Lab Report

Course Title: Lab Course-II (Optics and Modern Physics)

Submitted To:
Dr. Muhammad Sharif

Submitted By:
Muhammad Saqib Saleem

Roll No.
1586

Semester:
BS (Physics) 4th (M)

Department of Physics
Govt. College University Faisalabad

Experiment#1
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Charge and Mass of the Electron

Motivation for the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to measure the charge and mass of the electron. The
charge will be measured directly using a variant of the Millikan oil drop experiment
while the mass will be deduced from a measurement of the charge to mass ratio, e/m,
combined with the charge measurement. The two separate measurements can be done
in either order with the combined analysis performed at the end. Table I gives the
values for the mass and charge of the electron for comparison purposes. They are
known too much higher accuracy than we can hope to measure in our experiments
and, therefore, they will be considered to be exact.
Apparatus:

Tube
Helmholtz coil
Tube holder
Black box
Coil power terminal
Coil current measuring terminal
Accelerating voltage measuring terminal
Accelerating voltage variable control
Fuse
Power switch
Power cord
Measuring indicator of electron beam diameter
Dial
Hood
Top board

Procedure:
1. Turn on the accelerating voltage variable control and the output control of DC
regulated power supply counter clockwise to minimize the output.
2. Turn on the power switch.
With the accelerating voltage kept constant within the range of 150 VDC to 300 VDC,
adjust the current that flows in the coils to change the intensity of the magnetic field
and observe how the diameter of the electron locus varies

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R

.
3. With the intensity of the magnetic field kept constant, change the electron
speed and observe how the diameter of the electron locus varies.
4. The radius of the electron locus is measured as shown in figure 8 with the hood
removed. With the indicator set to zero on the dial, fix the dial when your eye,
indicator and electron gun are aligned. To obtain the diameter 2r of the electron
locus, move the indicator to D and read the scale.
Observation & Calculations:
e
m

Sr
#

Accelerating

Coil Current

Electron Locus

Voltage ( V )

( I )

Radius ( r )

100 V

0.9 A

3.85cm=0.0385m

2.751011

130 V

0.9 A

4.85cm=0.0485m

2.261011

150 V

0.9 A

5cm=0.5m

2.461011

value

Conclusion:
The e/m value is calculated by collating the data of accelerating voltage V, coil
current I and the electron locus radius. The average e/m value is 2.491011 C/kg.
The exact e/m value is 1.75881011 C/kg. And the % error is 42.47%.

VIVA-VOCE
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1. When an electron moves in plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. what is

the path of electron?
Ans.Circle.
2. What is Flux density?
Ans: the amount of magnetic, electric, or other flux passing through a unit area.
3. What is the unit of Flux density?
Ans: Unit of B is Weber/m2 or Tesla.
4. What is magnetic flux?
Ans: Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field passing through a surface
(such as a conducting coil).
5. What is the unit of magnetic flux?
Ans: The Weber is the SI unit of magnetic flux. A flux density of one
Wb/m2 (one Weber per square metre) is one tesla.

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Experiment # 2:
Planks Constant Experiment
Purpose:
To find an essentially simple, straightforward method for deriving Plancks
constant using a device that we can build.
This device has to be build easily. It should be durable and feasible.
The results yielded should give an accurate value for Plancks constant.
This method, depending on the results, can then be used in an entry level
physics lab, such as that of a high school physics lab.
Procedure:
1) Make sure that POWER switch is turned off.
2) Remove the diffusion filter.
3) Connect the DC voltmeter and microammeter to the corresponding terminals
respectively.
4) Set the GAIN SWITCH to HIGH.
5) Attach the shielding cover.
6) Set the LED SELECT switches to COLOR and OFF respectively.
7) Turn on the POWER switch.
8) While setting the anode voltage to the full scale on the minus side, adjust the
zero point of miocroammeter.
9) Select the LED of the desired wavelength (colour) adjust the VOLTAGE
trimmer to increase the anode voltage gradually, and read the photoelectric
current at that time.
10)Change the wavelength (colour) of the LED and record the anode voltage
photoelectric current characteristics at each time.
Determining the stopping voltage
1) Determine the stopping voltage at each wavelength.
Planks constant:
h=

V
e
v
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Observation and calculations:

Sr#

Current (I )

Voltage (V )

1
2
3
4

RED
-0.25
-0.20
-0.15
-0.10

0
10
20
70

Sr#

LED

Volts
ORANGE
GREEN
-0.45
-0.55
-0.40
-0.50
-0.35
-0.45
-0.30
-0.40

Wavelength ( )

Stopping voltage
( V )

BLUE
-0.95
-0.90
-0.85
-0.80
Frequency (v )

RED

590 nm

-0.25 volts

5.07 1014

565 nm

-0.45 volts

5.29 10

ORANG
E
GREEN

515 nm

-0.55 volts

5.81 10

BLUE

400 nm

-0.95 volts

7.46 1014

14

14

Planks constant:
h=

V
e
v
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RED:
h1=

V
0.25
e=
1.6 1019=8 1035 Js
14
v
5.07 10

ORANGE:
h2=

V
0.45
e=
1.6 1019=1.36 1034 Js
14
v
5.29 10

GREEN:
h3=

V
0.55
e=
1.6 1019=1.5 1034 Js
14
v
5.81 10

BLUE:
h4 =

V
0.95
e=
1.6 1019=2.30 1034 Js
14
v
7.46 10

Total:
34

h=h1 +h2 +h3 +h 4=5.56 10

Js

VIVA-VOCE
Q.1. Define Photoelectric effect?
Ans: When light falls on metal surface, an electron is emitted from a metal if the
energy of the photon is greater than the work function of the metal.
Q.2 what is Reverse Photoelectric effect?
Ans: If an electron of sufficient voltage is passed across a material then a photon is
emitted whose energy is equivalent to the work function of that material. The voltage
at which this effect observed is the turn on voltage. In case of LED reverse
photoelectric effect works.
Q.3 Can we observe reverses photoelectric with Metal surface?
Ans: This effect is not normally observed in metals and other typical substances
because the photons emitted are usually outside the range of visible light, usually
somewhere in the infrared Range.
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Q.4 What is the full form of LED?

Ans: Full form of LED is Light Emitting Diode.
Q.5 What is the standard value of h.
Ans: h= 6.6x10-34 Js.

Experiment #3:
Frank Hertz Experiment
Principle:
Electrons are accelerated in a tube filled with neon vapour. The excitation energy of
neon is determined from the distance between the equidistant minima of the electron
current in a variable opposing electric field.
Tasks:
Record the counter current strength I in a Franck-Hertz tube as a function of the
anode voltage U.
2. Determine the excitation energy E from the positions of the current strength
minima or maxima by difference formation.
Procedure:
1. First take data varying the voltage manually with the toggle switch set to
Man, and dont hook up the oscilloscope. You should begin by familiarizing
yourself with the apparatus, its operation, and the nature of electron emission
from the filament. As you hook up wires, make sure you understand the circuit
through which currents flow by tracing the path of electrons from the filament
through the wires, ammeter, etc.
2. Do not apply voltages with the tube cold, because mercury may have
condensed on the electrodes and could short out and damage parts of the tube.
Start by hooking up the filament current supply and the accelerating voltage.
Connect the ammeter to the anode/collector, and use a jumper wire to short out
the grid anode gap (i.e.,

Vg

= 0). Its useful to set the ammeter so that it can

measure positive or negative current; for example, set the meter to read centre
zero. Start with

Va

= 0, and turn up the filament current until you see a dim

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orange glow in the tube. Observe the anode current as you vary the filament
current.
3. With the filament current set to produce a visible orange glow not a bright blue
white glow begin to increase

Va

to about 4060 V. Note the current

collected on the anode as a function of accelerating voltage. You can do this as

a function of the filament current. Be careful that the tube does not go into
continuous discharge mode, characterized by the bright blue white glow. It if
does, lower the accelerating voltage 10 V or more so that it stops.
4. The vapour pressure of mercury is a strong function of temperature it is given
by the Clausius equation. The temperature of the cabinet should be adjusted to
180C 5C. It takes about 20 minutes to reach equilibrium after the
temperature setting is changed. Set the sensitivity of the measuring amplifier at
109

A, the retarding potential at 1.5 V and raise the acceleration potential to

50 volts. Now, slowly increase the current in the cathode until the ammeter
reads

109

A. Run the accelerating voltage down to about 15 V and then

bring it back up slowly, checking that the ammeter does not go off scale. If it
does, lower the filament and repeat. The filament will respond very slowly to
any changes, so allow at least 30 seconds for it to stabilize before making new
measurements.
5. At this stage, the apparatus is ready for taking measurements. Experience
shows that its best to start at the highest accelerating voltage and take
measurements with decreasing

Va

voltages. Increase or decrease

Va

very

slowly. It may be helpful to change the ammeter scale for lower voltage
readings.

Observations & Calculations:

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UH

Heating voltage
Sr # Heating voltage
UH

1
2
3

(volts)
8.0 V
8.0 V
8.0 V

= 8.0 V.
Voltages U (volts)
U1

99.90 V
90.00 V
80.00 V

U2

U3

9.0 V
9.0 V
9.0 V

3.0 V
3.0 V
3.0 V

Experiment # 4:
Dielectric Constant of different Materials
Principle and task:
The electric constant is determined by measuring the charge of a plate capacitor to
which a voltage is applied. The dielectric constant is determined in the same way, with
plastic or glass filling the space between the plates.
Problems:
The relation between charge Q and voltage U is to be measured using a
plate capacitor.
The electric constant is to be determined from the relation measured
under point1.
The charge of a plate capacitor is to be measured as a function of the
inverse of the distance between the plates, under constant voltage.
The relation between charge Q and voltage U is to be measured by
means of a plate capacitor, between the plates of which different solid
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dielectric media are introduced. The corresponding dielectric constants

are determined by comparison with measurements performed with air
between the capacitor plates.
Apparatus:

Plate capacitor.
Plastic plate.
Glass plates f. current conductors.
High-value resistor.
Universal measuring amplifier.
High voltage supply unit.
PEK capacitor/case.
Voltmeter.
Connecting cord.
Screened cable.

Procedure:
The experimental set-up is shown in fig. The highly insulated capacitor plate is
connected to the upper connector of the high volt- age power supply over the 10 MV
protective resistor ,both the middle connector of the high voltage power supply and
the opposite capacitor plate are grounded over the 220 nF capacitor. Correct
measurement of the initial voltage is to be assured by the corresponding adjustment of
the toggle switch on the unit. The electrostatic induction charge on the plate capacitor
can be measured over the voltage on the 220 nF capacitor, according to equation (1).
The measurement amplifier is set to high input resistance, to amplification factor 1
and to time constant 0.

Q=C U c = 0

A
U 1
d

Observation and Calculations:

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Electric constant:
A=0.0531m 2 , U c =1.5 V , C=218 nF .

Sr#
1
2
3
4
5
6

1
( cm1 )
d

d ( cm )

U (V )

3.3
2.4
1.6
1.35
1.2
1.1

0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35

10
6.7
5
4
3.3
2.9

Q ( nAs )

0 (

719
500
360
290
240
210

pAs
)
Vm

9
9.85
8.75
9.25
9.85
10.50

A=0.0531m 2 , d=0.20 cm , C=218 nF .

U (V )

U c (kV )

Sr #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4

Q(nAs)

0.5
1.1
1.6
2.05
2.65
3.15
4
4.6

0 (

109
240
348
447
578
687
872
1003

pAs
)
Vm

8.2
9
8.7
8.4
8.7
8.6
9.4
9.5

Dielectric constant:
A=0.0531m

Plastic:
Sr #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

U c (kV )

0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4

U (V )

0.5
0.92
1.35
1.8
2.3
2.8
3.1
3.7

, d=0.98 cm , C=218 nF .
Q(nAs)

100
206
310
410
512
610
710
807

4.6
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4
4.2

d 1 U vac (V ) Q vac (nAs)

0 U c

0.16
0.32
0.51
0.62
0.78
0.95
1.12
1.3

38
96
110
164
180
220
250
283

Q
Q vac

3.1
2.9
2.6
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
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Experiment # 5:
Characteristic curves of a solar cell
Principle:
The current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell are measured at different light
intensities, the distance between the light source and the solar cell being varied. The
dependence of no-load voltage and short-circuit current on temperature is determined.

Apparatus:

Thermo-generator.
Flow through heat exchanger.
Air cooler.
Heating coil with sockets.
Distributor.
Rheostat.
Hot/cold air blower.
Ammeter.
Voltmeter.
Heat conductive plates.
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Tasks:
1. To determine the cooling capacity
and to calculate the efficiency rating
2. To determine the heating capacity
hw

Pc
hc
Pw

the pump as a function of the current

at maximum out- put.
of the pump and its efficiency rating

at constant current and constant temperature on the cold side.

3. To determine

P w , w

and

Pc , c

from the relationship between temperature

and time on the hot and cold sides.

4. To investigate the temperature behaviour when the pump is used for cooling,
with the hot side air cooled.

Procedure:
1. Set-up and procedure Measure the light intensity with the thermopile and
amplifier with the equipment at different distances from the light source.
(Note: the maximum output voltage of the amplifier is 10 V). The inlet
aperture marks the position of the thermopile. The distance between the
lamp and the thermopile should be at least 50 cm, since the angular aperture
of the thermopile is only 20.
2. The solar cell measures the diffused light as well as the direct light from the
lamp. As the lamp has a slim light cone of approx. 30, the diffused light
chiefly arises as a result of reflection from the bench top, and can be
suppressed by covering the bench with a black cloth or piece of black card.
3. The no-load voltage and the short-circuit current of the solar cell depend on
temperature. To record the characteristics in Problems 2 and 5, the solar cell
is therefore kept at room temperature with the aid of a cold air blower.
4. To demonstrate the temperature effect, blow hot air over the solar cell and
measure the temperature directly in front of it with a thermometer. Do not
touch the cell as its thin p-layer can easily be damaged.
5. If the distance between lamp and solar cell exceeds 50 cm, the temperature
rise caused by radiation can be disregarded in comparison with that caused
by the hot air. Measure the no- load voltage and the short-circuit current.
6. The characteristics of the solar cell should be measured in sunlight also if
possible; in this case both direct and diffused light are involved.
7. The thermopile is used again to determine the relationship between the
short-circuit current and the light intensity, al- though it measures only
direct light because of its small angular aperture. For comparative purposes,
therefore, we must support a black cardboard tube about 20 cm long in front
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of the solar cell to screen it from the diffused light. It is important that the
thermopile and the solar cell are pointing directly into the sun.

Fig. Set-up of experiment

Observation and Calculations:

Without slit at Max R:
Distance(cm)
5
10
15
20
25
30
Without slit at Low R:

I(mA)
6.1
6.0
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.8

Distance(cm)
5
10
15
20
25
30
With slit at high R:

2.04
2.02
1.99
1.98
1.97
1.97
I(mA)

223
194
166
138
109
95

Distance(cm)

V(volt)

V(volt)
0.83
0.71
0.60
0.49
0.38
0.33

I(mA)

V(volt)
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5
10
15
20
25
30
With slit at Low R:

6.2
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.9
5.8

Distance(cm)
5
10
15
20
25
30
Intensity:

2.09
2.05
2.03
2.01
2.00
1.98
I(mA)

V(volt)

160
128
105
90
77
65

0.57
0.45
0.37
0.31
0.27
0.22

Ut (v)

Distance(cm)

0.09
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.02
Hot Air high R:

5
10
15
20
25
30

Distance(cm)
15
30
45
60
75
90
Hot Air Low R:

I(mA)
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.4
5.2

V(volt)
2.02
1.96
1.91
1.86
1.81
1.75

Distance(cm)
15
30
45
60
75
90
Cool Air High R:

I(mA)
195
104
63.3
42.5
26
21

V(volt)
0.76
0.40
0.24
0.16
0.09
0.08

Distance(cm)

I(mA)

V(volt)
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15
30
45
60
75
90
Cool Air Low R:
Distance(cm)
15
30
45
60
75
90

6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.4

2.06
2.00
1.95
1.90
1.86
1.82

I(mA)
oL
127
73
50
35
26

V(volt)
0.87
0.46
0.26
0.17
0.12
0.09

Experiment # 6:
Specific rotation of a sugar cane solution with
Laurents half shade polarimeter.
Apparatus:

Polarimeter
A balance,
measuring cylinder
beaker and source of light

If the polarimeter is employed a half shade device, a monochromatic source should be

used, but if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.

Formula Used:
The specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be
determined by the following formula.

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S=

10
l. c

Where = rotation produced in degrees.

= length of the tube in decimeter.

C= concentration of solution
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.

If the polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source

should be used and if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.
Take the polarimeter tube and clean well both the sides such that it is free from
dust. Now fill the tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is enclosed in
it. Place the tube in its position inside the polarimeter.
Switch on the source of light and look through the eyepiece. Two halves of
unequal intensity is observed. Rotate the analyzer until two halves of the field
appears equally bright. Take the reading of the main scale as well as vernier
scale and find out the total reading.
Prepare a sugar solution of known strength. The procedure for preparing it can
be seen under the heading observations.
Take the polarimeter tube and remove the pure water. Fill it with the prepared
sugar solution and again place it in the polarimeter.
Rotate the analyzer to obtain the equal intensity position, first in clockwise
direction and then in anti-clockwise direction. Note down the position of the
analyzer on main and vernier scales in the two directions. Find the mean
reading. The difference between this and previous reading gives the specific
rotation.
Repeat the experiment with sugar solutions of different concentrations.
Measure the length of the tube in centimetres and change it in decimetres.

Fig. polarimeter.
Sources of error and Precautions:
(i)
(ii)

The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.

Water used should be dust free.
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(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Whenever a solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under
examination.
There should be no air bubble inside the tube.
The position of analyzer should be set accurately.
The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
Reading should be taken when halves of the field of view becomes equally
illuminated.

Observation & Calculation:

For Dark Semi-circles:
Solution of water:
h out rotating it at 1800 .
0=Observing t h e dark wit
0=5 0 .
rotatingit at 1800 .
'0=Observing t h e dark after
'0=60 .

Sugar-cane Solution:
20 c.c. solution:
h out rotatingit at 180 .
1=Observing t h e dark wit
0

1=180 .
rotatingit at 180 0 .
2=Observing t h e dark after
2=190 .

S=

( 1 0 ) + ( 2'0 ) ( 185 ) + ( 196 ) 13+13

2

=130 .

10 10 (13 )
=
=65.
l . c 10 0.2

10 c.c. solution:
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 h out rotatingit at 1800 .

1=Observing t h e dark wit
1=90 .
rotatingit at 180 0 .
2=Observing t h e dark after
2=90 .

S=

( 1 0 ) + ( 2'0 ) ( 95 ) + ( 196 ) 4+ 13
2

=8.50 .

10 10 ( 8.5 )
=
=85
l . c 10 0.1

5 c.c. solution:

1=Observing the dark without

rotatingit at 180 0 .
0

1=8 .
rotating it at 180 .
2=Observing the dark after
0

2=6 .

S=

( 1 0 ) + ( 2'0 ) ( 85 ) + ( 66 ) 3
2

= =1.50 .
2

10 10 (1.5 )
=
=30
l . c 10 0.05

Average S

s=

65+85+ 30
=600
3

Conclusion:
The average specific rotation is 600.

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Viva Questions
Ques 1 . What do you mean by polarization?
Ans. The lack of symmetry about the direction of propagation of light is known as the
polarization of light.
Ques 2. What are optical rotations?
Ans . The rotations produced by a decimeter long column of the liquid containing 1
gm of active substance in 1 cc of the solution.
Ques 3, What is Brewsters law of polarization?
Ans. The tangent of the polarizing angle is mathematically equal to the refractive
index of the material i.e = tan (ip)
Ques 4. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.
Ans. The plane of polarization is that plane in which no vibrations occur and
the plane in which vibrations occur known as plane of vibration. The vibrations occur
at the right angle to the plane of polarization.
Ques 5. What do you mean by double refraction?
Ans. When a ray of light is refracted by a crystal of calcite it gives two refractive
rays .this phenomenon is known as double refractions.

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Experiment # 7
Characteristics X-ray of molybdenum
Principle:
Spectra of X-rays from a molybdenum anode are to be analyzed by means of different
mono crystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic
lines are then to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the
various orders of diffraction.
Tasks:
1. The intensity of the X-rays emit- ted by the molybdenum anode at maximum anode
voltage and anode current is to be recorded as a function of the Bragg angle, using an
LiF mono crystal as analyzer.
2. Step 1 is to be repeated using the KBr mono crystal as analyzer.
3. The energy values of the characteristic molybdenum lines are to be calculated and
compared with the energy differences of the molybdenum energy terms.
Procedure:
Set up the experiment as shown in Fig. 1. Fix the diaphragm tube with 1 mm diameter
aperture in the X-ray outlet tube. With the X-ray basic unit switched off, connect the
goniometer and the counter tube to the appropriate sockets in the base plate of the
experimenting area. Set the goniometer block with mounted analyzing crystal to the
middle position and the counter tube to the right stop.
The following settings are recommended for the recording of the spectra:
1. Auto and Coupling mode.
2. Gate time 2 s; Angle step width 0.1.
3. Scanning range 4-65 using the LiF monocrystal, and 3-30 using the KBr
monocrystal. Anode voltage

UA

= 35 kV; Anode current

IA

= 1 mA

When the spectra are to be recorded with an XY recorder, connect the Y axis to the
analog output (Imp/s) of the X-ray unit and, correspondingly, the X input to the analog
output for the angular position of the crystal (select the analog signal for the crystal
22 | P a g e
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angle with the selection button for this output). When a PC is to be used for recording
purposes, connect it via the SUB-D socket of the X-ray basic unit.

Note:
Never expose the counter tube to primary radiation for a longer length of time.

Observation and Calculations:

Graph 1: LIF analyzer.
Order of
diffractio
n n
n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

Line

Eexp
keV

10.2

17.381

9.2

19.252

20.8

17.335

18.5

19.401

32.1

17.377

28.2

19.541

44.9

17.442

62.4

17.366

Graph 2: KBr analyzer

Order of
diffraction

Line

Eexp
keV
23 | P a g e

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n
n=1

6.5

16.619

5.7

18.942

12.7

17.115

11.3

19.202

n=3

19.1

17.348

n=4

25.7

17.353

n=2

24 | P a g e
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GCUF