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Lecture 10
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Introduction to Aircraft Stability

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

234

What is Stability?
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

So far in this class weve looked at aircraft


performance. Performance is governed by
forces that affect aircraft translational
motion.
Now were going to be discussing the
stability and control of aircraft. Stability
mostly involves the aircraft moments and
affects the aircrafts rotation.

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

235

Static Stability
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Static stability exists if the forces and moments on the body


caused by a disturbance tend initially to return the body toward
its equilibrium position.

Statically stable

Neutral stability

Statically unstable
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

236

Dynamic Stability
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Dynamic stability exists if the body eventually returns, and remains at,
its equilibrium position over a period of time.
Static Stability necessary but not sufficient condition for dynamic stability

Dynamically stable

Dynamically unstable

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

237

What is Control?
MAE 154S

Control describes the


aircrafts ability to change
from one equilibrium point
to another, or to produce
accelerated motions,
maneuvers, etc.

Fall 2014

Image Courtesy of USAF

Adequate controllability
must be available for
takeoff, landing and other
maneuvers in flight.

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

238

Controllability vs. Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

High stability tends to


reduce controllability
As stability goes to zero,
controllability goes to
infinite.

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

239

Longitudinal Static Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

For this lecture, we will focus on longitudinal static


stability, which is governed by the pitching moments
generated by the two lifting surfaces and how they
vary with respect to angle of attack.
Lw
lt

lw

Lt

it

MAC
t

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

240

Longitudinal Static Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

MCG: pitch moment about cg

MCG=0

trim

When flying at the trim angle of


attack, the pitching moment about
the CG is zero.

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

241

Longitudinal Static Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

MCG: pitch moment about cg

>trim

MCG < 0

If the aircraft is disturbed from its trim


condition to a higher angle of attack, a
statically stable aircraft will have a
pitch-down moment to restore it to the
trim value.
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

242

Longitudinal Static Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

MCG: pitch moment about cg

MCG > 0

<trim

If the aircraft is disturbed from its trim


condition to a lower angle of attack, a
statically stable aircraft will have a
pitch-up moment to restore it to the
trim value.
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

243

Stability Criteria
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

For longitudinal stability the moment curve slope must be


negative:
And for trimmed
flight (MCG=0), we
need CM,0 to be
greater than
zero.

CM cg

MCG

<0
Unstable

trim
Stable
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

244

Longitudinal Static Stability


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Lw
lt

lw

Lt

it

MAC

ct

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

245

Moment due to Wing


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

When calculating the total aircraft pitching moment about the


center of gravity, we first look at the wing:
Moment about wing aerodynamic center (independent of AoA)
Lift and drag forces multiplied by the moment distance between
AC and CG location.
Lw
hac,w: distance from leading
edge to A.C divided by the
chord length.

lw

hcg: distance from the wing


leading edge to the CG
divided by the chord length

MAC,w

hac w c

Assume small angles


Assume z CG offset is
small

zc

Dw

hcg c

M cg w = M ac w + Lw ( hcg c hac w c ) cos + Dw ( hcg c hac w c ) sin + Lw zc sin Dw zc cos

M cg w = M ac w + Lw hcg c hac w c

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

246

Moment Coefficient due to Wing


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Just as with lift and drag, it is often useful to work with nondimensional terms.

CL =

L
qSw

CM =

M
qSwc

CM is similar to CL and CD except an extra term, a reference


length, is needed to make it non-dimensional. The reference
length is the wing chord length.

M cg w = M ac w + Lw ( hcg c hac w c )

CLw = aw
CLw
aw =

CM cg,w = CM acw + CLw ( hcg hac w )

CM cg,w = CM ac + aw ( hcg hac w )

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

247

Moment due to Tail


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

We find the moment on the tail the same way as the wing, except we
usually can neglect Mac,t.

M cg t = M ac t Lt lt cos( ) + Dt lt sin( ) + Lt zt c sin( ) Dt zt c cos( )

Simplifying leads to:

When putting it in non-dimensional, coefficient form, note that we still


use the wing area and chord length. This is so we can later sum up
the various moment coefficients components when computing total

moment on aircraft.

CM cg,t

M cg t lt Lt

M cg t

lt Lt
=
=
qSwc
qSwc

Lt
CL t =
qSt

The pitching moment due to the tail is determined by the tail lift
coefficient and the tail volume ratio. The tail volume ratio captures the
relative sizes and moment arms between the wing and tail.

CM cg,t

lt St Lt
lt St
=
=
CL t
c Sw qSt
c Sw
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

Tail volume ratio

VH =

lt St
c Sw
248

Moment due to Tail (cont.)


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Tail lift coefficient similar to wing, except the local angle of


attack at the tail generally is not the same as the wings.
Downwash induced by wing reduces tail AoA.
Physical alignment of wing and tail may be different.
it: Angle of incidence of tail

t = (1 ) it
CLt = at t

CLt = at (1 ) at it

at CL ,t
(tail lift curve slope)

Plugging the lift coefficient expression into the moment

equation:

CM cg,t = V H CLt = V H at (1 ) + atV H it


D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

Note that atVH it term does


not depend on AoA..
249

Total Moment about CG


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

We now add up the wing and tail contributions to


obtain the total pitching moment coefficient about
the CG.

CM cg = CM cg,w + CM cg,t

CM cg = CM ac + CLw ( hcg hac w ) V H CLt


CM cg

at
= aw ( hcg hac w ) V H
(1 ) + CM ac + VH at it
aw

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

250

Total Moment about CG (cont.)


MAE 154S

We can group the terms


into those that vary with
AoA and those
that are independent of
AoA.

CM cg = CM 0 +

CM cg

Fall 2014

XB-35 - Image Courtesy of USAF

CM 0 = CM ac + V H at it

CM0 must be positive, so


whats that say about it?
Partial derivative of
moment with respect to
angle of attack:

at
= aw hcg hac w V H
1 )
(

aw

CM cg

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

251

Neutral Point
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

For static stability:


CM cg

<0

Similar to the aerodynamic center for an airfoil, a CG


location exists for an aircraft about which the
moment isconstant, independent of AoA. This
location is known as the aircrafts neutral point.
Neutral point: CG location where

CM cg

=0

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

252

Finding the Neutral Point


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

To find the neutral point, we need to solve for the cg


location that leads to a zero change in moment with
a change in angle of attack.
CM cg

at
=0
0 = aw hcg hac w V H
1 )
(

aw

However, since tail volume, VH , varies with the CG


location, we need rewrite it in terms of tail location
and CG location before we solve for the neutral

point.

lt St
VH =
c Sw

lt
= hac t hcg
c

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

V H = hac t hcg

St
Sw
253

Finding the Neutral Point


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Substituting in the terms for the tail volume ratio, we can


rewrite the derivative of the moment equation as:

St at
= aw ( hcg hac w ) ( hac t hcg )
(1 )

S w aw

CM cg

The neutral point location, (hn = xn/c), is the CG location where


the derivative is zero, so:

St at
0 = aw ( hn hac w ) ( hac t hn )
(1 )
Sw aw

Solving for hn, we get:

St at
(1 )
Sw aw
St at
1+
(1 )
S w aw

hac w + hac t

hn =

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

254

Static Margin
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

For static stability, the CG location must be located ahead of the


neutral point
hn > hcg
(hn-hcg) is the static margin. Note that h is a fraction of the chord length, so
static margin is non-dimensional.

Neutral
Point

hcg c

hn c
CM

CM cg
=
= CL ( hcg hn ) = CL ( hn hcg )

D.Toohey
- University of California, Los Angeles

255

Trimmed flight
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

An aircraft is in trim when L = W and MCG = 0


For both conditions to exists, the MCG must be zero at an angle
of attack where L = W is achievable.
For a conventional aircraft
(wing in front, tail in back)
that is statically stable,
the moment at
MCG
zero AoA must be
positive so the moment line
crosses zero at a
positive AoA.

Unstable

trim
Stable

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

256

Longitudinal Control
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

The greater stability, the greater the control power


that is required to disturb an aircraft from its state of
trim.
Some modern aircraft (especially fighters) are unstable and
rely upon electronic flight control systems to provide
stability. This makes them more maneuverable, but even
these aircraft require sufficient control power to maneuver.

2 parts to control
Trimmed flight
Maneuvering

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

257

Longitudinal Control
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

What is the longitudinal control required to change from one


trimmed state to another?
To go from a trimmed state with AoA, 1, to another at 2, the
velocities must be different since L1 = L2.

V1 2
2 = 1
V2
For trimmed condition, moments must also be zero.

CM 01 + CM 1 = 0

CM 02 + CM 2 = 0

CM 0 = V H it at + CM ac

Solving for the incidence angle, we get

it =

CM + CM ac

V H at

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

258

Tail incidence in terms of Lift Coefficients


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

The total lift is given as

St
St
L = qSW aw + at
1 ) at
it
(
Sw
SW


We can split up the lift into a constant lift term and a
term that is proportional to AoA.

L = qS (CL + CL0 )

L = qSCL
CL

St
= aw + at
(1 )
Sw

St
CL0 = at
it
Sw

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

259

Tail incidence in terms of Lift Coefficients


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

If the tail incidence can vary, then we can express


the total lift and moment coefficients as:
Note: CL0
assumed to
be small

CL = CL + CLi it

CM = CM ac + CM + CM i it

St
CLi = at
Sw
CM i = atV H

Note
that a positive incidence angle leads to a
negative lift, so the CLi is negative

incidence angle for trim can


be written as:
The

it =

CM ac CL + CM CL
CL CM i CM CLi
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

260

Elevator to Trim
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Note: Cm,0 combines


Cm,ac and moment due to
tail incidence.

CM 0 = V H it at + CM ac

For stabilizer/elevator systems, a similar equation can be

developed based on elevator


deflection.

Cm = 0 = Cm 0 + Cm + Cme e
For trim, L=W:

e =

e =

W
CL =
= CL + CLe e
qS
CM 0 CL + CM CL

CL CM e CM CLe

Cm 0 + Cm

Cme

CL CLe e
CL

(CL,0 assumed
small)

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

261

Measuring Neutral Point from Flight Tests


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

We can use the elevator to trim equation to estimate


the neutral point location
If we take its derivative, the elevator to trim leads to:
trim

CM
de
=
dCLtrim
CL CM e CM CLe

CL, trim

cg aft
cg
forward
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

cg mid
262

Measuring Neutral Point


MAE 154S

Neutral point is located where:


de,trim
dCLtrim

Fall 2014

de,trim
=0
dCLtrim

x cg
c

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

263

Elevator Hinge Moments


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Aero forces can produce a hinge moment on elevator.


Pilot can overcome this moment by exerting a force on the
control stick.
If pilot lets go of stick, elevator would float (deflect) to an angle
that has zero hinge moment.

Che = Ch0 + Ch t t + Ch e e + Ch t t

He

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

264

Stick Free Neutral Point


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

When control stick is free, the aircraft stability and control


characteristics are affected.
For a floating elevator, the hinge moment is zero:

Che = 0 = Ch t t + Ch e e

e free =

Ch t t
Ch e

Assuming it = 0, the lift on the tail with a free elevator is given


by:

CLt = at t + CLt, e free


e

Ch t

CL t = at t CL t, e C t
h
e

The tail lift curve slope is modified by the term in the


parentheses
CL C
CL C
h t
t, e
h t
t, e
'

= a't t
a
=
a
1

CL t = at t 1
t
t

at Ch
a
C
t
h e

e
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

= at f

265

Stick Free Neutral Point


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

The neutral point location can be approximated by:

hn hac w

at
+ VH
1 )
(
aw

We can use the modified tail lift curve slope to compute a new
neutral point location, the stick free neutral point:

hn' hac w

a't
+ VH
1 )
(
aw

Difference between stick fixed and stick free neutral point is


given by:

at
hn h (1 f )V H
1 )
(
aw
'
n

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

266

Stick Forces & Trim Tabs


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

To deflect a control
surface, pilot moves the
control stick (or rudder
pedals for yaw control).
Necessary stick force
depends on hinge
moment
For trim conditions, it is
desirable to zero out
hinge moments, otherwise
it might lead to pilot
fatigue for long flights.
Trim tabs are small
control surfaces that
reduce the hinge
moments

Trim tab on a Cessna 172

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

267

Stick Force Gradients


MAE 154S

Fall 2014

An important design consideration is the stick force gradient,


which measures the change in stick force as the aircraft
changes speed.
For speed stability, stick force gradient needs to be negative.
Assume an aircraft is in trim, and trim tabs have zeroed out the
stick force.
If the aircraft slows down, the stick force increases, which causes
a pitch down and increases the speed.
If the aircraft speeds up, the stick force decreases, causing the
nose to pitch up and reduces the speed.
Stick Force

Velocity

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

268

Directional Stability
MAE 154S

Weathercock or directional
stability is the static stability of the
airplane about the z-axis.

Fall 2014

Directional stability requires that a


positive change in sideslip angle
will cause a positive yaw moment.
Yaw Moment

N = CN qSb

N
= N > 0

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

269

Directional Stability
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Yawing moment due to fuselage


Usually has a negative yawing
moment when exposed to
positive side slip (unstable).

CN,

Yawing moment due to vertical


tail surface
Just as the lift acting on the
horizontal tail surface causes a
pitch down moment, the side
force acting on the vertical
surface due to positive side slip
causes a positive yawing moment
(restoring moment).

For directional stability

Cn v + Cn fw > 0

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

270

Directional Control
MAE 154S

Fall 2014

Directional control is achieved by deflecting the


rudder.
The yawing moment depends on the lift generated by
the vertical surface due to rudder deflection, as well
as the moment arm between the vertical surface and
center of gravity.

N = lv Lv

Lv = qSv av r

CN = Vv av
D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

271

References
MAE 154S

1.
2.
3.
4.

Fall 2014

McCormick, B.W., Aerodynamics, Aeronautics and Flight Mechanics,


2nd edition, Wiley & Sons, 1995
B.L. Stevens, F.L. Lewis, Aircraft Control and Simulation, John Wiley
& Sons, 1992
R.D Kimberlin, Flight Testing of Fixed-Wing Aircraft, AIAA Education
Series ,2003
E. Field, MAE 154S, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Department, UCLA, 2001

D.Toohey - University of California, Los Angeles

272

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