ALUMINIUM (MAGNESIUM)-TITANIUM DIOXIDE BASED IN SITU COMPOSITES-SYNTHESIS AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

During the past few years, materials design has shifted emphasis to pursue light
weight, environment friendliness, low cost, quality, higher service temperature, higher
elastic modulus and improved wear resistance and performance.
A composite material is a combination of two or more chemically different
materials with a distinct interface between them. The constituent materials maintain their
separate identities microscopically in the composite, yet their combination produces
properties and characteristics that are different from those of the constituents. One of
these major constituents forms a continuous phase and it is called as the matrix. The other
minor constituent is the reinforcement phase available in the form of fibers or as a
particulate, in general, added to the matrix to improve the matrix properties.
Reinforcement by a particulate forms a discontinuous phase uniformly distributed
throughout the matrix. Therefore, composites have improved mechanical properties such
as strength and toughness when compared with monolithic materials.
Composite materials can be subdivided into three main groups: Polymer, Ceramics
and Metals. Reinforcements added to these materials produce Polymer Matrix
Composites (PMC), Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) and Metal Matrix Composites
(MMC).
The benefit of using composite materials is the advantage of attaining property
combinations that can result in a number of service benefits. In situ composites refer to
the composites with the reinforcement made in place inside the composite from its
precursors during the composite fabrication. Reinforcements made in situ tend to be fine
and well distributed. The factors that determine properties of composites are volume
fraction, microstructure, homogeneity and isotropy of the system and these are strongly
influenced by proportions and properties of the matrix and the reinforcement.
Among the various types of MMCs, particulate-reinforced composites are the
most versatile and economical one. MMC attributes include alterations in mechanical
behavior and physical properties by the reinforced filler phase.
MMCs represent a new generation of engineering materials in which a strong
particulate reinforcement is incorporated into a metal matrix to improve its properties
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including specific strength, specific stiffness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance and
elastic modulus. MMCs are being used extensively for high performance applications
such as in aircraft engines and in the automotive industries. The development of
aluminium matrix composites is receiving considerable emphasis in meeting the
requirements of various industries.
In a stir casting process, the reinforcing phases are distributed into molten
Aluminium by mechanical stirring. Stir casting of metal matrix composites was initiated
in 1968, when S. Ray introduced alumina particles into aluminium melt by stirring molten
aluminum alloys containing the ceramic powders.
Aluminium is the most popular matrix for the metal matrix composites. The
aluminium alloys are quite attractive due to their low density, their capability to be
strengthened by precipitation, their good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical
conductivity, and their high vibration damping capacity. Aluminium matrix composites
have been used since the 1920s and are now used in sporting goods, electronic packaging,
armors and automotive industries. They offer a large variety of mechanical properties
depending on the chemical composition of the aluminium matrix. They are usually
reinforced by aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon dioxide, Titanium dioxide,
Manganese dioxide, Graphite and boron etc.
The properties of composites of metal matrix composites are inevitably a
compromise between the properties of the matrix and reinforcement phases. It is clear that
the composition and properties of the matrix phase affect the properties of the composite
both directly, by normal strengthening mechanisms, and indirectly, by chemical
interactions at the reinforcement / matrix interface. Aluminium based composites,
reinforced with ceramic particles, offer improvements over the matrix alloy: an elastic
modulus higher than that of aluminium has a value of 70 GPa, a coefficient of thermal
expansion which is closer to that of steel or of cast iron, a greater resistance to wear and
an improvement in rupture stress especially at higher temperatures and possibly improved
resistance to thermal fatigue.
The major methods to produce aluminium metal matrix composites are stir
casting, vortex mixing method, powder metallurgy, liquid metal infiltration, squeeze
casting, rheocasting, and spray deposition technique.

1.1 Need for Developing Composite Materials

The main advantage of a composite material over conventional material is the
combination of different properties which are not often found in the conventional
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materials. The extraordinary combination properties include high strength to weight ratio,
higher stiffness to weight ratio, improved fatigue resistance, improved corrosion
resistance, higher resistance to thermal expansion, excellent optical and magnetic
properties, combination wear resistance and fracture toughness etc. There are a number of
situations in service that demand an unusual combination of properties. Further, the
present day trend is to go in for light weight constructions for easy handling and reduced
space, reduction of as many parts in an assembly, aesthetic appearance and high
resistance to weathering attack. These factors have propelled the modern designers to
develop newer composite materials up to the stage of large-scale production with exacting
requirements.
The properties that can be improved by firming a composite material include
I.

Strength.

II.

Stiffness.

III.

Weight.

IV.

Fatigue life.

V.

Corrosion resistant.

VI.

Thermal insulation.

VII.
VIII.

Thermal conductivity.
Temperature dependent behavior.

1.2 Applications of mmcs:

Following are the some of the common applications of the MMCs:
a) Aircraft
The application of composite materials is well established in aircraft technology
and they are now applied in fuselage-production technologies as well as in jet engine
technologies to improve the mechanical strength of various light weight components.
Composite parts now being used in several airoplanes include Frames, Aerials joining elements
of Hubble telescope, Aircraft engines, Helicopter blades, Braces, Ventral fins rocket boosters,
reservoirs, nozzles and shields for atmosphere reentrance etc.
b) Automotive
MMCs have been used in automobiles and trucks for many years due to the properties
like high specific strength and stiffness. They are used in Braking system due to better wear
resistance, temperature resistance and low thermal expansion coefficient. They are also used
in Piston rod, Piston pins, Valve spring cap and Accumulator plates.
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c) Construction
Carbon fiber reinforced with magnesium fiber is used in the space shuttle because of
the properties like zero thermal expansion, high temperature strength, good specific strength
and specific stiffness.
d) Electronics
It is current practice to bond the ceramic to a low expansion metal such as Kovar.
Kovar is an iron-nickel-cobalt alloy with a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to that of
hard glass.
e) Sporting goods
The use of MMCs has been studied in many different kinds of sport equipment, for
example, golf clubs, horseshoes, tennis racquets and bicycle parts (frames, wheel rims, etc).
f) Defence
Inertial guidance spheres for Trident missiles. The MMC parts replace beryllium in a
stiffness critical application. The MMC used is high volume fraction (40%) particle reinforced
aluminium. The MMC is both cheaper and avoids the toxicity problems associated with
beryllium.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Composite Materials

The desire of space industries for material having light weight and high strength
leads to the development of new type of materials called composites. Since Aluminium
Matrix Composites (AMMCs) are light in weight and having high strength to weight
ratio, it is normally used in the areas were the weight is a constrain.
A composite material is a bi-phase or multiphase material whose mechanical properties
are superior to those of the constituent materials acting independently. One of the phases is
usually discontinuous, stiffer and stronger and is called reinforcement where as the less stiff and
weaker phase is continuous and is called matrix. Sometimes because of the chemical interactions
or the other processing effects, an additional phase called inter phase exists between the
reinforcement and the matrix.
The properties of composite materials depend on the properties of constituents,
geometry and distribution of phases. One of the most important parameters is the volume (or
weight) fraction of the reinforcement. The distribution of the reinforcement determines the
homogeneity or uniformity of the material system. The more non-uniform is the reinforcement
distribution the more heterogeneous is the material. The geometry and orientation of the
reinforcement affect the anisotropy of the system.

2.2 History of Composites:

I.
II.

Mud walls of houses reinforced with bamboo shoots (500 BC).

III.

Glued laminated wood (500 BC).

IV.

Laminated metals in forging swords (1800 AD).

V.

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Houses made of mud bricks from clay reinforced with straw (1500 BC).

Glass fibers reinforced resins for boats and aircrafts (1930).

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Since then, many modern composites have been developed with new fibers such as
Carbon, Boron, Aramide etc., with matrices made of Polymers, metals and ceramics.
Their tremendous strength-to-weight and design flexibility make them ideal in structural
components for the transportation industry. High-strength lightweight premium composite
materials such as carbon fibers and epoxies are being used for aerospace applications and
in high performance sporting goods. Composites superior electrical insulating properties
also make them ideal for appliances, tools and machinery. Tanks and pipes constructed
with corrosion-resistant composites offer extended service life over those made with
metals.

2.3 Classification of Composite Materials

2.3.1 Based on the form of the Reinforcement components:
a. Particulate.
b. Whiskers.
c. Fiber reinforcement.

Fig 2.1: Types of reinforcement materials in composites.

a) Fibres
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their
properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce

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materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive
use, to render composites stiffer and more resistant to heat.

b) Whiskers
Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are
usually discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several
materials like Graphite, Silicon Carbide, Copper, and Iron etc. Whiskers differ from
particles in which, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one.
c) Particulates
Microstructure of composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in the
other, are known as particle reinforced composites. The shape of the reinforcements can
be square, triangular or round. The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order
of a few microns. The reinforcement in the matrix materials reinforces the matrix alloy by
arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created
by dispersion.
2.3.2 Based on the Structure of the Matrix materials:
Classification of composite materials based on matrix materials.
a) Polymer matrix composite (PMC) - Also known as FRP-Fiber reinforced polymers
(or plastic)-these materials use a polymer based resin as the matrix and variety of fibers
such as glass, carbon, and aramid as the reinforcement.
b) Metal matrix composite (MMC) - Increasingly found in the automotive industry,
these materials use a metal such as aluminum as the matrix, and reinforce it with
fibers/particles such as Titanium dioxide.
c) Ceramic matrix composite (CMC) - Used in a very high temperature environments,
these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibers or whiskers
such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.

2.4 Metal Matrix Composites

In a composite material, when the matrix is a metal or its alloy, a Metal Matrix
Composite is obtained. The performance of these materials, i.e. their physical and
mechanical characteristics, depend on the nature of the two components (chemical
composition, crystalline structure and in the case of reinforcement, shape and size), the
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volume fraction of the adopted reinforcement and production technology. In general,

metal matrix composites utilize at the same time, the properties of the matrix (light
weight, good thermal conductivity, ductility) and of the reinforcement (Hardness and
Strength) will be enhanced.
The family of materials classified as Metal matrix composites (MMCs) comprises
a very broad range of advanced composites of greater importance for industrial, aerospace
and defence application. The family of MMCs is up of many variety of materials which
can be categorized based on their matrix composition, fabrication process or
reinforcement type.
Generally MMCs are classified according to type of reinforcement and the
geometric characteristics of the same. In particular, the main classification groups these
composites into two basic categories:
Continuous reinforcement composites, constituted by continuous fibers or filaments.
Discontinuous reinforced composites, containing short fibers, whiskers or particles.
2.4.1 Merits of mmcs:
I.
II.

Very high specific strength and specific modulus.

Low thermal coefficient of expansion.

III.

Retention of properties at high temperatures.

IV.

Higher operating temperature.

V.
VI.

Better capability to withstand compression and shear loading.

Much higher fracture toughness.

2.5 Manufacturing Techniques of MMC

There is a multitude of fabrication techniques of metal matrix composites
depending on whether they are aimed at continuously or discontinuously reinforced
MMC production. The techniques can further be subdivided, according to whether they
are primarily based on treating the metal matrix in a liquid or a solid form.
Processing methods of Aluminium Metal Matrix(AMC) can be mainly classified
into two categories.
I.

Solid state processes.

II.

Liquid state processes.

2.5.1 Solid state processing

a) Powder blending and consolidation

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Blending of aluminium alloy powder with ceramic short fibre/whisker/particle is

versatile technique for the production of AMCs. Blending can be carried out dry or in
liquid suspension. Blending is usually followed by cold compaction, canning, degassing
and high temperature consolidation stage such hot iso-static pressing (HIP) or extrusion.
AMCs processes by this route contain oxide particles in the form of plate like particles of
few tens of nanometers thick and in volume fractions ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 depending
on powder history and processing conditions. These fine oxide particles tend to act as
dispersion strengthening agent and often has strong influence on the matrix properties
particularly during heat treatment.
b) Physical vapour deposition
This process involves continuous passage of fibre through a region of high partial
pressure of the metal to be deposited, where the condensation takes place and a relatively
thick coating of aluminium on the fibre. Composite fabrication is usually completed by
assembling the coated fibres into bundle of array and consolidating in a hot press or
process. Composites with uniform distribution of fibre and volume fraction as high as
80% can be produced by this technique.
2.5.2 Liquid state processing
a) Stir casting
This involves incorporation of ceramic/metallic particulate into liquid aluminium
melt and allowing the mixture to solidify. Here, the crucial thing is to create good wetting
between the particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminium alloy melt. The simplest
and most commercially used technique is known as vortex technique or stir-casting
technique. The vortex technique involves the introduction of pre-treated ceramic particles
into the vortex of molten alloy created by the rotating impeller.
Inhomogeneity in reinforcement distribution in these cast composites could also
be a problem as a result of interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving
solid-liquid interface during solidification. Generally it is possible to incorporate up to
30% ceramic particles in the size range 5 to 100 micrometer in a variety of molten
aluminium alloys. The melt-ceramic particle slurry may be transferred directly to a
shaped mould prior to complete solidification or it may be allowed to solidify in billet or
rod shape so that it can be reheated to the slurry form for further processing by technique
such as die casting and investment casting. The process is not suitable for the
incorporation of sub-micron size ceramic particles or whiskers. Another variant of stir
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casting process is compo-casting. Here, ceramic particles are incorporated into the alloy
in the semi solid state.

Reinforcement particle
added

Crucible

Heating element
Molten metal
Stirrer

Fig.2.2: Stir casting process.

Major factors to be consider during stir casting
I.
II.

Difficulty of achieving of uniform distribution of the reinforcement materials.

Wettability between the two main substances.

III.

Porosity in cast metal matrix composites.

IV.

Chemical reaction between the reinforcement material and matrix alloy.

b) Infiltration process
Liquid aluminium alloy is injected/infiltrated into the interstices of the porous
pre-forms of continuous fibre/short fibre or whisker or particle to produce AMCs.
Depending on the nature of reinforcement and its volume fraction pre-form can be
infiltrated, with or without the application of pressure or vacuum. AMCs having
reinforcement volume fraction ranging from 10 to 70% can be produced using a variety of
infiltration techniques. In order for the pre-form to retain its integrity and shape, it is often
necessary to use silica and alumina based mixtures as binder. Some level of porosity and
local variations in the volume fractions of the reinforcement are often noticed in the
AMCs processed by infiltration technique. The process is widely used to produce

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aluminium matrix composites having particle/whisker/short fibre/continuous fibre as

reinforcement.

c) Spray deposition
Spray deposition techniques fall into two distinct classes, depending whether the
droplet stream is produced from a molten bath (Osprey process) or by continuous feeding
of cold metal into a zone of rapid heat injection (thermal spray process). The spray
process has been extensively explored for the production of AMCs by injecting ceramic
particle/whisker/short fibre into the spray. AMCs produced in this way often exhibit
inhomogeneous distribution of ceramic particles. Depositions of this type are typically
consolidated to full density by subsequent processing. Spray process also permit the
production of continuous fibre reinforced aluminium matrix composites. For this, fibres
are wrapped around a mandrel with controlled inter fibre spacing, and the matrix metal is
sprayed onto the fibres. A composite monotype is thus formed; bulk composites are
formed by hot pressing of composite monotypes. Fibre volume fraction and distribution is
controlled by adjusting the fibre spacing and the number of fibre layers. AMCs processed
by spray deposition technique are relatively inexpensive with cost that is usually
intermediate between stir cast and PM processes.
d) In-situ processing (reactive processing)
There are several difierent processes that would fall under this category including
liquid-gas, liquid-solid, liquid-liquid and mixed salt reactions. In these processes
refractory reinforcement are created in the aluminium alloy matrix. One of the examples
is directional oxidation of aluminium also known as DIMOX process. In this process the
alloy of Al-Mg is placed on the top of ceramic perform in a crucible. The entire assembly
is heated to a suitable temperature in the atmosphere of free flowing nitrogen bearing gas
mixture. Al-Mg alloy soon after melting infiltrates into the pre-form and composite is
formed.
Martin-Marietta's exothermic dispersion process or the XDTM process is another
in-situ technique for composite processing. XD TM process is used to produce TiB2
reinforced aluminium matrix composites. The process is flexible and permits formation of
both hard and soft phases of various sizes and morphologies that includes whiskers,
particles and platelets in aluminium alloy matrices.

2.6 Factors to be consider during Stir Casting

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In order to achieve the optimum properties of the metal matrix composite, the
distribution of the reinforcement material in the matrix alloy must be uniform, and the
wettability or bonding between these substances should be optimised. The porosity levels
need to be minimised, and chemical reactions between the reinforcement materials and
the matrix alloy must be avoided.
2.6.1 Distribution of the reinforcement materials
One of the problems encountered in metal matrix composite processing is the
settling of the reinforcement particles during melt holding or during casting. This arises as
a result of density differences between the reinforcement particles and the matrix alloy
melt. The reinforcement distribution is influenced during several stages including
(a) distribution in the liquid as a result of mixing, (b) distribution in the liquid after
mixing, but before solidification and (c) redistribution as a result of solidification. The
mechanical stirrer used (usually during melt preparation or holding) during stirring, the
melt temperature, rate of particle addition and the type, amount and nature of the particles
are some of the main factors to be considered when investigating these phenomena.
Proper dispersion of the particles in a matrix is also affected by pouring rate, pouring
temperature and gating systems. The method of the introduction of particles into the
matrix melt is one of the most important aspects of the casting process. It helps in
dispersing the reinforcement materials in the melt. There are a number of techniques for
introducing and mixing the particles including
I.

Injection of the particles entrained in an inert carrier gas into the melt with the
help of an injection gun, wherein the particles are mixed into the melt as the
bubbles rise through the melt.

II.

Addition of particles into the molten stream as the mould is filled.

III.

Pushing particles into the melt through the use of reciprocating rods.

IV.

Spray casting of droplets of atomised molten metal along with particles onto a
substrate.

V.
VI.

Dispersion of fine particles in the melt by centrifugal action.

Pre-infiltrating a packed bed of particles to form pellets of a master alloy, and
redispersing and diluting into a melt, followed by slow hand or mechanical
stirring.

VII.

Injection of particles into the melt while the melt is irradiated continuously with
high intensity ultrasound.

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VIII.

Zero gravity processing which involves utilising a synergism of ultra-high vacuum

and elevated temperature for a prolonged period of time.
The vortex method is one of the better known approaches used to create and

maintain a good distribution of the reinforcement material in the matrix alloy. In this
method, after the matrix material is melted, it is stirred vigorously to form a vortex at the
surface of the melt, and the reinforcement material is then introduced at the side of the
vortex. The stirring is continued for a few minutes before the slurry is cast. A different
design of mechanical stirrers namely used is as shown in Fig.2.3. Among them, the
turbine stirrer is quite popular. During stir casting for the synthesis of composites, stirring
helps in two ways: (a) transferring particles into the liquid metal and (b) maintaining the
particles in a state of suspension.

Fig 2.3: Different types of stirrer used in stir casting.

2.7 Wettabilty
Wetting is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface, resulting
from intermolecular interactions when the two are brought together. The degree of
wetting or wettability is determined by a force balance between adhesive and cohesive
forces. Wetting is important in the bonding or adherence of two materials.
In any type of the fabrication method used, wettability and distribution of the
reinforcement material in the alloy matrix are among the main problems. In general stir
casting of metal matrix composites involves producing a melt of selected matrix material
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followed by the introduction of reinforcement material into the melt and the dispersion of
the reinforcing material through stirring. Stirring is carried out vigorously to form a
vortex where the reinforcing particles are introduced through the side of the vortex. The
formation of the vortex will drag not only the reinforcement particles into the melt, but
also all impurities which are formed on the surface of the melt. The vortex will also
entrap air into the mould which is extremely difficult to remove as the viscosity of the
slurry increase. In this approach of fabricating cast metal matrix composites, magnesium
was used as a wetting agent and in which the composite slurry in the semi solid condition
was applied in order to enhance wettability between the Titanium dioxide particles and
matrix alloy. The emphasis was on the wettability and chemical reaction between the
substances.

2.8 Extrusion
Extrusion is a plastic deformation process in which a block of metal (billet) is
forced to flow by compression through the die opening of a smaller cross-sectional area
than that of the original billet as shown in fig.2.4. Extrusion is an indirect-compression
process. Indirect-compressive forces are developed by the reaction of the workpiece
(billet) with the container and die; these forces reach high values. The reaction of the
billet with the container and die results in high compressive stresses that are effective in
reducing the cracking of the billet material during primary breakdown from the billet.
Extrusion is the best method for breaking down the cast structure of the billet because the
billet is subjected to compressive forces only.

Fig.2.4: Extrusion process.

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2.8.1 Classification of Extrusion Processes

(a) Classification based on metal flow against the force acting on ram.
1. Direct extrusion (forward extrusion)
In this type of extrusion process the movement of metal in the direction of force of
application on the billet. It is shown in Fig.2.5.

Fig2.5: Direct extrusion process.

2. Indirect extrusion
In this type of extrusion process the movement of metal in opposite the direction
of force of application on the billet. It is shown in Fig.2.6.

Fig2.6: Indirect extrusion process.

(b) Classification based on temperature
1. Cold extrusion
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In this extrusion process takes place in room temperature. In this process no

oxidation, gas-metal reaction takes place. But strain hardening of metals takes place.
Force required for extrusion is more in cold extrusion.
2. Hot extrusion
In this extrusion process the billet is heated to above re-crystallization
temperature. Strain hardening is not problem in hot extrusion but oxidation and gas-metal
reaction is a problem. Force required in hot extrusion is very less compared to cold
extrusion process.
Advantage of Extrusion
I.
II.
III.

Extruded shapes minimize and sometimes eliminate the need for machining.
Density of materials increase compared to cast material.
The most outstanding feature of the extrusion process is its ability to produce a
wide variety of cross section configuration and shapes.

IV.
V.

Strength of the materials increases compared to cast material.

Porosity can be reduced significantly.

2.9 Plastic deformation and metal flow in Extrusion

In metal forming, plasticity theory is applied to investigate the mechanics of
plastic deformation. The investigation allows the analysis and prediction of the following:
I.
II.

Metal flow, including velocities, strain rates and strain.

Temperature and heat transfer.

III.

Variation of local material strength or flow stress of material.

IV.

Stresses, forming load, pressure and energy.

The mechanics of plastic deformation provide the means for determining how the
metal flows in different forming operations, the means of obtaining desired geometry
through plastic deformation and the means for determining the expected mechanical and
physical properties of the metal produced. Different mathematical equations can be
obtained through different approach for different forming operations, including extrusion.
In simple homogeneous (uniaxial) compression or in tension, the metal flows
plastically when the stress () reaches the value of flow stress ( f). The flow of
aluminium during extrusion is intermetallic shear flow. The significant difference in the
shear flow of aluminium compared with other metals being extruded is that the center of
the aluminium billet is extruded first and the peripheral part of the billet flows later,
causing more severe shear deformation. As soon as the force required to push the billet
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into the container surface exceeds that of the shear strength of the billet material, sticking
friction predominates, and deformation proceeds by shear in the bulk of the billet. Metal
flow during extrusion depends on many factors, such as the following:
I.

Billet material property at billet temperature.

II.

Billet-container interface and metal-die interface friction.

III.

Extrusion ratio.

The properties of the extruded aluminium shapes are affected greatly by the way in which
the metal flows during extrusion. The metal flow is influenced by many factors:
I.

Type of extrusion, direct or indirect.

II.

Press capacity and size and shape of container.

III.

Frictional effects at the die or both container and die.

IV.

Type, layout, and design of die.

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

The length of billet and type of alloy.

The temperature of the billet and container.
The extrusion ratio.
Die and tooling temperature and Speed of extrusion.

2.10 Mechanical properties

Tensile behaviour of composite: Tensile Strength is the property that enables a metal to
resist deformation under load. The ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can
withstand. Tensile strength is a measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when
placed in a tension load.
Hardness: Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation.
Because there are several methods of measuring hardness, the hardness of a material is
always specified in terms of the particular test that was used to measure this property.
Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are some of the methods of testing.

Literature Review
Yuyong and Chung [1996] have reported that an Aluminium matrix TiAl 3-Particle
size (1-2m) composite exhibiting high tensile ductility upto (22%), high tensile strength
(235 MPa) and an average grain size of 50 micrometer was made by a new in situ method
involving reactions between Al,TiO2 and Na3AlFe, which were subjected to stir casting at
900C.

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Yuyong and Chung [1996] have reported that when aluminium matrixTiB
particles ( particle size of 10 50 m) and volume fraction of 10% composite was formed
by stir casting at 900C,a slurry containing liquid Al 2024,TiO 2,KBF4 and Na3AlF6 in the
weight ratio 13.5:4:1:4. The composite exhibited good tensile strength 270 MPa, modulus
91 GPa and ductility of 8%.
Rana et al [2012] have observed that when Aluminium matrix cast composite
prepared with SiC and Al2O3 as reinforcement, creep does not become significant until
temperatures of the order of 0.3 Tm for metals and 0.4 Tm for alloys is reached. Creep
resistance increases by the precipitation hardening. The increase of creep resistance is
attributed to the decrease of grain size through the HallPetch effect. As the
reinforcement contents increased in the matrix material, the hardness of the composites
also increased. The Brinells and Vickers hardness has increased with increased
reinforcement contents when compared with the base matrix alloy.
Veeresh Kumar et al [2011] observed that the density of the composites increases
with the incorporation of the hard ceramic reinforcement into the matrix material.
Experiments were conducted on the Al 6061-SiC and Al 7075-Al 2O3 to determine the
density by weight to volume ratio and by rule of mixture. The experimental and
theoretical densities of the composites were found to be in line with each other. There is
an increase in the density of the composites compared to the base matrix. The hardness of
a composite increased with increased filler content.
Peng et al [2000] have reported that a fully dense in situ Al 3TiAl2O3 intermetallic
matrix composite containing about 30 vol% of Al2O3 particles was prepared by combining
squeeze casting with combustion synthesis using the chemical reaction between TiO 2 and
Al. The microstructure of the in situ composite was examined using optical microscope,
scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy techniques.
Compressive behavior of the composite was investigated in the temperature range of 25
600C and compared with that of the as-cast Al 3Ti alloy. The in situ formed spherical
Al2O3 particles with a size of 0.21 m were uniformly distributed in the Al 3Ti matrix.
The grain size of the Al3Ti matrix containing a small amount of Al 2Ti precipitate was 2
10 m. The compressive strength of the in situ composite was about 69 times that of the
as-cast monolithic Al3Ti alloy and could be maintained at temperatures up to 900C.
Kaczmara et al [2000] have reported that production cost of composite materials is
higher than those of conventional materials and these costs have to be compensated for
during their service. 10 TiB/Ti-64 has yield strength 230 MPa.
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Doe1et al [1996] have observed that the reinforcement with 5 and 13 m SiC
particles increases the yield stress and tensile strength of Al 7075 in all ageing conditions.
Reinforcement with 60 m SiC particles reduces the yield stress of Al 7075 in the under
aged and peak aged conditions, and increases it only in the over aged condition. The
proof stress of 0.2%, tensile strength and ductility fall as particle size increases. This
reduction in tensile properties, as particle size increases, is believed to be due to smaller
particles being less likely to fail at a given applied stress.
Majid et al [2005] have observed that the manufactured in-situ AlAl2O3 composite
was very prone to gas porosities which yielded negative effects on tensile properties of
the specimens. At room temperature, the strengthening effect of alloying elements was
observed to be more significant than the presence of about 5 wt% of alumina particles in
the aluminum matrix. At a temperature of 300C, the tensile strength of composite
specimens higher than those of the corresponding non composite specimens. The strainhardening effect behavior observed only in composite specimens was considered to be
due to the presence of particles in composite specimens. It is believed that at high
temperature about 300C, the alloying elements lose their strengthening effects.
Chen et al [2001] have reported that the macroscopic stresses are calculated with
different composite factors. The results shown that the dependence of the composite
strength on the particle size, Young's modulus of the particle, particle aspect ratio and
particle volume fraction, as well as the strain-hardening exponent of the matrix material.
In addition, the strength of the PMMC depends on the particle shapes, with the other
parameters fixed. The strength of a cylindrical particle reinforced composite is larger than
that of a spheroidal particle reinforced composite. 17 volume fraction of SiCp/Al 2124
composite with different particle size yielded modulus of 70 Gpa.
Hai et al [2004] have reported that key factors affecting the performance of the
magnesium composites are the matrix composition, the chemistry, the shape, size,
distribution of the reinforcements and the bonding strength at the reinforcement/matrix
interface. High strength in the composites is normally achieved at the cost of
compromised ductility. Grain refinement is an effective way of improving ductility and
strength at ambient temperatures.
Kok [2005] experimented that 2024 Al alloy MMCs reinforced with different sizes
and weight percentages of Al2O3 particles up to 30 wt% have been successfully fabricated
by the vortex method and subsequently applied pressure. The optimum conditions of the
production process were that the pouring temperature was 900C,preheated mold
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temperature was 550C, the stirring speed was 900 rev.min 1, the stirring time after the
completion of particle feeding was 5min,the particle addition rate was 5g/min and the
applied pressure was 6MPa. SEM observations of the microstructures showed that the
coarser particles were dispersed more uniformly, while the finer particles led to
agglomeration and segregation of particles and porosity. The tensile strength and hardness
of MMCs increased but the elongation of them decreased, with decreasing size and
increasing weight percentage of the particles.
Ding et al [2009] concluded that the mechanical performances and microstructure
of some aluminum alloy obtained by Solid-Liquid Mixing (SLM) casting are superior to
the alloy produced by traditional casting and semi-solid casting. Some kinds of high
alloying aluminum alloys could be developed by SLM casting.
Rong et al [1993] have reported that the best ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and
average UTS values of the A356/SiCp test bar castings were 285MPa and 234MPa,
respectively. The UTS increases as the incidence of defects on the surfaces of test bars
decreases. SiC particles were basically clustered in the grain boundaries of the aluminium
in the composite ingot and test bars of the A356/SiCp materials. The distribution of SiC
may become more uniform as the solidification rate increases. Gas porosity existed both
in the ingot and the cast test bars. Crack propagation was found to have originated from
the porosity in the fracture surface of the test bars.
Amir Pakdel et al [2008] studied on the effect of extrusion ratio on the
microstructure, mechanical properties, and fracture behavior of metal-matrix composites
(MMCs) of AA6061 alloy reinforced with 10 volume percent particulate SiC with an
average size of 46 m was studied. The MMC ingots were fabricated by the stir casting
method and were extruded at 450C at a ram speed of 1mm/s and at the extrusion ratios of
6:1, 12:1 and 18:1. Various techniques including metallography, density measurement,
tensile testing, and SEM fractography were utilized to characterize the mechanical
behavior of the MMCs. Results demonstrated that extruded composites possessed
considerably lower porosity contents, higher strength, and enhanced ductility in
comparison with the as cast samples. In addition, further improvement in the mechanical
properties of the extruded composites was noticed by increasing the extrusion ratio.
Fractographic observations revealed that the brittle fracture behavior of the as-cast
specimens was promoted by cracking of the large SiC particle clusters, whereas, the
fracture surfaces of extruded composites showed extensive tear ridge formation by
initiation and growth of shallow dimples around the cracked particles, which is
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characteristic of a ductile fracture process. This change in the fracture behavior and
improvement in mechanical properties is attributed to the break up of particle clusters and
diminishment of pores during the extrusion process.
Ramesh et al [2012] reported that effects of hot extrusion used as a secondary
process in fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites .A comprehensive study was made on
the properties of MMCs after Hot extrusion process. It was found that most properties are
superior as compared to cold extrusion. Properties including hardness, impact strength,
tensile properties, residual stresses etc. were found to be better for most of the MMCs.
The results are discussed with respective plots and reported.
Tarek A. Khalifa et al [2009] reported that Extrusion with 25% reduction in
area % reduces the porosity content of the as-cast composites and causes
redistribution of SiC clusters, resulting in a more uniform distribution of the SiC.
Extruded composites showed relatively higher values of strength. The as cast and
extruded composites exhibit higher creep resistance as compared to the unreinforced
alloy except at relatively low stresses below 10 MPa where the matrix shows a better
creep resistance.
Amir Pakdel et al [2007] reported Al 6061 matrix composites reinforced with
oxidized SiC particles were fabricated by the vortex method and were extruded at 450C,
500C and 550C with the objective of understanding the effect of hot extrusion
temperature on particle fragmentation and fractography of the composite materials.
Reinforcement particles were refined by the hot extrusion. The reduction in particle size
was due to fracture of the larger particles which was a result of the high shear stresses
inherent in the extrusion process and the non-deformability of hard ceramic particles. The
degree of particle refinement was greater at the lower extrusion temperatures due to the
larger extrusion loads required for deformation which led to higher shear stresses acting
on the reinforcements. Clusters of reinforcement particles were eliminated after applying
the extrusion process. Increasing the extrusion temperature led to less cracked particles on
the fracture surfaces of the composite specimens, which can be attributed to the reduced
localized stress concentration in tensile samples because of the better distribution of the
particles in the matrix at higher extrusion temperatures. Samples extruded at higher
temperatures showed more proper flow of the matrix between adjacent particles which
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can result in better bonding at the matrix/reinforcement interface.

2.11 Objective
The following are the objectives of the present work.
a. Fabrication of Al 1100- (Mg) alloy and composite using stir casting method.
Analysis of TiO2 powder particles by using XRD and SEM
b. Characterization of Al 1100-(Mg) alloy and composite before and after extrusion,
such as:
Tensile Strength.
Hardness.
SEM.
Microstructure.

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