Rock Mechanics

2- Rock Mechanics
References
Hudson, J. A., and Harrison, J. P. (2005): Engineering rock Mechanics
an introduction to the principles (4th Edi.),
Elsevier Ltd. (Pub.), Amsterdam, 457 P.
Hunt, R. E. (2005): Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook
(2nd Edi.), Taylor & Francis Group (Pub.),
Boca Raton, 1033 P.
Mathewson, C. C. (1981): Engineering Geology, Charles, E. Merrill Co.
(Pub.), Columbus, Ohio, 450 P.
Courses No.(404G &425 G)
Dr / Waleed A. Ogila
What is Rock Mechanics?

Rock mechanics is a science that uses the principles of mechanics to
describe the behavior of rock for engineering purposes.
Rock Definitions
The Geological Definition of Rocks
Material of the Earths crust, composed of one or more minerals strongly
bonded together that are so little altered by weathering that the
fabric and the majority of the parent minerals are still present.
The Engineering Definition of Rocks
Rock is the hard and durable material that cannot be excavated without
blasting.
Or The earth materials that do not slake when soaked into water.
Rock Groups and Classes

Geologic Bases
Based on their geologic aspects, rocks are grouped by origin as igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic, these rocks are classified
according to their petrographic characteristics, which include
their mineral content, texture, and fabric.
Geologists concern about the origin, classification, history, and the
economic aspects of rocks.
Rock Identification
Rocks are identified mostly by its texture; mineral composition; field

relationships; color; crystal size and crystal form, and other
petrographic characteristics.
Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks

(1)
Fine-grained of alkali igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates in

Portland cement due to volume expansion caused by the Alkalisilica reaction.
(2) Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) cannot be

used as aggregates in constructions because its low abrasion
resistance; but fine-grained igneous rocks (e.g., basalt) are good
for aggregates e.g., basalt as paving aggregates goes with asphalt.
(3) Siting of foundations needs to avoid weathered rocks (e.g., dams,
bridge piers, etc.).
(4) Igneous rocks are good for dimension stone (tombstone etc.) because
their resistance to weathering but need avoid fractures.
Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks

(1) The sedimentary rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem
when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The sedimentary
rocks with this problem are greywacke.
(2) Fine-grained sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite are the
best for being used as aggregates; siltstone, shale, conglomerate,
and quartz sandstone are not acceptable.
(3) Stream and terrace gravel contains weak pieces, they are not good for
aggregates in concrete.
(4) Coarse-grained limestone is not good for aggregates;
(5) Sinkhole problem in carbonate terrains due to the high dissolvability
of limestone and dolomite.
Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks

(1) The metamorphic rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem
when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The metamorphic
rocks with this problem are phyllite, impure quartzite, and granite
gneiss.
(2) Coarse-grained gneiss can be abraded severely when used as
aggregates.
(3) For metamorphic rocks the stability of rock mass greatly affected by
the foliation orientation.
(4) Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks can

cause similar problems, eg., leakage of reservoirs, sinkhole
collapse, solution cavities, and channels.
Engineering Bases
On an engineering basis, rock is often referred to as either intact or in
situ.
Intact rock (rock substances or rock materials) refers to a block or
fragment of rock free of defects (discontinuities), in which its
hydraulic and mechanical properties are controlled by the
petrographic characteristics of the material, whether in the fresh or
decomposed state. Classification is based on its uniaxial
compressive strength and hardness.
Or It refers to the consolidated and cemented assemblage of mineral
particles form the intact blocks between discontinuities in the rock
mass.
Northwest
joint set
Northeast joint
set
In situ rock (rock mass) refers to the rock mass that normally contains
defects (discontinuities), which separate the mass into blocks of
intact rock and control the hydraulic and mechanical properties.
Classification is based on rock quality, with the mass generally
termed as competent or incompetent.
Types of discontinuities: faults, dykes, joints, fractures, cavities,

bedding planes, cleavage planes, and foliation planes.
Rocks are significant for two major reasons in engineering:

(1) As building materials for constructions;
(2) As foundations on which the constructions are setting.
Engineering properties of intact rock according to ISRM

( Brown, 1981)
Physical Properties
1- Water Content
2- Porosity
3- Density
4- Absorption
5- Abrasiveness by Los Angeles Machine
Percent loss = (material finer than 0.141 mm) / (original weight)
For highway construction, we need percent loss less than 35 50 %.
Mechanical Properties
1- Strength
2- Elastic Modulus
The strength of rock substances is divided into
Uniaxial comp. strength
A- Compressive strength
1- uniaxial compressive strength
qu = F / A
2- Schmidt Hammer
Schmidt Hammer
B- Tensile strength
1- Brazilian test
2- Point load test
T = 0.636 F/DK
K: thickness of specimen
Point load test
Point Load index Ip = F / D2

C- Shear strength
f = F / A
F: total shear force

10
Compressive strength of rock surface (UCS) MPa
Schmidt Hammer
Kahraman (2001)
qu (MPa) = 6.97 e(0.014R )

R: Schmidt hammer rebound
number,
: rock density (gm/cm3),
Relationships between
rebound number and
UCS (After Deere and
Miller, 1966).
11
Stress strain relationship of any rock is

controlled to a large degree by the
mineralogy, bedding plane, banding and
other characteristics of rock structures
and fabric
Plastic Def.
Ductile Def.
Ductile Def.
Plastic Def.
The difference between a brittle

material and a ductile
material.
12
Engineering Classification of Intact Rock Based on Compressive and Tensile Strengths

ISRM (Brown, 1981)
Compressive
Strength
Term
Strength MPa
Extremely weak rocks
0.25 1.0
Very weak rocks
1.0 5.0
Weak rocks
5.0 - 25.0
Medium strong rocks
25.0 50.0
Strong rocks
50.0 100.0
Very strong rocks
100.0 250.0
Extremely strong rocks
> 250.0
Compressive
and Tensile
Strengths
13
Field estimates of rock uniaxial compressive strength proposed by Hoek and Brown (1997).
14
Elastic Modulus (Youngs Modulus)

Axial Youngs Modulus (E) is the ratio of the axial stress change to axial strain produce by the
stress change.
100%
A- Tangent Youngs modulus (Et)
B- Average Youngs modulus (Eav)
C- Secant Youngs modulus (Es)
50%
100%
100%
Et = /
50%
Es = /
Eav = /
15
Classification of Youngs modulus (after Anon, 1979).

Youngs modulus
Using the ratio of Youngs modulus to the compressive strength

(Deformability) Et / qu
Classification of deformability (after Deere and Miller, 1966)
16
Engineering classification of the igneous intact rocks

(After Deere and Miller, 1966).
17
Engineering classification of the Sedimentary intact rocks

Evaporites
18
Engineering classification of the Metamorphic intact rocks

19
Engineering properties of rock mass according to ISRM

( Brown, 1981)
1- Mechanical Properties (intact rock)
2- Field observations (discontinuities description)

3- Core logging
20
2- Field observations (discontinuities description)

The rock mass is described by the following items according to ISRM (Brown, 1981)
1- Orientation (Attitude of a discontinuity in space)
strike, dip direction, and dip amount
2- Spacing (perpendicular distance between adjacent discontinuities)
3- Persistence (a discontinuity trace length as observed in an exposure)
4- Roughness (inherent surface roughness and waviness of a discontinuity)
5- Wall strength (compressive strength of the adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity)
6- Aperture (perpendicular distance between adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity)

7- Filling (the filling materials that separate the adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity)
8- Seepage (water flow and free moisture visible in individual discontinuities or in the rock mass
as a whole)
9- Number of sets ( the number of the discontinuities sets)

10- Block size (rock block dimensions resulting from the mutual orientation of intersecting
discontinuities sets)
21
Description
2- Spacing
Terminology for
discontinuity spacing
according to ISRM
(Brown, 1981)
< 20 mm
3 -Persistence
Terms for the description of onedimensional persistence
according to ISRM (Brown,
1981)
persistence
persistence
persistence
persistence
Dr / Waleed persistence
A. Ogila
22
4- Roughness
Small scale roughness profiles ( unevenness),
(after Hack and Price, 1995)
Shear strength increase
Large scale roughness profiles (Waviness),

(after Hack and Price, 1995)
23
Assessment of JRC from

amplitude of roughness
and length of joint profile
(Barton, 1982)
Amplitude of roughness, mm
Joint Roughness Coefficient (JRC)
Standard profiles for visual estimation of JRC

24
(Barton and Choubey, 1977)
ISRM (Brown, 1981)
f / = tan (JRC log10 (JCS/) + )

r : residual friction angle (Weathered wall), (25o -35o)
m: maximum friction angle (Fresh wall), (30o -70o)
25
6- Aperture
Apertures classification according to ISRM (Brown, 1981)
Aperture
Description
< 0.1 (mm)
Very tight
0.1 0.25 (mm)
Tight
0.25 0.50 (mm)
Partly open
0.50 2.50 (mm)
Open
2.50 10.0 (mm)
Moderately wide
> 10.0 (mm)
Wide
1.0 10.0 (cm)
Very wide
10.0 100.0 (cm)
Extremely wide
> 100.0 (cm)
Cavernous
Closed
Gapped
Open
7- Filling materials
Mineral composition, grain or crystal size, strength, water content,
permeability, soil index properties, weathering grade and
swelling potentiality.
26
8- Seepage
Seepage description according to ISRM (Brown, 1981)
Un-filling discontinuities
Filling discontinuities
Seepage
rate
Description
Seepage
rate
Description
The discontinuity is very tight and dry,

and water flow along it does not appear
possible.
The filling materials are heavily

consolidate and dry.
II
The discontinuity is dry with no evidence

of water flow.
II
The filling materials are wet , but no

free water is present
III
The discontinuity is dry with evidence of

water flow.
III
The filling materials are wet , occasional

drops of water
IV
The discontinuity is wet but no free

water is present.
IV
The filling materials show signs of

outwash, continuous flow of water.
The discontinuity shows seepage,

occasional drops of water, but no
continuous flow.
The filling materials are washed out

locally, considerable water flow along
outwash channels.
VI
The discontinuity shows a continuous

flow of water.
VI
The filling materials are washed out

completely and show a continuous flow
of water.
27
Tunnel wall
Seepage rate
Description
Dry wall and roof, no detectable seepage.
II
Minor seepage, specify dripping discontinuities.
III
Medium inflow, specify discontinuities with continuous flow.
IV
Major inflow, specify discontinuities with strong flows.
Very high inflow, specify discontinuities with very strong flows.
9- Number of sets
10- Block size
Northwest joint set
Block size description , Anon (1977)
Northeast joint set
Very large
> 8 m3
Large
0.2 8 m3
Medium
0.008 0.2 m3
Small
0.0002 - 0.008 m3
Very small
< 0.0002 m3
28
3- Core logging
1- Total Core Recovery (TCR)
2- Discontinuity Frequency (F)
3- Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
1- Total Core Recovery (TCR)

(TCR) is the ratio of the length of core
recovered to the length of drilled
2- Discontinuity Frequency (F)
(F) is the number of natural
discontinuities intersecting a unit
length of recovered core.
29
3- Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
Deere, (1968)
30
RMR classification
The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR system:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
6. Orientation of discontinuities.
31
Rock Mass Rating System (After Bieniawski, 1989).
32
33

Rock Mechanics

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Rock Mechanics

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2- Rock Mechanics

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

What is Rock Mechanics?

Rock Groups and Classes

Rocks are identified mostly by its texture; mineral composition; field

Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks

Fine-grained of alkali igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates in

(2) Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) cannot be

Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks

Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks

(4) Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks can

Types of discontinuities: faults, dykes, joints, fractures, cavities,

Rocks are significant for two major reasons in engineering:

Engineering properties of intact rock according to ISRM

The strength of rock substances is divided into

Uniaxial comp. strength

Point load test

Point Load index Ip = F / D2

F: total shear force

Compressive strength of rock surface (UCS) MPa

qu (MPa) = 6.97 e(0.014R )

: rock density (gm/cm3),

Stress strain relationship of any rock is

The difference between a brittle

Engineering Classification of Intact Rock Based on Compressive and Tensile Strengths

Extremely weak rocks

Very weak rocks

Medium strong rocks

Very strong rocks

Extremely strong rocks

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Elastic Modulus (Youngs Modulus)

Classification of Youngs modulus (after Anon, 1979).

Using the ratio of Youngs modulus to the compressive strength

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Engineering classification of the igneous intact rocks

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Engineering classification of the Sedimentary intact rocks

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Engineering classification of the Metamorphic intact rocks

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Engineering properties of rock mass according to ISRM

1- Mechanical Properties (intact rock)

2- Field observations (discontinuities description)

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

2- Field observations (discontinuities description)

6- Aperture (perpendicular distance between adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity)

9- Number of sets ( the number of the discontinuities sets)

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Shear strength increase

Shear strength increase

Large scale roughness profiles (Waviness),

Assessment of JRC from

Shear strength increase

Joint Roughness Coefficient (JRC)

Standard profiles for visual estimation of JRC

ISRM (Brown, 1981)

f / = tan (JRC log10 (JCS/) + )

Courses No.(404G &425 G)

Apertures classification according to ISRM (Brown, 1981)

< 0.1 (mm)