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Lecture 19

Lecture 19: Alternative Energy

Resources The Solar Power
The Energy Resources
One of the greatest challenges facing mankind in the twenty-first century is energy. Starting with
the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century, fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas have been the main energy resources for everything vital for human society: from steam
engines to Otto and diesel engines, from electricity to heating and cooling of buildings, from
cooking and hot-water making, from lighting to various electric and electronic gadgets, as well as
for most of the transportation means. However, fossil fuel resources as stored energy accumulated
during hundreds of millions of years are being rapidly depleted by excessive exploration. In
addition, the burning of fossil fuels has caused and is causing damage to the environment of
Earth.

Alternative Energy Resources

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is
currently conceived is that which is produced or recovered without the undesirable consequences
inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor
in global warming.
Examples Includes:

Solar

Wind

Hydro
Geothermal

Biomass
Tidal

All of these are carbon free or actually carbon neutral, used almost exclusively to produce electricity

Solar Energy

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Lecture 19
According to well-established measurements, the
average power density of solar radiation just
outside the atmosphere of the Earth is 1366
W/m2, widely known as the solar constant. The
definition of the meter is one over 10,000,000 of
Earths meridian, from the North Pole to the
equator. This definition is still pretty accurate
according to modern measurements. Therefore,
the radius of Earth is (2/) 107m.
The total power of solar radiation reaching Earth
is then
Solar power = 1366 4/ 1014

1.73

Fig. 19.1: Solar Energy Concentration

1017 W.

Each day has 86,400 s, and on average, each year has 365.2422 days. The total energy of solar
radiation reaching Earth per year is
Annual solar energy = 1.73 1017 86400 365.2422

5.46 1024 J.

Or 5,460,000 EJ/year. To have an idea of how much energy that is, let us compare it with annual
global energy consumption. In the years 20052010, the annual energy consumption of the entire
world was about 500 EJ. A mere 0.01% of the annual solar energy reaching Earth can satisfy the
energy need of the entire world.

Solar Energy of Pakistan

Average power density on surface = 170
W/m2
Surface Area of Pakistan = 7.96 x 1011 m2
Total solar power incident on the Pakistan
= 135 TW
This is 6000 times the total Pakistan
power consumption
Fig. 19.2: Solar Energy Map of Pakistan

On average solar global insolation 57 kWh/m 2/day exists in the country over more than 95% of
its area with persistence factor of over 85% [23]. The South Western province of Balochistan
and North Eastern part of Sindh offer excellent conditions for harnessing solar energy where sun
shines between 7 and 8 h daily or approximately more than 23002700 h per annum. Despite the
favorable conditions, the use of solar energy for generating electricity or heating is still in its
beginnings. Mostly photovoltaic systems of generation capacity 100500 W/unit have been used

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Lecture 19

for producing electricity in a few rural areas. Alternate Energy Development Board (AEDB)
electrified approximately 3000 households with total PV power generation of 200 kW in districts
of Kohat (NWFP), D.G. Khan, Rawalpindi (Punjab), Tharparkar (Sindh), Turbat/Kalat
(Balochistan), etc. while providing 80 W panels with lighting system to each household. Pakistan
Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET) electrified more than 500 schools,
mosques, houses through PV power with total generation capacity of more than 80 kW.
The total installation appears to be much less than 1000 kW in PV and 10,000 solar thermal units
(all kind) in the country.

Solar Energy Systems

Three different methods are used to utilize solar energy

Solar Heating

Solar Thermal

Photovoltaic

Solar Heating

Produces heat for hot water

Black collector to maximize
absorption
Metal tubes circulating in thermal
contact with collector
Double-pane glass to trap energy
radiated by glass. The greenhouse
effect again.

Flat Panel Efficiency

Fig. 19.3: Solar Water Heater

Transmission through glass panes: 85%

Absorption by black sheet: 95%
Radioactive loss through double glass pane: 30%
Convective conductive losses: 10%
Total efficiency: 0.85 x 0.95 x 0.70 x 0.90 = 55%
Fig. 19.4: Example of Solar Water Heating System

Some Interesting Facts

In the early 1980s, high oil prices led the US government to offer tax credits for
installation of solar panels, so they were essentially free.
Many units were installed until the program was dropped in 1985.
Most were used to heat swimming pools.
In other parts of the world, solar water heaters are far more common.
o 95% of homes in Cypress
o 65% of homes in Israel

Solar Thermal
Concentrating Sunlight
A flat panel collector in the midday sun with 850 W/m 2 can only reach temperature of about 170
o
F. So cant use this to produce electricity with steam turbine and need to concentrate the Suns
energy.

Two approaches

Array of many mirrors to focus sunlight on a boiler

mounted on a tower
Set of dishes or troughs to focus sunlight onto pipes
carrying a heated fluid that is then pumped to a boiler.

A parabolic reflector brings all parallel rays to a common focus

Fig. 19.5: Solar Power Troughs

Concentration factors of a few thousand are achievable.

Temperatures of over 5000 oF can be achieved

The parabolic reflectors must be steered to
follow the Sun
Two axis steering (dish) is best
Temperature goes like fourth root of the
concentration factor
Recall the blackbody radiation law: power goes
like temperature to the fourth power
Fig. 19.6: Solar Power Tower

The Barstow Tower

1900 20 ft x 20 ft reflectors
Concentration factor of few thousand
10 MW of peak power produced with
less than 5 MW average power

Fig. 19.7: (a) The Barstow Tower, (b) The working principle

Solar Photovoltaic
A certain amount of energy is needed to move an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band. When this happens, a hole
absence of an electron is left in the valence band.
One way to get some electrons into the conduction is by thermal
(heat) energy. At a given temperature there will be a certain number
of electrons in the conduction band and the same number of holes in
the valence band. The higher the temperature the more there will be.

Fig. 19.8: Silicon Crystal Band Gap

If a photon of energy greater the band gap interacts with the silicon, it creates an electron-hole
pair. It puts an electron into the conduction band leaving a hole in the
valence band. This produces an electric current that can be used to light
lamps etc.
A solar cell is somewhat like a battery but different in working. A
battery puts out a constant voltage up to some maximum current. A
silicon photovoltaic puts out a current that is proportional to the
intensity of light shining on it up to a maximum voltage that for silicon
is about 0.6 V.

Fig. 19.9: Silicon Crystal Band Gap

Photon Excitation

Combining Cell Together

A single PV cell in sun act like a battery. Stack cell in series to get
useful power. A typical panel has 36 cells for about 21 V, but actually
drops to ~16V at maximum power which is well suited to charge 12 V
batteries.
Maximum efficiency of silicon is 23% with 54% loss as waste heat.
Efficiencies greater than 40% have been achieved by using multiple
layers of different materials, but are expensive.
Livingston Solar Farm

7000 solar panels

180 kW average power about 250 homes

Fig. 19.10: Solar Panel Configuration

10% of the Livingston Campus

300 tons of carbon savings per year
Cost: $10 million, levelized cost over 20 years:
32 cents per kWh

Area Needed to Power Pakistan

Current power requirement of Pakistan ~ 22,000 MW
Power Yield (~300 W/m2 in Baluchistan) ~ 45 W/m2
(15%)
Area needed = 500 km2

Fig. 19.11: Livingston Solar Farm