Introduction to Aerodynamics

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

P. Akbari, Ph.D.
Spring 2015, Columbia University

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

By end of this course you should be able to answer these questions:

Why are airplanes & wings, etc. shaped way they are?
How do we design such shapes and what is impact of that design?

Boeing 777
SR-71
U-2

F-15

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF AERODYNAMICS

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Road Map

Streamline
Streamtube

Steady flow
Unsteady flow

Viscid flow
Inviscid flow

Compressible flow
Incompressible flow

Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Streamline and Streamtube

Steady Flow: A flow that does not

fluctuate with time.
Unsteady Flow: A flow that varies with
time.

Streamline: set of points that form a line that is everywhere tangent to local
velocity vector.

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Streamtube
A1: cross-sectional
area
of stream tube at 1
V1: flow velocity
Normal (perpendicular)
to A1

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Conservation of Mass (often also called: Continuity)

m& 1 = 1 A1V1
m& 2 = 2 A2V2
m& 1 = m& 2

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Example: Given air flow through converging nozzle, what is exit area, A2?
p1=1.2x105 N/m2
T1=330 K
V1=10 m/s
A1= 5m2

p2=?
T2=?
V2=30 m/s
A2=?

If flow is assumed incompressible (1=2)

m& 1 = m& 2 = 1 A1V1 = 2 A2V2

A1V1 = A2V2
V1
10 5
A2 = A1 = 5 = = 1.67m 2
V2
30 3
Conservation of mass could also give velocity, V2, if A2 was known
Conservation of mass tells us nothing about p2, T2, etc.

Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

EXAMPLE: Streamlines and Streamtubes around Airfoils

Streamlines

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

More into Conservation of Mass

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Momentum Equation

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Bernoullis Equation for Incompressible Flow

One of most fundamental and useful equations

in aerospace engineering!

Bernoullis equation holds only for inviscid

(frictionless) and incompressible flows.
Bernoullis equation relates properties
between different points along a streamline.
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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

SUMMARY OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS STEADY AND INVISCID FLOW

Incompressible flow of fluid along a

streamline or in a stream tube of
varying area
Most important variables: p and V

Compressible, isentropic
(adiabatic and frictionless)
flow along a streamline or
in a stream tube of varying
area
T, p, , and V are all
variables

A1V1 = A2V2

continuity

1
1
2
p1 + V1 = p2 + V22
2
2 Bernoulli

continuity

1 A1V1 = 2 A2V2

isentropic
energy

equation of state
at any point

p1 1 T1 ( 1)
= =
p2 2 T2
1 2
1 2
c pT1 + V1 = c pT2 + V2
2
2
p1 = 1 RT1
p2 = 2 RT2

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Given air flow through converging nozzle, what is exit pressure, p2?

p2 = ?
T2 = ?
V2 = 30 m/s
A2 = 1.67 m2

p1 = 1.2x105 N/m2
T1 = 330 K
V1 = 10 m/s
A1 = 5 m2

Since flow speed < 100 m/s assume flow is incompressible (

1=
2)
p1
1.2 x105
kg
1 =
=
= 1.27 3
RT1 (287 )(330 )
m
1
1
2
2
5
2
2
5 N
p2 = p1 + V1 V2 = 1.2 x10 + (1.27 ) 10 30 = 1.195 x10 2
2
2
m

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

1
p + V 2 = p0 = pt Total pressure
2
Static pressure

Dynamic Pressure (q)

In aerodynamics, two types of pressure: Static and Total (Stagnation)

Static Pressure, p
Due to random motion of gas molecules
Pressure we would feel if moving along with the flow
Pressure in Bernoullis equation is static pressure
Total (Stagnation) Pressure, p0 or pt
Property associated with flow motion
Total pressure at a given point in a flow is the pressure that would exist if the
flow were slowed down isentropically to zero velocity.
The process of isentropically bringing the fluid element to rest is just an
imaginary mental process we use to define the total pressure. It does not
mean that we actually have to do it in practice.

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Bernoullis
Applications
Measures total pressure
Open at A, closed at B
Gas stagnated (not moving)
anywhere in tube
Gas particle moving along
streamline C will be isentropically
brought to rest at point A, giving
total pressure

SKETCH OF A
PITOT TUBE
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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Point A: Static Pressure, p

Surface is parallel to flow, so
only random motion of gas is
measured

Point B: Total Pressure, p0

Aligned parallel to flow, so
particles are isentropically
decelerated to zero velocity

A combination of p0 and p allows

us to measure V1 at a given point

V1 =

2( p 0 p )

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Standard Atmosphere

Appendix D of your
text book has listed all
values. Read pages
58-61 for equations
and discussion.
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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Airflow around an airfoil will form

two streamtubes over the airfoil and
some under it. On top, as area in the
stremtube decreases due to the
surface curvature, airflow velocity
(dynamic
pressure)
increases
according
to
the
continuity
equation. Thus, static pressure
decreases according to Bernolullis
equation. When pressure on top is
lower than pressure on bottom
surface, lift is generated. Thus, lift is
due to imbalance of pressure
distribution over top and bottom
surfaces of airfoil (or wing).

With lower pressure over upper surface

and slightly higher pressure over
bottom surface, airfoil feels a net force
in upward direction >> Lift

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Most of lift is produced in first 2030% of wing (just downstream of

leading edge) where the flow
pressure reduces significantly

Pressure
always
acts
normal to the surface,
hence, arrows representing
surface pressure are all
locally perpendicular to the
surface.

Schematic pressure distribution around the airfoil surface.

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

AOA = 2

Small Lift & Drag Forces

AOA = 20

Large Lift & Drag Forces

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

Bernoullis Equation At High Speed
As discussed, the Bernoullis equation is used for low-speed flow
where the compressibility effect is ignored. At high speeds, the
compressibility effect is represented by an important non-dimensional
number called Mach Number. It is defined by:

Flow Speed V
V
M=
= =
Sound Speed a
RT
It can be shown that the Bernoullis equation in its general format is
expressed by:

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

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Lecture # 1: Fundamental Principles

No Homework this Week, But

1) Study Chapter 2 (pages 103-185)
2) Study Chapter 3 (pages 203-229). Make sure you review
the examples solved in this section.
3) Then review the article I will post to Courseworks,
reviewing governing equations for aerodynamics.
Some of the materials might not be familiar and you
can skip them. Over the course of the semester, we will
discuss and use most of materials described in this
article.

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