Concept:Electricity

Electricityisthescience,engineering,

technology,andphysicalphenomenaassociated
withthepresenceandflowofelectriccharges.Itis
partofelectromagnetismtheory.Itdealswiththe
charges.
Inelectricity,chargesproduceelectromagnetic
fields whichactonothercharges.

Section15.1

Concept:Electricity(Cont.)
Electricityoccursduetoseveraltypesofphysics:
Electriccharge:chargedparticlesinteractingeach
other
Electriccurrent:amovementofchargesparticles
Electricfield:electromagneticfield(produced
with/withoutchargeparticles)
Electricpotential:thecapacityofanelectricfiledto
doworkonanelectriccharge
Electromagnets:electricalcurrentsgenerate
magneticfields,andchangingmagneticfields
generateelectricalcurrent.
Section15.1

Concept:Electricity(Cont.)
Electricitygivesawidevarietyofwellknown
electricaleffects:
lightning
staticelectricity
electromagneticinduction
theflowofelectricalcurrentinanelectricalwire
electricitypermitsthecreationandreceptionof
electromagneticradiationssuchasradiowaves

Section15.1

Concept:Charge
Electricchargeisaproperty

ofcertainsubatomic
particleswhichgivesrisetoandinteractswiththe
electromagneticforce,oneofthefour
fundamentalforceofnature.

Chargegeneratesinthe

atom,inwhichitsmostfamiliar
carriersaretheelectrons and
protons.

Section15.1

PropertiesofElectricCharges
Twotypesofchargesexist
theyarecalledpositive andnegative
Naturesbasiccarrierofpositivecharge
proton (donotmovefromonematerialto
anotherbecausetheyareheldfirmlyinthenucleus).
Naturesbasiccarrierofnegativecharge
electron (farlighterthanprotonsandhencemore
easilyacceleratedbyforces).
Gainingorlosingelectronsishowanobjectbecomes
charged.
Section15.1

PropertiesofElectricCharges(cont.)

Interactionbetweencharges
Likechargesrepeloneanother
Unlikechargesattractoneanother
Section15.1

PropertiesofElectricCharges(cont.)
Electricchargeisalwaysconserved.
Chargecannotbecreated,only
exchanged
Objectsbecomechargedbecause
negativechargeistransferredfrom
oneobjecttoanother.
Objectslossnegativecharges(i.e.,
electrons)andhaveanetpositive
charges.
Objectsgainelectronsandhavea
net___?____charges.
Section15.1

PropertiesofElectricCharges(cont.)
Chargeisquantized(MillikanOilDropExperiment15.7).
Allchargeisamultipleofafundamentalunitof
charge,symbolizedbye(i.e.q=ne)
Quarksaretheexception(fractionalvaluesofe)
Electrons haveachargeofe
Protons haveachargeof+e
TheSI(SystemInternational)unitofchargeisthe
Coulomb (C)
e =1.6x1019 C
Section15.1

Conductors
Conductorsarematerialsinwhichtheelectric
chargesmovefreelyinresponsetoanelectric
force.
Copper,aluminumandsilveraregood
conductors.
Whenaconductorischarged inasmallregion,
thechargereadilydistributesitselfoverthe
entiresurfaceofthematerial.

Section15.2

Insulators
Insulatorsarematerialsinwhichelectriccharges
donotmovefreely.
Glassandrubberareexamplesofinsulators.
Wheninsulatorsarechargedbyrubbing,only
therubbedareabecomescharged.
Thereisnotendencyforthechargetomove
intootherregionsofthematerial.

Section15.2

Semiconductors
Thecharacteristicsofsemiconductorsare
between thoseofinsulatorsandconductors.
Siliconandgermaniumareexamplesof
semiconductors.

Section15.2

ChargingbyConduction
Acharged objectisplacedincontact
withanotherobject.
Whentherodisremoved,thesphere
isleftwithanetnegativecharge.
(why?)
Theobjectbeingchargedisalways
leftwithachargehavingthe same
signastheobjectdoingthecharging.
(why?)

Section15.2

ChargingbyInduction
Aneutral conducting spherehas
equalnumberofelectronsand
protons.(why?)
Thepositiveandnegativecharges
areuniformlydistributed.(why?)

Section15.2

ChargingbyInduction(cont.)
Anegativelychargedrubberrod
isbroughtnearanuncharged
sphere.Thechargesinthe
sphereareredistributed.(why?)
Thinkaboutifthesphereisaninsulator,can
electronsredistributewhenachargedrodis
broughtclose?(why?)

Section15.2

ChargingbyInduction(cont.)
Theregionofthespherenearest
thenegativelychargedrodhasan
excessofpositivechargebecause
ofthemigrationofelectronsaway
fromthislocation.(why?)
Agroundedconductingwire
isconnectedtothesphere.
Allowssomeofthe
electronstomovefrom
thespheretotheground
(why?)
Section15.2

ChargingbyInduction(cont.)
Whenanobjectisconnected
toaconductingwireorpipe
buriedintheearth,itissaidto
begrounded.
TheEarth canbeconsidered
aninfinitereservoirfor
electrons;ineffect,itcan
acceptorsupportanunlimited
numberofelectrons.

ChargingbyInduction(cont.)
Thewiretogroundisremoved,
thesphereisleftwithanexcess
ofinducedpositive charge
(why?)
Initially,thepositivechargeon
thesphereisnonuniformly
distributed.(why?)

Section15.2

ChargingbyInduction(cont.)
Eventually,theexcesspositive
chargebecomesevenlydistributed
duetotherepulsion betweenthe
positivecharges.(why?)
Thisprocessisknownasinduction.
Chargingbyinduction requiresno
contactwiththeobjectinducingthe
charge.
Doesthechargedrubberrodlose its
negativecharge?Why?
Section15.2

Polarization
Inmostneutralatomsor
molecules,thecenterof
positive chargecoincides
withthecenterofnegative
charge.
Inthepresenceofachargedobject,thesecenters
mayseparateslightly.
Thisresultsinmorepositivechargeononesideof
themoleculethanontheotherside
Section15.2

Polarization
Thisrealignmentof
chargeonthesurface
ofaninsulatoris
knownaspolarization.
Thechargedobject
induces chargeonthe
surface oftheinsulator.

Section15.2

TipsforSolvingPhysicalProblems
Readtheproblemandformaquickpicture.
Readtheproblemagain,slowly,andlookforhidden
information,aswellaswhatisreallybeingasked.
Writedownallgiveninformation.
Drawasketch.
Figureouttheimportantinformationforgettingfrom
whatyouknowtowhatyouwanttoknow.
Attack!
Checkyouranswerforreasonability.

CoulombsLaw(Cont.)
Coulombshowsthatanelectric
forcehasthefollowingproperties:
Itisdirectedalongtheline
joiningthetwoparticles
Itisinverselyproportional
tothesquare ofthe
separationdistance,r,
betweenthem

Section15.3

G
F

r
q1

G
1
Fe 2 r
r

q2

CoulombsLaw(Cont.)
Itisproportionaltotheproduct ofthemagnitudes
ofthecharges,|q1|and|q2|onthetwoparticles
G
q1 q2
Fe
r
2
r

Itisattractive ifthechargesareofoppositesigns
andrepulsive ifthechargeshavethesamesigns
G
q1 q2
Fe
r
2
r

for q1q2 > 0

G
q1 q2
Fe 2 r
r

for q1q2 < 0

Section15.3

CoulombsLaw(Cont.)
Mathematically,

G
q1 q 2
Fe = k e 2 r
r

ke iscalledtheCoulombConstant
ke =8.9875x109 Nm2/C2 (SI)
Typicalcharges(q1 andq2)canbeintheC(106C)
range
Remember,Coulombs mustbeusedinthe
equation
Rememberthatforceisavector quantity

Section15.3

CoulombsLaw(Cont.)
Appliesonlytopointchargesandspherical
distributionsofcharges
r isthedistance betweenthetwocentersof
charge
G
q1 q 2
Fe = k e 2 r
r

Electrostaticforces:electric forcesbetween
unmovingcharges
Movingchargescreatemagneticforces(Ch.19)

Section15.3

CharacteristicsofParticles

Section15.3

VectorNatureofElectricForces
Twopointchargesare
separatedbyadistance r
Thelikechargesproducea
repulsive forcebetween
them
Theforceonq1 isequal in
magnitudeandopposite in
directiontotheforceonq2
(why?)
G
q1 q 2
F12 = k e
r
2
r

G
G
F12 = F21

Section15.3

VectorNatureofForces(Cont.)
Theunlikechargesproduce
anattractiveforcebetween
them
Theforceonq1 isequalin
magnitudeandoppositein
directiontotheforceonq2
r

G
q1 q 2
F12 = k e
r
2
r
G
G
F12 = F21
Section15.3

ElectricalForcesareFieldForces
Thisisthesecondexampleofafieldforce.
Gravitywasthefirst
Forafieldforce,theforceisexertedbyoneobjecton
anotherobjecteventhoughthereisnophysical
contactbetweenthem.
Thefiledforcedirectsalongthelineconnectingthe
twobodies.
Therearesomeimportantsimilarities and
differencesbetweenelectricalandgravitational
forces.

Section15.3

ElectricalForceComparedtoGravitationalForce
G
q1 q 2
Fe = k e 2 r
r12

G
m1m2
Fg = G 2 r
r12

Bothareinversesquarelaws.
Themathematicalformofbothlawsisthesame.
Masses (m1,m2)replacedbycharges(q1,q2)
G replacedbyke
Electricalforcescanbeeither attractiveor repulsive.
Gravitationalforcesarealways attractive.
Electrostaticforceisstronger thanthegravitational
force.
Section15.3

TheSuperpositionPrinciple
Whenanumberofseparatechargesactonthe
chargeofinterest,eachexertsanelectricforce.
Theseelectricforcescanallbecomputedseparately,
oneatatime,thenadded asvectors.Thisisanother
exampleofthesuperpositionprinciple.

Section15.3

TheSuperpositionPrinciple(Cont.)
Theresultantforceonanyonechargeequalsthe
vectorsumoftheforcesexertedbytheother
individualchargesthatarepresent.
Findtheelectricalforcesbetweenpairsofcharges
separately
Thenaddthevectors
Remembertoaddtheforcesasvectors
G
G
G
G
Ftotal = F12 + F13 + F14 + ...

Section15.3

SuperpositionPrincipleExample
Theforceexertedbyq1 on
G
q3 is F13
Theforceexertedbyq2
G
q
<
q
()onq
2
1
3 is F23
Thetotalforce exertedon
G
F13
q3 isthevectorsumof
G
and F23
G
G
G
F = F13 + F23

Section15.3

SuperpositionPrincipleExample(Cont.)
Step1: FG = k q1 q3
13
e
2
r13

G
F13 = F13 x i + F13 y j

r23

F13 x = F13 cos 36.9D

r13

F13 y = F13 sin 36.9D

Step2: G

q2 q3
F23 = ke
r232

G
F23 = F23 x i + F23 y j

F23 x = F23 cos180D

F23 y = F23 sin180D

Section15.3

SuperpositionPrincipleExample
Step3: G

G
G
F = F13 + F23 = F13 x i + F13 y j + F23 x i + F23 y j

) (

= ( F13 x + F23 x ) i + ( F13 y + F23 y ) j = Fx i + Fy j

G
F =

G
F
Fy

Fx + F
2

2
y

Fx

= tan

Fy

F
x

Section15.3

ProblemSolvingStrategyforElectricForce
Draw adiagramofthechargesintheproblem.
Identify thechargeofinterest.
Youmaywanttocircleit
Units ConvertallunitstoSI.
Needtobeconsistentwithke
G
q1 q 2
Fe = k e 2 r
r
ke:8.9875x109 Nm2/C2 (SI)
q1,q2:Coulomb(C)
r:meter(m)
F:Newton(N)
Section15.3

ProblemSolvingStrategyforElectricForce
(Cont.)
G
q1 q 2
Fe = k e 2 r
r

ApplyCoulombsLaw.
Foreachcharge,findtheforceonthechargeof
interest.
Determinethedirectionoftheforce.
Thedirectionisalwaysalongthelineofthetwo
charges.
Sumallthex andy components.
Thisgivesthex andycomponentsofthe
resultantforce
Findtheresultantforce byusing thePythagorean
theoremandtrigonometry.
Section15.3

ElectricalField
Faradaydevelopedanapproachtodiscussingthe
electrical field.
Anelectricfieldissaidtoexistinthewholespace
centered atachargedobject.
Whenanotherchargedobjectentersthiselectric
field,thefieldexertsaforce onthesecond
chargedobject.
Electricfieldexistindependent oftheexistenceof
thesecondcharge.

Section15.4

ElectricField(Cont.)
Achargedparticle,with
chargeQ,calledthesource
charge,producesan
electricfieldE intheregion
ofspacearoundit.
Asmalltestcharge,qo,
placedinthefield,will
experienceaforce.
Section15.4

ElectricField(Cont.)
G
F
1 Qq0
E = ke 2
q0 q0
r

Mathematically, G

r = ke 2 r
r

SIunit:N/C
Usethisforthemagnitudeofthefield
Theelectricfieldisavectorquantity
Thedirectionofthefieldisdefinedtobethe
directionoftheelectricforce thatwouldbeexerted
onasmallpositive test chargeplacedatthatpoint.
Electricforceandelectricfield,

G
G
Qq0
Q
F = k e 2 r = q0 k e 2 r = q0 E
r
r
Section15.4

DirectionofElectricField
Theelectricfieldproduced
byanegative chargeis
directedtoward the
charge.
Apositivetestcharge
wouldbeattracted to
thenegativesource
charge.

Section15.4

DirectionofElectricField(Cont.)
Theelectricfieldproduced
byapositive chargeis
directedawayfromthe
charge.
Apositivetestcharge
wouldberepelled from
thepositivesource
charge.

Section15.4

ElectricField,DirectionSummary

Section15.4

MoreAboutaTestChargeandTheElectricField
Thetestchargeisrequiredtobeasmallcharge.
Itcancausenorearrangementofthechargeson
thesourcecharge.
Mathematically,thesizeofthetestchargemakes
nodifference.
Usingqo =1Cisconvenient
Theelectricfieldexists whetherornotthereisatest
chargepresent.

Section15.4

ProblemSolvingStrategyforElectricFields
CalculateElectricFieldsofpointcharges.
Usetheequationtofindtheelectricfielddueto
thesourcecharges.
Thedirection isgivenbythedirectionoftheforce
onapositivetestcharge.
Equation:G

G F
Q
E
= k e 2 r
q0
r

Magnitude:

G
Q
E = ke 2
r

Direction:
alongforQ>0
r
oppositeforQ<0
r

Section15.4

ElectricFieldLines
G
E2

G
E1

G
Q
E = k e 2 r
r

+
Q

p1 G
E3

p3

Sourcecharge

p2

p4

G
E4

Aconvenientaidforvisualizing electricfieldpatterns
istodrawlines pointinginthedirection ofthefield
vectoratanypoint.
Theselinesarecalledelectricfieldlinesandwere
introducedbyMichaelFaraday.
Section15.5

ElectricFieldsandSuperpositionPrinciple
Thesuperpositionprincipleholdswhencalculating
theelectricfieldduetoagroupofcharges.
Drawadiagramofthechargesintheproblem.
Identify thechargeofinterest.
Findthefieldsduetotheindividualcharges.
Add themasvectors:
G
G
G
G
E total = E1 + E 2 + E 3 + ...

= ( E1 x + E 2 x + E 3 x + ... ) i + ( E1 y + E 2 y + E 3 y + ... ) j

Usesymmetry wheneverpossibletosimplifythe
problem.
Section15.4

Electric FieldDuetoTwoPointCharges
Findthemagnitudeand
thedirectionoftheelectric
fieldatpointP producedby
twocharges,q1>0,q2<0on
thexaxis.
Draw adiagramofthecharges

intheproblem.
Identify thechargeofinterest.

Section15.4

Electric FieldDuetoTwoPointCharges
Usetheequationforthe
electricfieldduetoindividual
chargeq1andq2:
G
q
E1 = ke 12 r1 ;
r1

G
q
E1 = E1 = ke 12
r1

Direction:along(i.e.ydirection)
r1
G
q2
E2 = ke 2 r2 (q2 < 0);
r2

G
q2
E2 = E2 = ke 2
r2

Direction:alongtheopposite
r2
directionof
Section15.4

r1

r1

r2

r2

Electric FieldDuetoTwoPointCharges(Cont.)
Findthex andycomponentsofE1
andE2usingthetriangleinthefigure
(blackdashlines):

E1y
E2x

E1x = E1 cos(90D ) = 0
E1 y = E1 sin(90D ) = E1

E2y

E2 x = E2 cos( ) = E2 cos
E2 y = E2 sin( ) = E2 sin
cos =

0.300m
0.400m
= 0.600; sin =
= 0.800
0.500m
0.500m

Section15.4

r1

r1

r2

r2

Electric FieldDuetoTwoPointCharges(Cont.)
Sumthex andycomponentsofthe

resultantfield:

Ex = E1x + E2 x
E y = E1 y + E2 y

UsethePythagoreantheoremto
findthemagnitudeoftheresultant
field:
E =

Ey
Ex

E x2 + E y2

Usetheinversetangentfunction
yieldsthedirectionoftheresultant
Ey
field:
1
= tan

E
x

Section15.4

r1

r1

r2

r2

ElectricFieldLines
Aconvenientaidforvisualizing electricfield
patternsistodrawlinespointinginthe
directionofthefieldvectoratanypoint.
Theselinesarecalledelectricfieldlinesand
wereintroducedbyMichaelFaraday.

Section15.5

RulesforDrawingElectricFieldLines
Thefieldlinesarerelatedtothefieldinthefollowing
manners:
Theelectricfieldvector,,istangent tothe
electricfieldlinesateachpoint.
Thenumberoflinesperunit areathrougha
surfaceperpendicular tothelinesisproportional
tothestrength oftheelectricfieldinagiven
region.
islarge/strong whenthefiledlinesareclose
togetherandsmall/weak whenthelinesarefar
apart.
Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:PointCharge
Forapositive sourcecharge,the
lineswillradiateoutward(why?).
NotethatThistwodimensional
drawingcontainsonlythefiled
linesthatlie intheplane
containingthepointcharge.
Thelinesareactuallydirected
radicallyoutwardfromthe
chargeinalldirections.

Section15.5

G
G
F = q0 E

q0>0

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:PointCharge(Cont.)
Foranegative source
charge,thelineswill
pointinward.
Thelinesareradialand
extendallthewayto
infinity.

Section15.5

RulesforDrawingElectricFieldLines(Cont.)
Thelinesforagroupofchargesmustbeginon
positivechargesand endon negativecharges.
Inthecaseofanexcess ofcharge,somelineswill
beginorendinfinitelyfaraway(why?).
Thenumberoflinesdrawnleavingapositivecharge
orendingonanegativechargeisproportional tothe
magnitudeofthecharge(why?).
Notwofieldlinescancross eachother(why?).
G
G F
Q
E
= k e 2 r
q0
r

Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges
Anelectricdipole consistsof
twoequal andopposite
charges.
Usethesuperposition
principle toobtainthetotal
electricfieldofthedipoleat
anypointinthespace.

E=E++E
P
E+

E r
r+
P

Drawlinesstartingfromthepositivechargeandending
tothenegativecharge,keepingtheelectricfieldbeing
thetangent ofthelines.
Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges
Thehighdensityoflines
betweenthechargesindicates
thestrong electricfieldinthis
region.
Thenumberoflinesthatbegin
atthepositivechargemust
equal thenumberthat
terminateatthenegative
charge(why?)

Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges(Cont.)
Twoequalbutlikepointcharges
Usethesuperpositionprinciple
toobtainthetotalelectricfield
ofthedipoleatanypointinthe
space.

r1

r2

Drawlinesstartingfromthepositivechargeand
endingtotheinfinity,keepingtheelectricfield
beingthetangent ofthelines.

Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges(Cont.)
Atagreatdistancefromthe
charges,thefieldwouldbe
approximatelythatofasingle
chargeof2q(why?)
Thebulgingoutofthefieldlines
betweenthechargesindicates
therepulsion betweenthe
charges.
Thelowfieldlinesbetweenthe
chargesindicatesaweakfieldin
thisregion.
Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges(Cont.)
Unequalandunlike charges
Thenumberoflinesleaving
charge+2q istwice thenumber
terminatingonchargeq
(why?).
Henceonlyhalf ofthelines
thatleavethepositivecharge
endatthenegativecharge
(why?)
Inthecaseofanexcess of
charge,somelineswillbeginor
endinfinitelyfaraway.
Section15.5

ElectricFieldLinePatterns:TwoCharges(Cont.)
Atagreatdistancefromthe
charges,thefieldwouldbe
equivalenttothatofasingle
charge+q (why?).
Answerthequestion:Notwo
fieldlinescancross eachother.
P

G
E1

G
E2

Section15.5

ElectricFieldLines,Final
Theelectricfieldlinesarenot material
objects.
Theyareusedonlyasapictorial
representation oftheelectricfieldat
variouslocations.

Section15.5

ConductorsinElectrostaticEquilibrium
Whennonetmotionofchargeoccurswithina
conductor,theconductorissaidtobein
electrostaticequilibrium.
Conductors:electronsmovefreelyinresponsetoan
electricforce.
Questionsaskourselves:howtheelectrons
distributed?Howtheelectricfieldinside/outsidethe
conductor?
Anisolatedconductorhasthefollowingproperties:
Section15.6

Property1
Theelectricfieldiszeroeverywhere
inside theconductingmaterial.
Considerifthiswerenot true
Iftherewereanelectricfield
insidetheconductor,thefree
chargetherewouldmoveand
therewouldbeaflowofcharge
(why?).
Iftherewereamovementof
charge,theconductorwould
notbeinequilibrium.
Section15.6

Property2
Anyexcesschargeonanisolated
conductorresidesentirelyonits
surface.
Adirectresultofthe1/r2 repulsion
betweenlikechargesinCoulombs
Law
Ifsomeexcessofchargecouldbe
placedinsidetheconductor,the
repulsiveforceswouldpush themas
farapartaspossible,causingthemto
migratetothesurface.
Section15.6

Property3
Theelectricfieldjustoutside a
chargedconductorisperpendicular
totheconductorssurface.
Considerwhatwouldhappenif
thiswasnottrue.
Thecomponentalongthesurface
wouldcause thechargetomove.
Itwouldnotbeinequilibrium.

Section15.6

Property4
Onanirregularly shapedconductor,thecharge
accumulatesatlocationswheretheradiusof
curvatureofthesurfaceissmallestorthecurvature
is largest (thatis,atsharppoints).

Section15.6

Property4(Cont.)
ConsideraconductorthatisfairlyflatatoneendA

andrelativelypointedattheotherendB.
Anyexcess chargeplacedontheconductormoves
toitssurface.

Section15.6

Property4(Cont.)
Theforces betweentwosuchchargesattheflatter
endarepredominantlydirectedparalleltothe
surface,sothechargesmoveapartuntilrepulsive
forcesfromothernearbychargesestablishan
equilibrium.

Section15.6

Property4(Cont.)
Atthesharp end,therepulsiveforces aredirected
predominantlyawayfromthesurface.Astheresult,
thereisless tendencyforthechargestomoveapart
along thesurface.

Section15.6

Property4(Cont.)
Thecumulative effectofmanysuchoutwardforces
fromnearbychargesatthesharp endproducea
largerresultantforceawayfromthesurface that
canbegreatenoughtocausechargestoleapfrom
thesurfaceintothesurroundingair.

Section15.6

FaradayCageproperty 12
AFaradaycage orFaraday
shield isanenclosureformed
byconductingmaterialorbya
meshofsuchmaterial.Suchan
enclosureblocks externalstatic
andnonstaticelectricfields.
Driversafetyduringelectrical
storm duetothe factthat
chargesonthemetalshellof
thecarwillresideontheouter
surface ofthecar.
Section15.6

Faradaycage

Lightningrod property4
Ifthelightningrodhavingsharppointsisattachedtoa
house,mostofanychargeonthehousepasses
throughthesepoints,eliminating theinduced charge
onthehouseproducedbystormclouds.
Stormclouds

Lightningrod
Section15.6

Lightningrod property4(Cont.)
Alightningdischarge strikingthehousepasses
throughthemetalrodandissafelycarriedtothe
groundthroughwiresleadingfromtherodtothe
Earth.
Stormclouds

SearsbuildinginChicago
Section15.6

MillikanOilDropExperiment

G
E

Oildropletsarecharged byfrictioninanatomizer
Ahorizontallightbeamisusedtoilluminatethe
dropletswhichareviewedbyatelescope.
Thedropletsappearasshiningstarsagainstadark
background,andtherateoffallofindividualdropscan
bedetermined
Section15.7

MillikanOilDropExperiment(Cont.)
Adropwithmassm and
negative chargeq
ifE=0,theretwoforcesacting
onthedrop:
thedownwardgravity,andthe
upwardviscousdragforce
Whenthedropreachesits
G
terminalspeed, v
G
G G
F = mg + D = 0
G
G
D = bv

Section15.7

MillikanOilDropExperiment(Cont.)
WhenE ison,therethree
forcesactingonthedrop:
thedownwardgravity,the
viscousdragforce(upwardor
downward?),andtheelectric
force(upwardordownward?)
Whenthedropreachesits
G'
newterminalspeed, v
G
G
G G'
F = mg + D + qE = 0
G'
G
D = bv '

Section15.7

MillikanOilDropExperiment(Cont.)
Thedropcanbefollowed
forhoursasitalternately
risesandfalls,simplyby
turningtheelectricfieldon
andoff.
Aftermaking measurementsonthousandsofdroplets,
Millikanandhiscoworkers found thateverydrophad
achargeequaltosomeintegralmultipleofthe
elementarychargee:
q=ne,n=0,1,2,3,
e=1.60x1019 C.
Chargeisquantized.Millikan wasawardedtheNobel
PrizeinPhysicsin1923
Section15.7

VandeGraaff Generator
Anelectrostatic
generatordesignedand
builtbyRobertJ.Vande
Graaff in1929
Extensivelyusedin
nuclearphysics research
Chargeistransferred to
thedomebymeansofa
rotatingbelt.
Anelectrostaticfieldis
established.

Positivelycharged
beltattract
electronsfrom
thedome

Positivelycharged
metallicneedles
attractelectrons
fromthebelt

Section15.8

Excesspositive
chargeonthe
dome

Motordrivenpulley

VandeGraaff Generator
Canweaccumulatechargesonthe
domesurfaceindefinitely?
Thestrengthofthe fieldbecomes
greaterenoughtopartiallyionize
theairnearthesurface,
increasingtheconductivity ofthe
air.Chargesonthedomenow
haveapathwaytoleakoffinto
theair.
Eventuallyanelectrostatic
dischargetakesplace, producing
somespectacularlightningbolts.
Section15.8

discharge

VandeGraaff Generator
Howtoinhibit theelectric
discharge?
Chargefindiseasiertoleapoffa
surfaceatpointswherethe
curvatureisgreat.Wecanincrease
itsradius toreducethecurvature
andtostoremorecharges
Placetheentiresystemina
containerfilledwithahigh
pressuregas, whichissignificantly
moredifficulttoionize.
Section15.8

discharge

ElectricFlux

Foraclosedsurface,thenumberoffieldlinespassintoorpass
outoftheclosedsurfaceonlydependsonthechargesinside the
surface,andisindependentofchargesoutsideofthesurface.

S1

S2

S4
S3

TherearenumbersoffieldlinespassingoutoftheclosedsurfaceS1
TherearenumbersoffieldlinespassingintotheclosedsurfaceS2
ThenumberoffieldlinespassingintotheclosedsurfaceS3 equaltothe
numberoflinespassingoutofS3
ThenumberoffieldlinespassingintotheclosedsurfaceS3 islessthanthe
numberoflinespassingoutofS4
Section15.9

ElectricFlux(Cont.)
Electricflux E isameasure
ofhowmuchtheelectric
fieldvectors penetrate
throughagivensurface.
Fieldlinespenetratingan
areaA perpendicular tothe
G
field, E = E N / A; N EA
Theproduct ofEA isthe
flux,E=EA

Section15.9

ElectricFlux(Cont.)
Ingeneral:
E =EA cos
Theperpendicular tothe
areaA isatanangleto
thefield. istheangle
G
E
betweenthefieldand
thenormaloftheareaA

Section15.9

ElectricFlux(Cont.)
Whentheareais
constructedsuchthata
closedsurfaceisformed,
usetheconventionthat
fluxlinespassingintothe
interiorofthevolume
arenegativeandthose
passingoutofthe
interiorofthevolume
arepositive.
SIunit:N. m/C
Section15.9

Gausss Law
Gaussslawisessentiallyatechnique
forcalculating theelectricfieldona
closed surfacewithhighsymmetry
Considerapointchargeq surrounded
byasphericalsurfaceofradiusr
centered onthecharge
Themagnitudeoftheelectricfield
everywhereonthesurface
E = ke

q
r2
Section15.9

G
E

Gausss Law
Theelectricfluxthroughthesurfaceis
E = EdA cos dA = EdA cos(0 )
D

= E dA = ke

q
2
4

r
= 4 ke q
(
)
2
r

Thisresultscanbeprovenforanyclosed
surfacethatsurroundsthechargeq.
E = 4 ke q =

o isthepermittivity offreespace and

equals8.85x1012 C2/Nm2,i.e.,
0 =

1
= 8.85 1012 C 2 / N m 2
4 ke
Section15.9

G
E

dA

Gausss Law(Cont.)
Gauss Lawstatesthattheelectricfluxthroughany
closedsurfaceisequaltothenetchargeQinsidethe
surfacedividedbyo

Theareainisanimaginarysurface,aGaussian
surface,itdoesnothavetocoincidewiththe
surfaceofaphysicalobject.

Section15.9

ApplicationsofGaussLaw
E =

G G Qinside
E dA =

Gaussian surface

Gaussslawisessentiallyatechniquefor
calculatingtheelectricfieldona
closed surfacewithhighsymmetry

Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSphericalShell
ApplyGaussslawtoaproblem
withspherical symmetry.

2Q

(a)Findtheelectricfieldintheinterior
oftheconductingshell forr <a
(b)Findtheelectricfieldoutside theshellforr >b
(c)Ifanadditionalchargeof2Q isplacedatthe
center,findtheelectricfieldforr >b
(d)Whatisthedistribution ofchargeonthesphere in
thiscase?
Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSphericalShell
(Cont.)
(a)Findtheelectricfieldintheinterior
oftheconductingshellforr <a
SelectaGaussiansurface:asphereinside
theshellwithr <a<b(dashedcircle).
UseGausslaw: inside = Qinside = 0

G
dA
G
Einside
Qinside = 0

G
onthesurface,
Einside

Assume
symmetry):
inside =

sphere

G
G
Einside dA =

isradially outward(spherical

G
G
G
D
Einside dA cos 0 = Einside

sphere

G
G
2
= Einside ( 4 r ) = 0 Einside = 0

sphere

Theelectricfieldinside theshell iszero.

Section15.9

G
dA

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSpherical
Shell(Cont.)
(b)Findtheelectricfieldoutside theshellforr >b
SelectaGaussian surface:asphere
outsidetheshellwithr >b(dashed
Q
Q
circle).UseGausslaw:
= outside =
0

outside

outside =

G
G
Eoutside dA =

sphere

G
G
Eoutside dA cos 0D

sphere

G
= Eoutside

G
G
Q
dA = Eoutside ( 4 r 2 ) =

sphere

Eoutside =

G
Eoutside

Q
4 0 r 2

Thefieldoutsidetheshellisidenticaltothatofa
pointchargeandpointsoutward.
Section15.9

G
dA

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSpherical
Shell(Cont.)
Supposetherearenegativecharges
ontheinnersurface,Qinner

Whynochargeon
theinnersurface?

ConsideraGaussiansurfaceinside
thehollowsphere:
E =

G
G
Einside dA =

Qinner

Einside = 0

G
Qinner
0 dA = 0 =

Property1:atthe
Qinner = 0
electrostaticequilibrium,
noelectricfieldinside
Nochargeontheinnersurface! theconductor
sphere

sphere

Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSphericalShell
(Cont.)
(c)Nowadditionalchargeof2Q isplacedatthecenter
ofthesphere.
ApplyingtheGaussslaw andassuming
Gausssurface
thefielddirectedoutward,the electric
fieldoutside theshellis

outside =

G G
G
Eoutside dA = Eoutside

Gauss surface

G
dA cos 0D

Gauss surface

G
Q
Q
+ Q 2Q + Q
= Eoutside 4 r 2 = total = center
=

Eoutside =

Q +
+

Direction:radially inward
Section15.9

+
b
r

+
+

G
dA

2Q
+

4 0 r 2

G
Eoutside

ElectricFieldofaChargedThinSphericalShell
(Cont.)
(d)Whatisthedistribution ofchargeonthesphere inthis
case?
ApplyingGaussslawfortheshella<r<b
G
(note:):
Einside shell = 0
inside shell

G
G
= Einside shell dA = 0 dA = 0

Qcenter + Qinner surface

=0

Qcenter + Qinner surface = 0

Qinner surface = Qcenter = (2Q ) = 2Q

Qouter surface + Qinner surface = Qshell = Q

Qouter surface = Q Qinner surface = Q 2Q = Q
Section15.9

Gausssurface
Q

+ + +

+
+
b
+
r +
2Q

+
+
a
+
+ + + +

Qouter surface

Qinner surface

ElectricFieldofaCharged(Uniform) CircularRing
Acircularringofchargeofradiusr hasatotalcharge
q(>0) uniformly distributedaroundit.Findtheelectric
dq1
fieldofinsidethering.
r
dq4

dE1 dE

dq3

dq2

E =

sphere

G
Ei 0

G G Q
Ei dAi = = 0

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BF3wEV4tWq8

ElectricFieldofaNonconducting PlaneSheetof
Charge
ApplyGaussslawtoaproblemwithplane symmetry.
Findtheelectricfieldaboveand
belowanonconducting infinite
planesheetofchargewith
uniform positivechargeperunit
area.

Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaNonconducting PlaneSheetof
Charge(Cont.)
Symmetryanalysis:
Thefieldmustbe
perpendicular tothesheet.
Thefieldisdirectedeither
toward oraway fromthe
sheet.
Thefieldisuniform.
ConsideraGaussiansurfacewithcylindrical
symmetry.
Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaNonconducting PlaneSheetof
Charge(Cont.)
G
Atop

Useacylindrical
Gaussiansurface
G
G
G
G
G
G

= E

to p

A to p + E b o tto m A b o tto m + E s id e A s id e

Q in s id e

G
Aside

G
Aside

0
G
G
= E A to p c o s 0 D + E A b o tto m c o s 0 D

side
=0
E

G
G
Q
D
+ E A s id e c o s 9 0 = 2 E A 0 = in s id e

Thefluxthroughtheends isEA0

G
Abottom

Thereisnofieldthroughthecurvedpartofthesurface.
Q in s id e = A 0
G
E =

A0

( 2 A0 ) 0

2 0

Thefieldisdirectedaway from
thesheet.
Section15.9

ElectricFieldofaNonconducting PlaneSheetof
Charge(Cont.)
Findthefieldaboveandbelowa
nonconducting infiniteplanesheetof
chargewithuniform negativecharge
perunitarea.
Useacylindrical Gaussiansurface

Q=A0

Sincethefieldisuniform,thefluxthroughtheendsis
EA0,thereisnofieldthroughthecurvedpartofthe
surface.
G
Q
Thefieldisdirected
E = 2 E A 0 = in sid e
0
toward fromthe
Q = i n s id e = A 0
sheet.
G
E =

A0

=
(2 A0 ) 0 2 0

Section15.9

ParallelPlateCapacitor
Thedeviceconsistsofplates
ofpositive andnegative
charge.
G
G
G
Etotal = E+ + E

G
E+

G
E+

G
E

G
E

E+ E
2 2 = 0 outside
0
0
=
+ = inside Thetotalelectricfieldbetween
2 0 2 0 0
theplatesisgivenby

Thefieldoutside theplatesis
zero.
Section15.9