A Geographic Information System Based Soil Loss and Sediment Estimation in Gerdi Watershed, Highlands of Ethiopia

Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
A Geographic Information System Based Soil Loss and Sediment

Estimation in Gerdi Watershed, Highlands of Ethiopia
Gizachew Ayalew
Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise (ADSWE), Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
E-mail:gizachewayalew75@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was carried out to spatially predict the soil loss rate of Gerdi watershed with a Geographic
Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). RUSLE adapted to Ethiopian conditions was used to
estimate potential soil losses by utilizing information on rainfall erosivity (R) using interpolation of rainfall data,
soil erodibility (K) using soil map, vegetation cover (C) using satellite images, topography (LS) using Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) and conservation practices (P ) using satellite images. Based on the analysis, the total
annual soil loss potential of the study watershed was 28,732.5 tons/yr. Out 147.9 ha (64%) of the lands
watershed was categorized none to slight class which under soil loss tolerance (SLT) values ranging from 5 to 11
tons ha-1yr-1. The study results indicated that the rate of potential soil loss in the watershed ranged from very low
to extremely high. The area covered by none to slight potential soil loss was about 147.9 ha (64%) whereas
moderate to high soil loss potential covered about 202.1 ha (36%) of the study watershed. The study
demonstrates that the RUSLE together with GIS provide a good estimate soil loss rate over areas.
Keywords: soil erosion; RUSLE; GIS; Gerdi watershed; Ethiopia
1. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopias economy where its production is highly dependent on natural
resources (Akililu and Graaff, 2007). It accounts for the employment of 90% of its population, over 50% of the
countrys gross domestic product (GDP) and over 90% of foreign exchange earnings (ECACC, 2002). However,
low productivity characterizes the countrys agriculture.
Soil erosion has accelerated on most of the world, especially in developing countries including Ethiopia,
due to different socio-economic, demographic factors and limited resources (Bayramin et.al, 2003). To
effectively estimate soil erosion the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been used in many
countries including Ethiopia. The rate of soil erosion is severe in the highlands of Ethiopia. Accelerated soil
erosion by water has been a major threat to crop production in Ethiopia (Hurni, 1993; Sutcliffe, 1993 and
Tamene, 2005). In the Ethiopian highlands only, an annual soil loss reaches 200-300 tons ha-1yr-1(FAO, 1984
and Hurni, 1993). The impact of soil erosion can be most problematical in the developing countries and unable
to improve soil fertility through application of purchased inputs (Lulseged and Vlek, 2008). In the Ethiopian
highlands only, an annual soil loss reaches 200-300 tons ha-1yr-1, and can be as much as 23.4x109 metric tons per
year (FAO, 1984 and Hurni, 1993). Hurni (1988), and Hurni, Herweg, Portner and Liniger (2008) estimates that
soil loss due to erosion of cultivated fields in Ethiopia amounts to about 42 metric tons ha-1yr-1.Therefore, it
becomes a destructive process when it is exacerbated by a number of anthropogenic factors such as deforestation,
overgrazing, incorrect methods of tillage and unscientific agricultural practices (Lal, 2003; Zhou and Wu, 2008).
Despite the severity of soil erosion and its consequences in the study watershed, there have been few studies at
watershed level to quantify erosion rates at watershed scale. In addition, study watershed, Gerdi is one of the
most erosion-prone watersheds in the highlands of Ethiopia which received little attention. It was, therefore,
essential to assess rates of soil loss and develop a soil loss intensity map of the study watershed using RUSLE
within a GIS environment and identify severity areas for specific soil conservation plans.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Description of the study watershed
Gerdi watershed is located in Awi Zone at about 450 km northwestern of Addis Ababa. The watershed lies
within 1213313 to 1217144 m north and 245870 to 251285 m East in UTM coordinates with altitude ranges of
1920 up to 2291 m.a.s.l. (figure 1) with the total area of 1225.56 ha. Agro-ecologically, 51% and 49% of the
watershed is found to be warm and hot zone, respectively. Rainfall is ranging from 720 mm to 1253.2 mm.
Temperature extends from 12.80C to 30.150C. The elevation ranges from 1920 up to 2291 m.a.s.l. The mean
annual precipitation ranges from 1800-2000 mm.
62

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Figure 4: Location Map of Gerdi Watershed

2.2 Methods
The input thematic data included rainfall, soil units, slopes and land use/cover and determined as follow.
2.2.1 Determination of Soil Loss factors
Rainfall Erosivity Factor
The monthly amounts of precipitation for the watershed were collected over 15 years by the Amhara Regional
Meteorological Agency. Monthly rainfall records from these meteorological stations covering the period 19982012 were used to calculate the rainfall erosivity Factor (R-value). The mean annual rainfall was first
interpolated to generate continuous rainfall data for each grid cell by 3D Analyst Tools Raster Kriging
Interpolation in ArcGIS environment. Then, the R-value corresponds to the mean annual rainfall of the
watershed was found using the R-correlation established in Hurni (1985) to Ethiopia condition.
R= -8.12 + 0.562P.. Equation (1)
Where R is the rainfall erosivity factor and P is the mean annual rainfall (mm).
Soil Erodibility Factor
Spatial Analyst Tool Extract by Mask in GIS environment was used to obtain soil units map of the study
watershed from Amhara Regional digital soil map at 1:50,000 scale developed by DSA and SCI (2006).The soil
erodibility (K) factor for the watershed was estimated based on soil unit types referred from FAO (1989) soil
database adapted to Ethiopia by Hurni (1985) and Hellden (1987). Finally, the resulting shape file was changed
to raster with a cell size of 30x30 m. The raster map was then reclassified based on their erodibility value as
shown in table 1.
63

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Table 2: Soil Types and their Areas

Area
Soil types
Hectare (ha)
Dystric Fluvisols
729.9
Dystric Gleysols
65.0
Percent (%)
59.6
5.3
Dystric Nitosols
145.5
11.9
Orthic Acrisols
285.2
23.3
Total
1225.6
100
Figure 5: Soil Map

Slope Length and Slope Steepness
The 30 m spatial resolution DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was used to generate slope as shown figure 6 by
using Spatial Analyst Tool Surface Slope in ArcGIS 10.1 environment. The flow accumulation and slope
steepness were computed from the DEM using ArcGIS.
Flow accumulation and slope maps were multiplied by using Spatial Analyst Tool Map Algebra Raster
Calculator in Arc GIS 10.1 environment to calculate and map the slope length (LS factor) as shown in equation
(2) and defined by (Wischmeier and Smith 1978).
LS = (Flow Accumulation*Cell size/22.13)0.4 *(Sin slope/0.896)1.3.....Equation (2)
Where: -Cell size- represents the field slope length
-22.13 is the length of the research field plot
64

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Figure 6: Slope Map of Gerdi Watershed

Land Use/Cover Data and Crop Management Factor
A land-use and land-cover map of the study area was prepared from LANDSAT satellite image acquired on 2013
and supervised digital image classification technique was employed using ENVI 5.0 software. A field checking
effort also was made in order to collect ground truth information. The LAND SAT satellite image was used to
classify the current land use and land cover map. Digital image processing operations were carried out using
ENVI 5.0 software. In addition, ground truth data were used as a vital reference for supervised classification,
accuracy assessment and validation of the result. In supervised image classifications technique, land use and land
cover types were classified so as to use the classified images as inputs for generating crop management (C)
factor and support practice (P) factor. Based on the land cover classification map, a corresponding C value
obtained from Hurni (1985) was assigned in a GIS environment (Table 3).
65

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Table 3: Land cover types and their areas

Area
Major land cover
Cultivated Land
Sub-total
Forest Land
Sub-total
Grass Land
Sub-total
Shrub and Bush Land
Slope (%)
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
>50
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
Sub-total
Grand total
ha
126.38
99.28
176.62
70.76
7.4
480.44
2.5
13.14
80.62
294.94
62.9
2.43
456.53
35.15
22.04
87.19
47.03
1.05
192.46
5.15
17.95
34.67
32.41
5.96
96.13
1225.56
%
10.31
8.1
14.41
5.77
0.6
39.2
0.2
1.07
6.58
24.07
5.13
0.2
37.25
2.87
1.8
7.11
3.84
0.09
15.7
0.42
1.46
2.83
2.64
0.49
7.84
100
Figure 7: Land Use/Cover Map of the Watershed

Erosion Management Practice Factor
The P-factor was assessed using major land cover and slope interaction adopted by Wischmeier and Smith (1978)
for Ethiopia condition. The data related to management or support practices of the watershed were collected
during the field work. Therefore, values for erosion management practice factor (P- factor) were assigned
66

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
considering local management practices and it was taken the weighed value for similar land use types. The
corresponding P values were assigned to each land use/land cover classes and slope classes and the P factor map
was produced.
2.2.3 Soil Loss Analysis
The overall methodology involved the use of the RUSLE in a GIS environment with factors obtained from
meteorological stations, soil map, topographic map, Satellite Images and DEM as shown in equation 4 and figure
5. Annual soil loss rate was determined by a cell-by-cell analysis of the soil loss surface by superimposing and
multiplying the respective RUSLE factor values (R, K, LS, C and P) interactively by using Spatial Analyst Tool
Map Algebra Raster Calculator in ArcGIS 10.1 environment as shown equation 3 adopted from the
recommendations of Hurni (1985) and Gebreselassie (1996). For the purpose of identifying priority areas for
conservation planning, soil loss potential of the watershed was then categorized into different severity classes
following FAO & UEP (1984) guide line.
A= LS* R* K* C* P... . Equation (3)
Where A is the annual soil loss (metric tons ha-1yr-1); R is the rainfall erosivity factor [MJ mm h-1 ha-1 yr-1]; K is
soil erodibility factor [metric tons ha-1 MJ 1 mm-1]; LS = slope length factor (dimensionless); C is land cover
and management factor (dimensionless); and P is conservation practice factor (dimensionless). Ground truth data
collected by GPS were used for checking and validation of results.
Figure 8: Flow Chart showing the GIS based Soil Loss Estimation
2.2.4 Sediment Yield
The sediment delivery ratio (SDR) denotes the ratio of the sediment yield at a given stream cross section to the
gross erosion from the watershed upstream from the measuring point (Julien, 1998). To generate the sediment
yield at the outlet, empirical equations were carried out.
SDR = A-0.2....Equation (4)
Where, SDR denotes the sediment delivery ratio and area of the watershed. The SDR physically means the ratio
of the sediment routed to the outlet over the watershed, both overland and channel.
Sediment yield is commonly estimated by the following empirical formula:
Sy=E*(1/A0.2) .............................................................................................................Equation (5)
Where, Sy= Sediment yield (ton) at the watershed out let; E = total erosion (ton); A = watershed area (ha)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor
Soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface and
67

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
partly through the contribution of rain to runoff (Morgan, 1994). The soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly
through the detaching power of raindrop striking the soil surface and partly through the contribution of rain to
runoff. The average annual rainfall of the watershed is approximately 1900 mm. The result showed that rainfall
erosivity factor (R-factor) value in the watershed ranged between 1059.68 MJmm ha1yr1.
3.2 Soil Erodibility Factor
The erodibility of a soil is an expression of its inherent resistance to particle detachment and transport by rainfall.
It is determined by the cohesive force between the soil particles, and may vary depending on the presence or
absence of plant cover, the soils water content and the development of its structure (Wischmeier and Smith,
1978). The soil erodibility factor (K) represents the effect of soil properties and soil profile characteristics on soil
loss (Renard et al., 1997). Erodibility depends essentially on the amount of organic matter in the soil, the texture
of the soil, the structure of the surface horizon and permeability (Robert & Hilborn, 2000). The results indicated
that soil erodibility value in the study watershed ranged from 0.10 Mgh MJ1 mm1 to 0.15 Mgh MJ1 mm1
(table 3 and figure 6).
Table 4: Soil Erodibility Factor
Area
Soil type
K-value
ha
Dystric Fluvisols
0.1
729.9
59.6
Dystric Gleysols
0.15
65.0
5.3
Dystric Nitosols
0.15
145.5
11.9
Orthic Acrisols
0.15
285.2
23.3
1225.6
100
Total
Figure 9: Soil Erodibility Factor Map

3.3 Slope Length and Slope Steepness Factor
The influence of topography on erosion is complex. The local slope gradient (S sub-factor) influences flow
velocity and thus the rate of erosion. Slope length (L sub-factor) describes the distance between the origin and
termination of inter-rill processes. In RUSLE, the LS factor represents a ratio of soil loss under given conditions
to that at a site with the "standard" slope steepness of 9% and slope length of 22 m plot (Robert & Hilborn, 2000).
The steeper and longer the slope, the higher is the erosion. Some researchers have argued that upslope drainage
area is a better parameter when describing the influence of slope length on erosion, not slope length (Desmet &
68

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Govers, 1996). The upslope drainage area for each cell in a DEM was calculated with multiple flow algorithms.
The steepness factor value in the study watershed varies from 0.5 to 4.8 (Figure 7). As slope length increases,
total soil erosion and soil erosion per unit area increase due to the progressive accumulation of runoff in the
down slope direction. The slope length and slope steepness can be used in a single index, which expresses the
ratio of soil loss as defined by (Wischmeier and Smith 1978).
Figure 10: Steepness Factor Map

3.4 Land Use and Land Cover and Crop Factor
The attribute and spatial information on the present status of land use/land cover is a pre-requisite to identify and
prioritize areas for soil conservation measures and minimizing further land degradation. The C- value is a ratio
comparing the soil loss from land under a specific crop and management system to the corresponding loss from
continuously fallow and tilled land. It represents the ratio of soil loss under a given crop to that of the base soil
(Morgan, 1994). It measures the combined effect of cropping and management practices in agricultural system
and the effect of ground cover, tree canopy and grass covers in reducing soil loss in non-agricultural condition
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). It also reflects the effect of cropping and management practices on the soil
erosion rate (Renard, Foster, Weesies, McCool, and Yoder, 1997). As shown in Table 4 and Figure 8, four landuse and land-cover classes were recognized in the watershed, dominantly by crop cultivation (39.2%). Crop
management C factor values of the study watershed were ranging from 0.01 to 0.20 similar with the work of
Morgan (2005).
Table 5 : Cover Management (C) Factor values of the study area
Area
Land cover type
C-value
ha
Cultivated Land
Grass Land
0.15
0.05
480.4
192.5
39.2
15.7
Forest
0.01
456.5
37.3
Shrub Land
0.20
96.1
7.8
1225.6
100.0
Total
69

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Figure 11: Derivation of Cover Factor from Cover Type

3.5 Management Practice Factor
The conservation practices factor (p-values) reflects the effects of practices that will reduce the amount and rate
of the water runoff and thus reduce the amount of erosion. It depends on the type of conservation measures
implemented and requires mapping of conserved areas for it to be quantified. In the study area, there is only a
small area that has been treated with terracing through the agricultural extension programme of the government.
As data were lacking on permanent management factors and there were no management practices, I used the Pvalues suggested by Bewket and Teferi (2009), Wang and Sun (2002). Thus, the agricultural lands are classified
into six slope categories and assigned P-values while all non-agricultural lands are assigned a P-value of 1.00
(Table 5 and Figure 9).
Table 6: Land Management Factor (P) values
Area
Land use type
Cultivated Land
Other land use
Slope (%)
P-factor
ha
0-5
0.1
167.8
13.7
5-10
10-20
0.12
0.14
114.7
165.2
9.4
13.5
20-30
0.19
25.5
2.1
30-50
0.25
7.2
0.6
50-100
0.33
0.1
0.0
All
745.1
60.8
1225.6
100
Total
70

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Figure 12: Derivative of Management Factor from Land Cover and Slope
3.6 Soil Loss Estimation and Prioritization for Soil Conservation Planning
The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been used widely all over the world (Mellerowicz, Ress,
Chow and Ghanem, 1994) including Ethiopia (Kaltenrieder, 2007; Bewket and Teferi, 2009) because of its
simplicity and limited data requirement. The advent of geographical information system (GIS) technology has
allowed the equation to be used in a spatially distributed manner because each cell in a raster image comes to
represent a field-level unit. Even though the equation was originally meant for predicting soil erosion at the field
scale, its use for large areas in a GIS platform has produced satisfactory results (Mellerowicz, Ress, Chow and
Ghanem, 1994; Renard, Foster,Wessies and Porter, 1994). By delineation of watersheds as erosion prone areas
according to the severity level of soil loss, priority is given for a targeted and cost-effective conservation
planning (Kaltenrieder, 2007; Bewket & Teferi, 2009).
Based on the analysis, the soil loss potential of the study watershed was about 41,424.07 ton per year.
Large portion of the watershed (38.5%, 471.6 ha) was categorized none to slight class which under SLT values
ranging from 5 to 11 tons ha-1yr-1 (Renard, Foster, Weesies, McCool and Yoder, 1996). The remaining 56.2%
(689.4 ha) of land was classified under moderate to high class about several times the maximum tolerable soil
loss (11 tons ha-1 y-1) (Table 6 and Figure 10). Mati, Morgan, Gichuki, Quinton, Brewer and Liniger (2000)
estimated average soil loss from croplands in the highlands of Ethiopia as a whole at 100 metric tons ha-1yr-1. In
the highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea soil losses are extremely high with an estimated average of 20 metric tons
ha-1yr-1 (Hurni, 1985) and measured amounts of more than 300 metric tons ha-1yr-1on specific plots. Hurni (1993)
estimated mean soil loss from cultivated fields as 42 metric tons ha-1yr-1. The average annual soil loss estimated
by USLE from the entire Gerdi watershed, northwestern Ethiopia was 33.80 ton/ha/yr. Thus, the estimated soil
loss rate was generally realistic, compared to results from previous studies.
71

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
Table 7: Soil Loss Summary of the Watershed

Soil loss rating and class
Area
ton/ha/yr
mm/yr*
class
ha
0-5
5-15
0-0.5
0.5-1
Non to slight
Non to slight
65.1
471.6
5.3
38.5
16-30
1-2.5
Moderate
409.7
33.4
31-50
51-100
2.5-4
4-6.5
Moderate
High
118.6
84.4
9.7
6.9
101-200
>200
6.5-16.5
>16.5
High
Very High
38.5
38.2
3.1
3.1
1225.56
100
Total
Figure 13 : Soil Loss Map of the Watershed

3.7 Sediment Yield
Similar to the soil losses, sediment yields were also very high at the out let of the watershed. The transporting
ability of the runoff to move all the eroded sediments was insufficient. As a result deposition occurs in
reservoirs, depressions, at the toe of the hills where changes slope. Thus, the amount of erosion in the
watershed was generally more than the amount of sediment leaving the watershed at the outlet point. The most
common method for estimating sediment yield is sediment delivery ratio (1/A0.2), which is developed from
reservoir survey, or measurement of suspended and bed loads at the gauging station and compared with that of
erosion in the watershed.
Sy = 9990.46 tons per year
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The predicted amount of soil loss and sediment yield could facilitate comprehensive and sustainable land
management through conservation planning for the watershed. Areas characterized by high to very high soil loss
should be given special priority to reduce or control the rate of soil erosion by means of conservation
planning. The study demonstrates that the RUSLE together with GIS and RS provides great advantage to
72

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
estimate soil loss rate over areas though the input parameter values need to be calibrated to the specific area.
5. REFERENCES
Akililu A and Graaff De (J.2007). Determinants of adoption and continued use of stone terraces for soil and
water conservation in an Ethiopian highland watershed. Ecological Economics. 61:294-302.
Bayramin I., O Dengiz., O Baskan, M Parlak. (2003). Soil Erosion Risk Assessment with ICONA Model; Case
Study: Beypazari Area. Turk Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 27(2003).
Bewket W. and Teferi E (2009). Assessment of soil erosion hazard and prioritization for treatment at the
watershed level: case study in the Chemoga watershed, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Land degradation &
development. Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI:
10.1002/ldr.944).
Desmet P.J.J. and G. Govers (1996). A GIS procedure for automatically calculating the USLE LS factor on
topographically complex landscape units. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 51.5:427-433.
DSA (Development Studies Associates) and SCI (Shawel Consult International).2006. Potential Survey,
Identification of Opportunities and Preparations of Projects Profiles and Feasibility Studies. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ethiopian Central Agricultural Census Commission (ECACC).2002. Report on Preliminary Results of Area,
Production and Yield of Temporary Crops (Meher Season Private Peasant Holding), Part II, on
Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAO and UNEP (1984).Provisional Methodology for Assessment and Mapping of Desertification. FAO, Rome,
Italy.
FAO(1984). Ethiopian Highland reclamation Study (EHRS). Final Report, Vol. 1-2.Rome.
FAO(1989). Reconnaissance Physical Land Evaluation in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Gebreselasie E.D (1996). Soil erosion hazard assessment for land evaluation. Soil Conservation Research
Program, University of Bern, Switzerland and the Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis,
1996:68-82.
Hellden U (1987). An Assessment of Woody Biomass, Community Forests, Land Use and Soil Erosion in
Ethiopia, Lund University Press, Lund.
Hurni H (1985).Erosion-Productivity-Conservation Systems in Ethiopia. Proceedings 4th International
Conference on Soil Conservation, Maracay, Venezuela, 654-674.
Hurni H (1988). Degradation and Conservation of the Resources in the Ethiopian highlands. Mountain Research
and Development 8(2/3): 123-130.
Hurni H (1993). Land degradation, famine, and land resource scenarios in Ethiopia. In: Pimentel D. (Ed.) World
soil erosion and conservation.Cambridge Univ. Press, 89-97.
Hurni H.;Herweg,K;Portner,B. and Liniger,H (2008). Soil Erosion and onservation in Global Agriculture.
Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
Julien PY, & Frenette M (1998). Physical Processes Groverning Reservoir Sedimentation. International
Conference on Reservoir Sedimentation (pp. 121-142). Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado State
University.
Kaltenrieder J (2007). Adaptation and Validation of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) for the EthiopianEritrean Highlands.MSc Thesis, University of Berne,Centre for Development and Environment
Geographisches Institut.Lal R (2003) Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Environ Int 29:437
450.
Lulseged T and Vlek G.L.P (2008). Soil Erosion Studies in Northern Ethiopia. Springer Science+Business
Media B.V.
Mati BM, Morgan RPC, Gichuki FN, Quinton JN, Brewer TR, Liniger HP(2000). Assessment of erosion hazard
with the USLE and GIS: A case study of the Upper Ewaso Ngiro North basin of Kenya. International Journal of
Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 2: 19.
Mellerowicz KT, RessHW, Chow TL, Ghanem I (1994). Soil conservation planning at the watershed level using
the Universal Soil Loss Equation with GIS and microcomputer technologies: A case study. Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation 49: 194200.
Morgan, R.P.C (1994). Soil Erosion and Conservation. Silsoe College, Cranfield University.
Morgan RPC (2005). Soil Erosion and Conservation (3rd edn). Blackwell Science: Oxford.
Renard, KG, Foster, GR, Weesies GA, McCool DK and Yoder D.C (1996). Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A
Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). USDA,
Washington,DC.
Renard KG., Foster G.R., Weesies GA., McCool DK., Yoder DC(1997). Predicting soil erosion by water-a guide
to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE).
Renard K, Foster GR, Wessies GA, Porter JP (1994). Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Journal
73

Vol.4, No.19, 2014
www.iiste.org
of Soil and Water Conservation 46:30-33.

Robert PS and Hilborn D (2000). Factsheet: Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE).Index No-572/751,Queen,s
printer for Ontario.
Sutcliff JP (1993). Economic assessment of land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands: A case study. National
conservation strategy secretariat, Ministry of planning and economic development, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Tamene L.2005.Reservoir siltation in the drylands of northern Ethiopia: causes, source areas and management
options. PhD Thesis, Ecology and Development Series 30, Center for Development Research,
University of Bonn. 84-138.
Wang G, Hapuarachchi P, Ishidaira H, Kiem AS, Takeuchi K (2009) Estimation of soil erosion and sediment
yield during individual rainstorms at catchment scale. Water Resour Manag 23: 14471465.
Wischmeier WH,Smith DD (1978).Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses-A Guide to Conservation. Agricultural
Handbook 537. US Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC.
Zhang Y, Degroote J Wolter C, Sugumaran R (2009). Integration of modified universal soil loss equation
(MUSLE) into a GIS framework to assess soil erosion risk. Land Degrad Dev 20: 8491.
74
Business, Economics, Finance and Management Journals

European Journal of Business and Management
Research Journal of Finance and Accounting
Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development
Information and Knowledge Management
Journal of Developing Country Studies
Industrial Engineering Letters
PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL

EJBM@iiste.org
RJFA@iiste.org
JESD@iiste.org
IKM@iiste.org
DCS@iiste.org
IEL@iiste.org
Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Chemistry Journals

Journal of Natural Sciences Research
Journal of Chemistry and Materials Research
Journal of Mathematical Theory and Modeling
Advances in Physics Theories and Applications
Chemical and Process Engineering Research

JNSR@iiste.org
CMR@iiste.org
MTM@iiste.org
APTA@iiste.org
CPER@iiste.org
Engineering, Technology and Systems Journals

Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems
Innovative Systems Design and Engineering
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy
Information and Knowledge Management
Journal of Control Theory and Informatics
Journal of Information Engineering and Applications
Industrial Engineering Letters
Journal of Network and Complex Systems

CEIS@iiste.org
ISDE@iiste.org
JETP@iiste.org
IKM@iiste.org
CTI@iiste.org
JIEA@iiste.org
IEL@iiste.org
NCS@iiste.org
Environment, Civil, Materials Sciences Journals

Journal of Civil and Environmental Research

JEES@iiste.org
CER@iiste.org
JNSR@iiste.org
Life Science, Food and Medical Sciences

Advances in Life Science and Technology
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
Journal of Food Science and Quality Management
Journal of Chemistry and Materials Research

ALST@iiste.org
JNSR@iiste.org
JBAH@iiste.org
FSQM@iiste.org
CMR@iiste.org
Education, and other Social Sciences

Journal of Education and Practice
Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization
Journal of New Media and Mass Communication
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy
Historical Research Letter
Public Policy and Administration Research
International Affairs and Global Strategy
Research on Humanities and Social Sciences
Journal of Developing Country Studies
Journal of Arts and Design Studies

JEP@iiste.org
JLPG@iiste.org
NMMC@iiste.org
JETP@iiste.org
HRL@iiste.org
PPAR@iiste.org
IAGS@iiste.org
RHSS@iiste.org
DCS@iiste.org
ADS@iiste.org
The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open-Access hosting service and academic event management.
The aim of the firm is Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing.
More information about the firm can be found on the homepage:
http://www.iiste.org
CALL FOR JOURNAL PAPERS
There are more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals hosted under the hosting platform.
Prospective authors of journals can find the submission instruction on the following
page: http://www.iiste.org/journals/ All the journals articles are available online to the
readers all over the world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those
inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. Paper version of the journals is also
available upon request of readers and authors.
MORE RESOURCES
Book publication information: http://www.iiste.org/book/
IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners

EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open
Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek
EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial Library , NewJour, Google Scholar

A Geographic Information System Based Soil Loss and Sediment Estimation in Gerdi Watershed, Highlands of Ethiopia

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

A Geographic Information System Based Soil Loss and Sediment Estimation in Gerdi Watershed, Highlands of Ethiopia

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Journal of Environment and Earth Science

ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)