides a substantially
improvement to the insertion loss
coefficient compared to the plane
reflective barriers. Nevertheless, a barrier
with arrow-shape profile has a bigger
silencing coefficient than the T profile

barriers. Also, in the case of acoustic
barriers with feather shape it is noticed that
this silencing coefficient varies according
to the tilt angle of the feather shape profile
span.
Fig. 3. The diffraction phenomenon of sound waves
Fig. 4. Proposed models for acoustic barriers made from rubberized concrete
R.G. ARAN et al.: A Concept for using Recycled Rubber Granules

in Noise Reduction Concretes Panels
435
3.1. Impact of using recycled rubber as

partial replaced aggregate in
concrete was well documented by
compression tests, traction and
bending
Fig. 5. Acoustic barrier panels existent

type
3. Soundabsorbent Panels made from
Concrete with Recycled Rubber
Rubber aggregates, provided from
recycling and tyres soling, has granules of
different dimensions or fibbers. Usually,
the remaking is made mechanically at
normal temperatures; there is another
method, the remaking at very low
temperatures. The remaking at normal
temperatures is made by grinding the used
tire or using granulation techniques.
Processing at normal temperatures is done
by used tires grinding or using granulation
techniques.
The maximum rubber aggregate quantity

that can be replaced must be determined,
although previews studies shown that in
fresh state as well as in harden state, the
ideal quantity of aggregate with the
dimension under 4 mm has to be maxim
180 kg/m3 (max 15%).
Rubber aggregate maximum quantity
that can be replaced must be measured in
such a way that the concrete have a
homogeneous structure.
Maximum recycled rubber admixture
from the concrete mix must not exceed 75
% so that the aggregate to be integrated
into the mix.
Fig.7 Sound-absorbing panel from

concrete with rubber particles
Fig.6 Particles having different dimensions
The deformation and energy absorbing

capacity increased with the increasing of
rubber sizes when the rubber contents
remained
constant
(increasing
the
granules dimensions tends to increase the
energys adsorption). It results that the
impact energy of the rubber based concrete
panels is bigger comparing to energy
impact from plain concrete panels, fact that
436
leads to survival chances increases in case

of a collision of a vehicle with the panel.
from concrete.
4. Final Remarks
Although the properties that are referring
to strength and durability of the concrete
with recycled rubber aggregates are not
favourable, this one could present some
advantages. These advantages are resulted
from favourable attenuation characteristics,
good thermal and sound insulation of the
concrete. Rubber aggregates decrease the
specific weight of the mix having a larger
quantity of entrapped air that makes the
pumping easier.
So much more, there must be underlines
the eccologically advantages brought by
the recycling of the used tires that, is well
known, have a low degree of natural
neutralisation.
Further studies are necesarry, to establish
the optimum quantity of rubber aggregates
in concrete and to introduce it in the actual
standards and procedures.
References
Fig.8 Detail of the concretes structure

with rubber particles
Main disadvantages as follows (shading,
low light transmission, bad visibility of the
drivers from streets, roads and highways)
must be compared from the other aspects.
The impact strength is also an extremely
important characteristic, in case of a
collision of a vehicle with the
soundproofing wall, the panel being built
1. Feng Liu, Guixuan Chen, Lijuan Li,

Yongchan Guo., Study of impact
performance of rubber reinforced
concrete, Construction and Building
Materials, China, 2012.
2. aran Rare-George, Studiu referitor la
proprietile stucturilor din beton armat
utilizand cauciuc reciclat, Creaii
universitare 2013, vol. 6, 2013.
3. Topu IB, Bilir T., Experimental
investigation of some fresh and
hardened properties of rubberized selfcompacting concrete,
Mater Des
2009;30(8):305665
4. http://www.agir.ro/buletine/957.pdf
5. http://www.creeaza.com/tehnologie/ele
ctronica-electricitate/Realizareahartilor-de-zgomot515.php
7INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE CIBV 2014

SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF A
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE
WALL PANEL USING NSM-CFRP
C. TODUT 1 V. STOIAN1 D. DAN1 T. NAGY-GYORGY1
Abstract: The precast reinforced concrete wall panel (PRCWP) presented
in this paper is part of an experimental program in which the seismic
performance, weakening effects due to cut-outs, strengthening strategies and
cost evaluations were investigated. The experimental specimens were 1:1.2
scaled RC as-built solid walls or as-built walls with window or door
openings. The specimens were subjected to cyclic load reversals,
displacement controlled. Most of the specimens were first tested
unstrengthened, then after they were repaired, strengthened using FRPs and
tested again. The wall panel presented here was post-damage strengthened
using near surface mounted (NSM) carbon fibre reinforced polymers
(CFRP). The repair and strengthening strategy steps will be presented
together with the experimental results of both the unstrengthened and the
post-damage strengthened specimen.
Key words: seismic, strengthening strategy, RC wall, NSM-CFRP.
1. Introduction
The use of large panel structures was
widely used in seismic areas, because the
system composed of precast reinforced
concrete panels can provide an efficient
performance under earthquake conditions.
After 50 years of existence, which most of
them have and interventions some of them
were subjected to, detailed investigation is
needed. The analysed specimens meet the
requirements of Eurocode 8 for walls
designed to medium ductility and are
referred as large lightly reinforced walls.
The application of NSM-CFRP was
investigated in this paper as a retrofitting
strategy, in order to increase the load
bearing capacity of the specimen first
tested in the unstrengthened condition.
1
Research on NSM-FRPs studies were

conducted by Sas [1], Konthesingha [2],
Lee and Cheng [3], Sakar et al. [4], Stoian
et al. [5], Florut et al. [6] and others.
2. Experimental Program
The experimental specimen was a 1:1.2
scaled element, namely precast reinforced
concrete wall panel: PRCWP (12),
designed and casted according to a
Romanian Project Type 770-81 [7], [8].
PRCWP (12) specimen has an initial
narrow door opening. Based on the two
experimental tests performed in the
unstrengthened condition and post-damage
strengthened condition, important aspects
related to the seismic efficiency of the
strengthening system can be drawn out.
Politehnica University of Timisoara, 2nd T. Lalescu, 300223, Romania
438
The experimental specimen was: 2150 mm

height, 2750 mm width and 100 mm in
thickness. The narrow door opening was
1800 mm height and 750 mm length. The
experimental specimen was set between
two reinforced steel concrete composite
beams, namely a top - loading beam and a
bottom - foundation beam. The web panel
reinforcement of the PRCWP (12)
consisted of horizontal rebars, vertical
bars, welded wire mesh in the right pier, a
spatial reinforcement cage on the entire
height of the left pier, a spatial
reinforcement cage in the coupling beam,
vertical bars in the coupling beam, spatial
reinforcement cage at the top right corner
of the door opening, and two inclined bars
at the top corners of the opening. The
configuration
of
the
experimental
specimen selected for investigation is
presented in Fig. 1 [11].
2.1. Material Considerations
The specimens concrete quality was
C25/30 class, while the reinforcement S255
was used for the spatial reinforcement cage,
S355 for horizontal, vertical and inclined steel
bars, and S490 for the steel wire mesh. The
steel reinforcement properties obtained expe
mounted CFRP plates were used for the

retrofitting of the specimen. Also, carbon fibre
(CF) fabric, applied externally bonded was
used to improve the confinement capacity of
the specimen. Table 1 summarizes the
geometrical and mechanical properties of the
CFRP plates and CF fabric used. The
mentioned characteristics are based on
manufacturers data. The mortar, used to
replace the heavily damaged concrete was
Mapegrout Easy Flow GF, having a
compressive strength of 60 N/mm2 at 28 days
according to the product data sheet.
2.2. Testing Methodology and Test Setup
Detailed data related to the tests set up
and testing methodology of the precast
reinforced concrete wall panel specimens
were presented by Demeter [10]. A general
view of the test set-up of the specimens is
presented in Fig. 2.
The specimen was tested under quasistatic reversed cyclic lateral loads,
displacement controlled (with two cycles
per drift), of measure 0.1% drift ratio,
namely 2.15 mm. Vertical loads were also
applied in order to impose the gravity
loading condition and to restrain the
rotation of the element.
The
experimental
specimen
was
monitored during the experimental tests
using
pressure
transducers
(P),
displacement transducers (D) and strain
gauges applied on steel rebars, CFRP
plates
and
CF
fabric
(G).
Fig. 1. Specimen outline and reinforcement

rimentally were given in [9, 10]. Near surface
Fig. 2. General view of the test set-up

CF fabric and plate properties
C. TODUT et al.: Seismic Strengthening Of A Precast Reinforced Concrete Wall Panel Using 439
Nsm-Cfrp
Table1
Component
carbon fibre fabric carbon fibre plate
Product name
MapeWrap C
UNI-AX
0,166
Thickness [mm]
2
Areal weight [g/m ]

300
Tensile strength [MPa] 4830
Tensile modulus [GPa] 230
Elongation at break [%] 2,0
Carboplate
E170/100/1.4
1,4
225 g/ml
3100
170
2,0
3. Repair and Strengthening of the

Specimen
The retrofitting strategy adopted here
intended to increase the initial load
bearing capacity of the element, the
solution being qualitative and based on
the behaviour of the reference specimen.
The damaged specimen was first repaired
by removing the crushed concrete and
replacing it with a high-strength repair
mortar (Fig. 3a). The wall surface was then
polished locally with a special grinder (Fig.
3b) to achieve a fully smooth surface for the
externally bonding application, channels
were cut for the CF plates (Fig. 3c), and the
concrete edges of the element were rounded
at a radius of approximately 20 mm to
achieve the effectiveness of the confining
solution. Local holes were drilled in the
panel to provide the anchors for the
confinement strengthening system (Fig. 3d),
and the surface of the wall was vacuumcleaned (Fig. 3e). The cracks were cleaned
and filled superficially with epoxy resin.
According to the strengthening strategy,
the NSM plates (Fig. 3f) (10 mm x 1.4 mm)
were mounted horizontally in the piers and
in the spandrel in each side of the wall at
200 mm centres (Fig. 3g). All CF plates
were anchored in the wing element. CF
confinement strips (Fig. 3h) were applied at
the corners of the door opening and vertical,
wrapping from one face to the other of the
spandrel, and at the ends of the wing walls.
The completed retrofitting is shown in Fig.
3i and 3j. Fig. (3k) shows the strain gauge
position on FRP plates and fabric.
a)
b)
c)
d)
440
e)
i)
f)
j)
g)
k)
h)
l)
C. TODUT et al.: Seismic Strengthening Of A Precast Reinforced Concrete Wall Panel Using 441
Nsm-Cfrp
PRCWP (12-E1-T)
1000
800
[kN]
600
400
200
-0,9
-0,7
-0,5
-0,3
0
-0,1
-200
[%]
0,1
0,3
0,5
0,7
0,9
-400
-600
-800
-1000
m)
- unstrengthened specimen
PRCWP (12-E1-T/R)
1000
800
[kN]
600
400
200
-0,9
-0,7
-0,5
-0,3
0
-0,1
-200
[%]
0,1
0,3
0,5
0,7
0,9
-400
-600
-800
-1000
n)
Fig. 3. The strengthening strategy
The failure of the post-damage strengthened
specimen is presented in Fig. 3l, 3m and 3n.
3. Experimental Results
During the experimental test of the postdamage strengthened specimen, namely
PRCWP (12-E1-T/R), diagonal cracks
appeared in the piers (Fig. 3l).
Unfortunately, due to the capacity of the
available testing facility, the specimen
could not be taken to failure. The behaviour
of the tested wall panel is shown in Fig. 4 as
load-drift ratio response.
The load bearing capacity results show a
variation of 46.5 % in the positive loading
cycles and 154 % in the negative loading
cycles. It is obvious that the retrofitted
element, namely PRCWP (12-E1-T/R)
behaved highly superior compared to the
reference one, PRCWP (12-E1-T).
- strengthened specimen
Fig. 4. Load-drift ratio response
3. Conclusions
The load bearing capacity of the specimen
was increased through the retrofitting
strategy, as confirmed by the load-drift ratio
response of them. NSM-CFRP system can
be an effective solution for strengthening
elements. Further studies focused on
numerical analysis, strengthening systems,
openings in walls are in progress. The
studies aims to establish the seismic
performance of PRCWP under different
parameters.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the following
research grant for the support of this study:
1. Grant no. 3-002/2011, INSPIRE
Integrated Strategies and Policy Instruments
for Retrofitting buildings to reduce primary
energy use and GHG emissions, Project type
442
PN II ERA NET, financed by the Executive

Agency for Higher Education, Research,
Development and Innovation Funding
(UEFISCDI), Romania.
2. Strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/
137070 (2014) of the Ministry of National
Education, Romania, co-financed by the
European Social Fund Investing in People,
within the Sectoral Operational Programme
Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
3. MAPEI (Romania) Corporation.
References
1. Sas, G.: FRP shear strengthening of
reinforced concrete beams. In: PhD
Thesis,
Lule
University
of
Technology, 2011.
2. Konthesingha, K.M.C. , Masia, M.J. ,
Petersen, R.B. , Mojsilovic, N. ,
Simundic, G. , Page, A.W.: Static
cyclic in-plane shear response of
damaged masonry walls retrofitted
with NSM FRP strips An
experimental
evaluation.
In
Engineering Structures, 50, (2013), p.
126136.
3. Dongkeun, L., Lijuan, C.: Bond of
NSM
systems
in
concrete
strengthening Examining design
issues of strength, groove detailing and
bond-dependent
coefficient.
In
Construction and Building Materials,
47, (2013), p. 15121522.
4. Sakar, G., Hawileh, R.A., Naser, M.Z.,
Abdalla,
J.A.,
Tanarslan,
M.:
Nonlinear Behavior of Shear Deficient
RC Beams Strengthened with Near
Surface
Mounted
Glass
Fiber
Reinforcement under Cyclic Loading.
In Materials and Design (2014), doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.matdes.2014.04.064.
5. Stoian, V., Nagy-Gyorgy, T., Gergely,
J., Daescu, C.: Materiale compozite
pentru construcii. Editura Politehnica
Timisoara, 2009.
6. Florut, S-C., Sas, G., Popescu, C.,

Stoian, V.: Tests on reinforced
concrete slabs with cut-out openings
strengthened with fibre-reinforced
polymers. In Composites: Part B
(2014), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2014.06.008.
7. IPCT: Cladiri de locuit P+4 din
panourimari. Proiect 770-81, Vol. C:
Elemente prefabricate, Bucuresti,
Romania, (1982). IPCT: Precast
reinforced concrete large panel
buildings P+4. Project type 770-81,
Vol. C: Precast elements, Bucharest,
Romania, (1982).
8. IPCT: Cladiri de locuit P+4 din
panourimari. Proiect 770-81, Vol. D:
Elemente prefabricate - Armari,
Bucuresti, Romania, (1982). IPCT:
Precast reinforced concrete large panel
buildings P+4. Project type 770-81,
Vol.
D:
Precast
elements
Reinforcing, Bucharest, Romania,

(1982).
9. Todut, C., Stoian, V., Dan, D.:
Experimental Assessment of FRP
Strengthening Strategies for Precast
RC Wall Panels. In the 12th
International Conference on Steel,
Space and Composite Structures, 2830 May 2014, Prague, Czech Republic.
p. 379-386.
10. Demeter, I. : Seismic retrofit of precast
RC walls by externally bonded CFRP
composites.
In:
PhD
Thesis,
Politehnica University of Timisoara,
2011.
11. Todut, C., Stoian, V., Demeter, I.,
Nagy-Gyrgy, T., Ungureanu, V.:
Seismic performance of a precast RC
wall panel retrofitted using CFRP
composites. In Proceedings of the 12th
International Scientific Conference on
Planning, design, construction and
building renewal, Novi Sad, Serbia,
2012.

THE SETTLEMENT OF A BUILDING ON A

SLOPE SOIL SUSCEPTIBLE TO SLIDE
I. TUNS 1 T.F. GALATANU1 M. MANTULESCU1
V. ASUENCEI2
Abstract: The slope soils susceptible to slide, make part of the difficult soils
foundation category and in order to choose an adequate foundation system is
necessary to know the real geotechnical condition of the settlement. For this,
the geotechnical data obtained ago of the drills effected on the settlement of
the future building are very important. In this paper, it is presented a case
study concerning the factors which has determined the change foundation
system after the diggings works have begun.
Key words: soil foundation, geotechnical study, soil stratification, drill,

dig.
1. General data presentation of the

settlement
The settlement considered in this article
is located in the slope area from the north
of Dealul Melcilor (The Hill of Snails), a
sub-unity of Brasov Depression.
Geographically
speaking,
Dealul
Melcilor is situated within Brasovs
perimeter, being a small rocky hill, part of
a chain of small limestone hills spread
along the mountains base and tied to
Tampas mountain.
The area considered is situated on
deposits of Triasic age, being made of
Anisian and Ladinian stages. The Anisian
presents in its inferior part bituminous
limestones in boards and ledgers with
bedrock shale interpolations. Through the
superior part lighter limestones are
developing, in thick banks/slopes, locally
with siliceous rocks.
The Ladinian, the last term of the Triasic
1
2
from Brasovs series is presented by

grayish-white massive limestones, with a
rich fauna (Dealul Melcilor), inventoried
by E. Jekelius and comprising spongiae,
corals, sea slugs, lamellibranchiate, very
numerous branchiopoda and echinoderms.
Topographically speaking, the slope,
with a medium tilt of 17 degrees, presents
in these area different inclinations, ranging
from 7 to 25 degrees.
On the settlement studied, there follows
to be built a block of flats with the height
system of S+P+2E+3R. The overcharge
given by the positioning of the
construction on the slope is of
approximately 150kN/m2.
From the point of view of the seismic
hazard for construction/projection, the
settlement is characterized by the peak
value of the horizontal acceleration
a g =0,2g, determined for the medium
interval of recurrence IMR=225 years. The
local conditions of the land are given
Department of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.

Project Implementation Unit, Apa Company Braov.
444
through the value of the period the upper

limit of the period of the constant spectral
acceleration branch T c =0,7s.
Fig. 1. Settlement view

2. The geotechnical investigation of the
settlement
The geotechnical investigation of the soil
stratification has taken place in two stages:
the initial situation on the basis of which a
solution of direct foundation was designed,
and the second variant where a solution of
indirect foundation, on piles, embedded in
the primary rock, has been recommended.
2.1. The initial situation
In the initial phase of the infrastructures
projection, the probings conducted on the
studied settlement revealed the following
lithological sequence: under a blanket of
heterogeneous fillings, mildly compacted,
whose thickness ranges from 0,50 to
1,10m, there were encountered adobe
deposits made of a succession of powdery
clays, sandy clays, sandy powders and
loamy sands, being mostly in a stiff
condition.
The passing from the adobe coat and the
primary rock is made through an area of
alteration of the rock encompassed by
blocks of different dimensions, of
calcarous nature, and fragments of rock
detritus with the interspace filled with
argillaceous sands consistent and stiff, of a
thickness of approximately 0,50-0,80m.
The probings conducted have intercepted
powerful water infiltrations on the east side
of the studied perimeter, to depths
comprised between 5,20m and 5,90m from
the altitude of the natural soil.
According to the first study, the primary
rock (greyish yellow limestone, massive or
stratified, highly cracked) was encountered
at depths ranging from 2,8m to 7,2m from
the altitude of the natural soil.
In some probings (S1 and S7) the soil is
very irregular, with depths ranging from
2,3m to 2,4m, comprising also in his
components vegetable residues.
I. TUNS et. al: The settlement of a building on a slope soil susceptible to slide
Regarding the stability of the soil in the

area, it has been observed that the slope on
which the construction is to be built, it
could be affected by possible landslides.
There was assumed the potential
formation of some plans of subsidence that
can be formed between 5,20 - 5,90m
(probings S1 and S7) from the altitude of
the natural soil at the moment of the
drilling, primarily because of the water
infiltrations that are leaking on the surface
of a clay deposit whose inclination concurs
with the slopes inclination.
The recommended foundation conditions
are that the foundations should be
embedded 0,5m under the possible plans of
subsidence, in the deposits formed of
altered limestones or blocks of calcareous
nature with their openings filled with
argillaceous sands found in the probing
made at depths comprised between 2,80m
(S6) and 7,20m (S1).
In the given conditions, the conventional
pressure for central loadings from the
fundamental arrangement is p conv =425kPa.
For the other cases, the multiplication
coefficients will be respected according to
the projections standard specifications.
The level of foundation that is attained it is
recommended not to be on deposits with
net geotechnical different characteristics
such as: the limestone cliff and earthy
soils (sandy loam powder, powdery clays,
argillaceous sands) to avoid the very
brown differenced subsidence that do not
align with the relative subsidence values
admitted for the adopted structure.
Following this geotechnical study, the
solution adopted in the infrastructures
projection was the direct foundation
through some continuous foundations of
the type reinforced concrete base, situated
on a block of plain concrete.
2.2. The situation after the works of
infrastructure digs have begun
445
The developments have been started

based on the situation initially projected,
but after the execution of the diggings for
projected
foundations,
there
was
determined that the nature of the soil from
the specified altitude it was not the correct
one. The explorations extended into other
areas as well, confirming the fact just
mentioned. The signalled incongruities for
all the foundations in progress, as well as
the relative reduced depth of foundation,
have determined the necessity of the
execution a new geotechnical study, more
detailed, with drillings of greater depth.
The drillings executed have signalled the
presence of diverse deposits, with pluvial
character:
argillaceous
powders,
argillaceous sands, powdery sands,
breccia, shaly argillaceous sands and
powders, limestone. There were also
performed several geotechnical analyses:
Atterberg limits, grading curve, volumetric
loads and so on. The presence of the
underground water was identified in
drilling works of depths comprised
between 6,00-6,20m on the basement area,
and at 9,20m on the following platform. It
is important to mention the fact that in the
case of the first geotechnical study, the
altitudes were measured related to the
naturals soil altitude, in the second case
the altitudes are reported to the tonometry
of the settlement after the general diggings
proposed in the first version were realized.
Therefore, the settlement of the future
construction is divided in three areas,
starting from the bottom to the top: the
downstream area (of garages), the
intermediary area, and the upstream area.
In the superior area, there where the F5
drilling operation was executed, the
deposition was the following: polymictic
breccia,
argillaceous
powder,
intraformational breccia, reddish-yellow
sandy powder, after which, at an altitude of
+6,80m from the natural soil, it follows the
deposit of limestone.
446
Fig. 2. Drilling S1- The first geotechnical survey

In the superior area, there where the F5
drilling operation was executed, the
deposition was the following: polymictic
breccia,
argillaceous
powder,
intraformational breccia, reddish-yellow
sandy powder, after which, at an altitude of
+6,80m from the natural soil, it follows the
deposit of limestone.
Due to the projected constructions
location on a hillside susceptible to sliding,
there was effectuated a count verification
of the earth massifs stability with the help
of a specialized count program. The results
obtained have shown that the slopes
loading with the projected buildings, in the
case of the direct foundation the slope
becomes unstable, giving rise to a
landslide. The initial plan of subsidence
was identified as being situated in the
deposit of sandy powder with a light
consistency. In this case, it is
recommended the indirect foundation, on

piles, embedded in the primary rock.
The preliminary bearing capacity of a
piles, determined based on the resistance
on the peak and of the lateral frictions is of
713 kN for 600mm for the embedding in
the deposit of shaly argillaceous powders,
and of 5002 kN for limestone, respectively
of 1501 kN for 1000mm, embedded in the
deposit of shaly argillaceous powders.
2.3. The comparative analysis of the
geotechnical investigation variants
effectuated
The comparative analysis effectuated at
the depth of the soil good for foundation
indicated in the first geotechnical survey,
respectively from 2,80 m to 7,20m, in the
two variants of the soils investigation, it
was made on the following components:
I. TUNS et. al: The settlement of a building on a slope soil susceptible to slide
- the nature of the foundation soil

-the corresponding conventional pressure
- the sliding plans position
- the recommended foundation solution
The comparative analysis of the
conventional pressure effectuated at the
depth of the soil good for foundation
indicated in the first geotechnical survey is
processed in Figures 3 and 4.
Fig. 3. Bering capacity at the depth of the

soil good for foundation the downstream
area
The analysis of comparative data for the

construction area situated downstream and
the intermediary is presented in Table 1.
For the building block from upstream,
the configuration of the soil is nearly
identical at the same altitude in both
situations, highlighting the possibility of
direct foundation in both variants of the
geotechnical study, according to the initial
infrastructure project.
Fig. 4. Bering capacity at the depth of the

soil good for foundation the intermediary
area
The analysis of comparative data

Benchmarking
data
1. The nature of
the foundation soil
2. The
corresponding
conventional
pressure
3. The sliding
plans position
4. The
recommended
foundation
solution
The initial situation
447
Table 1
The situation after

excavation
The level of the
initial situation:
powder gouge,
yellowish brown
The variation of
bedding at greyish
yellow limestone
to powder gouge
p conv =425kPa
p conv =295kPa on the

downstream area
Percentage
difference 44%
Between 2,80m and

7,20m
Between 4,00m and

10,80m
Solution foundation
shallow foundation
Solution foundation:
depth foundation
Different positions
of the planes of
slip
Different
foundation
solution
The primary rock:

greyish yellow
limestone, massive
or stratified, highly
cracked
Conclusion
448
The potential tendency of sliding is

assured through the pillars associated with
the building block from downstream
embedded in the bearing deposit, made of
calcareous cliff or shaly argillaceous
powders.
Regarding the presence of the
underground water result following
aspects: if in the first geotechnical survey
it was specified that is present at altitudes
comprised between 5,20-5,90m, in the
second study, the water was intercepted at
higher depths 8,20-10,00m.
3. Conclusion
In case of soil susceptible to slide, the
number, the position and the drill depth
represent key elements in settlement
geotechnical investigation and the dates
supplied, serve farther to the make choice
and designed of foundation system.
In case study presented in this paper the
defectively investigation of settlement has
conducted to the change of foundation
system after the digs works have begun
with major implication of technological
order, execution expenses and temporary
interruption of infrastructural works.
References
1. Jekelius, E.: Das Gebirge von Brasov,
Anuarul Institutului Geologic al
Romaniei, vol. XIX, Bucharest, p.
379-408.
2. Mantulescu, M., Tuns, I.: Effective

foundation of a industrial building on
varied field conditions, Bulletin of the
Transilvania University of Brasov;
Series I: Engineering Sciences, 2012,
2065-2019.
3. Mantulescu, M., Tuns, I.: Environment
Friendly Consolidation Solution for
the National Road 1, Romania, from
km 204+445 at 204+700 and between
km 205+250, DAAAM International
Vienna: Annals of DAAAM for 2010
& Proceedings of the International
DAAAM Symposion, 20-23 October
2010, Zadar, Croatia, page 1489-1490.
4. Tuns, I.: Calculul si alcatuirea
fundatiilor,
Editura
Universitatii
Transilvania Brasov, 2004.
5. Tuns, I.: Calculul si alcatuirea
fundatiilor pe piloti, Editura Matrix
Rom, Bucuresti, 2007.
6. *** Studiu geotehnic privind natura
terenului de fundare construire bloc
locuinte S+P+2E+3R. S.C. Geologic
Don S.R.L. Ploiesti, August 2014.
7. *** Studiu geotehnic construire bloc
locuinte S+P+2E+3R. S.C. Geomont
TA S.R.L. Brasov, Februarie 2014.
8. *** Proiect tehnic construire bloc de
locuinteS+P+2E+3R, S.C. Cad Com
S.R.L. Brasov, August 2014.
9. *** NP 112-2013: Normativ privind
proiectarea fundatiilor de suprafata.
10. *** SR EN 1997-1: Geotechnical
design- Part. 1: General rules,
Romanian Standards Associations.

SOME PARTICULARITIES OF STANDARD

GROOVED RAIL TURNOUT USED ON
ROMANIAN TRAMWAY NETWORKS
S. ZVENIGORODSCHI 1
Abstract: The paper present particularities of a standard grooved rail
turnout used by Romanian tramway networks. Describe construction and
function of three major parts of turnout: set of switches (switch tongue),
common crossing and closure rail. Highlight the phenomena of dragging
bogie motor axle passing on the simple frog with shallow grooves. It
calculate the highest crossing frog angle witch do not require shallow
grooves, in concordance with wheel profile used by Bucharest tramway
network. For actual tramway synchrony rotation both axles singlemotor
bogie designed, use of shallow grooves on frogs conduct to rapid wear of
flange height of wheels and grooves of running parts of common crossing.
Key words: tramway, turnout, frog, dragging, wear, bogie
.
1. Introduction
Turnout is used to divide a track into two
at the same level. It allows movement of
traffic in a straight direction on the through
track or in a divergent direction [1], [2].

A picture of the left-hand turnout
designed by the author in 2004 is given in
Figure 1 [3]. It was delivered to RATB for
a tramway depot.
Fig. 1. Standard tramway turnout R = 20m [3]

1
Railways, Roads and Bridges Faculty, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucureti.
450
2. Constructive and design description

of turnout.
In figure 1 is a pictures of a standard lefthand turnout 1435 gauge made from
grooved rail Ri-59. It consists of: set of
switches with flexible tongs 30m radius,
manual sealed point setting mechanism
with hydraulic damper, curved common
crossing radius 20m, closure rails, tie rods,
wood sleepers, and fastenings K-49
adapted to rail profile. These parts will be
discussed separately below.
2.1. Set of switches
2.1.1. Description constructive
Switch set from Figure 2 consist of:
- Baseplate supports the entire
mechanical construction of the switch. All
the parts are assembled by welding. Base
plate allows to fix switch to the sleepers or
on to the continuous slab track. Fastening
is made with bolts or coach screws.
- Stock rail made from grooved Ri60 rail
has two roles: make link between rail in
front of the turnout and straight closure rail
situated after heel of them, and role of
lateral support and protection for curved
flexible tongue.
- Flexible tongue made from tongue

profile UIC 49 can be moved to determine
the direction for movement of traffic,
straight or diverging. It provides support
and guidance of the wheels on diverging
direction. To reduce noise and increase the
reliability was chosen flexible tongue
design. Lateral movement of the tongue is
achieved by elastic deformation.
- Support, wedge and bolts, provide
fastening of heel tongue. Support is welded
on base plate. The system permit to
installing and removing the tongue without
removing the road paving.
- Inserting rail made from grooved Ri60
rail has role to connect tongue hell with
closure rail. Mechanical joint which are
formed between the heel of tongue and
inserting rail forming an angle of 45o, to
ensure smooth passage of the wheel.
- Sliding plate supports the tongue and
permit lateral movement of it. It is made
from thick steel shit welded to web of
stock rail and through 6 nervures to the
base plate and rail foot. The plate is milled
after welding to ensure vertical gauge and
flatness
- Check rail has structural role and to
allowing to embed the switch in pavement.
- Connecting tie rods are designed to
ensure the correct gauge and allow
Fig. 2. Half set of switch [3]
S. ZVENIGORODSCHI: Some Particularities of Standard Grooved Rail Turnout Used on

Romanian Tramway Networks
451
assembly and disassembly for transport of

both switches.
- Drainage connector is designed to
connect the switch to the drainage system
areas. It is very important to ensure proper
drainage, especially in winter, when it can
produce ice.
- Heating box is an optional feature and
is intended to defrost switch in winter.
provided on the curved tongue (Fig. 4).
2.1.2. Design description
Fig.3. Hiding of the tongue tip in stock rail
a. Rigid box-type construction do not

allows large relative movement due to
temperature variation between the tongue
and the stock rail. Thermal expansion can
only occur on tongue free portion between
the heel and the tip. Variation lengths
tongue due to the difference in temperature
between -30oC and + 70oC. is +/- 1.5 mm.
being considered in designing the setting
mechanism to avoid blocking operation.
b. To reduce operating force tongue has a
weakened section over a length of 960
mm. after embedding. It was calculated
that the driving force be less than 100 daN.
The needle is stuck in the rails in free state.
Driving rods passing through the two holes
in the tip of the needle. Odds are designed
for points machine H & K.
c. Hiding the tip of the tongue in stock
rail is achieved by practicing a special
form of milling in active edges of the stock
rail. Moving to the tongue wheel running is
done in the area where the tongue head
width exceeding 20 mm (Fig. 3).
d. Straight tongue because of the way
guiding bogie tram has two guide edges
arranged one on each side to the tongue.
Running edge disposed on the outer side
face of the tongue must be crossed
smoothly guiding the inner surface of the
flange of the wheel, the tongue on the
curved stock rail. For this purpose is made
a milled recess to hide the side wall of the
channel rail. The same milled recess is
Fig. 4. Milled recess to hide the side wall

of the channel rail
Figure 5 present milled recess to hide the
side wall of the channel rail, made by
company Mari Vila SRL., for switch R =
30m tram lines.
Fig. 5. Milled recess made by company

Mari Vila SRL
452
Frog
Fig.6. Common crossing R = 20m [3]

2.2. Common crossing.
The purpose of crossings is to allow
two rails to intersect at the same level. The
main part of crossing is the frog (Figure 6).
2.2.1. Construction of the frog.
`
In Figure 7 is presented a simple frog
witch is utilized in this turnout. It consists
of:
a. Frogs block is made from special
profile rail 310 C (Figure 8).
Fig.8. Rail profile 310C

453
Fig.7. Simple frog [3]

b. Rail tails are made from special profile
76C1(Figure 9).
presented a machined frog ready for

montage.
Fig.10. Tramway frog ready for montage

2.2.2. Particularities of tramway frogs.
Fig.9. Grooved rail Profile 76C1

c. Base plate.
All the parts are assembled with weld on
the base plate and welded joints between
rails tails and frog block. Chanels from
rails and from frog are processed on CNC
milling machine; after welding frog
assembly .(Fig.10). The variable channel
depth is achieved by milling , no need
welding wedges plates. In figure is
For simple frogs with angles greater than

15 passing wheel loss vertical support on
variable distance. When the angle is 90
the maximum distance is reached (width
of rail channel). To reduce noise and the
shock that occurs in these cases are now
utilized wedge plates or rail channel with
variable depth (Fig.6 Section AA). In the
shallow channels wheels are supported on
tip of wheels flanges (Figure 11).
454
Fig.11. Wheel rolling on tip of the flange
Fig.12. Dragging for motor axle in raised position

Running on flanges causes wear of
flanges from tyres especially on motor
bogies. Where appear the phenomenon of
dragging for motor axle in the raised
position (Figure 12).
With notations in the figure we can
write:
n
Vt 1
R1
(1)
30
n
Vt 2
R2
(2)
30
The speeds of the two axles are not
identical results that:
R
(3)
Vt1 Vt 2 1
R2
The new tyre profile for urban transport
is characterised by R1 364 mm tire
and R2 343 mm , respectively, and result:
Vt1 Vt 2 1.061
(4)
and for the axle dragging speed result:

Vd Vt1 Vt 2
(5)
For 50 km / h speed the result is:
Vd (1.061 - 1) 50 km/h 3.05 km/h
This move of dragging determines wear
on the wheel flange and channels in frogs.
The axles from carrier bogies rotate freely,
because of this dragging do not occur.
Appear transient phenomenons due to
sudden decrease of axis rotation that
climbs the wedge plates.
Axis can move vertically with a speed of
approx. 8.3 m / min for a bogie movement
speed of 50 km / h. (I consider a slope of 1:
100 for ramps ascent - descent). It follows
that when the tread of the first wheel
comes in contact with the running surface
of the rail normal collision speed is about
8.3 m / min.

Since rolling on the crown flange is

disadvantageous must be avoided if
possible. In Figure 13 is shown how to
determine the maximum angle between the
cross channels where no longer needed low
depths.
In the figure is shown a simple frog with
both channels located in alignment with
455
the crossing angle of 15 . It can be seen

that a bandage with RATB profile passing
over do not loses vertical support due to
the rail channel. In worst case, the width of
vertical support of the tire is 25 mm (third
position from left to right). Guidance is
achieved by the other wheel of the
wheelset (Figure 14).
Fig.13. Determination of the maximum crossing angles of passage that no needs shallow
channels
Fig.14. Bogie guidance which passing over frog [1], [2]
456
3. Geometry of the turnout
Turnout is indicated in two ways on

drawings from Figure 15. The design
drawing gives all the necessary details for
the design and construction. The double
line drawing with the two rails of a track
drawn separately is shown in Figure 15.a.
There is also sketch in which only centre
line and tangent are shown. The
mathematical point is indicated by small
circle. The most important details of the
turnout are indicated in Figure 15.b.
4. Conclusion

The high technicality of tramway
turnouts demands top-level design and
industrial skill.
The
phenomenon
of
dragging
presented above is complex and need to be
carefully studied. Specialists from
tramway design and track design must
work together.
The
singlemotor
bogies
with
synchronous axles are aggressive with
track. Need to be found other solution for
bogies.
Fig.15. Geometry of turnout: a.double line drawing, b. sketch [3]

References
1. Bihoi, G.: Calea de rulare a

tramvaielor, Ploieti, 1998
2. Sadicov, O.N.: Tramvainii Putii
Stroistvo, Remont I Soderjanie,

Transport, Moskva, 1976
3. Zvenigorodschi, S.: Simple tramway
turnout. Project design, Bucharest,
2004

LANDSLIDES, A DIRECT RESULT OF

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
D. ALUPOAE1
V. AUENCEI2
I. TUNS3
Abstract: The expansion of constructed areas has revealed a major issue

concerning soil building interaction: a change in soil characteristics due to
environmental and anthropogenic factors. The paper states the main effects
of these factors over the foundation terrain and takes into consideration some
methods used worldwide to counter their appearance. In order to better
understand the risks of a chaotic built environment a case study from Iasi
City, Romania is carried out. The paper presents a slope stability analysis
using MIDAS GTS, a finite element program, to take into account different
hypothesises that cause changes in soil behaviour under local loads. Finally,
the paper presents the conclusions that necessarily follow the case study.
Key words: landslides, soil erosion, hydrostatic level, finite element

method, slope stability.
1. Introduction
Building a strong and sustainable
construction is closely related to the
environment in which they are located,
respectively the foundation soil. The
interest shown by researchers in this field
of expertise has revealed a variety of rocks
that can be used as foundation soil.
Unfortunately not all of them are
considered to be proper ground for
building structures that today are higher
and heavier. Thus, the study of soil
characteristics and the necessary measures
needed to reinforce the foundation soil is a
general concern.
According to Silion 1971, in order to
determine the soil behaviour under load a
series of factors have to be considered:
1
nature and genesis, physical and

mechanical characteristics, the influence of
natural and anthropogenic factors, mass
efforts and deformations, and failure mode.
This is as true today as it was then.
Also, global climate change caused
significant
modifications
in
local
environmental conditions, a fact that
negatively influenced the behaviour of the
foundation soil under loads. A different
precipitation
level
or
temperature
modifications
meant
moisture
and
hydrostatic level variation and finally soil
structural changes, especially on difficult
foundation soils.
Over time, in addition to natural factors,
soil transformation processes were
increasingly influenced by anthropogenic
activity. At the moment, the changes
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Technical University "Gheorghe Asachi" Iasi.
Project Implementation Unit, Apa Company Braov.
3
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.
2
caused by human activity, through

industrial revolution and a chaotic
expansion of the constructions, are a major
cause of imbalances that occur over the
surrounding environment. Fortunately it is
the only one that can be entirely managed
through a series of measures and a good
knowledge of the impact that these actions
have on the site, such as: loss of general
and local stability, changes in groundwater
flow regime and, not least, in the natural
environment.
Engineering works interact with the
environment and can be said that they
affect it, but that are also influenced by the
environmental characteristics of the area.
In conclusion, it can be stated that there is
a bi-univocal correspondence between the
building and the environment in which it is
located, so that if one is impaired, the other
will certainly be affected.
2. The effect of the environmental and
anthropic factors over the foundation
soil
2.1. Specific phenomena
Both environmental and climatic factors
play a crucial part over the foundation soil
stability, mainly by moisture fluctuations.
Bearing in mind the context of
overcrowded areas and the presence of
difficult terrains in the big cities, this
aspect may prove to be decisive in the
stability of the existing buildings.
In Romania, the risk factors that lead to
instability phenomena are:
lithological substratum;
climatic conditions;
anthropogenic activity;
seismic activity.
Such an example is the Copou area of
Iasi City where overcrowding caused by
the lack of construction spaces, the
existing foundation soil and human action
led to a foundation settlement and thus to
tilting buildings.
This phenomenon is a direct result of:
a overload derived from the new
construction, which led to additional
tensions in the foundation soil;
the increased humidity in the foundation
soil and the filling layer above the soil
cushion used as an improving method for
the loess soil on the site;
lack of systematization works, which
enabled water infiltrations as a result of
rainfall and utilities network seepage.
Fig. 1. Tilt buildings

Water bags were formed in the filling
layer which supplied the permanent
moisture of the cushion. The humidity of
the cushion increased 3.14% above the
optimum compaction humidity (19.40%).
Also the filling layer recorded higher
values for humidity: 25.07% 27.52%. All
of these causes led to a differential
settlement.[3]
Tronson I
Tronson II
Tronson III
28
Moisture %
458
26
24
22
20
1998 2002 2006 2010
Fig. 2. Variation of soil humidity
ALUPOAE, AUENCEI and TUNS: Phenomena that influence the built environment
Thus constructive measures have been

imposed to stop the settlement: drainage
network,
horizontal
and
vertical
systematization, execution of soil columns
with lime and cement to reduce the
moisture in the foundation soil.
After the measures were applied the
settlement speed regressed from 0.213
mm/day after 9 days to 0.061 mm/day after
22 days and 0.006 mm after 83 days. [3]
Taking into account the risk factors, in
Romania, the most common phenomena
that threaten soil stability are:
soil settlement;
landslides;
soil erosion;
debris flow.
2.2. Measures
phenomena
to
counteract
the
In order to prevent these phenomenons, a

series of measures need to be considered to
improve the foundation ground:
improving the characteristics of the soil
by replacing the difficult soil - surface
methods (cushions), or by deep
foundations that transmit the efforts to a
proper
foundation ground (piles,
columns);
erosion and water infiltration control
through: revegetation, revegetation and
pre-stressed anchors, grids of reinforced
concrete beams, precast concrete frames,
gabions,
geosynthetic
materials,
geotextile materials, soil-tire-vegetation
method etc.
The trend is to find solutions that can
stop all of these phenomena, but at the
same time that protect the environment.
459
Studies carried out by Lee et al. 2007

revealed that the most efficient soil erosion
control systems are precast concrete
frames and soil-tire-vegetation method.
From a total soil erosion of 27665 g/m2 in
case of simple revegetation, it decreased to
419 1292 g/m2 using STV method. It
was also determined that a system of mats
of vegetation and geotextile material led to
values of 2933 3553 g/m2 which are
better than the values of a simple
vegetation mat. [5]
Cheng et al., 2012 determined that the
problems of soil loss and scour on the high
gradient slope can be solved in STV, if the
vegetation zone can be stabilized to have
an effective growth of the vegetation. The
test results on the 45 mudstone slope
show that STV can work well on longer
and steeper slopes.
3. Case study
The paper takes into consideration one of
the failure hypothesis to demonstrate the
influence that local risk factors have over
the ground characteristics and construction
stability. In Romania, landslides are a
common phenomenon due to lithological
substratum, climatic conditions and
anthropological activities. Landslides are
frequent in Transylvanian Depression and
the hilly areas from Oltenia, Muntenia and
Moldova. In regards to the last region,
70% of the landslides are stabilized or
stabilizing and only 30% are active.
The case study follows a landslide using
a finite element method. Three hypotheses
that follow the actual landslide are
presented.
3.1. Algorithm description
Fig. 3. Prevention of soil erosion and

landslides
The finite element method is a precise

numerical analysis method which satisfies
the force equilibrium, compatibility
condition, constitutive equation and
460
boundary condition at each point of a

slope. It simulates the actual slope failure
mechanism and determines both the
minimum factor of safety and the failure
behavior. It can also reflect real in-situ
conditions better than most methods.
Moreover, it can determine the failure
process without assuming any failure
planes in advance.
Slope stability analysis evaluates the
factor of safety using two types of
methods: Strength Reduction Method
(SRM) or Stress Analysis Method (SAM).
The SRM method seeks failure by
reducing the (c, ) material parameters
simultaneously. Failure is governed using
the force norm convergence criteria. The
critical factor is the minimum factor of
safety at which failure occurs. The method
considers initial water level using a static
value or user-defined function and robust
contour
features
displaying
actual
deformation. [4]
The SAM method performs a stress
analysis using finite element method,
extracting the minimum/maximum values
of the safety factor and a critical surface
among the results of stress analysis
obtained at the virtual sliding surface.
The Strength Reduction method is a
finite element technique proposed by
Zienkiewicz (1975). The method focuses
on a point, A, of an element in a sloped
ground structure in order to calculate the
factor of safety of a slope as shown in
figure 4. The stress state at this point is
represented in a Mohr circle. To represent
the sliding surface, the shear stress at the
point is divided by a factor of safety, F, so
that the Mohr circle for the stress state of
the fictitious sliding surface becomes
tangent to the failure criterion. Thus, the
stress state of the point is corrected to the
failure state. An increase in the number of
points results in a global slope failure. As
soon as a finite element solution diverges,
the analysis stops and the limit value, F,
becomes the minimum factor of safety for

the slope. This method requires stability in
numerical analysis and evaluates the actual
failure behaviour.
Fig. 4. Strenght Reduction Method

Principle
In order to determine the minimum
factor of stability, the modulus of elasticity
(E) and Poissons ratio () are assumed to
be constant. The cohesion (c) and friction
angle () are simultaneously reduced. The
factor of safety for slope failure is
determined on the basis of shear failure:
Fs
(3.1)
where:
shear strength of slope material
[kN/m2];
f shear strength on the sliding surface
[kN/m2].
The value of f can be found by using
Coulomb criteria:
f cf n tgf
(3.2)
where:
cf i f shear resistance parameters
divided by a strength reduction factor
(SRF), as follows:
c
SRF
tg
f tg 1
SRF
cf
(3.3)
3.2. Hypothesis
The studied area is located in an
excessive temperate-continental climate
ALUPOAE, AUENCEI and TUNS: Phenomena that influence the built environment
with heavy rainfalls during the summer

and an average annual precipitation
quantity per square meter 518 mm.
Geomorphologically, the site presents a
series of problems, being placed on a
slope, with the gradient ranging from
14.7% to 21.5%. [1]
The stratification in that area can be
summarized as follows:
in high areas, topsoil clay followed by
dusty clay, clay and loam that extend to
depths of (13.50 m15.80 m) and a base
layer of grey clay;
slope base: yellow clay fillings up to a
depth of - 2.50 m followed by clays and
loam with intercalations of adobe and
dusty sand that stand on a layer of grey
clay.
Because of the irregular stratification,
permeable clays with fine sand films, the
water moved chaotic in the slope affecting
the structure of the layers.
The first hypothesis assumed a low
hydrostatic level with no additional loads
to determine the safety factor of the slope
in the natural state. The only load that was
considered in the first analysis was the
self-load combined with a function for the
hydrostatic level. As a result, the value for
Fs in this case was 1.1875, confirming the
equilibrium state.
Fig. 5. Plastic areas inside the analysed

slope in the first hypothesis
After the analysis was carried out using
Mohr Coulomb failure criteria, the plastic
areas inside the slope formed mainly in the
sandy clay regions where the shear
coefficients have low values (c = 1116
kN/m2, = 1823). The failure tension
cannot be observed in this analysis.
461
The second hypothesis assumes the

situation when the landslide occurs: high
hydrostatic level due to heavy rainfall,
additional load coming from the buildings
at the top of the slope and slope excavation
executed at the bottom of the slope, as
shown in figure 6.
All of these hypothesis were formed as a
direct result of the actual site situation:
tension failure points occurred as a result
of torrential rains, soil nature and failure to
respect the order of infrastructure works.
These factors led to the development of a
landslide and a settlement in the area.

slope in the second hypothesis
A concentration of plastic areas at the
top of the slope can be observed and at the
same time, a decrease of plastic zones due
to a discharge caused by excavations at the
bottom of the slope. Also there is a safety
factor calculated value of 0.8534, which is
equivalent to the loss of the equilibrium
state on the slope.
In order to limit the phenomena a series
of works were carried out in order to
ensure the local stability of the area [2]:
drainage works for the surrounding area
in order to evacuate the water excess into
the local sewage network; this measure
aims to decrease the hydrostatic level on
site under -7.0 meters where the moisture
does not cause significant changes in soil
characteristics;
for the upper part of the slope, where
cracks developed due to the settlement
and the landslide, reinforcing works
using drilled piles at a depth of 15 meters
to reach the base layer of the slope were
462
carried; to ensure the piles at the top, a

concrete beam was designed.
structural integrity of buildings.

References

slope in the third hypothesis
The third hypothesis follows the
necessary measures that were stated above,
as it is shown in figure 7. As a result, the
landslide stopped progressing. The finite
element analysis is consistent with the
situation on site: the plastic areas are
limited by the pile foundation and the
decrease of hydrostatic level. Thus, the
value of the safety coefficient considering
the new local conditions is 1.4125,
significantly improved towards the
previous assumption.
The interventions carried out on site
fixed the situation and what is most
important, avoided a problem that could
have become catastrophic for both the
constructions that were built in the area
and the environment.
Slope stabilization works could have
been avoided if during construction all the
risk factors were taken into account.
4. Conclusions
Climatic
conditions,
lithological
substratum, anthropogenic and seismic
activity are the main causes for soil failure.
In urban areas, with a high density of
constructions on slopes, a change in the
morpho-dynamic balance due to varying
local conditions is often a cause for local
stability loses. In such situations, a good
knowledge of the area is required in order
to prevent imbalances in the soil
characteristics, which could affect the
1. Alupoae D., Landslides - a result of

urban expansion in the metropolitan
area of Iasi city, Romania, Ed.
Buletinul Institutului Politehnic, Iasi,
Building and Architecture, Fascicle 2,
Iasi, Romania, 2013, pp. 79-87.
2. Alupoae D., Auencei V., Rileanu P.,
The use of a deep foundation system,
in order to prevent building
degradations due to landslide, in a
residential area of Iasi city, Romania,
Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on New Trends in Statics
and
Dynamics
of
Buildings,
Bratislava, Slovakia, 2011. 141-146.
3. Alupoae, D., Auencei, V., Rileanu,
P., Time - dependent behaviour of
foundations lying on an improved
ground,18th International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Paris, France, 2-6
September 2013.
4. MIDAS GTS, Advanced Webinar.
General Use of MIDAS GTS, 2011.
5. Chen, P.Y., Lee, D.H., Wu, J.H.,
Yang, Y.E., Chen, H.L., Applying New
Soil-Tire-Vegetation Method (STV) to
Mitigate the Surface Erosion at the
High-Gradient
Mudstone
Slopes,
International Conference on Scour and
Erosion ICSE-6, Paris, France, pp.
127-134, 27-31 august, 2012.
6. Silion, T., Geology, Geotechnics and
Foundation, vol. I, vol. 2, Ed.
Institutul Politehnic, Iasi, 1971.

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A. RETEZAN, S. Z. GEYER EHRENBERG, C. PCURAR - Solutions

G. DAE, M. CARABINEANU, G. DUMITRU - The stages of

M. MNTULESCU, I. TUNS, F-L. TMA - Correlation of some

C. TODUT, V. STOIAN, D. DAN, T. NAGY-GYORGY - Seismic

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of fossil fuels, effects felt across the planet

Building Services Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transilvania University of Braov.

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Fig. 2. Cost-efficiency for different solar cooling systems. [9]

As can be see absorption and adsorption are

S.BOLOCAN et al.: Performance evaluation of a small capacity solar cooling ARS

disadvantage for absorption refrigeration

Fig.3. Market development of solar cooling

can came from cheaper solar collector,

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2. Solar powered single effect solar

Fig. 4. Solar cooling [10]

air cooled with a fan. Ammonia condenses in

S.BOLOCAN et al.: Performance evaluation of a small capacity solar cooling ARS

pumps; in the other hand, in heating

- The minimum temperature difference in the

thermal power (kW), Wp the pump power

Fig. 6. EES schematic

Fig. 5. Thermodynamic cycle of the

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Circulation coefficient f, evaporator

0 are stated below:

Where generator capacity is:

And finally the solution pump:

Efficiency of ARS is described in the term

To be more precise same equations were

Heat transfer of components and

Performance parameters of ARS

S.BOLOCAN et al.: Performance evaluation of a small capacity solar cooling ARS

Thermodynamic properties of the

key parameters on the overall system

Heat transfer of components and

Solution heat exchanger

Fig.9. Temperatures measured versus EES

A data acquisition system and a set of

There are many benefits of ARS:

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powered cooling systems.

1. Balaras, C. A. et. al.: Solar air

art review, International Journal of

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ANALISYS OF PREDICTED SPRINKLER

General Inspectorate of Emergency Situations

other using simple jack ramps to double

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