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Manufacturing

title

Engineering

ProcessesManufactunng

Engineering

Materials Processing; 40
author

Alting,

Leo.

publisher

isbnlO
print

asin

isbnl3

ebook isbnl3

language

subject

publicationdate

lcc
ddc
subject

0824791290

9780824791292

9780585249346

and

Second Edition, Revised

Leo

The

Processes

Engineering

Manufacturing

Technical

and Expanded

Alting

University

of Denmark

Lyngby,Denmark
English

Version

Edited

by

Geoffrey Boothroyd
of Massachusetts

University

Massachusetts

Amherst,

Marcel

Dekker> Inc.

page_i

New York

\342\226\240
IVsel

\342\226\240
Honc

ko\\c

Page ii
of Congress

Library

Data

Cataloging-in-Publication

Leo

Alting,

mekanisk

[Grundlaeggende

teknologi.

English]

version
edited
Manufacturing engineeringprocesses/ LeoAlting;
English
\342\200\224
2nd
rev.
and
ed.,
by Geoffrey Boothroyd.
expanded,
and materials processing; 40)
p. cm. \342\200\224
(Manufacturing
engineering
of:

Translation

mekanisk

Grundlaeggende

teknologi.

Includes bibliographical referencesand

ISBN
0-8247-9129-0
(alk. paper)

1. Manufacturing

index.

I. Boothroyd,

processes.

III. Series.

G. (Geoffrey).

II. Title.

TS183.A4713
1994
93-33384

670.42-dc20

CIP

second edition

This

by Akademisk

published

Alting

contains figures and tables from

Forlag

Mekanisk

Grundlaggende

new figures

and

\302\251
1974

Teknologi

and tables preparedfor

by Leo
3, 8,

Chapters

10, 11, and 12, unlessotherwisestated.

The publisher

on this

discounts

offers

book when orderedin bulk

write to Special Sales/ProfessionalMarketing

This book

is printed

Copyright
reproduced

\302\251
1994

on

acid-free

the

at

Dekker, Inc. All Rights

by Marcel
or transmitted in any form or by any means,
in writing

permission

Madison

Avenue,

Current printing
10

(last

New

any

from the publisher.

York,

New York

10016

digit):

98765432

PRINTED IN THE

UNITED

more

information,

below.

Reserved.

Marcel Dekker,Inc.

270

For

paper.

photocopying, microfilming, and recording,or by

without

address

quantities.

STATES

OF AMERICA

page_ii

electronic
information

Neither

this book

or mechanical,
storage

nor any

part

may

including

and retrieval

system,

be

Pageiii
Foreword

book the subject of manufacturing

is discussed
within the framework of a fundamental
of processes.
This should help the reader
understand
where a particular process fits
within
the overall
scheme
and
what
be suitable for the manufacture of
manufacturing
processes
might
a particular component.The treatment
of the subject
matter is adequately descriptivefor those
unfamiliar
with the various processes and yet is sufficiently
for an introductory
academic
analytical
course in manufacturing.
One
attractive
feature
of
the
book
is
the
of
particularly
presentation
summaries
of the various manufacturing processes in data sheet form.
In this

classification

are many textbooks that attempt

to deal with manufacturing processes at the introductory
level:
some are formed from
a collection
of individual chapters having no common theme or underlying
of
structure; most are purely descriptiveand of little interest to those wishing to introduce
analyses
Some textbooks concentrate only on the
processes into their teaching; one or two are too analytical.
mechanics
of processes or on the mechanical
of processes such as machining, metal
and
types
forming,
There

so on,
powder

while neglecting the

metallurgy.

The enhancements

None

life

cycle

or chemical

types of

criticisms can be leveledat

included in this second editionbring

chapterson nontraditional
the

metallurgical

of these

approach

processes,

manufacturing

the

systems

to man-

page_iii

processes suchas welding,casting,and

this

textbook

book.

right

(including

up-to-date.

the Japanese

The new

philosophy), and

Page

ufacturing

are valuable

additions. Professor Alting

approach, emphasizing
recycling
manufacturing organizations throughout
the

GEOFFREY

is

the

a well-known

a subject

of products,
world.

BOOTHROYD

page_iv

world

which is rapidly

authority

becoming

on

the
a top

iv

life cycle

priority

for

Pagev
Preface

to

Second

the

Edition

This editionincludesenhancementsand

well as three new

chapters

of the chapters in the First Edition

manufacturing
industry
today.

of several

extensions

of great

on topics

importance

to

the

as

The major revisionsare as follows:Chapter

and
3, on engineering
materials, has been rewritten
In Chapter 8, on joining, the section
sections
on ceramics and composites have
been
added.
on welding
arc formation and maintenance has beencompletely
rewritten
and expanded,
and data sheets on the
In
most
are
on
data
sheets
on the most
10,
important
welding
processes
given. Chapter
casting,
In
have
been
added.
on
data
sheets
on the most
important casting processes
Chapter 11,
plastics,
important plastic processeshave been added.
Chapters

12 to 14 present

new material. Chapter 12,on

nontraditional

such important processes

manufacturing

cycle approach

on the
in

life cycle
manufacturing

fundamentals

includes

systems,

equipment,flexiblemanufacturing
manufacturing, productionplanning,
14,

machining,
and

laser

layer

(rapid prototyping).

Chapter 13, on manufacturing

Chapter

processes,

manufacturing

as electricaldischarge
electron
beam
machining,
abrasive
u
ltrasonic
electrochemical
processing,
jet machining,
machining,
machining,
discusses

systems,

and

scheduling

control,

approach in manufacturing,
with

emphasis

of manufacturing systems, advanced

efficient
manufacturing,
and the Japanese production philosophy.

integrated

CIM-computer

provides

on envi-

page_v

a basic

understanding

of the life

Page

ronmental,

health, and

occupational

developinga sustainable
This

new edition

thus

resource consequences.This

life

cycle

perspective

is a

necessity in

industry.

manufacturing

and more comprehensive treatment

of the manufacturing
a broader context in relation to manufacturing
and the
systems
a more
text
for
academia
as
wellas
for
complete
practicing

an expanded

provides

in
and places the processes
life cycle perspective.Thebookis now
and manufacturing
and industrial engineers.
designers

processes

The development
of

the

of

Technical

experiences

and

contributed the

the

new edition

University
needs
chapter

have

has

been

carried

out by
for about

of Denmark, who uses the text

been important in the selection of the

on manufacturing

I want to express my gratitude

Dr. Siggaard for providing

mainly

to Professor
his

knowledge

Associate Professor J. R. Dissing,

200 students every year. His

new

material.

Dr. K.

Siggaard has

systems.
and
Dissing for his valuable
on manufacturing systems.

LEO ALTING

page_vi

significant

vi

contributions

and

Page vii

Preface

to the

is an

engineering

Manufacturing

in order to

introduced

fully

to the

due

generallybeentaught
student or the

of the

fact

that

in

practicing

At

years

methods

colleges

descriptive

is

of society.

approaches have not

and scientific

field. This field has mainly

engineering

traditional

the

thus

and

industry

engineering

in the manufacturing

technicians and skilledcraftsmen.

discipline in any industrialized society.For many

in engineering curricula that
and significance

stature

demands

the

fulfill

This situation is partly

been

important

been granted the

has not

manufacturing
necessary

First Edition

been

considered

the purview

and universities, manufacturing

manner, which is not

very

challenging

of

has
for either the

engineer.

in computer
technical developments in the last decade,for example,
technology and its
and
applications in design(computer-aideddesign,CAD)
manufacturing
(computer-aided
CAM), have stressedthe need for a more systematic engineering approachin
manufacturing,

Rapid

oriented

manufacturing

This books
manufacturing

The book

toward

representsthe
engineering.

gives a systematic

first

practical
fundamental

problem-solving.
step in the

development of a more systematic

The mission is accomplished

through
and

coherent

picture

the

of the manufacturing

page_vii

following

field.

main

approach

features:

in

viii

Page

book allows a quick survey

to
methods available for the production

The book createsa basis

for

process

systematic

and

Finally, the presentation

is basedon a scientific

imagination

a general

utilizes

To achieve the preceding

goals
new point of view. Traditionally,
the different
description. When
common

process

model

built

the

processing

die

design,

and

systems.

production

and

engineering

systematic tool and

development,

systematic

approach

that stimulates the

background.

been necessary to consider

from a
manufacturing
engineering
are
treated
each
a
specific processes
individually,
requiring
special
are analyzed, it appears
that they can all be describedby a
processes
from a few fundamental elements. A combination
of these elements
all known
(and unknown) processes. This modelis describedin

5 to 11 specific processareasaredescribedand structured

to the
according
1.
It
should
be
mentioned
that
on
and
10,
Chapter
Chapter
casting,
Chapter 11,on
are not fully
to the new model but the reader
is encouraged
technology,
developed
according
as a valuable
exercise.
1. In

Chapter

for

of

it has

up

gives a processmorphology

and limitations

of specific

systematic design of production machinery

and

of the possibilities
components.

be made

The

Chapters

model presented in
plastics

to do

this

In order to
material

give the

(plasticity

necessary

to understand the processes, Chapter 2 introduces

of
materials, and Chapter 4, the fundamentals

background

3, engineering

Chapter

properties,

metalworking

the

reader

theory).

As a reminder that the application

of manufacturing
processes is not determined
and economic viewpoints, Chapter 12 introduces
the subject
of industrial safety.
A

material has been used as

results are very encouraging.

of this

version

years

and the

hours

with 80

discussed
is

training

It is

my

duration

at The

many

engineering

editorial

introductory

comments

Dell K. Allen,

Brigham Young

improvements

for

which

I am

Technical University of Denmark for

improve

drastically

colleges and universities will be able to use

in manufacturing
course
engineering.

and suggested
University,

has

technical

is one semesterof about 42

problems are presented, someof which

hours of homework.Along
with
the course,
classes. The resultsof the course

that

hope

from

of the course

in special problem
in parallel.
given

textbook for a fundamental

For valuable

a textbook

The

solely

class
are

when workshop

the

book

as their

is thanked.
Professor
improvements Dr. G. Boothroyd
and
stimulated
several
manuscript

also read the

very grateful.

LEOALTING

page_viii

Page

Contents

iii

Foreword

Preface to the Second Edition

to the

Preface

First Edition

vii

Process Model

A Morphological

1.1
Introduction

1.2

Structure of

Basic

Manufacturing

Processes

1.3

Material Flow

System

10

1.4
of

Examples

Manufacturing

Processes

16

1.5

Energy Flow System

1.6

33
Flow

Information

System

47

1.7

Summary

49

2
of

Properties

Engineering

Materials

49

2.1

Introduction

50

2.2
Material

Properties

50

2.3

Mechanical

Properties of Materials

Engineering Materials
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Important Material Properties in Manufacturing
Effect of the Processes on the Material Properties
3.4
Classification of Materials
Metallic Materials

Nonferrous Metals
Plastics (High Polymers)

3.11
Composite Materials
Basic Theory of Metalworking
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Two- and Three- Dimensional Systems of Stress
True Stress-Natural Strain Curves and Instability
4.4
Yield Criteria
Effective Stress and Effective Strain
Work of Deformation
Classification of the Manufacturing Processes

Classification of the Processes

Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes
6.1
Introduction
Characteristics of Mass-Conserving Processes
6.3
Typical Examples of Mass-Conserving Processes
Determination of Forces and Energ
6.5
Summary
Solid Materials: Mass-Reducing Processes
7.1
Introduction
Characteristics of Mass-Reducing Processes
7.3
Geometrical Possibilities
7.4
Examples of Typical Mass-Reducing Processes
75
Determination of Forces and Power

page

8
Solid Materials: Joining Processes

239

8.1

239

8.2
Characteristics of the Joining Processes

241

8.3
Fusion Welding

242

8.4
Pressure Welding

255

8.5
Joining Processes Based on Filler Materials with Tf < Tw
Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding

261

8.6
Survey of the Joining Methods

267

8.7
Examples of Typical Joining Processes

269

281

9
Granular Materials: Powder Metallurgy

9.1

281

Introduction
9.2
Characteristics of the Powder Metallurgical Processes

282

9.3
Properties and Applications

294

10
Liquid Materials: Casting Processes

301

10.1

301

Introduction
10.2
Characteristics of Casting Processes

302

10.3
Melting (and Control of Composition)

305

10.4
Mold Production, Pouring, and Solidification

310

10.5
Casting Processes

322

10.6
Geometrical Possibilities

331

10.7
Examples of Typical Casting Processes

336

11

343

Plastics and Plastic Processing

11.1

343

Introduction

11.2

343

Manufacturing Properties of Plastics

11.3

347

Plastic Processing Methods

11.4

357

Examples of Typical Plastic Processing Methods

12
Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes

363

12.1

363

Introduction
12.2
Processes

364

12.3

409

Layer Manufacturing Technology

13

417

Manufacturing Systems

13.1

417

The Fundamentals of Manufacturing Systems

13.2
Advanced Production Equipment

page_xi

422

Page xii

13.3

429

Flexible

Manufacturing Systems
438

13.4
Integrated

Computer

Manufacturing

13.5

442

Efficient

Manufacturing

13.6

444

Production

Planning

and

Control

13.7

447

The Japanese Production

Philosophy

13.8

449

Conclusions

14
Cleaner

451
Manufacturing

451

14.1
Introduction

452

14.2

Cleaner

Manufacturing

453

14.3

Selectionof Manufacturing

Processes

and

Materials

454

14.4

Waste Reduction

Program

454

14.5
Saving

Energy

Program
455

14.6

Pollution

Minimization

455

14.7

Better

Conditions

Working

14.8

455

Conclusion

457

15

Notes on

Industrial

Safety

15.1

457

Introduction

15.2
Industrial

457

Safety

15.3
Risks in Industry

458

and Risk Analyses

459

15.4

Governmental

Laws

and Regulations
461

References

Problems
Answers

465

to Selected Problems

481

483

Appendix: Unit Conversions

487

Index

page_xu

1.1

Model

INTRODUCTION

In industrial

used. To

processes,

select

the

including

tolerances

are

technically

a given product,

of the

methods
processes or manufacturing
and economically best manufacturing
to have a broad, fundamental
necessary

many different

production,

be able to
for

sequence
knowledge

and

Process

Morphological

it

is

of the various
possibilities and limitations
manufacturing
the work materials used and the geometries,surface
finishes,

required.

in detail, but
processes are not considered
are based is
structure on which
all processes
and
this
a
the
elements
in
structure,
defining
considering
of
systematic
materials processing is obtained, which
is based
on a
understanding
and
allows
evaluation
of
the
an
general engineering background
possibilitiesand
of the different processes. This approach
has a broad, general
limitations
in the
application since
it reflects invariant relations, methods,or principles,
but
context of this
book it will be related only to those processescharacteristic
of the

In

this

first

a coherentpicture
introduced. By

manufacturing

chapter
of

the individual

the common

industry.

Chapter1

1.2

OF

STRUCTURE

BASIC

PROCESSES

MANUFACTURING

The term
object,
available:

To produce
(1) material,

purpose of the

any

in

change

(2) energy,
it is

process,

in the properties
of an
information
content (form data),
state,
be
property, three essential agents must
(3) information.
Depending on the main

hardness,

geometry,

including

on.

so

and

be defined as a change

in general

can

process

and

either a

material

following sections, only

process.
considered, especiallythose producing
geometrical
or both (1). This does not,
material
however,
properties,

process, or an
will be
processes

an energy

process,

In the

information

material

or changes
a limitation

changes
imply

in

of the

general principles.

1.2.1 General ProcessModel

The

a material

that

material

flow,

1.

flow, and

energy

flow,

Through

of the
of the final

mass

The

mass

to
= 0)

(dM

work

0)

as

follows:
the

can

be

as follows:

characterized

can be
a shape

circumscribed by
change is brought

the

initial

about

Material (o) (Material

product

(i)

1.1

1.2:

Fig.

processes
processes
assembly or joining processes

can be characterized

component
that

means

Material (i)

FIGURE

in

shown

materials

work

* The geometry of the final

material geometry, which
the removal of material.

Information

as

material,

Mass-reducing processes (dM <

Energy

types,

is equal to (or nearly equal to)

which means, when
to
referring
the material is manipulated
to change
its shape.

initial

that

geometricalchanges,

flow.

corresponding

processes

Mass-conserving

in Fig. 1.1. The model

flow system:
associated

to mass-conserving
to mass-reducing

corresponding

flow,

Converging

the

by

main

three

corresponding

flow,

Diverging

shown

as

information

be divided into

flow can

Material

2.
3.

can be illustrated
process can be described

model

process

general

shows

(i)

The general

Process

Energy

4- waste)

(o)

Information (o)

process model. Here/ designates

inputs

and o

outputs.

by

Model

Process

Morphological

M
Mi

(^J

Process

(a)

M1
oo
M,

H2
o

Process

(waste)

(b)
Mi

M2

Process

(M ^-M^+M.2)

(O
flow: (a) mass-conserving
processes
or mass-increasing
(dM < 0); (c) assembly
0); (b) mass-reducing
processes
The numbers
> 0). Here M means massof material,
i input, and o output.
processes (dM
and 2 refer to the number of material elements.
three

The

1.2

FIGURE

main

of material

types

(dM =

Assembly or joining
\342\200\242
The
that
the

(sometimes

expressed

as dM

> 0) can

be

follows:

as

characterized

processes

geometry is obtained
of the final
geometry

final

of the

masses

components
methods.

the previous

These three types of material

depending

on the

process,

lubricants,

cooling

fluids,

in material

by

mass

the

properties

processes.

flow

have
flow

auxiliary

and filler
without

which

assembling

components so
equal to the sum of
of
by one or both

or joining

is approximately
are manufactured

material but,
necessary, such as

been related to the work

of material

may be

at a change
material. Mostprocesses
aiming
in geometry are mass-conserving
change

as energy
associated with the process can be characterized
or
of
loss
removal
and
to
the
transmission
energy.
workpiece,
supply, energy
what might be termed shape and property
flow
includes
Information
as the
be characterized
can
A certain
information.
geometry for a certain material
The

energy

flow

Chapter 1

change

the material. In
on the
impressed

for

information

shape

is

information

to the

sum of the

process, shapeshape

geometry-changing

material so that

final

the

and the shape-change

shape information
The
information
is created
impressed
shape-change
or
die
a
a
certain
an
interaction
between
tool
contour
and a
(with
content)
by
material
and
the
of
movement
for
the
work
tool
or
die.
This
means
that
pattern
a geometry-changing
a
is
characterized
material
flow
on
which,
by
process
by
of an energy flow, the shape-change information
means
to the
corresponding
is equal

information

initial

by the process.

information

information

is

flow

impressed.

a change

Impressing

more steps, which

l0 = /, +

in

A/,, +

on a

geometry

material can

be carried out

or

in one

that

means

AIp2

\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242

(1.1)

*im

where I0 is the desiredgeometry,

/, the initial shape information
and Ipn the shape-change
information
for a single process.The
is determined
processes
necessary
partly for technical and partly

of the

material,
of

number

economical

for

reasons.

Similarly, the property information

so on, involves the sum of the

and

changes

in

The

proper

interaction

includes

knowledge

and so

on. This

is governed by the
component,
of the forces, power, friction
which is
control
information,

Based on the three

is shown

manufacturing
process

flow,

flow

described,

systems

in Fig.

1.3.

In

this

and

the

control
and
partly

flow

systems,

information,
lubrication,
analytical

which
data,

cutting
and

partly

a complete model of a
the various kinds of material
information
flow associated with

context,

and shape and property

will be considered.

flow,

energy

strength,

material

later.

is discussed

empirical,

by the various processes.

between these three fundamental

hardness,

produced

properties

desired

yieldingthe

for example,
of the initial

flow,
properties

processes

manufacturing

Morphological Structure of the Processes

1.2.2

it appears that
can all be
processes
they
manufacturing
model
built
a
few
a
from
fundamental
up
by
general morphological
related
to the three flow
these elements, a
systems.
By combining
which
all
from
obtained
can be
is
manufacturing
processes
morphology

When

analyzing

described
elements

process
deduced.

The

elements

fundamental

flow

Material

State

in this

of material

Basic process
Type

of

flow

(process

type)

morphological

model are:

Process

Morphological

Model

Energy

flow

Control

Shape

Shape

information

(Si)

Information

information^^

(S0

>

Shape

information

flow

FIGURE 1.3

Energy

Model of a

material

process.

flow

Tool/die
supply

Energy

Transfer

medium

Equipment
characteristics

Energy

Type

of energy
flow

Information

Surface

creation

Pattern

of

(principles)

movement

for

Material

Tool/die

Each of these elements

can
have different
in Fig.
1.4. By
\"values,\" as shown
choosing a value from each column the fundamental basis for a material
process
is obtained.
Some of the combinations are physically
but, in general,
impossible

Chapter 1

field,

model

1.4,

in Fig.

shown

which the

geometry
to create

type of

flow

various

single elements

must

are

their elements

and

systems

the

properties

desired

change

the process.

characterizing

system

deals with the state of the material

for
are changed, the basic processesthat
in geometry and/or
and the
properties,

State of Material

1.3.1

states

different

can

solid or incoherent
differencesin the

material,

in

its

The

the

of the

process structures. In
is also important. Here a

composition

materials
to

be

may

helpful,

the forming

evaluate

into

division

usual

states

different

different

quite

and heterogeneous
materials and partly

gaseous.

sequences,

processing
is maintained.

materials

later, result

and

granular,

a subdivision

consideredas

material can be processed

as shown in Fig.
are,
When processing compositematerials,
state can be
appear at the same time. The granular
can be divided
of the solid state, sincesolids
into coherent
materials.
solid
Considering the technological
(granular)

in which the

states

various

1.4, solid, fluid,

granular

the

flow

material

the

and/or

be used

The

of the

flow

SYSTEM

FLOW

MATERIAL

1.3

can

the three

consequently,

next.

discussed

As

the possibilities

generate new process ideas.

model, a knowledge

to use the

obtained;

of

survey

to establish
a process.
coherent picture of the process
and limitations of the various

necessary

ingredients

a systematic and

gives

be used to

also

can

able

be

To

be

a quick

enabling

processes;it

basic

all the

contains

model

the

This morphological

materials
into

division

to

properties

in

obtain

shown

as

will,

state of the

to the

addition

partly

solid and

homogeneous
for
ideas

new

to the

relation

basic

processes.

Homogeneousmaterials
the

form

include

of chemical

Heterogeneousmaterials
Materials can

further

include
be

homogeneous

mixtures

and pure materials

mechanical

mixtures.

by their

characterized

thermal, chemical,

depending on the purpose of the analysis

be conducted. Clearly, in a study of manufacturing processes, a broad
is important.
of materials and their
properties
knowledge and
understanding
and
mechanical,

manufacturing

1.3.2

Basic Processes

Basicprocessesare defined
by

the

properties,

as

the properties
of the
of their interaction
nature

geometryand/or

in

compounds and elements.

those

processes
with

the

that create

changes

basic processes are

A manufacturing
material.

The

materials.

in

to

the

characterized
process

Infonnation

flow

Material

flow

Energy

Energy characteristics
in equipment

in

supply

tool/die systems
state of

basic

type

material

process

process

solid

mechanical

thermal

granular
1

chemical

liquid

of

material

massconserving

none

forming

|
1-D

translation

2-D forming

rotation

gaseous

free

forming

energy supply
through

energy

type of

characteristic

energy

active

work

movements

restricted

elastic

pressure

motion

differences

restricted

plastic

mass

rigid

translation

if

combination
of

both

pressure

forces

restricted

conduction

heat

systems
(torches, etc)

open

radiation

general

combinations
of these
to the

the

1.4

The morphological

/,

infonnation
flow/impression
from tool/die to material

/,

kinenutic movements from

equipment to tool/die

structure

of material

bath systems

unspecified

flow,

chemical

tool/die

energy source utilized

\302\243*,
in the equipment

FIGURE

systems

3r

tool/die

from the

the

electrical

processes.

thermal

f
closed systems
(ovens, etc)

heat

granular

flow

\302\243t
energy supply
to
equipment

5\"

jz:

combination
of both

energy supply
\302\243,
material
from

a*

|
rotation

bquid

Morphological
process model

o
\342\226\2403

mechanical

joining

none

forming

transfer
media

total

massreducing

pattern of movement
tool/die

surface

creation

>

flow,

electrochemical
1
basic processes
1\342\200\224mechanical
basic
2\342\200\224thermal

processes

basic
3\342\200\224chemical

processes

chemical

Chapter

Phase 1

Phase

Phase

Basic

Basic

Basic

process

process

process

1
1

basic

(secondary

change)}
primary

pre-processes)

processes,

(property

\342\226\240
Shaping

Preparation,

'

1.5

Division of a

of a

consists

normally

of the material flow.

typical

\342\200\242

basic processes,which
of basic

series

processes can

phases.

constitute

be divided

the
into

structure
three

phases:

1, which consists of the

suitable state\342\200\224geometry

Phase

cropping,

etc.)\342\200\224for

Phase 2, which
geometry and/or

consists

change

The basic processesassociated

The structure

processes.

designing
The
Table

interaction
described

manufacturing

shown

with
in

Fig.

the component

bring

deburring,

into

etc.)

basic processesassociatedwith

processes(according
phases

into

the desired

create

that

cooling,

1.5, where the

in Fig.

material

melting, sawing,
in geometry and/or properties

processes that

(solidification,

the

(heating,

change
primary
of the basic processes

called the primary basic

2 are

that bring

processes
properties

in properties
of the basic

This division is illustrated

phase

basic
and/or

the

Phase 3, which consists

the specified end state

in

into three

process

manufacturing

series of

Any

(secondary basic pro-

| cesses,post-processes)

basic

processes)

FIGURE

treatment

After

1 and

3 are

1.5 is very

useful

to

the primary

called secondary
when

analyzing

goal).
basic

and

processes.

into
three
main categories, as shown
processes can be divided
1.1. Each of these categoriesis characterized
by the nature of the
are
with
the work material. The various single basic processes

basic

later.

relevant series of
objective for a processhas been established,
be
Here
the
actual type of
basic
can
found.
secondary
processes
primary
when
has
a significant
material
influence, since the materials react differently
actions.
If
or
chemical
to
thermal,
mechanical,
aiming
processes
only
subjected
of possible
at geometrical changes are considered,the number
primary basic
in
to
those
shown
Table
1.2.
in
is
reduced
2
l.S)
Fig.
processes(phase
When

the main

and

A Morphological

Categories of BasicProcesses

The Three Main

1.1

TABLE

Process Model

Mechanical

Chemical

Thermal

Elastic

deformation

Plastic

deformation

Brittle

fracture

Ductile fracture

Heating

Solution/dissolution

Cooling

Combustion

Melting

Hardening

Solidification

Precipitation

Phase transformation

Flow

Evaporation

Mixing

Condensation

etc.

etc.

Diffusion

Separation

Placing

Transport etc.

TABLE

1.2

Change

Geometry

of basic

Category

Processes

Basic

Primary

Used

in

that

Processes

Material

Basic processes

process

Plastic deformation

Mechanical

Fracture

and ductile)

(brittle

Elastic deformation
Flow
Thermal

(filling,

placing, etc.)

Melting

Evaporation

Solution-dissolution

Chemical

(electrolytical

Deposition

(electrolytical and chemical)

and chemical)

Combustion

It

is the
the

coupling

with

and number

types
the

information

material

flow

system

1.6 showsone example.To

to

distinguish

The
flow

the

way

established

it is

in which

of secondarybasicprocesses
flow exists here.

that

A close

required.

Flow Type (Type of Processes)

1.3.3
The

basic process and

primary

determines

between

as

give

graphically

more

detailed

shown

in Table

metallic materials.

1.3. Examples

in various

illustrated

examples

three flow types as shown

can be characterized

processes

manufacturing

system
column for

the

can be

in

it

would

Fig.

ways. Figure
be necessary

1.2.

according to

the

of processesare listed in

material
the

last

10

Chapter

Phase 2

I
\342\226\240
E

Phase
State

State

Phase
I

IE

IE

State

L_

Basic

Basic

Basic

process

process

process

(state)

material

energy

patte

rn of

move

(E)

information

(I)

auxiliary

material

To

phase

1, 2,or

Basic

process

1
State

Schematic

1.6

FIGURE
illustrations

be drawn

can

material flow system.

flow types.

of the

illustration

main

the

within

it is possible to distinguish
As mentioned in Section
1.2.1,
of flow: mass-conservingprocesses,mass-reducing
processes,
Selection
of flow or processtype depends
joining
processes.

of material, geometry,

EXAMPLESOF MANUFACTURING

1.4
In this
1.3

section a short

is given,

described

to

partly

background for the

here.

chapters

(1,2,4).

1.4.1

Forging

will

individual

be characterized

(metal), mechanical

sections.

primary

be

the

and

three types
assembly or

on the

requirements
price, and other factors.

examples

process

as: mass

are

mentioned

in

Table

to give
discussion and partly
a
and joining processes are not

Assembly
in
described

processes

basic

among

PROCESSES

the foregoing

illustrate

following

1.3, and the

can

descriptionof

The examples

of Table

Forging

number,

tolerance,

surface,

More detailed

accordance with the structure

in more detail in later

discussed

conserving,solidstate

process\342\200\224plastic

deformation.

of

work

material

A wide

vari-

Morphological

of Technological

Classification

1.3

TABLE

Material ProcessesUsedin

Category of

Process or
flow

11

Model

Process

State of

type

Mass-conserving

material

Solid

Mechanical

Plastic

Materials\"

Process

Primary

basic process basic process

examples
Forging

and

rolling

deformation

processes

(dM =

Shaping

0)
Granular

Mechanical

Flow and

plastic Powder compaction

deformation

Mass-reducing

Fluid

Mechanical

Flow

Solid

Mechanical

Ductile

processes

WM<0)

Thermal

Casting

fracture
and brittle
fracture

Melting

and

evaporation

Turning,

and
Electrical

discharge

machining (EDM)
and

Chemical

milling,
drilling

cutting

Dissolution

Electrochemical

Combustion

Cutting

Plastic

Friction

machining (ECM)

Joining processes
Atomic

bonding

Solid

Mechanical

welding

deformation
Fluid

(vicinity

of the
Adhesion

Solid

Mechanical

Flow

Mechanical

Flow

Welding (fusion)

joint)

(fluid

Brazing

filler

material)
\"Only typical process

examples are

mentioned.

processes are used, and Fig. 1.7a shows the most common of
is heated
to a suitable working
and
drop forging. The rnetal
temperature
in
die
die
then
the
lower
The
is
lowered
that
the
so
metal
is
placed
cavity.
upper
is squeezed
forced
to fill the cavity. Excess material
out between the die faces at
in a later trimming
the periphery
as flash, which
is removed
When the
process.
term forging is used, it usually
means hot forging. Cold forging
has several
The material
names.
loss in forging
specialized
is usually quite
small.
processes
of forging

ety

these:

since
the
forged components require some subsequent machining,
and surfaces obtainable are not usually satisfactory
for a finished
machines
with
include
product.Forging
presses
drop hammers and forging
or
mechanical
drives.
machines
These
involve
hydraulic
simple
translatory

Normally,

tolerances

motions.

'

(a)

k^^V\\VkV^VV^V^V^'W\\^^W

%/

N/

T~

W.1

J\342\200\236

TWVI

^
v
*\342\200\242
1
')}}>/
5

^c

-\\ u

21

(c)

\\\\

\"XT

*?\342\226\240\"\342\226\240\342\226\240'

H\\gjj/TJ
7*Y- -jrr

(d)

FIGURE 1.7
forging;

state of

12

(b)

rolling,

work

processes

Mass-conserving

material;

granular state of work

(d)

casting.

in the
material;

solid

state

of

(c) powder

material: (a)
compaction and fluid

the work

A Morphological

13

Process Model

1.4.2 Rolling
as: mass

be characterized

can

Rolling
mechanical

basic

primary

conserving,solidstate

process\342\200\224plastic

of

material,

is extensively
Rolling
and so on. Figure
beams,

deformation.

of plates, sheets, structural

used in the manufacturing
or sheets. An ingot is produced in casting and in
of plates
1.7b shows the rolling
of the
in
while hot. Since the width
it
is
reduced
several
thickness,
usually
stages
work material is kept
its length is increased accordingto the
constant,
is carried out cold to improve
reductions. After
the last hot-rolling stage, a final
stage
In rolling,
the profiles of
surface
and tolerances and to increase strength.
quality
to produce the desired geometry.
the rolls are designed

1.4.3 Powder Compaction

be characterized as: mass conserving,
state of
granular
basic process\342\200\224flow and plastic deformation. In this
of metal powders is mentioned,
but generally
context, only
compaction
compaction
of molding sand, ceramic
and so on, also belong in this category.
materials,
In the compaction of metal
is filled
(see Fig. 1.7c) the die cavity
powders
Powder

can

compaction

material, mechanical

with a
500

measured volume

N/mm2.

During

of the solid

material.

\"welded\"together,
the

and compacted at pressures typically

the particles are packedtogether
phase,

powder

pressing

around
and

Typical densities after compactionare 80% of the density

Because
of the plastic deformation, the particles are

deformed.

plastically

compaction,

of
this

giving

components

sufficient

are

strength

to

withstand

After

handling.

heat-treated\342\200\224sintered\342\200\224normally

at

70-80%

of

the melting temperature of the material.

The atmosphere
for sintering
must
be
controlled to prevent oxidation. The duration
of the sintering
process varies
between
30 min and 2 h. The strength
of the components
after sintering
can,
on
and the process parameters, closely approach
the material
the
depending
of the corresponding solid material.
strength
The
die cavity, in the closed position, corresponds
to the
desired
geometry.
machinery includes both
vary between 6 and
described
in more detail in

Compaction

rates

production
compaction

1.4.4

is

components
9.
Chapter

and

hydraulic
per minute.

presses. The

Powder

Casting

Casting can be characterized

mechanical

mechanical
100

basic

process\342\200\224filling

mass

as:
of

the

fluid state of material,

Casting is one of the oldest
known
processes. The material is

conserving,
die cavity.

methods and one of the best

manufacturing
melted and poured into a die cavity corresponding to the desired geometry (see
takes the shape of the die cavity and this geometry
Fig. 1.7d). The fluid material
is finally
stabilized
by the solidification of the material.

Chapter1

14
The

or steps

stages
of the

melting

the solidification.

furnaces,
1.4.5

casting processare the

the

or

filling

Dependingon

the

are obtained.

accuracies

dimensional

in a

material,

machinery,

mold-making

of a

making

of the
pouring
mold material,

material

suitable mold, the

the

into

cavity,

and

different properties and

Equipment used in a casting process includes
and casting machines.

Turning
can

Turning

reducing, solidstate

as: mass

be characterized

mechanical primary basic

The

process\342\200\224fracture.

turning

of

work

process,

material,

which is the

to
widely used mass-reducing process, is employed
material
in
the
form
of
of
by
removing
cylindrical shapes
chips
types
tool
from
the work
material with a cutting
material
(see Fig. 1.8a). The work
rotates
and the cutting
tool
is fed longitudinally. The cutting
tool
is much harder
of types of lathes are
than
the work material. A variety
and more wear resistant

best known

manufacture

and

most

all

some

employed,

are automatic

of which

by electric

powered

motors

which,

through

in

lathes are usually

supply the necessary

The

operation.

various

gears,

and provide the feed motion

to the tool.
torque to the work material
A wide variety
of matching
operations or processes based on the same metalthe most common are milling
and drilling
among
cutting principle are available;
the tool shape and the pattern
carried out on various machine tools. By varying
different
can be produced (see
work-tool
of relative
motions, many
shapes
is given in
processes
Fig. 1.8band c). A detailed description of machining
Chapter 7.

1.4.6

Electrical Discharge Machining

Electrical

solid

discharge

state of work

evaporation

numerous

(see

machining

(EDM)

material, thermal
1.8d). In EDM,

Fig.
small electrical

can be

primary
material

characterizedas: mass

basic

process\342\200\224melting

is removed

by the

discharges (sparks) betweenthe

the inverse shape of
having

work

reducing,
and

erosive action of
material

and the

the
tool (electrode), the latter
desired
geometry.
difference between the work material
Each discharge occurs when
the potential
and the tool is large enough to cause a breakdown in the fluid medium, fed into
a conductive
the tool and workpieceunder
the gap between
pressure,
producing
is
fluid
which
mineral
oil
or kerosene,
channel.
The
medium,
normally
spark
has several functions. It serves as a dielectric fluid and coolant, maintains a
The
material.
to the flow of current, and removesthe eroded
uniform resistance
at rate of thousands
of times
occurs
per second, always occurs
sparking, which
and
at the point where the gap between the tool and workpieceis smallest
of
material
is
and
so
that
a
amount
much
heat
small
dispersed
evaporated
develops
of
into
the fluid.
The material surface has a characteristic
appearance
composed
numerous small craters.

Process

Morphological

FIGURE
turning; (b)

1.8

drilling;

electrochemical
machining

processes

Mass-reducing

(c)

milling;

(ECM);

(f)

15

Model

(d) electrical
torch

cutting.

in

the

solid state

discharge

of the

machining

work
(EDM);

material:
(e)

(a)

16

Chapter

Electrochemical

1.4.7
Electrochemical

be characterized

can

(ECM)

machining

material, chemicalprimary

of work

state

solid

Machining
basic

as: mass reducing,

process\342\200\224electrolytic

of the workpiece is established

an
where
electric
the
work
material
is made the anode, and the
circuit,
through
which
the
is
inverse
of
the
desired
is made
tool,
approximately
shape
geometry,
the cathode. The electrolytes
used
are
water-based
saline
solutions
normally
dissolution

dissolution

Electrolytic

and sodium nitrate in 10-30%

The voltage, which
solutions).
the range 5-20 V, maintains
current
densities, 0.5-2 A/mm2,
high
\342\200\242
removal
0.5-6
cm3/min
A 1000,
on
rate,
relatively high
depending

chloride

(sodium

is in

usually

giving

material.

work

the

1.8e).

(Fig.

Flame

1.4.8

Flame cutting

Cutting
be characterized

can

chemical

material,

basic

primary

as: mass

reducing, solidstate

work

of

In flame

1.8f).

(Fig.

process\342\200\224combustion

where combustion
metal) is heated to a temperature
can
start.
the
heat
liberated
should be
oxygen
supply
Theoretically,
by
to maintain
the reaction once started, but because
of heat losses to the
sufficient
a certain amount
of heat must be supplied
atmosphere and the material,
to
A
is
heat
for starting
torch
both
and maintaining the
continuously.
designed
provide
is the oxyacetylene cutting
reaction. Most widely
used
where heat is
torch,
of acetylene and oxygen. The oxygen
created by the combustion
for cutting is
center
a
hole
in
the
of
the
torch.
through
normally
supplied
tip
(a ferrous

material

the

cutting,

the

The flame
For other

cutting

can only

process

materials, cutting
been

melting\342\200\224have

the reason

cutting

be used for

on the thermal

(arc cutting,

arc plasma cutting,

processes

developed
is listed
in

Table 1.3

under

both

materials.

combustible

easily

based

thermal

basic

process\342\200\224

etc.).

This

and chemical

is

basic

processes.

1.5

FLOW

ENERGY

SYSTEM

to Fig. 1.4 the next system to consider in the morphological

process
model is the energy flow. To carry out the basic processes describedabove,
to the work
a transmission medium.
must
material
be provided
energy
through
The energy
flow
for mechanical,
thermal, and chemical basic processesis
According

next.

discussed

The

energy

flow system

the tool/die system

and

the

(see Fig. 1.4)can

is supplied to
equipment system describesthe
how

the energy

be

divided

system. The
material
and the

equipment
the

characteristics

of the

into two

subsystems:

tool/die system
transfer

media

describes

used.

energy supplied

from

The
the

17

Process Model

A Morphological

of energy used to generatethis. In the following sections

the various transmission media, and the
principles,
it
of the two systems, but
energy sources are describedwithout
separation
be kept in mind by the reader.
should
the type

and

equipment

the possible energy

Energy Flow for

1.5.1
The

supply

or ductile

brittle

basic process

fracture,

(Fig. 1.9) can

be

and

Pressuredifferences
Mass forces generated

across
in

and

to carry

Energy

out

elastic

a mechanical

through-.

material

the work

and

medium

work material
the work material
the

If the energy is suppliedthrough

can, depending on the actual

flow.

provided

betweena transfer

Relative motions

are (Table 1.2)plastic

basic processes

mechanical

primary

deformation,

MechanicalBasicProcesses

active

motions,

the state

process, be rigid,granular,
the energy, the state of the

of the

medium

transfer

or fluid.

When pressure
can be
medium

differences are used to supply

transfer
or gaseous
plastic, elastic, granular,
(including vacuum). In the work material
itself, mass forces are generated
primarily
through
gravity, accelerations, or
the field
means
that the medium situated
between
magnetic fields, which
the work

and

generator

material is

unimportant

as

long

as it does

not

interfere

with

transmission.
How relative motions, pressuredifferences,
and
mass forces are generated
and
and which energy sources are available
established
will
now be discussed.
and it can be seen that the
Figure 1.10 showsthe energy
supply
schematically,
can be generated:
necessary mechanicalenergy
the energy

As mass

forcesdirectly

in the

motions

and pressure

relative

As

(indirectly)

and

transmitted

(contour 1 on Fig.
differences outside the work material
through a suitable medium (contour 2 on
work material itself

1.10)
Fig.

1.10)

Further,
energy
energy

the energy can be provided

either
the work material (total
throughout
or
to
of
the
times (partial or local
material
at
different
supply)
portions
in
the
latter
case
the
source
be
must
moved relative to the
supply);
energy

material.

The energy
pressure

differences,

sources

can be used to create the

mass forces necessaryto carry

that

or the

processesare mechanical,
chemical(see

chemical

Table

electrical

1.4). (The

primary basic

use of the

relative

motions,

the

mechanical basic
and
thermal
or
(including
magnetic),
same
sources
to
out
thermal
or
energy
carry

processesis discussed

later.)

out the

18

FIGURE
mechanical
established

forces.

Chapter

1.9
basic

Examples
processes

by pressure

basic
of the establishment of mechanical
processes:
established by relative
motions; (b) mechanical basic
established
basic
differences; (c) mechanical
processes

(a)

processes
by

mass

19

Process Model

A Morphological

~1
Energy process

Direct energy
)^

\342\200\224

contour

-1
M

'

supply,

basic

Mechanical

Indirect

energy

process

L
\342\200\224V

Energy supply for mechanical

and energy source). M
for chemical, and T for thermal.
1.10

FIGURE

process,work
C

electrical,

material,

Mechanical

Energy

basic

processes (interaction among

for mechanical
energy, E for

stands

basic

Sources

The availablemechanical

energy

sources

are:

Kinetic energy
Translation
Rotation

Combinations

Potential

energy

Gravitational

Elastic

Pressurein

a medium

(kinetic

energy

the

molecules)

relative

motions,

in

Vacuum

These energy sources

or mass forces
to

selected

are usedto
the

through

fulfill

create

tool/die

the requirements

system. The

media of

pressure differences,
transfer

must

be

involved.

Electrical Energy Sources

Electrical
energy

forces.

to

energy

be

delivered

be used directly or indirectly

to create
mechanical
or
through relative motions, pressure differences,

can

mass

Chapter 1

20

1.4

TABLE

Diagram for

Morphological

(Supply)

Electrical

Mechanical

Energy

Kinetic

Principles

energy

(generating

Potential

energy

mechanical

Pressure

in

Systems

in

Primary

Combustion

Electromagnetic

Explosion

elastic

Thermal

expansion

(detonation)

Magnetostriction

Vacuum
Gravitation

Thermal

Chemical

Discharge

fields

medium

energy)

Transfer

Flow

Energy

Basic Processes

Mechanical

Other reactions

Piezoelectric
effects

and

energy

media

Rigid

(state)

Plastic

Elastic

Granular

Gaseous
Liquid

Vacuum

Unspecified

Transmission

Relative

(principles of

Pressure differences

in

utilization

(active)

motions

Mass forces

mechanical

basic

processes)

Two Electrodes.
A discharge of electricalenergy
stored
between two electrodes
in a fluid medium (usually
will,
water)
because of the sudden evaporation of the fluid in the discharge channel, create
a shock wave, which can be applied directly to the work material through
or indirectly
a suitable
in the form of kinetic
pressure differences
energy
through

DischargeBetween

in condensers

medium (see Fig. 1.11).

of electrical energy through
a coil
that can be utilized
or
directly
the
work
the
direct
utilization
of
material
In
is
fields,
indirectly.
magnetic
field is induced in the
placed inside or outsidea coil, so that a magnetic
or repelling
be of sufficient
the coil field. These forces
can
material, attracting
flow
in
materials
to
create
metallic
(see Fig. 1.12a). In the
plastic
strength
Fields.

Electromagnetic

can create

indirect

transient

sufficiently

of the

utilization

or translations

in

which

discharge

magnetic

fields

magnetic fields, these fieldsare used to

material in the form of an iron core.
for the process through
can be adapted

a solid

mechanical energy

The

create

rotations

This produces
for exgears,

A Morphological

21

Process Model

condenser

(to

Electrodes

battery)

active

Medium in

Medium

movement
(kinetic energy)

1111,11,1111 i.jcq

in

Workplace
,lwUT\302\273

(a)

lb)

1.11

FIGURE
differences);

utilized

(b)

Discharge of electrical energy:

indirectly (relative motions).

utilized

(a)

directly (pressure

ample (see Fig. 1.12band

electric
c). The most common example here is the
As shown in Fig. 1.12c, in specifying the energy system, the
then the different principles
requirements for the basic process are first
determined,
are investigated and specified.
these
fulfill
requirements

motor.

Magnetostrictive Effect. Some materials,

materials,

whereas

contracts,

subjected

to

can

a field

and

ferrous

aluminum

fluctuating

ultrasonic machining
shaping the solid material

be used in

suitably

Piezoelectric
Effect.

The

frequency,

is obtained.
connected

field. This means

The amplitude
to the

interaction

can be varied

oscillator (see

effect is exhibited

piezoelectric

there is a reversible

in which

crystalline
materials

If these materials are

expand.
an oscillator (20 kHz) which

alloys

at a high

ferromagnetic

particularly

subjected to a magnetic field. Nickel

when they are

dimensions

change

to

between

by

by

Fig. 1.13).

some

an elastic

strain

is strained by the
of a stress, it becomes
application
dielectrically
polarized (i.e., a certain
potentialdifference
when the crystal is subjected to a potential
arises).
Conversely,
it will change dimensions correspondingto the elastic
strain. This
difference,
principle is used in various pressure or force transducers.
and

an electric

that

when

such

a material

Chemical Energy
Chemical

energy

on

depending
in an increase

the

can
energy

source

in pressure

utilized directly in the

indirectly by introducing
work material.

mechanical energy in different

ways,
combustible gases, etc.), resulting
(explosives,

be converted to

form

in

the

medium.

The resulting

high

of pressure differences acrossthe

motions between the transfer

relative

pressure
work
medium

can

material
and

be
or
the

Chapter 1

\342\200\224

Workpiece

Expansion

Shrinking

Insulator

(a)

Electric
-

Iron core

\"\342\226\241=

Gear

motor

Ceil

Tf

Punch

IV\342\226\240
^ .v.\")

Blanking

TTT^

\342\200\242
Drill

Drilling

(b)

Mechanical

Mechanical

Electrical

Basic
Electric

Principles

of

motor

process
(energy

transfer
requirements)

(c)

FIGURE

1.12

magnetic

field

designing

are

the

shown.

Indirect

energy

utilization

be utilized
system based

can again

of

electrical

energy through magnetic fields. The

or (b) indirectly,
(a) directly
(c) Typical steps in
on
utilization
indirect
of electrical (magnetic) energy

A Morphological

23

Process Model

A granular

material

suspended in
(abrasive

Mechanical

slurry).

basic process

established through

motions
(the

is

fluid

relative

between a medium
and the workpiece.
grains),

Tool

medium

Transfer

Utilization

1.13

FIGURE

of magnetostriction

in

ultrasonic

machining.

Figure 1.14 shows schematicallya combustion

process,
involving
gasoline,
of an explosive. These principlescan
oil, or other materials, and the detonation
be utilized
in many different ways
can be used.in
1.14). Combustion
(Fig.
forging
machinery; detonation can be used in explosive
formingand
forming,
explosivewelding,
and compaction,
for example.

Thermal Energy
Thermal
utilizing
generate

thermal

pressures

The

preceding

can be summarized
is used

diagram

1.5.2
Here

only

must

possible energy

Flow for

flow

(supply)

systems.

Thermal Basic Processes

thermal basic processesthat require

heat (melting,
basic
a heat source
(Table 1.2). For a thermal
process,
The heat source may consist
of an energy process where
or mechanical
energy is convertedinto heat, or of a heat
1.16 shows the relations among
the
heat
the work
source,

the primary
discussed

are

be

or heat

to generate

Energy

evaporation)

can be convertedinto mechanical

energy
through
motions
or to
expansion of materials to providerelative
in a medium (Fig. 1.IS).
of the energy flow for mechanical
basic processes
descriptions
in the morphological
shown
in
Table
1.4. This
diagram

energy

the

available.

electrical,

chemical,

reservoir.

Figure

material, and the basic process.The

heat

can

be generated

inside the

work

ma-

24

Chapter

\342\231\246
\342\231\246

chamber

Combustion

SI
\\\\

ii.-nKflSrmnftitSHi

jiff

Kl

Workpiece

\\

Active
J

motions

Workpiece

(a)

Explosive

Workpiece
(b)
of chemical

Utilization

1.14

FIGURE

energy

in (a)

combustion

and (b)

detonation.

Heat

Heat

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\V
Expansion

Heat.

medium

Work-

Active

\302\273
_^

Workpiece

\342\204\242\302\260tions
1

Workpiece

FIGURE

1.15

Thermal

(1 and

2 directly

and 3

itself

terial

heat

supply)

establishing
important

a thermal
role

energy (heat

and,

reservoir)utilized

in mechanical

basic processes

indirectly).

supply,

contour

1) or

through a
basic process, heat transfer
these will be
consequently,
then

\\\\\\\\V\\W

^wwww^

(direct heat
and

piece

transferred

outside the work material (indirect

In
medium
to the material.
an
and heat sources thus play
discussed

further.

25

Process Model

A Morphological

1'
Heat

reservoir
\342\200\224
\342\200\224i
r
1\342\200\224

Direct

process

Energy

\342\200\224 \342\200\224
\\t\342\200\224 ir-

heat

\342\200\224\342\200\224 contour

supply,

(Heat source)

|
.

'

I:

'

''

!:.
1

basic

process

'
\342\200\242

L1

contour

1
1

Thermal

heat

indirect
supply,

FIGURE 1.16
basic

Relations

among

work material

(contour),

heat

source,

and thermal

process.

Heat

Transfer

be transferred
radiation, convection, and
(thermal),
by conduction
can take place in a rigid,
Conduction
mass transportation.
granular, fluid, or
which
consists
of
medium.
waves, requires
Radiation,
electromagnetic
gaseous
Heat can

a medium

convection
transportationcan

that is transparent
can normally
be used as a link

for

the

electromagnetic

take place in
in heat

or gaseous

fluid

transfer.

heat is transported to the work material,

waves. Heat transfer

media. Mass

A medium with

where the

heat

by

amount

a certain

is transferred

of

through

conduction, radiation, or convection.

Heat

to

Sources

Heat Sources Based on Electrical Energy.

heat from electrical energy are:

generate

conduction

Electrical

(resistance)

Induction

Dielectric loss
Arcing

(discharge

Sparking

Electron beams

Lasers

between

electrodes)

The

principles

that

can be

used

Chapter1

26

is based on the dissipationof heat due to the

If the conducting material is the work
conducting
a direct heat supply
is the result.
If a special conducting
material
material
itself,
the heat, this heat must
(heat element with high resistance) is used to generate
be transferred to the work material through a suitable medium
by conduction,
or convection, which
is being
means
that an indirect heat supply
radiation,
conversion
of electrical energy into heat based on conduction can be
utilized.
The
used both in the process itself and in the process machinery.
can be established
Induction heating
in two different
to
ways,
corresponding
and the transformer principle. In the eddy current
the eddy current
principle
work material is placed in the field of an induction coil
principle, the conductive
of

Generation

by conduction

heat

resistance of the

which
a high frequency (5 kHz
passes
is generated directly in the object by means

through

Heat

it. In the

have

we

In all

heat

a direct

forms

element,

Dielectric

frequency

by

of heat

by

secondary

in it;

heating

due to the electrical

resistance
heat is also generatedby

of the
the

materials,

ferromagnetic

heating refers to the heating

them in the electric
placing

voltage

is induced

made the

conduction.

is basically

heating

current

in

as the

itself may act

coil is

current.
induced

fields.

magnetic

alternating

the

If

supply.

generation

these cases the

material. However, in

plywood,

to 5 MHz) alternating
of the eddy currents

transformer principle, the work material

which means that a low-voltage,high-amperage

coil,
secondary
this

material.

is

dielectric losseswithin
capacitor, and hence

of nonmetals,

field of a
applied. Heat is generateddirectly
the

material

when

it is

such as plasticsand

to which
capacitor
in the object by

placed betweenthe

high-

virtue of

plates

of a

field. Unlike induction

the material. The
dielectric
heating is distributed
uniformly
heating,
throughout
is
is increased. If the work material
heat generated increasesas the frequency
can only be used indirectly,
as a heating
element,
conductive, dielectric heating
for example.
The quantity
of heat generated
electrical
between two
by
discharge
on
the
conditions
under
the
is taking
conductivematerials
which
depends
discharge
the discharge, an ionized
channel
is established having
a cross
place.
During
section that depends on the dischargetime. If the discharge
time is longer than
is ionized and continuous
100 lis, the whole area betweenthe two materials
is shorter,
a narrow ionized channel is
result. If the discharge time
arcing is the

established,and

subjectedto

sparking

an

alternating

electric

results.

at the surfaces of the two

Arcing creates heat at three different
places:
in the arcing column. From
the arc, the heat is transferred to the
electrodes and
and/or convection, dependingon the utilization
material
radiation,
by conduction,
If
the
in which the arcing takes place is air, the
medium
principle (see Fig. 1.17).
the
arc
itself
can
be
6000\302\260C. The
of the
in
surfaces
approximately
temperature
on the material and the dimensions, have temperaelectrodes will, depending

Direct heat

27

Model

Process

Morphological

Indirect

supply

heat

Electrode

supply

II

IX

/IN
Work-

Medium
Vlediv
W<
Workpiece

piece

fi)

(a)

x:

/IN

155

^^
<b)

FIGURE

1.17

Heating

discharge

arcing:

(a) local/partial

1500 to 3000\302\260C.

tures ranging from

or fluid

by

Both

arcing

heat supply;

(b) total

heat

and sparking require

supply.

a gaseous

medium.

(Fig. 1.18)the local discharge areas are very small and achieve
the order of 25,000\302\260C. If the discharge time f, (Fig. 1.18) is
on
temperatures
the anode
will reach the highest
small,
and if /, is large, the
temperature,
cathode will
reach the highest temperature. During
of the sparks, cooling
disruption
can occur, so that both the anode and the cathode can be kept at a low average
This
is utilized in electrodischarge
temperature.
principle
(EDM),
machining
In sparking

which is a common process.It should be mentioned that two consecutive sparks

take
the gap, and
normally
place at different positions on the electrodes
(where
therefore
the resistance,
are smallest), giving
a typical
surface appearance of
numerous

small

craters.

28

Chapter

Electrode
Voltage
r\342\200\224^\302\260KSpa

1^

\"

\"\"^W
Workpiece

1.18

FIGURE

Time

-A\342\200\224mi

0,

Heating

beam

by

sparking

utilized

in electrical

machining

discharge

(EDM).

an electron
beam is created in a triode,
an anode.
and
The grid and the anode
a
negative grid,
tungsten cathode,
the electrons
emitted from the cathode
are
have shapes which ensure that
chamber. The energy
to the work material, placed in a vacuum
transferred directly
can be focused by magnetic
in the electron beam, which
(~107
W/cm2)
density
material.
to melt and vaporize the work
lenses, is sufficiently
high
is the laser beam. Laseris an
Another heat source based on electrical
energy

In electron

machining,

of a
consisting

of radiation.\"
amission
for \"/ight amplification by stimulated
for the light
fluid, or gaseous) can be used as the medium
(solid,
laser
beams with different properties. When
the
in laser
emission, resulting
some of the energy is reflected, and the rest is
beam reaches the work
material,
converted into heat in the material. The heat generated can melt or vaporize
- 108 W/
in the laser beam is high
most materials. The energy
(~102
density
abbreviation

materials

Different

cm2), since the

Urn.

Tables

generation

from

beam

1.5 and
electrical

is focused

energy.

Heat Sources Based on

combustion

or

from solid,

other

exothermic

granular,

to very small diameterson the order of 10\342\200\224100

of the different
principles of heat

1.6 presenta review

fluid,

These energy processes are

Energy.
chemical reactions. Combustioncan be obtained
fuels and the heat supply to the work
or gaseous

Chemical

in
Table 1.7 shows the various possibilities.The elements
will
a
so
that
a
combination
the diagram can be described
number,
by
given
number.
appear as a four-digit
and Al
the exothermic reaction between
to combustion,
In
addition
Fe304
should be mentioned as well as the association and dissociation of argon,
in special
torches.
which is utilized
or helium
arc-plasma
hydrogen,
material

by

is indirect.

Heat SourcesBasedon Mechanical

Energy.
friction
or internal hysteresis losses.Generation

Here the heat

of

heat

can be generated

by friction is

utilized

A Morphological

TABLE

1.5

Principles

29

Model

Process

Generation

of Heat

from

Electrical

Energy

Material

Heat generated
from:

1.

requirement

Illustration

Electrical current

Electrical

Electrical

conductor

conduction

H^al

Freeelectrical
2.

_T_

Stopping

of free

in

particles

movement

electrical

particles
1

Heal

Electrical field

\342\200\224\\-

3.

Dielectric

Placing

in

material

an

field

electrical

__4-

Heat

Magnetic

-r
4.

field

Electric conductor

Placing

in a

material

magnetic field

I Ilectrical

Ferromagnetic

Heat

current

Electromagnetic
__r\342\200\236

S.

Placing

material

in

electromagnetic

beams

(light waves)

.4Heal

beam

30

TABLE 1.6

Between

Relation

Conduction

Electrical conductor

Arcing

Electrical

conductor

Sparking

Electrical

conductor

Electron beam

\342\200\224

Dielectricheating

Dielectric

4
5

Induction

Electrical

Laser

\342\200\224

Heat supply

State of

(1)

Total

requirement

Morphological

Local

Material

Example

1.7

TABLE

Process and Principle

Heating

1.5)

(Table

Principle

(2)

Relationships

for

Transfer

fuel

the

conductor

Heat Generated

Combustion

by

Medium of

mechanism

Solid

(1)

Conduction

(1)

Granular

(2)

Radiation

(2)

Fluid

(3)

Convection

(3)

Fluid

Gaseous

(4)

Mass

(4)

Gaseous

transportation

transfer

(1)

Rigid
Granular

(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)

Vacuum

1.8

TABLE

Morphological

When a Thermal

State of

heat

Heat

reservoir

Reservoir

medium

Relationships Showing
Is Available

the

Transfer

Possible

Transfer mechanism

State

Granular

Conduction
Radiation

Fluid

Convection

Fluid

Gaseous

Mass transportation

Gaseous

Combinations

Vacuum

Rigid (solid)

in friction welding,
ultrasonic

can

Chapter

welding

(which

and generation of heat by internal

normally also includes heating

Heat Sources Based on ThermalEnergy. If a heat

in Table 1.8.
be utilized in the various ways
shown

locally

or throughout

Table 1.9 shows

Principles

of transfer

medium

Rigid (solid)
Granular

loss is
by

utilized

in

friction).

reservoir is available,
The heat can be provided

it

the work material.

that
diagram for all the possible ways
morphological
row
this
can
be
The
last
of
for
thermal
basic
generated.
processes
energy
which
heat
is
and
to
1.4.
the
in
Table
shows
provided
diagram
way
corresponds
Some of the combinations in Table
1.9 are not valid, but the diagram
presents a
which
the
to
all
the
relevant
efforts
find
supports
systematic approach,

thermal

possibilities.

the

1.9

TABLE

the

Principles

Chemical
Combustion

Friction

Dissociation/

Internal

(generating

thermal

Dielectric

energy

Arcing

from)

Sparking

for

Thermal (reservoir)

Mechanical

Conduction

Induction

Heat

of Generating

Possibilities

Processes

Electrical

Energy

Showing the

Relationships

Morphological

Thermal Basic

Primary

31

Model

Process

Morphological

in solid,

(Heat

loss

granular, fluid,

or gaseousmedia)

association

Exothermic

reactions (others)
beam

Electron

Laser beam
media

Transfer

(solid)

Rigid

Granular

(state)

Fluid

Gaseous

Vacuum

Transmission

Indirectly

Heat conduction

of

(principles

in

utilization

radiation

Heat

thermal basic

Convection

Mass transportation

processes)

Directly

Heat generated

Energy Flow for

1.5.3
The

the

of

ChemicalBasicProcesses

are described

Chemicalsolution
polishing.

process

etching

is attracting
increasing attention,
in recent
years. Electrolytic solution

is utilized

basically electroplating (deposition)

and chemical,
are used
electrolytic
Phase
treatment

of

and

transformation

metals.

specialized

furnaces

section,

These

diffusion

in

in
widely

been

electrochemical

for

developed

protection.

important

role

(or
this

in

etching

and

cooling),

purpose.

in the

many

of

which is

plating processes,

surface

heating

for

machining,

The

reverse.

play an

processes require

have

respectively.

is utilized, for example,

of metals

(dissolution)

materials

conductive

and electrochemistry,

thermodynamics

have been found

new applications

phase

they require

In this

reactions.

chemical

in

diffusion,

because

here

principles
Generally, chemicalreactions
either thermal (heating/cooling) or electrical
which
energy,

by

The

deposition,
fully

are presented.

chemical

by

conditions

energy

general

be influenced

electrically

material

work

processes (solution/dissolution,
etc.; Table 1.2) will not be treated

a close study
therefore,only

and

the

basic

chemical

transformation,

can

in

both

heat

and a number

of

32

Chapter

of shape)

(creation

*_

Basic process

from:

transmission

Energy

thermal

(mechanical,
Energy

types

(principles

requirements

Energy

chemical

of

impressing -

(takes

shaping

kinematic
medium of

place

by

patterns,

mechanical,
the

to

Requirements

and

loadings)

Information

utilization)

medium

the

to

Requirements

of transfer

flow

Information

chemical

thermal,and

loadings)

transfer

Energy
ments

flow/require-\342\200\242

to element

Information
i

which

characterizedby

tent G.

element

to
is

flow/requirements

contour
and

con

pattern

of movements

General

model

Schematic

1.19

FIGURE

of the

illustration

requirements

for

the

media

of transfer.

The chemical reactionsthat occur in the hardening of plasticsare exothermic,

means
that cooling is necessary in many cases. Generally,
for chemical
basic processesit can be stated that they require either no external energy,
which

electrical

1.5.4
The

or thermal

energy,

Transfer

media

of

energy.

Media

transfer

through

the

which

context, only been describedby

present
of the material
the structures
processes,
to
define
the actual requirements
necessary

(Fig. 1.19)

the

energy

transmission

their

energy
states.

this would

of the

and the

transfer
information

is transmitted have, in
In a more detailed study

be insufficient.
medium
impressing

It

the
of

is

by considering
(shaping).

A Morphological

33

Process Model

flow (structure of
of the basic process and the information
The
determination
of both the total energy requirements
an evaluation
geometry generation)allows
~
and the energy to be distributed
within
elements (\302\243,
G,
single
geometrical
of external
one
in Fig. 1.19). The supply
energy normally takes place through
it is now possible to determine the
or two elements. For each element
energy
which
transmission
and the geometry creation requirements,
requirements
of the media of transfer.
on the
the requirements
together
specify
Depending
actual process,
the external energy transmission and the geometry generationcan
be integrated
and casting).
(as in forging) or separated(as in hydraulic
forming
Analyses of the type described above lead to detailed specificationsfor the
and geometry-creating media.
transmission

INFORMATIONFLOW

1.6

SYSTEM

the impressing
term information flow covers, as described
earlier,
on the work material. The principleson which
information

The

of shape

information

can be analyzed in relation

to the type of process (material
the state of the material, and the basic process. By coupling the
flow),
from the information
flow
for the specific material
geometricalpossibilities
derived
with
the energy
system, the various possible physical processescan be defined.
model
for shape impressing. The
Figure 1.20 shows a general, schematic
creation of the desired geometry takes place for a given basic process by the
interaction
between
the medium of transfer
with the contour of the
together
desired
of motions
for the medium
of transfer
Gt and the pattern
geometry
(G,, . . . , Gj) and the work material (A). It should be mentioned that there can
be more than one element in the medium or transfer,
whereas
there can be zero
or a finite number of elements in the creation of geometry.
In actual
situations,
the functional
of the transfer medium, including
requirements
energy
transmission
and information
be determined.
(Ej)
Figure 1.21
impressing (/,), must
of Fig. 1.19. Figure 1.21a and b define the elements.
shows a simplified
version
For the two transfer
the energy transmission requirements (Fig. 1.21c)
elements,
can
impressing

be based

(Fig. 1.21d) must be defined. These

of the extension of the media in relation
to the desired geometry and the pattern
of motions for the media and the work
1.21c
how
material.
shows
the
of the energy supply
can
extension
Figure
no
necessitate
or
relative
motions
between
the
two,
one,
motions)
(scanning
and
the
work
source
material.
Here
it
should
be
that
the
media
energy
emphasized
and
at
the
same
contribute
to
creation
because
can,
time,
02)
(0,
geometry
they
the

and

requirements

contain

02
02's

shape-impressing
necessitate

the desired

requirements

a determination

geometry.
in surface creation. Here the medium
Figure 1.2Id showsthe basic principles
is used as a reference,
but it should be understood as the sum
of the 0,'s and
contents. The four possibilities
that arise are:
contour

Chapter 1

34

medium for energy

information
(I )

\342\200\242
Transfer

and/or

creating

Shape
(basic

B :

The basic

o :

Contour

Transfer

Free

contents

Rotation

Combinations

Combinations

The elements of

information

Here the medium

Here

the

medium

desired geometry,

not contain

does

is created

by

of transfer
which

or

that

one

Total forming.
whole

the

the desired

fields).

contains a point or a
that two relative

means

required

One-dimensional
line

stress

to produce the surface.

of transfer
forming. Here the medium
a surface area along the line) of the desired
relative
motion is required to produce the
are

/c

impressing.

of transfer

surface/geometry

Two-dimensional
forming.
surface element of the
motions

Translation

the

of motion

motion

No

Rotation

(i.e.,

the

medium

Translation

forming.

of
G.

\302\260<

motion

geometry

by;

motion

Workpiece

1.20

determined

process

geometry

Pattern

FIGURE

mechanism

creation is

desired

No

process)

The shape

Possible pattern of

(E

contains
Here the medium of transfer
surface
of the desired geometry, which

contains a producer(a
which means
surface,
surface.

(in one
means

or more parts)
no relative

that

motion is necessary.

These four
or

total

basic

principles

geometry-creating

of surface
mechanism

creation can be established

with
For
1.21c).
(Fig.
example,forging

a partial
is total

A Morphological

Process Model

O.

35

medium for

: Transfer

energy

and/or

information

: Shape creating
: Workpiece

: Transfer
energy

mechanism

for

medium

and/or

information

(a)

Transfermedium

Energy

transmission

Shape

(basic

process)

creation

Extension

(surface)

media

in

of

the

comparison

to

the workpiece

(x)

Total/partial

(x)

Total/partial

(b)

\302\2601_^

(c)

\302\2602

(dl

FIGURE 1.21

the function and size of

(a), (b) characterizing
impressing:
extension of the energy transmission (basic processes + evt contour
can necessitate two, one, or no relative
contents) in comparison to the workpiece,
motions (scanning
derived from the size of the
motions); (d) the surface creation
principles
contour
contents of the lower medium
of transfer and the desired geometry.
the

elements;

Information

(c) The

36

Chapter

is one-dimensional

forming,

rolling

forming, and

torsion

is free

Table 1.10shows,

turning is two-dimensional

forming,

forming.

way, the possibilities of shape impressing

of
corresponding
Fig. 1.21c and d. The states of the media are
classifiedsimply as rigid (compared to the work material)
or nonrigid,
which
and
vacuum.
cover the states elastic,plastic,
It
should
fluid,
granular,
gaseous,
be noted that one of the media
to a fixture
or clamping
device,
may degenerate
as in turning,
for example.
The following
of the types of information
flow
is divided
description
to the type of process and the state of the work
material.
according
in a

Flow for Mass-Conserving

Information

1.6.1

general

the combination

to

Processes

(jdM

0)

Material

Solid

The basic processeshere

and elastic deformation, and the

material through
the media
of transfer having
contour
1.10.
contents
and pattern of motions correspondingto Table
To decide if a given
can be carried out on a certain material, stresses
process
be considered;
this
in the
material,
strains, strain rates, and temperatures must
of energy
and force requirements.
also allows the determination
When
the pattern of motions and the contour
contents of the media
analyzing

of transfer

are

plastic

on the work

is impressed

information

it is

(tools/dies),

sometimes

to

helpful

distinguish

open and

between

closed dies.

Examples of
above

are

processing

shown

in

Fig.

to the

corresponding

1.22, but

they

are

four

described

mentioned

possibilities

in more detail

in

Chapter6.

Material

Granular

Granular materials are shaped in

The term flow also includes
filling
on
the powder
material, be carried
hardening

in information
series of basicprocesses
involved
materials
to
phase 2 in Fig.
forming
(corresponding
granular
of
sand
molds
for
includes
and
green
casting
filling
production
of
sand
the
In
the
molds,
production
(compaction).
dry
shape is

1.23 shows the

The

deformation

stabilized

of cores.
stabilizing
or

out

process

when

impressing

further

and

process.

Figure
l.S).

followed by a stabilization.
Stabilization
can, depending
placing.
as a plastic deformation
a
and/or

a flow

by hardening

The surfacecreation

(baking);
is usually

the case
with a partial

is also

this

total,

in

the

or

total

production
supply

of

energy.

Compaction (stabilization by deformation)

axial.
Using isostatic compaction, only

of metal
rough

powders can

geometries

be isostatic

which

normally

TABLE 1.10

Principlesof

Information

Impressing

Corresponding
Energy

to Fig.

>

1.21

S
o

based on:

transmission

\342\200\2423

No motions

Principles
Total

Two relative motions

of surface creation

forming

(TF)

0-

Rigid
Not

Not rigid

CA

forming (ODF)

O,:
\342\231\246

O,:

E
O,:
\342\231\246

0~

O,:

\342\231\246

Free

forming

6A

O,:

Rigid

O,:

supply)

Rigid

ovvvl

02

Rigid

Not

rigid

Not rigid
Rigid

Not rigid

O,:
\302\2433

Rigid

Not rigid

rigid

Rigid

Rigid
KM

Not rigid

(TDF)

O,:

Not rigid

Rigid
Not

(total energy

motion

rigid

Rigid

V?.

Two-dimensionalforming

>-

O,:

\342\231\246

One-dimensional

Onerelative

I*

O,:
Not

rigid

Rigid

Not

rigid

Rigid
Not

rigid

(FF)
Oj: Not rigid

\342\226\241

Oz- Not

rigid

Oj:

\342\226\241

Not rigid

Not rigid

\342\200\236

I
\342\226\241
1

OlS

Not rigid

Oj:

Not

rigid
*4

(a)

(b>

<c)

(d)

FIGURE
solid

1.22

materials:

Examples of information
(a) total forming; (b)

forming; (d) free forming.

38

impressing
one-dimensional

by mass-conserving processes with

(c) two-dimensional
forming;

39

Process Model

A Morphological

Information impressing

1*

1
1

Shaping

fcl
1

1
Flow

Plastic

deformation

1
1

Solid

\302\253

Granular
material

r
^

Filling

Placing

1.23

FIGURE

1
1

Compaction

pl

The series

of basic processes(phase 2, Fig.

1.5)

involved

in shaping

materials.

granular

finishing

require
powders,

materi al

Stabilizing

geometries

which

complicates

In axial
operations can be produced.
with several levels in height
usually
the total pattern of motions
(see

of metal

compaction

require
Chapter

several plungers,
9).

Liquid Materials

In Fig. 1.24a seriesof basic processes,

to phases 2 and 3 in
corresponding
are shown
for liquid
materials. The information
can be
impressing
carried out
stabilization
by flow alone followed by a separate
(Fig. 1.25a) or by
flow
with stabilization (Fig. 1.25b).Considering
flow
alone as shape
integrated
on the
impressing, this can take place in open or closeddies.Depending
requirementsof the product,
the die can be permanent
or temporary
(used only once).
In a closed
die, the whole surfaceof the desired geometry is contained in the die
is impressed
geometry. In an open die, the shape information
by the geometry in
the open die and a field (gravity,
surface
acceleration,
stress) (see Fig. 1.25a).
Fig. 1.5,

flow and stabilization

are now integrated.
words,
are integrated (Fig.
Considering the processes where flow and stabilization
II in Fig. 1.24), the input
is liquid and the output
material
1.25b, marked
solid.
The geometry is created by a field, a die surface, and a stabilization
mechanism.
transition
exists between Fig. 1.25a and b. More detailed
Actually, a continuous
in Chapter
10.
descriptions are given
In

other

Chapter 1

40

\"l ii

Liquid

.4

Shaping

Stabilizing
\302\273\302\273.*

\302\273\302\273

Information

impressing

The series of
1.24
liquid materials.

FIGURE

shaping

be
the

basic processes(phases

_ __

^_

2 and

3, Fig. 1.5)

in

involved

for mass-conserving
processes can thus
Summarizing, the shape impressing
creation
the
of
surface
characterized
(Table
1.10), and (2)
by (1)
principles
work
material.
media
of
transfer
and
of
motions
of
pattern

Information

1.6.2

(dM

Flow for Mass-ReducingProcesses

<0)

For mass-reducing processes that deal only with solid materials, the information
is based on mechanical, thermal,
or chemical
basic processes. These
impressing
material-removal
basic processescan be applied in four fundamental
methods

mechanisms or

(see Fig.

1.26). Consideringremoval

methods

I, II,

1.21 that the medium of transfer

it can
be seen by comparison with
Fig.
is degenerated to a fixture
or clamping
device. This means that the
function and a geometry
transfer Ox has both an energy transmission
which
includes the blanking
function. For the removal method
IV,
is
are needed
as active elements. This method
both media of transfer

mass reducing,but
as

considered

In
described.

the

mass
following

since

the applications

produce scrap or waste, it

and III,
here

02

of
creation

medium

processes,

not in
can

itself

be

reducing.
sections,

these

fundamental

removal methods are

briefly

41

Process Model

A Morphological

Shaping
1

(filling)

Liquid

Liquid

Centrifugal

Sand casting

Flow

Stabilizing

Liquid

casting

*
1

Solid

Shaping

im

nsb

(Cooling,
1^\\\\\\\\\\\\^

TF

Dip-casting

ODF

p\"\342\204\242-*\302\253

Continuous

casting

ODF

Rolling-casting

(b)

FIGURE
processes
shapingand

on liquid materials: (a) examplesof

Examples of shape impressing
where
of processes
and
are
stabilizing
separate;(b) examples
shaping
are integrated (TF, total forming;
ODF, one-dimensional forming).
stabilizing

1.25

where

Chapter 1

42

FIGURE

1.26

Fundamental

The fundamental

removal

Removal Method

I,

methods

in mass-reducing

Cutting

processes.

Processes

contains all the common cutting

(see Fig. 1.26). The
processes
basic
is
is
which
created
relative
motions between
fracture,
primary
process
by
work
and a rigid medium of transfer
the
material
The
motions can be
(the
tool).
classifiedas cutting,
or
The
motions.
motions
that
create
feeding,
positioning
and
the desired surface are the cutting
the feeding motions.
The transfer
or tools can, depending on the number
media
of cutting
edges,
be divided into:
This

method

Single-pointtools (well-defined

edge

geometry)

43

Process Model

A Morphological

Granular

Transfer

Fluid

medium

The fundamental

1.27

FIGURE

removal method

(see

(milling,

broaching,

Fig.

Gaseous

1.26).

Multipoint tools

Well-defined edge geometry

Undefined edge geometry

etc.)

etc.)

(grinding,

By analyzing

The

of

structure

the tool

Single-point tools
tools

Multipoint

of the

(inclusive

geometrical

arrangement

of

the

cutting

edges)

The

pattern

of

motions

The pattern

of

motions

a large

for the
for the

of possibilities

number

for

Generally speaking,sincethe
pattern
In

of

motions

this

field,

motions (for
using

the

play the main

a huge number

tools and

principles

be obtained. This

Fundamental
The basic

materials)

of surface
is discussed
Removal

tool
material
forming

contour

are obtained.
geometries
of the tools are small, the
of the desired surface.
creation
different

contents

role in the
of production machines with different
of
patterns
betweenthese
and
are available.
By choosing

creation, an

Method

processes are mechanical,

economic

in Chapter

further

application

situation

can

7.

II

or chemical.
The necessary
thermal,
of
is
transmitted
information)
impressing
through
energy
granular,
liquid,
or gaseous media. The energy
covers a certain surfacearea, which
may
supply
be the whole surface, a producer,
or a point (see Fig. 1.27).
the energy source and the material, all different
in the
By
moving
patterns
material can be described.A principal
factor here is the geometry of the cross
section
created by the energy source dependingon the process parameters
(see
(and

the

Fig. 1.28).

Chapter1

44

(a)

1.28

FIGURE

(b)

(a) Open and

semiopen

(b)

The semiopencrosssections,which
are rarely used. The patterns

etching,
by

the surface

coating

process (energy
widely

used

in

a given

source) from

in chemical

Examples of manufacturing
are abrasivecutting,
and

laser

with

pattern

the

attacking

be created by chemical
combined or substituted
a medium that prevents
the basic
work material. This principle is

for example,

can,

of motions

can be

etching.

Fig. 1.26)
cutting,

cross sections.

processes

based

fluid-jet

cutting,

on this fundamental
electron-beam

method

(see

cutting, thermal

cutting.

Removal Method III

here are mechanical,
processes

Fundamental
The

basic

thermal,

or

chemical,

and the

the geometry of

a rigid transfer medium (see Fig.

is carried out through
of the material
is then a result
removal mechanism,
creation
medium
of transfer, and the pattern
of motions (see
the
rigid

Fig. 1.29b).The

rigid

of

impressing

1.29).

The

information
surface

the work material,

establish

the

basic

medium

sincea fluid

process,

of transfer
medium

is placed

(the tool) is not

(with

betweenthe

in direct
contact with
solid particles), necessary to
tool and the work material
rigid

45

Model

Process

Morphological

Tool

n^r^

(rigid)

medium

Transfer

(fluid or fluid
granular

with

material

suspended)

Workpiece
(a)

r^l^3

^^s

<b)

1.29

FIGURE

(principle);

(b)

The

(see Fig. 1.29a). This

the tool and the work

motions

medium

fluid

for

normally

III (see Fig.

HI.

1.26): (a) method

III

method

fills

only

the

small

gap between

material.

Examples of manufacturing
1.26) are ultrasonic

based

processes
machining,

on this

electrodischarge

fundamental

machining,

method

(see

and

machining.

Fundamental

By varying

Method

Removal

The basic processhere

rigid.

of

of pattern

Fig.

electrochemical

method

removal

fundamental

examples

the

is mechanical

geometry

of the

IV
is
(fracture) and the medium of transfer
medium of transfer
and the
(the tools/dies)

Chapter 1

46

FIGURE
shearing;(b)

1.30

Fundamental

blanking

(D, die;

removal method

P,

punch;

pattern of motions, a number

These

1.6.3

include

blanking,

of different

punching,

IV

(see

1.26), examples:

(a)

processes

are obtained

(see Fig. 1.30).

and shearing.

Information Impressing for Assembly

Joining

Fig.

W, workpiece).

and

Processes

The
information
impressing.
Assembly and joining processesare not themselves
and
obtained
is
components
produced
together
locking
by positioning
geometry
methods. The assembly processcan be based on atomic bonding,
former
by the
(with or without separate locking elements).
adhesion, or mechanical
locking
is arranged and the chosen assembly
the
on
how
assembly
Depending
and/or the assembly
work
material
the
motions
of
the
(for
mechanism,
pattern
motions.
contain
none, one, or two relative
mechanism) will
in Chapter 8.
are described
processes
Assembly and joining

Morphological

1.7

the

manufacturing
their

Model

47

SUMMARY

Basedon
and

Process

information

realization

process model (Fig. 1.4)of engineering

flow
for material,
the
characteristic
systems
energy,
processes,
and
Their structure
for
have
the possibilities
been discussed.
have been described.

general,

morphological

general engineering knowledge of materials,

electrical energy and energy conversion, and so on, give a
physics,
chemistry,
of the materials
coherent
and systematic understanding
processing field,
to a
and imaginative
enabling
generic
applications. This approach is applicable
wide variety of processes.
to understand
of
It may
be difficult at first reading
the importance
fully
Chapter1. It is therefore
that
the
reader
return
to
this
recommended
strongly
chapter
of the book.
often while
the remainder
reading

This approachwill,

based

on a

of

Properties

2.1
For

Materials

Engineering

INTRODUCTION

able to selecta suitable

to be

engineers

material

fulfilling

(determined from the performance

production requirements), they must have a broad knowledge
of

requirements

The

a component

of the materials for the various processes(i.e., the

importantproperties

The effects
The

Only
would

satisfactorily
to process.

when

the

if the

in properties

material properties

various material-process combinations

selection
coherently can a satisfactory
relationships
not sufficient to choose the cheapestmaterial
that

it is

perform

functions

the

processes

manufacturing

brought

processes

The functional

the properties.

are generally
change

these

This means that

expensive

change

various

of the

economics

processing)
on the

affecting

of the

considering

by

be made.

including:

possibilities,

The suitability

of:

materials available

of the

properties

Hie manufacturing

the functional
and economical

Certain mechanical,
about;

desired,

some

physical,

beneficial

may sometimes allow the

functional requirements

because

it may be very

can be evaluated
only
properties of a material
have been selected, as the processes
normally

alone were

and metallurgical
changes
and others detrimental. This

choice of a cheapermaterial

than

considered.

49

Chapter 2

50

2.2
The

PROPERTIES

MATERIAL

of materials

properties
1.

Physical properties

2.

Chemical

3.

Mechanical

4.

Manufacturing

be

into the

divided

groups:

properties
properties

freezing

point,

melting

heat

heat,

four

following

properties

include color, density,

properties
of fusion, thermal conductivity,

Physical
specific

may

thermal

expansion,

point,
electrical

conductivity, magnetic properties,

Of the chemical properties, corrosion
resistance
plays an important role in
of materials and generally includes resistanceto chemical
the choice
or
electrochemical
attack.
Corrosion
resistance can also be important
the
during
because
it can influence the formation
of surface
films,
manufacturing
processes
and
and thermal and electrical
lubrication,
affecting friction
conductivity.
Mechanical
of a material to
properties generally include the reactions
mechanical
In the majority of cases, it is the mechanical
loadings.
properties with
which
in material
the engineer
concerned
is principally
selection, because to
in terms of the desired functions
evaluate their performance
he or she needs to
know
how
would react to the design loadings.
materials
The
or manufacturing
which
describe
properties of a material,
technological
the suitability of the material
for a particular process, are very
and can
complex
To evaluate
these properties,
generally not be assessed by a single number.
various testing
methods
have been developed designed to describe
the \"machinand so on, of a material.
\"castability,\"
ability,\" \"formability,\" \"drawability,\"
These
methods will not be described in detail, but some of them are
testing
in later
the mechanical
of
mentioned
chapters. In this chapter, only
properties
to both
materials
and
their determination
are considered, since they are important
the design and the manufacturing
engineer.
of the materials and the effects of
In Chapter 3 the manufacturing
properties
a description
the
on material properties are discussedbefore
various
processes
is given.
of the more important
materials
and

To

determine

testing

methods

laboratory tests

the

various
standardized
the mechanical properties of materials,
been developed. The materialsare subjectedto these
conditions so that their reactions
to changes
under
controlled

conditions

have

may be

the engineermust
testing

on.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MECHANICAL

2.3

so

conditions.

be

determined.

When

using

to apply the data only

caution, and employing

careful

With

obtained

data
to

conditions

general

in

from such tests,

similar to the

knowledge

of ma-

51

of Engineering Materials

Properties

-\342\226\240

--v

x:\342\200\224:

1
o>

\302\256

V
cr

\342\226\240

Tensile test

2.1

FIGURE

terials, it

is sometimes

as a

approximation.

first

specimens:(a) cylindrical

possible

following sections the

test, and creep test

In the
V),

\\

fatigue

and

(b) flat

for sheet metal.

to extend the results of tests to

tensile

hardness

test,

are described[3,4].

other

conditions

tests, impact test (Charpy

2.3.1 TensileTest(Stress-Strain

Diagrams)

From

tensile

the

material can
between
fracture

about
the properties
of a
test, considerable information
A specimen with a standardized
geometry is gripped
of jaws and pulled in tension
until fracture occurs. To avoid
in the central
tension
gripped sections and to produce uniaxial

be obtained.
two
in

sets
the

has enlarged ends. The transition

between
the enlarged
part, the test specimen
ends and the reduced central portion is gradual
the
(see
Fig. 2.1) [3]. Usually,
is
for
bulk
materials
and
for
sheet
materials
specimen
cylindrical
rectangular
with
a relatively
large width/thickness ratio.
different
machines are available with a wide range of loading
Many
testing

possibilities,
device, which
measurement
of

and

they

the elongation

values of loading

are

often equipped

be attached

may

with

some

to the specimen,

over a certain gage length

type

permitting

during

of strain-measuring
accurate

loading.

Corresponding

automatically and presented as a

of force against elongation. Of course, all the conditions
of the test must
graph
be in accordance
with the appropriate national
standards
[3].
The results of a tensile test can be converted into a stress-straindiagram.
But
before discussing
these diagrams, stress and strain will be defined.
and loaded
Figure 2.2 shows a bar with a uniform cross section in unloaded
conditions. In the unloaded
the length
of the bar is /, and
the cross
condition,
section A{. When loaded with the force P the length
becomes
/2, which means
an elongation
of A/ = l2 - /,. The elongation per unit
is called the
length
linear or engineering
strain or sometimes the nominal
strain
and is designated by
e.

Thus

and

elongation

are recorded

52

Chapter 2

12 (-VAD

Tensile loading

2.2

FIGURE

\302\273

of a bar.

/\302\273

(2.1)

-\"(-H
force

The

in

the

given

e is

strain

Nominal

nominal

often quoted as a percentage.

uniformly across the original

distributed

P,

or engineering

stress, which

will

cross section,results

be designated

by onom and is

by

\302\243L

(2.2)

stress is measured in N/m2,

and so on. When
lb/in.2,
the applied
load tends
to elongate the specimen,the stress is called a tensile stress, and when the load
tends to compress the specimen,the stress is called a
compressive stress.
the
strains
are called tensile or compressive
Correspondingly,
strains.
Tensile
stresses and strains are normally
defined
as positive and compressive stresses
and
strains
as negative,
but in some cases it is more convenient to use the reverse
The

conventions.

of Engineering

Properties

2.3

FIGURE

Typical

53

Materials

tensile test

diagrams

obtained

at room

temperature

and

slow

speed.

Figure

2.3 shows some

slow

and

temperature

typical

elongation

speed (static

conditions)

is necessary
to specify both temperature
and speed,
the shape of the diagrams
effects
influence
drastically,
The
\"static\"
the
role
in
the
choice
diagrams play
major

materials.It
can
later.

most loading situations

can be considered
to
shown in Fig. 2.3 illustrate
with
the material.
The

obtained

diagrams

force-elongation

for

at room

different

as these conditions
that are described
of materials, since

be static.

how
the relation between load
curve for mild steel is unusual for
in that
after departure
from elastic behavior at a load of Pu
a nonuniform yielding
a relation
occurs
at a lower load P,. Most metals
exhibit
in load occurs at yield. For plastic
similar to aluminum,
where
no reduction
the relation
shown in Fig. 2.3 is typical. The force-elongation
materials,
diagram
will now be analyzed further
with
the aid of Fig. 2.4.
In accordance
with Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), the force-elongationdiagram
can be
transformed
into a stress-straindiagram
units
axis
the
on
the
to
by changing
~
=
and
e
in
2.4
can
be
used
the
\302\260nom f^i
A///,. Consequently,
diagram
Fig.
four

The

examples

and elongationvaries
a metallic material,

as

both

a P

\342\200\224

A/

and

a o\",^

- e diagram.

is loaded, the deformation will be elastic up to point B,

the specimen
if the load is removed,the specimen
will return
means that for this region,
and
to
A
the
is
to
the
stress
strain,
l{. Up
original
length
point
proportional

When

which

to

its

the material

obeys Hooke's law,

which

can

be expressed

Chapter 2

54

The force-elongation/stress-strain

2.4

FIGURE

diagram

front

test.

a tensile

= Ee

(2.3)

known as
characteristic

E is

where

modulus

the

or

of elasticity

is a

number for

Young's

modulus.

Young's

material group.
If the deformation
is continued
from A to B, the deformation is still elastic,
described by Eq. (2.3) is no longer valid. Point A is
but the proportionality
called the proportional limit and B the elastic limit. For most materials the
than
the proportional
limit.
elastic limit
is only slightly higher
will not return to its original
For deformation beyond B, the specimen
length
has been increased
because it has now been deformed plastically (i.e., the length
modulus

the

permanently).

The elastic limit

deformation

0.03% of the
If the
deformation

gage

in practice

standardized

as the stress where

value,

normally

the

between

permanent

0.001 and

length.

deformation

after

is defined

has reached

or the

material

unloading

is continued to point
will be OD. If the

C,

the

specimen

permanent
is loaded

or plastic
again, the curve

Properties of

55

Materials

Engineering

DF is followed, and after F the curve that would have been described by
will be followed. The line DF has the same slope as CM. On
uninterrupted
loading
E. Normally,
a
a stress-straindiagram,
this slope
modulus
is equal to Young's
and reloading cycle as indicated
small amount
is lost in the unloading
of energy
hysteresis loop betweenD and C. As shown in the figure, the
by the exaggerated
means that the
first starts to deform plastically again at point
F, which
specimen
and less ductile than in the original
condition. This
material has becomeharder
that
load increaseis due to what is called work hardening;
is, as the load
deformation
is increased, a greater load will be required to
producing
plastic

deformation is continued
it achieves a maximum

If the
G,

deformation.

further

produce

where

where

point F, the load increasesuntil

point
after which it decreases
until point H,

beyond
value,

occurs.

fracture

been

that no volumetric change

which
means
that
must be
occurs during
deformation,
plastic
elongation
plastic
in
a
cross
section
in
a
decrease
contraction
(or
accompanied by
corresponding
For
less
than
that
at
G
the
lateral
deformations
the
dimension).
point
(Fig. 2.4)
the load required to continue the
cross
section
decreases continuously, while
due to work hardening. At point
deformation
increases
G, the increase in load due
is exactly
balanced by the decrease in load due to the
to work hardening
of reduction
in area and work
area (i.e., the effects
reduction in the cross-sectional
deformations
than
that
at point G, the
each
For
balance
other).
greater
hardening
the deformation becomes unstable, and a
contraction in area dominates,
localized

it has

metals

For

shown

experimentally

in cross

necking\342\200\224reduction

The

section\342\200\224occurs.

takes place

necking

in

specimen,
subsequent
elongation of the gaging
in
the
local
neck
length
elongation
(Fig. 2.4).
Consideringthe stress in the specimen it is clear that the actual or true stress
o will be given by the load P divided by the current
cross-sectional
area Ac. Thus
the

part of the
is entirely due to

and

weakest

=
\302\260

(24)

/Cc

Hence,

the

true

o is

stress

greater

the

than

stress o^,,,,

nominal

(Fig. 2.2) since

Ac<At.
For

no longer

correction. This

For materials
plastically,

than that at point

greater
uniaxial, and consequently

deformations

necking,

a diagram

typical (i.e.,
plastic materials
deformed
Referring

fracture

that

cannot,

corresponding
occurs

instability
until

uniaxially

again

or can
before

to

only to a
that

for

necking

does not give rise to

fracture occurs).

to Fig.

2.4, a few

definitions

be

necking

should

of the

without

be deformed

steel shown

instability

used

4.

degree,

slight

alloyed

or

is, because

stress

in Chapter

further

is discussed

situation

the

G,

Eq. (2.4)cannot

arises).

(i.e.,

in

Fig.

2.3

For many

the specimen

be given.

is

is

Chapter 2

56

1.

G is called the

at point
occurring
is given by

stress

The

ultimate

(or tensile

strength

and

strength)

(2.5)

'nom.uts

maximum load applied.

to point H is called the
corresponding
or
and is given by
breaking
rupture
strength)
PmM is the

where

2.

stress

The

Pf is the

where

(before

strain

/-

occurs.

fracture

or engineering)

(nominal

is called the

is given

and

load applied when

starts)

necking

strain)

eu

(2.6)

Jj\"

The axial

3.

to

corresponding
distributed

uniformly

point

strain

(or uniform

by

- /.
(2-7)

\342\200\2247^-

The total

4.

ef

permanent

(after

fracture)

is called strain

or percent

by

(2.8)
^\342\200\224

of area at fracture

The reduction

5.

strain

and given

at fracture

elongation

(or

P/

-_

OnomJ

strength

fracture

RA =

Ay

is defined

as

Af
(2.9)

\342\200\224f^2

last two

The

An

stress
The

important

property

value, above
yield

Onom.O

stress

The

in

the

which

is given

the

describe

quantities

value, the better the ductility.

a measure of ductility.

ductility of
of area

reduction

the

material:

RA

is normally

the

higher the
preferred as

is the yield stress,

processing
is permanent or plastic
deformation

materials

which

is a

(Fig. 2.4).

by

Pk

J~{

(2-10)

where PK is the load at the actual plastic strain.

as do mild steel and
Most
materials
do not have a well-definedyield point,
some
standard practice to
(Fig. 2.3). Consequently, it has become
plastics
on the stress-strain
curve corresponding to a
measure the
yield stress at a point
permanent
strain
of 0.002. This yield stress is sometimescalled 0.2%proof
stress
(see Fig. 2.4) and is given by

57

Materials

of Engineering

Properties

onom Increasing e

nom
A

temperature

Increasing

!_*
(b

(\342\200\242:

The

2.5

FIGURE

of (a)

influence

strain rate

and

(b)

on the shape of

temperature

the

curve.

stress-strain

Onom,0.2

*>*( =

Po.l)

(2.11)

steel (Fig. 2.3)both an upper (o.^ ^ = PJA{) and

F/A|) yield stress can be defined.
(onom w
are each a measureof the strength
The yield stress and the ultimate
strength
of area are measures
and
the
reduction
of its
of the material, whereas
elongation
of
on
the
characteristics
work-hardening
ductility. The relative values depend
the material.
curve is affected by both the temperature
and
The shape of the stress-strain
the strain
rate
as shown in Fig. 2.5. The strain rate is defined
by
For the

special

of mild

case

a lower

x(l2

/t)

de

dt
where

v is
is the

rate

the

test

velocity.

This means

testing velocity divided by

2.5a shows

the same

to obtain

that

stressis required.Many
temperatures.
Figure 2.5b shows how
At

curve.

(2.12)

dt

room

(i.e.,

the

many

convenient

temperature

influences

temperature

temperatures the strength

opposite of an increasing strain

manufacturing

to determine

length of

processes

of

of the

the

sensitivity

decreases

increasing
at elevated

is generally

and
At a

rate).

small.

stress-strain

the ductility

certain temperature

compressive loads, it

material

strain

Figure

specimen.

the shape of the

the strain.
occur under

the properties

or engineering

strain rate, an

rate
a higher strain
the strain rate sensitivity

the yield stress becomesindependent

Since

nominal

increasing

At increasing

increases

often

original
for

strain

the

that

have

materials

the

the

in a

is

compression test

Chapter 2

58

so that the test situation is closer to the

for materials
also particularly
suitable
as concrete, glass, wood, and cast iron),
at

fracture

ductile

With

to friction between
to determine the
Thus,

plates.

friction

must

described

in

test

the

produces

true

compression test specimendevelopsa

specimen and the
the influence
properties,

of the

ends

material

or allowed for. The compressiontest

be minimized

of

not be

will

detail.

Tests

Hardness

2.3.2

the cylindrical

materials,
due

shape,

compression

tensile

low strains.

very

barrel

The compression test is

such
materials
(brittle

situation.

actual

with low ductility

for which the

The hardnessof a material is an important

for many applications and
property
as the resistance
to indentation
of a material
or its resistance
can be defined
to
or
wear.
These
definitions
do not describe
the same properties and,
scratching
has to be relatedto the testing method employed. There is no
hardness
therefore,
exact correlation
the test results of the various
between
tests since they measure
Hardness
tests
are
different
therefore
phenomena.
comparative,as it is difficult
to relate the behavior of the material
in the test to its behavior
in other situations.
In
the
hardness
the
to indentation
defined
as
resistance
is
context,
present
The
indenter
be
most important.
a
a
or
a
cone
with
ball,
may
pyramid,
higher
hardness
common

the

than

to be

material

tests are

hardness

standard

tested. In the
described.

following

sections

the most

Brinell Hardness Test

Brinell hardness test, a hardened
surface of the material
with

In the

a smooth

into

the

resulting

a suitable

by the

where P
millimeters,
number

is

a diameter D is pressed
P, and the mean diameterd of

ball with

a load

microscope
impression is measured with a low-powered
HB is defined as the
scale. The Brinell hardnessnumber

surface area of

HB =

steel

(*D/2)[D is the

and

applied

d the

indentation.

the

mean

(D2

load

(213)
in newtons, D the ball diameterin
in millimeters.
The hardness
it
in
has the units
reality
although

diameter

quoted without units,

To maintain the hardness
the

Hence,

measured

indentation

to include

with

divided

d2)\"2]

always

pressure.
it is necessary

fitted
load

factor

The applied loadsare standardized

numbers

0.102

from

in Eq.

the previous

system of

of
units,

(2.13).

and correspond
to masses of 500, 1000,
on
a 3000-kg
mass
material
the
tested.
Usually,
being
kg, depending
is used and applied for a time of 10-15 s for steel and cast iron.
are given in the
the test conditions for the various
metals
Recommendations
concerning
be indicated as
not
it
should
If
standard
conditions
are
standards.
used,
appropriate
and

3000

Properties of

Engineering

HB D/P/t.

practice

In

between
or heavily

P is

test a

the load

in

0.189

ultimate

of the

a square

with
136\302\260)

(angle

pyramid

hardness is definedas the

divided

load

by the

(2.15)

4
\302\243

and d is the mean

The hardness number

newtons

in millimeters.
mass

diamond

and the

indenter,

\342\200\236Q102/Lo
^/2sin68\302\260

indentation
The

worked

cold

(2.14)

hardness

Vickers

base is used as an
contact area:

where

of the
materials:

number

Brinell

the

Test

Hardness

Vickers

HV

The

test. The following

the compression

=* 3.3 HB N/mm2

<Wuts

the

with

roughly

exists

for non-strain-hardening

In

tables

for

number

relationship

strength

hardness number is determinedfrom

a given diameter of the indentation.

Brinell

the

give the hardness

Brinell test can be compared
which

approximate

59

Materials

applied load can

diagonals of the

given without

120 kg

2 and

between

vary

of the

length
is again

(in

units.

standardized

The Vickers hardness number is independent

steps), depending on the material.
of the load, and the Vickers test can be used for very hard materials, whereas the
for materials
Brinell test dependson the load and can be used satisfactorily
only
having a Brinell hardnessof less than 500. The applied load in a Vickers test is
indicated after the letters HV: for example, HV30.

Rockwell Hardness Test

of

angle

used and

the

a diamond

is either

indenter

a steel

120\302\260
or

is usually

cone

test the

Rockwell

the

In
included

ball (B) with

Rockwell

hardness

cone

with
{\342\202\254)

of 1/16 in.

a diameter

is then identified

an

The diamond
by

the

letters

HRC.

A preload is first applied

to the indenter using
a mass of 10 kg to seat it in the
and the indicator
is then set at zero. The major
load
to
corresponding
a total of 150 kg is then applied,
and the indentation depth
e is measured
after
is removed.
the
load
The HRC number
is determined
from the expression
material

HRC = 100and

rapid
A

the

0.002 mm.

The

Rockwell

test is suited to

reliable

summary

test is

(2.16)

measured in multiples of
routine inspection.

e is

where

most

three hardness tests is presentedin

used hardness test.
commonly

of the

Table

2.1.

The Vickers

Other Hardness Tests

To
plastics,
deformation

determine

the hardness

the durometer
is used

as a

test is

of

very

soft

suitable. In

hardness

number.

materials,
this

test

for example, rubber

the resistance to elastic

and

TABLE 2.1

of the

Summary

Brinell, Vickers,

and

Shape of

Testing

Indenter

method

10-mm

Brinell

ball

From

side

Rockwell

C Hardness

Tests

indentation

Load:mass (kg)

From above

500,

1000,

3000

Hardness

(P

(jtf>/2)[\302\243>
measured
in

D and d

A
2-120

Diamond

Vickers

0.102P

HB =

pyramid

in

(D1

mm)

HV =

- d2)1*]

N,

0.189 ^\\d

\302\243
in N,

(P measured

d\\

d in

di

2^

mm)

k\302\243L^
Rockwell

150 =10+140

Diamond

HRC

100

(e measured

cone

f^Ze

of 0.002

- e
in multiples

mm)

of

Properties

61

Materials

Engineering

The hardnesstests describedabove

but

deformation,

to being

scratched. Herethe

arrangement
of

10 minerals

fluorite

4,

any material
hardened

5.5;

hardness

Mohs

on one

based

or another

can also be defined

scale, which is

According to this scale, a given

with a lower Mohs number.
For
steel, 6.5.

form

as

of

resistance

based on an

2, calcite 3,
9, and diamond
material should be able to scratch
example,
glass has a hardnessof

of ascendinghardness
orthoclase 6, quartz
7, topaz

in order
5,

apatite

is used.

10)

are

earlier, hardness

as mentioned

(talc

1, gypsum

8, corundum

Dynamic Tests

2.3.3

loads
are subjected to dynamic
with a wide
very rapid loading, repeatedvariations
in loads
from
to compression, and so
and stresses, sometimes changing
tension
on. Most dynamic tests do not give results
that can be used in design
but
work,
in the classification
of materials relative to each other in
they are very useful
when subjected to certain loads.In the following
terms of their behavior
sections
some of the most commonly
used dynamic tests are described
briefly.
In

components

applications,

many

spectrum of characteristics,

Test

Impact

The most

for

V-Notch)

(Charpy

commonly

example,

impact test

used

is the Charpy

energy required to break a standard

specimen
is 10 mm square and 55 mm
The
specimen

V-notch

test,

wherein

the

an impulse load is measured.

and centrally notched on
one sidewith a 2-mm-deep,
45\302\260
included
angle notch with a 0.25-mm bottom
radius.
is arranged as a simply
The specimen
beam with 40 mm
supported
a
between
the supporting
and
(variable
points,
pendulum
height and mass) strikes
it on the side opposite the notch. From
and its height
the mass of the pendulum
using

in

length

before and after the impact,

the energy absorbed can be calculated.The
amount
of energy absorbed is a measureof the brittleness
of the material.
is characterized by a small amount of absorbed energy.
A
brittle
fracture
the impact test is often
Sincethe tendency to fracture changes with temperature,

used to

determine

avoid failure

it is

material.

temperature, below which

above which it exhibits

the transition

brittle behavior (notch

If a component is to

and

brittle)

be used at

important

to

low

know

temperatures
transition

the

the

material
ductile

exhibits
behavior.

under dynamic loadings, to

of the proposed
temperature

Fatigue Test
known phenomenon that metals,
in general, cannot withstand
cyclic
of stress at high
of failure
stress
levels
for a long time. The type
under these circumstancesis called
The stress
occurring
fatigue
failure.
situation can
be characterized
the
of
stress
the
R,
variations, and the
by
amplitude
mean stressM.If M is zero, it is found that the value of/? that will cause failure
It

is a

variation

Chapter 2

62

if

smaller

is much

applied

repeatedly

than

to cause

stress

the

in

failure

pull.

single

stress (/?, M) at which

failure
does not take
of cycles of loading is determined
and
of the material. It is found that a limiting
defined
as the fatigue
stress
strength
will not fail regardless
the material
of the number of
level exists below which
stress
is called the endurance limit.
The
cycles. This limiting
fatigue
strength
and the endurance limit vary over a wide range for different
materials.
is where a cylindrical specimen gripped at
The usual form of a fatigue
test
rotated about its axis and loaded as a cantileverbeam.
one end is simultaneously
The
is thereby subjected to alternating
that is, a
stresses,
bending
specimen
of stress with (depending on the axial loads) different
sinusoidal
variation
mean
stresses.
of
test
have
been
Different types
but these will
equipment
developed,
not be described
here. In all cases testing is carried out in accordance
with the
the
of
national
can
also
selection
which
standards,
help
testing
equipment.

From fatigue
place after a

Dynamic

greatest

number

Tensile

and Compression

(106-108)

Tests

the loading
and compression tests describedearlier,
rate is so
in
a
continuous
series of
the stress-strain
reality,
diagram represents,
the
of
the
stress-strain
If the loading rate is increased,
states.
shape

tensile

the

In

the

tests,

certain

slow that
equilibrium

curve (Onom \342\200\224

of change
The amount
e) will change.
depends on the material,
In general,
the loading rate (stressrate or strain rate), and the temperature.
the
~
rate is increased, which
is raised as the loading
means
that a
\302\260nom e curve
the
higher stress is necessaryto give the same strain (see Fig. 2.5). Changing
has the opposite effect. Many
materials
are particularly
plastic
temperature
rate. As mentioned previously,
sensitive
to the loading
most
metals
are not very
but at higher
sensitive to loading rate at room temperature,
the
temperatures
can

sensitivity

significant.

Creep Test

2.3.4
If

become

a material

period

of

time,

is subjected to a
the material
will

metals creep
below 40% of the

All

consequently,

creep

load

under

constant load and

the

permanently
at sufficiently
high temperatures.

absolute
melting
of
is generally

point, creep is

concern

with

a minimum

constant

constant rate, and

in

For plastic materials,

slightly

elevated

the

rate,
the

the

secondary

stage the
creep is often
For metals

tertiary

temperatures.

in

strain

subjected
stress,
increases

stage the
rate

(i.e.,
At

a problemat
creep usually

room

a long

creeps).

temperatures

to elevated
three different
rapidly
continues

strain

increases

it

a problem;

not

normally

materials

effect.
temperatures and is a long-term
In the creep of a tensile test specimenunder
constant
stages exist (seeFig.2.6).In the primary state, the strain
toward

is applied for

load

with time

deform

at a

until fracture.
or at
temperature

becomes

a problem

at

Properties of Engineering

63

Materials

Strain

Fracture
<\302\2602>

Secondary

Primary

creep

Tertiary

/''creep

creep
\342\200\2247*

Temperature

Va2<a3

strain

Original

Time

FIGURE 2.6

Typical

creep

curves

for a tensile

test illustrating

the three

stages

in

creep.

creep-resistant
high-temperature,
high service temperatures. Many
for uses in steam and gas turbines, high-temperature
been developed
and so on.
in general,
plants
pressure vessels, power
determination
of the material properties and their
Moredetailed
descriptions
standards.
and in the appropriate
in the literature
methods) can be found
(testing
relatively
alloys

have

Materials

Engineering

3.1

INTRODUCTION

last few

the

In
taken

place,

with

a wide
to

introduction

the

materials,

described

decades,

rapid

very

resulting

spectrum of properties.Therefore,

engineering
dependence
in detail but

materials is given
of the properties

are mentioned

where

materials has

of engineering

development

in a huge number

of commerciallyavailable
a general,

only
in

this

chapter.

on the

simplified

The structure

of

so on,

are

and

structure,

for a

necessary

materials

basic

not

understanding

[5,6,7].

mentioned

As
only

on

In this
groups.

a material

chapter a short
is given

discussion
of the important material
as an introduction to the description of the

The effects

are mentioned only

background

properties

knowledge

also

but

of

is based

material

not

on the

for a particular

[8-12].

process

manufacturing

2, the engineer's choice of

chemical, and mechanical

which describe the suitability

properties,

technological

manufacturing

in Chapter

the physical,

of the

processes

briefly,

as a

of processes

on the

materials to

more detailed treatment

and materials.

which

requires

propertiesin
different
they

material
are applied

a greater

65

Chapter3

66

3.2

PROPERTIES

MATERIAL

IMPORTANT

IN MANUFACTURING

As mentioned

or, more

in

given process
dominating
properties
processed

properties,
in one

way

group of

is very

to

difficult

process or

state

exactly

properties a material
possible to identify

of
combination
But it is often
must
possess.
which any
or characteristics
which

a given

by

2, it

Chapter

correctly,

material

process group. To

must
evaluate

which properties
for a

intended
certain

have for
these

it

to

be

technological

test methods have been developedwhich

describe
the suitability of a material
for the particular
process
processes.The testing methods can normally be applied only over
specialized

many

or

another

range, and the result should be judged with caution.

can be found in the literature
these testing
methods
[12].
limited

3.2.1

Forming from the

Forming

from the

Material

of a

state

liquid

Liquid

A description

or
a

of

State

material includes the

following

phases

(Chapter1):

1: melting

Phase

Phase 2: forming
of
(creation
Phase 3: solidification(stabilization
In practice,

phases 2 and

melted, and

that

level of the range

furnace equipment
on

absorptions,

gas

is

chemical

the

the

3 can

of

be more

shape)

or less integrated.

the liquid state requires primarily

that
the material
can be
This depends on the
furnace
equipment to do this is available.
of melting points or temperatures and the requirements
of the

from

Forming

shape)

in

availability

a complete

producing

composition
and other

of a

of the material,

factors. If the

suitable

mold

melt
or

melt. These requirements depend

to the surroundings, its
affinity
can be produced, the next question
die material
for an appropriate
its

solidification.
The

melting

3.1a.

The alloyed

have

a melting

sotidus

metals,

point

temperature,

common pure metals are listed in Table

industrial importance, do not
melting-temperature
range defined by the

for some

temperatures
which

but,

below

rather,
which

have

the

the greatest
material

is solid, and the

liquidus

Between the solidus and liquidus

temperature,
a
and
solid
material
of
exists. The meltingmixture
temperatures,
liquid
in
an
role
the
solidification
process, and is
range
plays
temperature
important
for
some
discussed later. The melting-temperature
common
industrial
ranges
in
are
Table
3.1b.
alloys
given
the
transition
the change in volume associated with
solidification,
During
as
from the liquid
this
determines
to the solid state plays a very
role,
important
solidification.
All methow
much
molten
metal it is necessary to supply
during
above

which

the material is liquid.

67

Engineering Materials
3.1

TABLE
and

of Mel ting-Point

Examples

a. Pure metals

(\302\260C)

(\302\260C)

Iron

1535

Lead

327

Copper

1083

Tin

232

660

Aluminum

b.

Temperatures

Ranges

Melting-Temperature

1455

Zinc

419

1850

Chromium

(\302\260C)

Alloys

Brass

Cr, 9%
Zn, 65% Cu)
Cu, 10% Sn)

steel (18%

Stainless

(35%

Bronze

(90%

1400-1420

Ni)

905-930

1020-1040

1050-1060

Aluminum-bronze

(1% Si,

Aluminum

als, except
means that
solidification

bismuth,

risers

and silicon,

antimony,

material

be

will

risers

placing

of the

(reservoirs

arranged so that

must be

contract

in the central

missing

starts at the outside

establishedby
These

643-657

0.2% Cu)

12.

Ref.

From

Source:

650

Magnesium

Nickel

which

solidification,

during

region of the

for this

Compensation

component.

as

component,

is

of molten metal) on the component.

are the last to solidify (see
they

Chapter10).

The
2%,

for

volume of solidification contraction is, for

cast steel about
and for aluminum
3%,

of the solidification contraction has a primary

size
of the risers.
required
After
the component
is cooled down
to
solidification,
in a uniform
solid-state contraction determined
resulting
between
the
and the room temperature
melting
temperature
average thermal expansion. This solid-state contraction

iron

for cast

example,

alloys

room
by

The

on the

influence

magnitude

about

3.5-8.5%.

about

temperature,
the

difference
by

multiplied

the

be
or mold
so that the cooled
longer pattern
the right dimensions (see Chapter 10).
As
the magnitude
of the melting-temperature range plays an
mentioned,
in the solidification of the material. Increasing
role
solidification
important
range
increases the risks of internal
and segregations. Internal
hot tearing,
porosity,

compensated for by
component will have

having

porosity is created when

molten

material

from the

molten

material

partly

solidified

material

stops adequate

risers. Hot tears occurdue to

distribution

prevented

of the

high

feeding of

temperatures

in the

tensile strains.
material constituents, is generally
resulting

in large

of the remaining
range, where the composition
as the temperature reduces.
changes

freezing

gradually

must

shrinkage

a slightly

mold, where contractionis physically

Segregation,nonuniform
producedby a large

or

Chapter3

68
Other

in forming from

of importance

properties

the

liquid

include

state

and viscosity of the material.

specific heat, thermal
conductivity,
some
of the problems described, many
To minimize
different
casting
also be mentioned that
have been developed.It should
continuous
research

development

into

is being

processes

casting

carried

out

to

increase

the

alloys
and

the range

of

applicable

materials.

3.2.2

processes,

solid

the

In the

of

forming

deformation

1). The

Chapter
is determined

area in the tensile

the desiredcomponent
increase

intended

material decides

the

the

mass-conserving

the

shape
surface

by its

amount

depends
in

basic processis mechanical

of

suitability

primarily

test). The

ductility

of plastic

plastic

to undergo plastic
(measured
by the reduction of
deformation
necessary to produce
a material

chosen surface creation principle

and the
In other words, the ductility
of a given
increase
principle and the information

on the

information.
creation

curves are the most important

information
source
of a material to undergo plastic deformation.
and the reduction of area are
elongation,
percent

suitability

instability,

by

fracture.

without

Stress-strain

the primary

metals,

(see

deformation

material state

Processes

Mass-Conserving

evaluating

Material State

can be carried out

or
mass-reducing processes,
joining
processes.

from

Forming

obtainable

the Solid

from

Forming

when
The
the

strain

at

most

For most forming processes, there is a good correlation

of area and the \"formability\"
of the material.
The stressalso reveal the stresses necessaryto produce
the desired
strain
curves
and strains and the resulting
and energy are
The
stresses
deformation.
forces,
work,
for tool or die design and for the choice of process
important
machinery.
As mentioned previously, the conditions under
which
a given process is
The
carried out
can influence
\"formability\" to a great extent.
important
parameters
are
and temperature.
state of stress, strain
rate,
Concerning the state of
is generally
stresses
stress,it can be stated that forming under compressive
easier than
and tensile
under tensile stresses, since the tendenciestoward
instability
fracture are suppressed.Furthermore,
a super-imposed
hydrostatic
pressure
and is utilized
in certain
increases
formability
(ductility)
processes. In most
varies
the state
of stress
processes
the deformation
zone; therefore, it
throughout
be difficult to identify
the limiting
state of stress. These
can
sometimes
discussed
further in Chapters 4 and 6.
problems are
the ductility
of a metal.
As
seen
in Fig. 2.S, the strain
rate
also influences
leads to decreased ductility
in the stresses
rate
and an increase
Increased strain
indusutilized
required to produce a certain deformation. The most commonly
important

between

characteristics.

the reduction

69

Materials

Engineering

rate
are carried out at room temperature; consequently,the strain
for those
create problems.However,
processes that are carried out at
rate must be taken into
the effects of strain
consideration
elevated
temperatures,
result
can
in a material with
a constant
flow
(see Fig. 2.S). High
temperatures
is independent
of the strain. In this state the material
stress (yield stress)which
as the temperature is above
the reis able to undergo very large deformations,
trial

processes

does not

where new strain-free

grains are produced
do not create serious
processes\"
instantly. These \"hot working
the strain
in the deformation
rate is controlled.
phase when
problems
The discussionabove is valid for most metals, with some exceptions: for
which exhibits a tendency to brittleness at temperatures
brass,
cartridge
example,

crystallization
continuouslyand

above the

temperature,

almost

temperature.

recrystallization

Processes

Mass-Reducing

The basic processes

of

the mass-reducing
type are mechanical, fracture
dissolution and combustion; or thermal,
melting.
are the most
Industrially,
mass-reducing
processes based on fracture
The suitability
include all the cutting
of a material
for
important, as they
processes.
which depends
cutting
processes is often called its machinability.
Machinability,
on many different
is a measureof how well the interaction
material
properties,
covered
between the cutting tool and the material takes place. The parameters
by
a machinability index can be tool wear, surface quality, cutting forces, or chip
and standardized
shape.Tool wear is often considered to be the main criterion,
7).
(see
testing procedures have been developed
Chapter
on:
Machinability depends primarily
(ductile or

brittle);

chemical,

1.

The mechanical

2.

Its chemical

3.

Its

heat

properties of a material

(ductility

and

hardness)

composition

treatment

(structure)

low
Concerning mechanical properties, it can be stated that low ductility,
hardening, and low hardness
machinability.
Correspondingly,
give good
this means that materials with
are
and high strain
hardening
high
ductility
difficult
to machine.
is a reasonably
For many materials (e.g., cast iron)
hardness
of the ease with which the material can be machined.
good indication
Hie
of a material has a great
influence
on its machinability. By
composition
small
amounts
of lead, manganese, sulfur,
or tellurium,
selenium,
adding
be increased
the mechanical
can
machinability
considerably without
changing
properties.
As to the structure
as possible
of a material,
it must be as homogeneous
without abrasive
and hard inclusions, as theseincreasetool wear and result
particles

strain

in poor

surfaces.

Chapter3

70
those

For

mechanical
electrochemical

properties

as

is

material

easy

electrochemical
Combustion,

in the

example,

is

removal rate

material

the

For

material.

nonhardened

process,

machining

determined

laws.
in torch

is utilized

which

to burn the

possible

as a

to process

by Faraday's

solely

processes that use chemicalbasicprocesses,the

play a minor or no role at all, with the chemical and
a major role. This means
a hardened
that
playing

mass-conserving
properties

material

using

for

cutting,

a supply

example,

of oxygen.

requires that it is
to cut steel

is possible

It

and cast iron (<2.5%

C); however, stainless steel cannot be cut
The processes based on the thermal
basic process of melting
electrodischarge
machining, for example) requirethat the material

this

by

process.
and

(cutting

can be

melted

the material
must be removed
energy source. After
melting,
zone. These processes are largely
influenced
by the thermal
its thermal conductivity,
heat
(i.e.,
properties of the material
capacity,
specific
as well as low heat capacity decreasesthe
heat, etc.). Low thermal
conductivity
by

an

appropriate

the

from

machining

and minimizes the

requirements

energy

heat-affected zone.

Joining Processes
fusion welding,
is discussed here. The
process,
type of joining
material is, like the other technological
difficult
to
properties,
define. Many
such as those mentioned under
from the liquid
factors,
forming
material state, influence
the welding
of a material. Chemical
properties
and
to
the
the
constituent's
have a great influence,
affinity
surroundings
composition
as contaminations,
so
and
on, depend on these
gas absorptions, structure,
factors. In addition,
conditions
influence
the
internal
stresses and
cooling
resulting
of the material.
the final hardness
the

Only

main

of a

wettability

Forming from the

3.2.3

Granular

State

Material

to define the material

that
properties
material for compaction and sintering.
All
materials
state can be compactedand
that can be produced in the granular
on the particular material, it may be difficult to develop
sintered
but, depending
In general, the functional
suitable compactionand sintering
processes.
the process itself, dictate the material
to be used.
requirements, not
For this

determine

process area,
the suitability

EFFECT OF

3.3

THE

The

under

properties.
vary

the

which

difficult

is rather
of

the granular

THE PROCESSESON
PROPERTIES

MATERIAL
properties

original

conditions

it

of the

it is

material, the actual basic

carried

out

By varying the governing

final properties,
sometimes

the

determine

parameters of the
within

rather

process, and

final complex
wide

process,

limits.

it is

the

of

material

possible to

(corrosion

one

within

fall

In the

detrimental.

some

and

affected

the

be rememberedthat

It must

\"weldability\.")

are beneficial

of

process and the material, the

or more of the following
groups:

propertiesthat

affected

are

properties

physical

changes); mechanical properties (strength,

metallurgical
and technological
\"machinability,\"
properties (\"formability,\"

resistance,
ductility);

hardness,

the

on

Depending

will

71

Materials

Engineering

are important

properties

of the

some
actual

changes

for

normally
of
performance

the

take

that

situation,

place

only a few
the desired

functions.

material and

distribution
may influence

and character
In

of these defects

must
be carefully analyzed.
the liquid material state, the final material
properties depend
the
the composition
on
(including solidification temperature
range),
or die material, and the
and mechanical properties of the molding

from

forming

mainly

thermal

conditions

solidification
material

defects (micro- or macrofractures,

porosities,
into the
of properties, etc.) are often introduced
The type
the performance of the component
drastically.
various

processing,

During

nonuniform

state

by plastic

and the rate of

decreases

the

final

ductility

properties.

Cold

of the

material. Hot

reasonably
good mechanical
(mass-reducing processes)primarily
the surface properties (roughness, hardness, internal
stresses,
etc.).
examples mentioned only serve to illustrate the complexity of the
These
of the final material properties of a component.
are
problems
in more
detail in some of the later chapters.
Solid-state

influences

The
evaluation
discussed

As

the solid
the temperature,

from

forming

the

determine

primarily
the strength and

deformation gives poor surface

properties.

forming

CLASSIFICATION

3.4

In

of deformation,

amount

the

deformation

increases

deformation

rate, etc.).

(direction,

deformation,

mentioned

previously,

and

quality

by machining

OF MATERIALS
it is very

difficult

to

provide

broad

information

regarding
Consequently,
important engineering materials in this context.
a
will be given to allow a rough
evaluation
of the suitability
only generalsurvey
of the different
material
this survey
and the
groups for various processes.From
a
in
the
later
for
the
reasonable
process descriptions
chapters,
background
of the materials will be available.
evaluation of the final properties
materials can be divided
into groups
Engineering
showing important
In
this
context
the
traditional
classification
shown
in Fig. 3.1 will be
relationships.

all

the

followed.

Hie main groups

composite
materials.

so that
subdivided
subdivided

new
into
into

are metallic materials, nonmetallic

Composite
and special

materials

are

built

up

and

materials,

from

two or

properties are obtained. Metallic

ferrous
and nonferrous metals. The nonmetallic
ceramics, and glasses, but the group
polymers,

more materials,

materials
materials

covers

are
are

many other

I*

MATERIALS

i
i
l
METALLIC

MATERIALS

COMPOSITE

MATERIALS

\"I
NONMETALLIC

MATERIALS

POLYMERS
W
\302\273

cn

n z
i-3 \"1
> w

f 50

THE
73
as

cn ?3
>-3

>

cn

\342\200\2420

CO

>

cn

H
O
cn

FIGURE 3.1

Classification of someof the

THE
T3

> O
cn cn
>-9 W

O \302\253-3
cn h

50

cd cn
03 \302\253-3

M O
5\302\260
3
cn w

?
a:

cn

cn

>
cn
cn
M
cn

cn

\\

I
engineering

materials.

CO

73

Materials

Engineering

materials (wood,

concrete, bricks,etc.)that

are

not

for the present

important

discussion.

3.5

MATERIALS

METALLIC

3.5.1

Bonding

and

Structure

by the metallic
bonding, where the metal ionsare held
has a high mobility of the
cloud.\"
This
type of bonding
together
the
the
in
for
and
accounts
free
electrons
level,
(valence)
high strength
general
and
the
be
deformed
without
to
fracture),
relatively high
ductility (ability
of metals. These general tendenciescan be influenced
by many
meltingtemperature
factors; consequently, exceptionsare common.
with
cubic,
have a crystalline structure
Metals
body-centered
predominantly

Metalsare characterized

by an \"electron

face-centered cubic, or
materials

normally

consist

hexagonal
close-packed

of thousands

lattice

of small

individual

structures.

Crystalline
or grains,
individual
many

crystals

solidification,
depending on the production method. During
within
the
melt. As solidification
lattices begin to form at various
points
random
or
which
have
orientation,
these
proceeds
grow, meet, and
grains,
crystals
of
disorder in the
where
a
boundaries
form
the grain
3.2),
high
degree
(Fig.

atomic

exists

arrangement

[1,5,6].

influence on the properties of the

a dominating
The grain boundaries have
are functions of the rate of nucleation
The number and size of the grains
metal.
Once a metal has solidified,the number
of grains
and the rate of grain
growth.
which
can be changed
and size of the grains
by deformation or heat treatment,
The
within rather wide limits.
will allow its mechanical propertiesto be varied
size on the
following
equation illustrates, for iron, the influence of the grain

yield stress:

Oo =

(3-1)

*i+4=

GRAIN

(a|

FIGURE

3.2

The formation of

<cj

(b|

grain

boundaries

[1].

BOUNDARIES

Chapter 3

74

where o0 is the

This means

characteristic

has a

also

which

structure,

of the

can be changed
The individual

and heat

will

on the

influence

significant

deformation

by

or patterns

structures

grain

material
and D is the
constants,
stress.
grain size gives a high
yield
and the solidification conditions,
metal

are

k2

a small

that

on the composition

Depending
different

kt and

stress,

yield

size.

grain

average

be formed.
The grain
properties of the metal,

treatment.

have various

or defects
faults
in their lattice
can influence the material
properties
strongly. The size
of defects
are dependent on the history
and number
of the material,
including
and deformation,
as, for example, in
cooling conditionsafter solidification
or extrusion.
rolling, forging,
grains

faults

these

structure;

or crystals

can also be
noncrystalline materials the grain boundaries
in the lattice structure. The type,
and distribution
size,
number,
of all the defects
determine
the mechanical properties of the material.
largely
and
deformation
can influence the defects
Also, as mentioned, heat treatment
and thus the properties.
The most important
affected
stress,
by the defects are yield
properties
and electrical conductivity.
such as
hardness,
stress,
ductility, ultimate
Properties
heat
thermal expansion, and elastic constantsare not
melting point,
capacity,
In normal

consideredas

defects

by the

influenced

3.5.2

of metals

properties

engineer; consequently,great
strength of metals leadingto
of

Mechanisms

Strength-Increasing

mechanical

The

defects.

metallic

materials

can,

in

more

are generally
has

effort

been

favorable

b.

Precipitation

Strain

3.

Dispersion

most

strength/weight
be increased
by:

general,

1. Phase transformations
in the solid state,
a. Martensitic (diffusionless)transformations
2.

the

directed

that

is,

for the

important

toward

ratios. The

hardening

the

increasing
strength

from:

and solution (diffusion)

hardening

Hardening

by

hardening (see
Solid-State

Section 3.11.1)

Phase

Transformations

is to produce a componentwith
The main purpose of a manufacturing
process
a desired
and
desired
the material
geometry
properties.During
processing
be changed in a beneficial way,
but very often it is necessary to
properties may
increase
the strength
functional
properties of the component to obtain the intended
Most
metallic
materials
in
the solid
allow
transformations
performance.
phase
the
state after the shaping
without
process
changing
general geometry, which
makes
it possible to control the structure
and
thus the properties within
rather
wide

limits.

75

Materials

Engineering

Phase transformations
and

at

holding

are
elevated

an

achieved in several
for such time that

usually

temperature

stages: (1) heating

to

is

equilibrium

phase

lowering of the temperature),

closely approached, (2) cooling
a phase change.
so that the existing phases are no longer in equilibrium,
causing
are normally obtained by interrupting
The most desirable
structures
progress
toward a new
structure
before it is reached. Practical technical
equilibrium
which
are associated with
such
are called
transformations,
operations,
phase
controlled

(i.e.,

heat

treatment.

on the

Depending

type of

identified: (1) diffusionless

transformations.

a few

Martensitic
important

can be

categories

and (2)

transformations

are closelyassociatedwith

transformations

diffusion

but only

exist,

applications

metallic materials.For

can

transformation

in the

the temperature

steel

most

as the

steel,

steels; however, martensitic

with

are

occur in other

also

diffusion-based

different

Many

main

two

transformations

martensitic

or

discussed.

be

will

phase transformation,

first

stage

structure
cubic equilibrium
at 800-900\302\260C until the face-centered
(ausis
structure
a body-centered
tenite) has been obtained.By quenching,
tetragonal
cubic structure (of ferrites)
formed
due to the fact that the body-centered
is a deformed
and stressed
with carbon atoms; the result
becomes
supersaturated
is
hard
and
The
martensitic
structure
martensite.
structure
called
tetragonal
of hardness and brittleness depend on the carbon content. For
brittle; the
degrees
= 400
HV
hardness is about
the martensitic
example, for a steel with 0.2%C
=
is HV
while the original
hardness
100; for steel with 0.4%C the figures are
=* 830
* 650
HV
the figures are HV
against HV =* 130; for steel with 0.6%C
=*
160.This shows that the hardenability increases strongly
the
with
against HV
carbon content, owing
to the fact that it is the carbon
which creates the

is kept

tetragonal structure.

For most

diffusion
elements

can

can

modify

the

temperature
is

temperature
the

relieving) must

transformations

descriptions

solid

structure.

solubility

brittle

allowing

out. Various
the

changing

be

must

structures

200-500\302\260C,

carried

be
without

either

consequently,

alloying

fundamental

of the

diffusionless solid-state transformations

in the literature.

decreased.

precipitation takes

(heating to

martensite

Precipitation and age hardening

decreasing the solid-statesolubility
elements into

brittle;

less

of the material.

detailed

be found

the

of

and

hard and

less

giving

some stress

to create

characteristics
More

martensite is too hard

applications,

slower cooling conditions

chosen, or a tempering

has
place

are
of

This means that the metal

solution
and then cooled
From

methods

strength-increasing
one element in

this supersaturated

another as
is heated at first to
to

rapidly

the

structure,

been exceeded precipitates out

at room temperature, it is called

retain

of

the

bring all the

the elevated

for which
If this

element

matrix.

aging or

based on

the

age

hardening',

if it

Chapter 3

76

takes place at

an

elevated

temperature,

it

is called

aging or

artificial

precipitation
hardening.

be mentioned

It should

many

which can

after

and so

machining,

forming,

after

that

alloys are even softer

quenching,

quenching

alloys are soft, in

than in the annealed

on, can easily be carried out

be suppressedby

before

and

general,

state, so that
precipitation,

at low temperatures.
holding
rivets
used in aircraft. After
This can be illustrated by most aluminum
are kept in a refrigerator,
which uteans that they are soft and can
the rivets
quenching,
be driven
and hardness
at room temperature.
easily.
They attain full strength
coalesce into particles which
atoms
act as obstacles
The
toward
precipitated
deformation. As these particles grow in size, the hardness of the material
is
increased.
If a certain
critical particle size is exceeded,hardness
starts
to
this is known as overaging. The precipitated
are hard and brittle
decrease;
particles
and
lie in a soft matrix.
is that of aluminum
An
with
4% copper (Duralumin). At
important
example
Cu is soluble in aluminum;
at 20\302\260C,only 0.5% Cu is soluble. The
550\302\260C, 5.7%
is carried
out at about
490\302\260C. Aging
at
solution
treatment
(or precipitation)
takes
can be obtained by
room temperature
about 4 days, but higher
strength
artificial
aging at about 200\302\260C.
For
some alloys, deformation can increase the rate
of precipitation.
Many
the

material

casting alloys will, after some time, undergo age hardening

directly
and artificial
cast state. Ordinary solution treatment,
quenching,
aging
increase

strength
mentioned

and hardness

the

from
normally

further.

metals are soft after quenching. In this state the

previously,
elements
are uniformly
If the
atoms of the alloying
distributed in the matrix.
differ
in
atomic
size
elements
atoms
or
(substitutional
substantially
alloying
from
those
of
the
the
is
interstitial
lattice
atoms)
parent matrix,
resulting
which
in
occurs
distorted,
giving
higher
strength and hardness. This mechanism,
As

single-phase solid solutions, is called solution

3.3 shows the solution hardening
Figure
elements.
The
effect is measured by
hardening
For

many applications

only

the

or

For steel,

solution
the

alloyed with different

yield stress at 1% strain,
ol%.

copper

the

of a

surface

strength and hardness; consequently,many

out surface hardening. These
developed to carry
transformations

hardening.
of

component needs to
methods

different
may

be

based

have

high

have been

on martensitic

hardening.

carbon

content

determines

be added to

the hardness

obtainable. In

low-

by carbonizing from solid

or
an excess
of CO at
from
carbonaceous
gaseous atmospheres having
compounds
in
is then quenched, resulting
elevated temperatures.The component
elements
that
on the carbon content. Steelscontaining
considerable
hardness
depending
be
heated
500\302\260C
are
can
to
will form nitrides
(which
approximately
very hard)
carbon

steels, carbon can

the

surface

Materials

Engineering

BRASS

Gu-Zn:

'

15

<CT

Cu-Sn:

\342\200\242

10

40

copper with

%)

various

alloying

elements [5].

is called niprocess
gas, allowing nitrides to be formed. This
be
obtained
with
other
methods. In
a
than
can
harder
surface
gives
and
are
to
the
surface but
both
carbon
added
process,
nitrogen

ammonia

an

and

triding

the carbonitriding
at

Solution hardening of

3.3

FIGURE

(atomic

element

Alloying

in

BRONZE

lower
More

than those
temperatures
detailed descriptions of

used for
these and

carburizing.
other

methods

can be

found

in

the

literature.

Strain Hardening
in Chapter

described

As

hardening

occurs

in metals

2 where
when

they

the

stress-strain

are cold-worked.

was discussed, strain

Figure 3.4 showsin

curve

with
yield stress, ultimate stress, and percent elongation
change
cold working,
which
could be brought about, for example, by forging
between
two parallel plates.
After
the grains become elongated in certain
directions
and
deformation,
contracted in others,
results in anisotropy, that is, the material has
which
different
in different directions. By heat treatment\342\200\224recrystallization\342\200\224
properties
into
it is possible
to change the distortedgrains
new stress-free
grains (see Fig.
in grain
size. Small
3.5), a procedure
eventually
accompanied
by a growth
general

how

the

increasing

deformations,

grain

growth.

high

temperatures,

or long

periods at elevated temperature

favor

Chapter 3

78

Cold
FIGURE

The

3.4

by increasing

(%)

work

of yield

change

amounts of

stress (o0),

ultimate

stress

and
(ou\342\200\236),

elongation

(eb)

cold working.

can be estimated as roughly

0.4
times
temperature
recrystallization
3.2
Table
gives
melting temperature on the absolute scale (Kelvin).
for different
temperatures
approximately the lowest possible recrystallization
alloys.
The term cold working refers to deformations carried out at temperatures
and the term hot working refers to
below the
temperature,
recrystallization
The

the

deformations

out

carried

Some

metals

means

that

at temperatures

at room

above the recrystallizationtemperature.

temperature
recrystallize
hot-worked.
these metals are normally
in the surface
layers of the componentwill often
well as its hardness.

Strength/

Grain

hardness

growth

(lead,

Strain
increase

tin,

3.5

The change

in

properties

by recrystallization

which

hardening induced
its fatigue strength

Temperature
FIGURE

and zinc),

[1].

only

as

79

Engineering Materials
Lowest

3.2

TABLE

and Upper

Point,

Limit

Possible Recrystallization Temperature,

Metals
for Hot Working for Four

Melting

Lowest

recrystallization

limit

Upper

temperature

for hot

point

Melting

working

Metal

(\302\260Q

(\302\260Q

(\302\260C)

Mild steel

600

1520

1350

Copper
Brass (60/40)

150

1083

1000

300

900

850

Aluminum

100

660

600

FERROUS METALS

3.6

characteristics
can be chosen as
primary
and
areas will
context,
parameters.
structuring
application
composition
as they represent useful
and
be chosen as principal
characteristics,
practical
selection.
It must be emphasized
guides for the engineer engaged in material
because
of limited space, the description here will consist
that,
only of the more
In

of metals,

a description

different

In this

generalguidelines.
In

more detailed

situations,

practical

be studied

catalogs must

carefully

when

requirements. In the following,

iron will be discussed.

Composition and

3.6.1

considering

material

and

literature

functional

only constructional

suppliers'
and manufacturing

steels, tool steels,and

cast

Possibilities

Alloying

is iron (Fe, the parent

materials the base matrix
metal)
having
of Fe and C with
amounts
of
carbon
Steelsare
(C).
generally
alloys
varying
less than 2%C; cast irons contain 2-4%C. Dependingon the cooling
conditions
be
in
the
and additional
carbon
the
elements,
may
presentmainly
alloying
combined form
of iron carbide, Fe3C, called cementite,
as for example
in steel, or
in the
form of graphite, as in gray cast iron. Cementite itself is very hard
and

With

ferrous

brittle.

Pure carbon

of the steels
obtain:

steels (alloysof

used

Fe

and

today. Most steels

C) represent

are alloyed

with

Greaterstrength
Better

hardenability

Improved
Better

high- and low-temperature properties

corrosion

resistance

Better technological

(manufacturing)

properties

a very
a variety

only

small fraction
of elements to

80

Chapter

The

can generally

in steels

elements

alloying

be used in

different

two

ways,

depending on the purpose:

1.

In

2.

In larger

small

less than 5%, to

amounts,

in

3.3 a

elements

four

into

1.
2.

3.

Low-alloy steels
but

TABLE 3.3

Main

more

with

the stainless

contains

Effects

of Some

Amount

>1

0.08-0.15

Sulfur

2-5

Nickel

12-20

0.5-2

Chromium

4-18

0.2-5

Molybdenum

0.15

Vanadium

and less

1-2%

than

and

Important

the

0.2-0.7

Silicon

>2

0.1-0.4

Copper

Small

Aluminum

Processesin

permission

Manufacturing,

alloying

steels.

elements (5-30%).

5% alloying

steels

(microalloyed).

5%

than

carbon

as

matrix

in Steel

Elements

Alloying

This

steels.

high-temperature

Main effect
Prevent brittleness

Increase
Increase

machinability

Increase

ductility

hardenability

(inhibits

resistance

corrosion

Increase/give

Increase

with sulfur

resistance

corrosion

Increase/give

Increase

combined

when

hardenability

grain

Form stable

growth)

carbides, give

hardness

Improve

magnetic

small

at retained

grain

size,

ductility

considerably

hardness at
Increase/give
Increase strength

Increase

stable carbides

form

and

hardenability

0.001-0.003

Boron

lUngsten

Reprinted

base

increase strength
Increase hardenability

with

roughly

steels.

carbon

plain

(%)

0.25-0.40

Manganese

used

than

more

alloying elements

1-2%

than

the same

having

element

Alloying

alloying

important

elements, be

of alloying

amount

the widely
with

High-alloy steels
group

the

less

contains

group

elements,

the

groups:

Carbon steels with

This

effects of some of

[4].

can, depending on

Steels
classified

of the

is given

survey

steel

in

the

corrosion

high

example,

In Table

increase strength
and
hardenability
to produce specialproperties:
for
range 5-30%,
resistance or high-temperature
properties

amounts,

and

high

strength

temperature

(spring steels)

properties

Increase corrosion resistance

Increasehardenability

by nitriding

of Macmillan Publishing
from Materials and
Co., Inc., as adapted
3rd ed., by E. Paul DeGarmo. Copyright
\302\251
by E. Paul DeGarmo.

4.

81

Materials

Engineering

such

with

Alloys

large

amounts of

metal is no longer iron. This

and

Nichrome

The development

and

of the

available

many

strength,

properties as well
following

been carried out

their

as

which

description,

to obtain

their

manufacturing
refers to both

stated that

if the engineer
requires only
no special corrosion resistanceand
the best and cheapest solution.With

with

steels normally

steels has

methods.

manufacturing

It can generally be
mechanical

alloys, such as

the special

Superalloys.

functional and applicational

properties.This
is reflected
in the
applications

group

the parent

that

elements

alloying

contains

represent

\"common\"
so

the carbon
more
slightly

on,

the

better
and
expensive low-alloy steels, better hardenability
strength at higher
are
rather
The
are
obtained.
steels\342\200\224which
temperatures
expensive\342\200\224
high-alloy
heat resistability,
are
used only where their
(stainlessness,
special
properties
4
materials in group
for the special
can be utilized. The same is true
etc.)

above.

The

section

following

presents

a classification

cast iron

is described.

3.6.2

Classification of Steels

by

first rough classification of steelsresults

steels (<0.9%C) and tool steels (0.5-2%C).

Constructional steels may

be

guidance

parentheses

refer

main groups: constructional

into many groups, of which

only
be rememberedthat much help and
the various standards (ANSI, AISI, SAE,etc.)and
be

subdivided

in

Metals Handbook).
to the previous four-group

ASM

(e.g.,

in two

below. It should

mentioned

be found

can

handbooks

later,

Steels

Constructional
will

applications;

Applications

The

few

of steelsby

In

the
steel-alloy

the
following,
classification.

numbers

in

for bridges,
structural steels (1 and 2) are mainly
used
buildings,
machine structures, vessels, trucks, trains,
machine
loaded
moderately
components, and so on. These steels are cheap, weldable,and have
and manufacturing properties. Someof the most
average good
strength
importantgroups
are the plain low-carbon steels (<0.35%C)and the low-alloy
structural steels, which
an increasing role in
are
high-strength
playing

General

industry.

steels suitable for machining

engineering
called constructional steels, are used for a large

General

components

that

the most

require

important

high strength
are

the

and

medium

plain medium-carbon

(I

and

2),

sometimes

variety of machine
to high hardness. Among

steels (0.35-0.55%C),

Chapter3

82
the

and

are

strength
to machine.

difficult

industries

the

used where

are generally

(3)

For applications

amounts

the

in

appearance is also
of Cr and Ni.

clean

good

contain large

steels

internal or external) are encountered.

In many
is also required. Most of the corrosion-resistant

(either

applicationshigh

tempered

steels,

nitriding

Corrosion-resistant(or stainless)
corrosive media

(>0.3%C), the quenched and

and so on.

steels

engineering

low-alloy

steels,carburizing

These

important.

steels

and dairy
steels normally

chemical

Heat-resistant steels (1, 2, 3, and 4) are especially used where high creep
at elevated temperatures, often
with good strength
resistance
combined
characteristics and corrosion resistance, is required.
steels
the machining
(1 and 2) are used where
Free-machining
properties play
an important role. These steelsare mostly
low-carbon
and mediumplain
carbon steels modified
either
with small amounts of sulfur
and
(0.1-0.3%)
or with sulfur (0.25-0.35%)
and lead (0.15(0.5-1.5%)
manganese
0.35%) with small amounts of tellurium, selenium, or bismuth.
carbon
and low-alloy steels (7 and 2) are sometimes
more or less
Plain
or modified
for fabrication of specialsheets,tubes,
refined
and so on.
wires,
a low
(silicon steels with
Examples are steels for electrical
machinery
steels
wire
carbon content and 2-4% Si), deep drawing
(~0.1%C),
(~0.1%C) for nails, screws, and so on.
Many other
for

alloys developedfor
valves,

springs,

mentioned (steel

could be

applications

special

but for these the

etc.),

literature

and

the

standards

must

be studied.
The

illustrate the large variety

examples
material
selection must be carried out

preceding
that

emphasize
consideration

to

the

functional

requirements

the

and

of steels
carefully,

and

available
giving

due

possibilities.

manufacturing

Tool Steels

The

requirements

increasing

processes,

metal-forming

loads
Tool

higher productivity and the wider use

often impose severe mechanicaland thermal

for

which

on tooling, have contributed

are among the most
steels

to

the

rapid
of

important

development of tool materials.

the steels produced, and

all

wide variety is available. It is not possible to give a comprehensive

survey
a few important
a limited space, so only
The
groups will be mentioned.
and the literature must be consulted for more
detailed
suppliers'catalogs

of

in

information
[8].

Tool
term

tool

steels

can be

includes

Cold-working
examples:

cutting

roughly

into

classified

the following

major groups (the

dies):

tool steels (1,2,

tools,

and

press tools,

3)
forging

with

0.5-2.0%C.
dies,

blanking

Application
tools.

Ni.

and

(3) with 0.3-0.6%C

steels

tool

Hot-working
V,

83

Materials

Engineering

examples:

Application

casting

dies,

of W,

amounts

various

and

forging

Cr,

extrusion

dies,

dies.

High-speedtool
Co, Mo,and

steels
V.

Cementedcarbides(4) consist
matrix.

a softer

in

forming

dies,

materials

are discussed

excellent

and

2-3.8%C

having

etc.)

particles (WC, TiC, TaC, NbC,

Co is generally used, but Ni and
tools (inserts or tips),
examples:
cutting

dies.

Cast Iron

iron

Cr,

increasing

matrix

blanking

3.6.3

other special

an

hard

of
softer

the

also used. Application

these tool

has

For

Mo are

Some of

Cast

of W,

amounts

cutting tools and, at

examples:

Application

various

and

press tools.

various

rate,

with 0.7-1.3%C

(3)

castability,

a very

chapters.

Mn, P, and S and some

material. This material

of Si,

amounts

varying

elements is technically

in later

important

applicational properties, and

machinability,

low

price.

As mentioned
depending

on

cooling

conditions

has a major

influenceon

classifiedin

accordance

and
distribution,

their

the

previously,

the

with

is present
carbon
and Si content. The
mechanical

the shape

size. Depending on

be grouped into
nodular
or spheroidal

can

gray

cast

iron

the

most

in

graphite

properties;

of the

shape

with flake

graphite

of the
graphite

as graphite,
(its shape)

structure

therefore, cast irons

particles,

and

are

their

graphite particles,

graphite (called SG iron). Cast iron

nodular
with

cast irons

cast iron
flake

with

graphite,

surface,
appearance of a fractured
low ultimate tensile strength,
It has
a good
a relatively
its machinability
is very good.
(brittle);
compression
strength, and low ductility
The ultimate
tensile
of gray cast iron, which
varies
between
strength
normally
100 and 500 N/mm2, depends on the size of the graphite
their
flakes,
the structure
of the material, the composition,and the cooling
conditions.
distribution,
For SG iron (nodular
cast iron) strength varies between350 and 750 N/mm2,
and elongation lies between2 and 15%. This type of cast iron is being applied

normally called gray

is used most widely.

in

industry
Depending

at a
on

cast iron

cases

after

the gray

rapidly increasing rate.

the rapidity of cooling and the

Si content,

the

carbon

can be

a hard
form Fe3C (cementite), giving
and brittle
precipitated in the combined
material called white cast iron, named after the appearance
of a fractured
surface. It cannot
be machined and has a very
It is mainly
wear resistance.
high
in combination
used
with gray cast iron as a surface layer on a componentwhere
and as components
extremely
high wear resistance is required, as in car wheels
in
The necessary rapid cooling is produced
the
machines.
crushing
by chilling

surfaces.

Chapter 3

84
is an

iron

cast

White

cast iron. The white

cooled

and

cast

The

slowly.

nearly pure

intermediate product in the manufacturing

iron is given a prolongedannealing
at about

matrix

iron

high

ductility
and

(~350N/mm2),

the

industries.

agricultural

metals are
nonferrous
groups of the most important
and it must be emphasized that only general
sections,

a few

Only

following

in a

considerable shock resistance, good

(10-20% elongation), and is used in the

METALS

NONFERROUS

3.7

800-900\302\260C

nodules

graphite

has

(ferrite),

railroad, automobile,pipe-fitting,

strength

very fine

has

material

resulting

of malleable

discussed in
guidelines

are given.

The
and

industrial

nonferrous

of the

importance

several

provide

they

important properties

metals is steadily increasing,

cannot

that

in steels,

be obtained

for example:
High

resistance

corrosion

Ease of fabrication
High

and

electrical

thermal

conductivity

Low density
High

ratio

strength/weight

Attractive color
all

Not

combination
of

all have at least

possess all these qualities, but nearly
In
elements.
it
is
the
general,
adding
special alloying
of these properties that makes
the nonferrous
metals so

metals

nonferrous

without

two

several

attractive.

lower than for steels, but

of the nonferrous metals is, in general,
low density,
the
ratio can be rather high.
The
strength/weight
is a disadvantage
of elasticity is relatively low, which
where stiffness is
modulus
metals
have a relatively low melting point
and
required. Most nonferrous
they
or permanent dies and can often
molds
be
are, in general,
easy to cast in sand
cold-worked
to provide complicated shapes becauseof their high ductility and
low yield stress.
The

strength
of the

because

The following
aluminum/aluminum
alloys,

3.7.1
Pure

widely

Copper/Copper

copper,

utilized

on, due to
good
vessels,

are

groups

described:

its

Alloys

of 8.96
having a density
in the electrical industry

high

manufacturing
and
so on,

electrical
properties.

where

its

copper/copper alloys,
and zinc/zinc alloys.

alloys,

magnesium/magnesium

g/cm3 and
for

conductivity,
It is also

high

thermal

its

corrosion

high

used in

point

melting

wires, coils,

cables,

coolers,

conductivity

of

1083\302\260C,

resistance,
heat

can be

is

contacts, and so
exchangers,

utilized.

and

its

alloys have

Copper
is

which
with

a wide applicational

a wide

and

spectrum,

available. The most important

copper
commercially
which
alloyed with 10-40% zinc, and bronze,
copper
or
tin
nickel
and
called
aluminum,
correspondingly

are

alloys

85

Materials

Engineering

tin,

and nickel

bronze,

Brassis

of

variety

are brass,

alloys

is copper

alloyed

aluminum

bronze,

bronze.

content
of
of all the copper alloys. A copper
and
this
an
with
(\342\200\22440%
zinc)
gives
alloy
good strength
and
If the copper content is increased to 65-70%
hot-working
properties.
and excellent cold-working
(zinc ~ 30-35%), alloys with
high
ductility
propertiesare
obtained.
Besides the normal brasses, many
brasses
are
special
for
or
those
which
with
are
available,
iron,
aluminum,
alloyed
example,
manganese.
Some of these alloys are used for screws, nuts, and so on.
a nickel
If 10-20% nickel is added to brass (60-70%
Cu and 10-30% Zn),
for
its
color.
This
is
used
for
silver alloy is obtained,which
named
is
alloy
most

the

important

about 60%

electrical

is typical,

contacts,

etc.

springs,

Bronzes are the second

most important
copper alloys. Here the tin bronzes
a
for
for
major role,
example,
bearings, where 5-22% Sn is used.Often,
play
tin bronze is alloyed with
For casting purposes tin bronzes
are often
lead.
small
and
lead
in
amounts.
with
zinc
relatively
Typical applications
alloyed
include
bearings,
pipe fittings, and machine components.
bushings,
of

utilization

to

important

resistance.
high strength and high corrosion
as
well
as
for
it is
most
other
metals,
alloys
copper
and
that different alloys are used for casting,
forming,
have

bronzes

Aluminum

In the

remember

machining.

Aluminum/Aluminum

3.7.2
Pure

aluminum,

become

has

having

one of the

is due to

This

its

high

Alloys

a density of 2.7 g/cm3

most important
industrial
It should

point below 660\302\260C,

a melting

in the last

materials

high corrosion

ratio,

strength/weight

electrical

and

be mentioned

that

few

years.

resistance,and

good

cost of aluminum

the relative

conductivity.
this situation. Applications include high-voltage cables; equipment
for the chemical,
and kitchen appliances.
industries;
dairy, and building
Aluminumis often
and
zinc
alloyed with silicon, magnesium, copper,manganese,
has

favored

varying amounts
beryllium

in

small

and

sometimes

with

silicon

is used

components, parts for the automotive

and magnesium can be hardened
by
If

aluminum

treatment,
When using

iron, chromium,

in

and

titanium,

amounts.

Aluminum alloyed with

heat

nickel,

is

alloyed

extensively

and
industry,
heat treatment.

with copper, very

high

strength

corrosion propertiesare rather

aluminum alloys, a careful
selection
but the

available alloys must

be

carried

out to satisfy the

the

in

so on.

casting
Alloys

can

of machine
with

silicon

be obtained

by

poor.

between

functional

the commercially
and

manufacturing

Chapter 3

86

requirements. Most aluminum

ductility and

cold and

good

3.7.3

formability.

Alloys

Magnesium/Magnesium

Magnesium,

of 1.7

a density

having

utilized

general,

an

in

Magnesium alloysare
the general

Pure zinc, having

in

produced

coatings,
for

sheets

by

heat

the

in the

in

is,

can

ratios

proportion

of 3-8% for other

zinc and manganese. The
treatment of alloys

where weight reduction is important: in

the automotive industry,
and certain
fields of

primarily

Alloys

g/cm3 and a melting

of 7.13

a density

but

material.

Forty

percent

25% is used

as an

alloying

the building

industry.

of the zinc

of

420\302\260C,

produced is used

large

amounts

alloys

with

is

fraction is used

in copper, and

element

Rather

point

but increasing

a small

only

of zinc

for

as a

surface

10% is used for

are used in

the

and printing industries.

battery

As construction
and cadmium,

lead,

used

amounts,

huge

construction

with

alloyed

650\302\260C,

mechanicalindustry.

Zinc/Zinc

3.7.4

and

alloys

and spacecraft industries,

air-

the

element is aluminum
in the proportion

alloying
further

of

point
strength/weight

high

and thorium.

zirconium,

zinc,
containing

where

be obtained

can

values

g/cm3 and a melting

condition,

alloyed

be obtained. The most important

of 6-8% for sand and die casting
which are eventually
alloys,
highest-strength

processes have good

for forming

used

alloys
hot

The major

materials, fine
to obtain

high

zinc
corrosion

very low contents of tin,

are predominantly used.

resistance,

elements
are aluminum (4-6%) and copper
(1-2%).
and
and they are
properties,
alloys have good strength
ductility
shaped
mainly by casting. Applications include automobile accessories,
in kitchen
office machinery, tools, and toys. Casting dies
appliances,
components
of zinc alloys. The
have
a long production
life because of the low melting
point
are usually
so good that machining
and other processing are
tolerancesobtained
alloying

Fine zinc

unnecessary.

3.8 PLASTICS(HIGHPOLYMERS)
Of
the

the nonmetallic

polymer

Many

cellulose,

natural

and wool.

In

the

only

are

polymers

thermosetting
covers a

plastics

and

known

general,

of synthetic polymers,
variety
some of the most important
become

enormous
have

materials.
asphalt,

example,

material group polymers,

be discussed. The term

will

thermoplastics

which

industrial

the term
in

widely

plastics

special
used:

group

and
of

for

\"plastics\" covers

the

last couple of decades

materials
because of their

the

FIGURE 3.6 Schematic

structures in plastics.

3.8.1

representation

and manufacturing

applicational
material group,

87

Materials

Engineering

as their

of (a) chain

structures and

properties. Plastics are

development started after

(b) cross-linked

a relatively

(net)

new

1940.

Plastics
Thermoplastic and Thermosetting

and manufacturing respects, the propertiesof plastics

are
their
on
molecular
structure.
On
this
basis
the
can
dependent primarily
plastics
generally be classified into two main categories:
thermoplastics and
are characterized by the chain structure (see Fig.
Thermoplastics
thermosetting
plastics.
where
molecules
3.6a),
(molecular chains, macromolecules) are bonded
large
the
weak
together
by
secondary van der Waals forces. The type of bonding
determines
the mechanical
and physical properties, dependingon the actual type of
the
molecular
and the size and geometry of the chains
(i.e.,
plastic,
weight,
different
of
have
different
types
thermoplastics
properties).
has a major influence on the strength
of the secondary
bonds,
Temperature
which
are weakened
chains
to
the
molecular
by increasing temperature, allowing
move more freely relative to each other.
thus
Decreasing
temperature
gives
harder and stronger
materials.
This softening and hardening
can be
process
as often as desired, but the characteristics
of the change are dependent
on
repeated
the structure (i.e., whether
it is amorphous
or crystalline). In amorphous
state
the chains are arrangedcompletely
at random,
whereas in the crystalline state
are arranged
in definite crystalline regions called crystallites
embedded
in
they
Both

in applicational

matrix.

It should
be mentioned
that plastics are never completely
of the chains is obtained,
crystalline regions a closer packing
so that the secondary bonds act more strongly.
can be machined in the solid state (at room temperature)
and
Thermoplastics
at increased/elevated
temperatures, they can be formed either in a rubber-elastic

an amorphous
crystalline.

In the

Chapter 3

88

or liquid
the

temperature is too

If the

state.

are characterized

Thermosetting plastics

net

(see

structure)

or

high

for too long

maintained

a time,

be destroyed.

will

material

Fig.

by

where

3.6b),

structure (or
between

cross-linked

their

exist

bonds

primary

strong

is created
after or during
the forming
the chains. The cross-linked
structure
of
the desired component,as it is an irreversible chemical process (hardening).The
structure
its
cross-linked
gives a hard and strong material, which maintains
hardness at elevated
Furthermore, thermosetting materials are
temperatures.
resistant to chemical
cannot
be softened and
attacks and creep. Once hardened,
they
can only be shaped by machining.
a major
The density
and
character
of the cross-links have
influence on the

3.8.2
An

plastics, depending on the

of thermosetting

properties

Materials

of Plastic

Design

specific material.

available
and, within each
range of plastics are commercially
in different
can be modified
ways, so that the same type of
It is thus possible to \"tailor\"
with a wide spectrumof properties.

wide

extremely

type, properties
available

plasticis

for specific applications.

of high polymers
the molecular
structure,
weight,

material

the

the

In
molecular

on,

production
has

which

a major

influence on

(plastics) it

and

mechanical

the

physical

are not used in their \"pure\" state. Different

plastics
to modify the applicational and/or
manufacturing
are:
used
additives
frequently
most

employed

Stabilizers (e.g., to
actions,

ultraviolet

provide protection
light,

to vary the

is possible

size and geometry of the

against

thermal

(dyes,

Inorganic fillers normally

colored
improve

mechanical

are generally
The fillers
strength.

the

volume.

total

General

3.8.3

The main
that

the

reason

properties

and atmospheric

thermal

stability
materials,

in

general,

cloth

fibers,

and electrical

properties.

considerable
a considerable
percentage

of

of plastics

is

giving

Properties

rapidly increasing

or combinations

flour,

and facilitate

pigments, etc.)

comprise,

Applicational
for the

The most

properties.

wood

cost, e.g.,

used as reinforcing

fillers

Fibrous

But

etc.)

removal from the mold)

reduce
Fillers (to improve strength
and
asbestos
fibers,
fibers,
etc.)
glass
agents

so

and

additives are normally

at low temperatures)
Softeners (to increaseductility,
e.g.,
Lubricants (e.g., wax, stearates, etc., to improve
moldability

Coloring

chains,

properties.

industrial

importance

of propertiesobtainable

are

difficult

or im-

Engineering Materials

89

Increasing

or time

Schematic

3.7

FIGURE

stress-strain

curve for a

to obtain

possible

with

other

to mass

themselves

lending

representation
thermoplastic

of the

influence

temperature

of temperature

and time

on

the

material.

materials,

combined

with manufacturing

methods

production.

a plastic

for a specific purpose, the service

material
materials
can vary
analyzed, as the propertiesof plastic
much more under
service
than do those of metals.This
necessitates
a thorough
to be used. Only when the
conditions
and
testing of the plastic material
testing
the service conditionsare very similar
can the test data be used directly.
The
service
and the duration
of mechanical
temperature
loading are
for
materials.
This is illustrated
in Fig.
especially important
3.7,
thermoplastic
which shows schematicallythe influence
of temperature
and time (creep)on the

When selecting

conditions

must

be carefully

and
Increasing temperature causes decreasingstrength
ductility). Mechanical loads applied for long
durations cause
is accelerated
creep in the material, which
by increased temperature.
The strength
of plastics
in
is,
general, about one-tenth that of metals, but
since the density
is relatively
low (0.9-2 g/cm3), the strength/weight
ratio is
with
reasonably
good.
glass fiber-reinforced plastics, a high strength/
Especially
ratio can be obtainedwhich
is comparable
to that of metals.
weight
Plasticshave good electrical resistance, giving them extensive applicationsas
materials.
their low thermal conductivity
makes
insulating
Correspondingly,
them excellent heat insulators.
Resistance to chemicalagents
varies
from plastic to plastic, but,
in general,
it will always
be possible
to find a material
that can resist a given
chemical

stress-strain
decreasing

curve.

rigidity

(increasing

90

Chapter

agent. For this reason plastics are extensively used

where the corrosion risksare high.

chemical

the

in

short presentation, it has not been possible to describe the

available plastics; consequently, the literature
of commercially
be studied
and the suppliers catalogs must
in specific cases.
In

and

industry

this

number

enormous
[10,11]

CERAMICS

3.9

are

Ceramics

of metallic

compounds

oxides, borides,carbides,

and

nitrides,

such as metal
elements,
Ceramics have long been used
electrical
resistance but have also

nonmetallic

or silicides.

because of their high

a variety
of other engineering applications such
as
coated
liners,
tools,
pistons, cylinder liners, cutting
exhaust-port
grinding
such
wheels and other components needing desirableproperties
as strength at
resistance
to wear, thermal stability,
hardness,
high
temperatures,
creep
so on. Table 3.4 presentssome general
characteristics
of a number of
resistance, and
in

the

electrical

industry

assumed importance

carbides and

oxides.

have crystal

Ceramics
materials,

in

various

containing

is generally

between

oppositely
resulting

TABLE

3.4

of

elements

different

Mechanical

Properties of

(g/cm3)

ultimate

strength

(N/mm2)

the most complexof all

The bonding between
ionic

much

Some Oxidesand

Compressive
Density
Material

sizes.

covalent (electron sharing)

and
The
bonds
are
ions).
charged
that differ significantly
in properties

atoms

bonds,

are among

that

structures

(primary
stronger

from

those

the

bonding

metallic
for metals. The
than

Carbides\"

Softening or
melting temperature
CO

Oxides

A1203

3.76

BeO

3.00

MgO

\342\200\224

Zr02

5.78

Th02

11.08

2940

770

2040

2100

2730

1000

2800

500

2030

2500

1150

1470

2760

1000

Carbides

2450

2750

SiC

\342\200\224

2060

2200

2500

TiC

\342\200\224

3500

3100

2450

ZrC

\342\200\224

WC

\342\200\224

B4C

'Approximate.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

3500

\342\200\224

2800

2100

1900

91

Engineering Materials
electrons

free

of

absence

are available

conductors.Ceramics

form, consistingof

makes the ceramic

materials
as single crystals or, more
grains.

many

these materials are divided

industrial
ceramics, also called

Generally,
ceramics
and

section some general

In this

Types of

engineering,high-tech,

fine ceramics.

or

of engineering
applications
ceramics
used for pottery and

and

traditional

Ceramics

ceramics

for

materials

Raw

the

traditional

two categories:

not

will

3.9.1

into

characteristics

whereas
presented,
be discussed.

are

ceramics

bricks

poor electrical
in polycrystalline

often,

Si02), and feldspar

(a group

found
of

nature

in

materials

are

flint

clay,

of

consisting

fine

(very

aluminum

grained

silicates,

contain impurities
or sodium). These raw
materials
generally
into useful
further
removed before the materials are processed
to achieve satisfactorily, and many
difficult
products. This removal is often
are now produced
almost exclusively from synthetic
so that
ceramics
components
to very strict
their quality
be controlled
may
specifications.
Alumina
or emery,
is the most widely
used
(A1203), also called corundum
oxide ceramic, and is an example
of a synthetic material. It is obtained
by fusion
it is crushed and graded
iron filings, and coke. After
of molten
fusion,
bauxite,
calcium,

potassium,

by

to be

have

which

the particles
are cold

passing

oxide

aluminum

of other

additions

through
pressed

and

and

screens

standard

sintered.

ceramics, such as titanium

include electrical and thermal

of application

Typical fields

by precipitation. Parts of
are improved by minor
titanium carbide.

Properties
and
oxide

insulation,

cutting

tools,

and abrasives.
Another

(Zr02), which

liners

much

of

oxide

ceramics

is zirconia

good

valve bushings.
of oxide
feature

and

characteristic

expansion,

as

family

resistance to thermal shock, wear, and

toughness,
and low friction
Zirconia
and its
coefficient.
conductivity
suitable
for heat-engine components such as
consequently
very

has

derivatives are
cylinder

of the

thermal

low

corrosion,

member

important

ceramics is

their

anisotropy

of thermal

in a variation in thermal
in different directions by
resulting
expansion
as 50% for quartz. This behavior causes thermal
stresses
that can lead

to cracking

of the

component.

are tungsten
carbide (WC) and
typical examples of which
are extensively used as cutting
tools
and die materials.
Table 3.S gives the melting point and room temperature hardnessof some of the
carbides. All the values are very high compared
with those of steel. The
no major structural changes up to their melting points, and their
compounds
undergo
stable and unaltered by induction
of heat. These carare therefore
properties

Carbide

titanium

ceramics,

carbide

(TiC),

Chapter3

92
3.5

Table

Melting

Some Important

Point and Room

Melting

Hardness

(\302\260C)

point

(HV)

TiC

3200

3200

v4c3

2800

2500

2400

NbC

3500

TaC

3900

1800

WC

2750 (decomposes)

2100

bides are

in character,

metallic

strongly

conductivities and a metallic

plastically
Figure 3.8

of

Hardness

Temperature

Carbides

shows the

They

appearance.

at room

fracture

without

have only

temperature.
of the more

of four

hardness

and thermal

electrical

good

having

slight

important

ability

to deform

carbides

seen that the hardness drops

temperatures
harder than steel
but
remain
much
with
they
increasing
temperatures,
rapidly
and the stability of
all conditions.
The very high hardness
almost
under
treatments
are favorable to the
to a wide range of thermal
propertieswhen
subjected
from

at

measured

of carbides

use

cemented

In

80%

by

volume

to
15\302\260C

in cutting tools.
alloys, the
of the structure.

carbide

1200\302\260C.

It is

carbide particles normally

2500
2000

1500

1000
500

200

400

600

Temperature

FIGURE

3.8

Hot hardness

800

1000 1200

\302\260C

of some important

carbides

[42].

constitute

at least

93

Materials

Engineering

Cementedcarbidesareproduced

metallurgy process, where\342\200\224

are
mixed and then heated in
tungsten
powders
a graphite crusible until
a chemical
carbide
combination
occurs. The tungsten
then
milled
in
steel
are
with
cobalt
drums
containing
together
large
particles
as a
is
to
act
balls so that the WC particles becomecoated with
which
cobalt,
binder.
The
is
now
at
about
810\302\260C.
into
forms
and
powder
pressed
presintered
After
the blanks have the consistencyof chalk
and can easily be
presintering,
machined to near final geometry
at
after which they are sintered once again
1540\302\260C to obtain
full hardness and strength.
Other
additives
include titanium
and
tantalum.
is added to increase the hot hardness
Titanium
of the tool.
Tantalum is added
to help prevent wear on the top of the tool surface, calledcrathe friction between the chip and the tool. The amount of
tering,
by reducing
binder has a major influence
on the material's properties, as toughness
increases
with cobalt content, whereas hardness, strength,
and wear resistance
decrease.
Titanium
has nickel and molybdenum as the binder
carbide
and is not as tough
case of

in the

as

by

the powder

and

WC\342\200\224carbon

carbide.

tungsten

Another class

of ceramics is the

cubic boron nitride

nitrides,
particularly
and
silicon
nitride
(TiN)
(Si3N4).
has
Cubic boron nitride, the second hardest known
after diamond,
substance,
as
wheels
and
as
tools.
such
in
abrasives
special applications,
cutting
grinding
It does not exist in nature
with
similar to
and is made synthetically
techniques
nitride

titanium

(CBN),

those used in

synthetic

making

diamonds.
used to coat

The coating is achieved

tools.
cutting
known
as
chemical
where
the tool is placed in a
by
vapor deposition,
sealed retort with an inert atmosphere until
is reached in
the coating
temperature
the range
of 950-1050\302\260C.
Titanium
tetrachloride
and
(TiCl4)
nitrogen/hydrogen

Titanium

is widely

nitride

a process

are

gas

formation

2TiCl4 +

N2 ->

4H2

thickness,

Coating

concentration,
coating

It

has

2TiN +

resulting

in

the

following

reaction

for

the

8HC1

about 2-4 u,m is a function of reactant

and time at temperature.
than steel, extremely hard, and as light
stronger

normally

temperature

Siliconnitride
aluminum.

into the reactor,

introduced
of TiN:

is

high

and

resistance to creep at

elevated temperatures,

low

as
thermal

thermal chocks. It is suitable

for highsuch as engine combustion chambers,
temperature structural
applications,
and so on. It is worth mentioning
that the higher
rotors,
bearings, turbocharger
made possible by the use of ceramic components mean
operating
temperatures
expansion,

high

resistance

to

more efficientfuel burning

and reduced emissions.
of metals
Cermets are combinations
and ceramics, usually
oxides,
carbides,
or nitrides. They combinethe high-temperature
of ceramics and
characteristics
the toughness, thermal
shock
and ductility of metals. Cermets are
resistance,

94

Chapter

and similar applications

used for nozzles for jet engines,aircraft
brakes,
at
and
elevated
toughness
temperatures. They can be regarded
requiringstrength
materials
Sect.
3.11).
(see
composite

as

3.9.2 Mechanicaland PhysicalProperties

of

characteristics

Individual

ceramic materials

important

This section describesthe

Sect. 3.9.1.

been

have

given

in

and physical
general
to cracks, impurities, and
properties of ceramics.
These materials are very sensitive
in a strength
in tension that is approximately
one order of
porosities, resulting
than the strength in compression,
lower
since the defects lead to the
magnitude
initiation
and propagation
of cracks under
stress. This deficiency may in
tensile
mechanical

be overcome
concrete,
by prestressing the components, as in prestressed
by
used
heat treatment
include
subjecting them to compressive stresses. Methods
and chemical tempering, laser treatment
of surfaces,
coating with ceramics
or surface-finishing operations, in which
thermal
expansion,
having different
stresses
are induced on the surface.
risidual
compressive
of their
because
Generally
speaking, ceramics also lack impact
toughness
inherent
lack
of ductility,
so that a crack, once initiated, propagates rapidly.
In
to undergoing fatigue
failure
a
addition
under cyclic loading, ceramics exhibit
called static fatigue, so that they may suddenly fail after being
phenomenon
to a static tensile load overa period of time.
Static fatigue, which occurs
subjected
in environments
where water vapor is present, but not in vacuum or dry air, has
to stress
corrosion in metals.
been attributed to a mechanism similar
part

Hardness, wearresistance,and
and

attractive

properties,

cm3)dimensional

reliability

is

still

at elevated

strength
light

corrosion

stability,

side,

negative

as are

rather

weight

(specific

temperatures are common

gravities of 2.3-3.85 g/

and chemical inertness.On the

resistance,
little
low, and failure occurs with
prior
The cost of ceramics is relatively
high,

warning as a result of brittle

fracturing.
and it is difficult
to form
reliable bonds to the various engineering materials.
is problematic,
so products must be fabricatedthrough
the use of netMachining

shape processes.

3.10 GLASSES
are

Glasses

generally

the melting point.

commercially

available

to types
optical

with

glasses,

special

former. By
properties,

adding
with

the

from

ranging
electrical,

mechanical,

window

glass,

alter the

high-temperature,

structure

of

types

and cookware

bottles,

chemical, or

glasses contain at least 50% silica,known

oxides
of aluminum,
sodium, calcium, barium,
of strength, can be modified
exception
greatly.
All

characteristics.

silica (Si02) with additives

that
there
some750
different
are
Presently

based on

or reduce

as
and

a glass
so on,

95

Materials

Engineering

For all practicalpurposesglasses

are
modulus of elasticity is in the range
modulus of elasticityfor steel. Hardness

as perfectly elastic and brittle.

of the
kN/mm2, that is, 25-45%
from
5
7
on
the
Mohs
scale.
to
ranges

regarded

The

55-90

presence of small flaws and microcracks

that may reduce the strength
to
by two to three orders of magnitude,
compared
the ideal, defect-free strength,
which
can be as high as 35 kN/mm2.
theoretically
More realistically, glass fibers
drawn
from molten glass can reach a tensile
of up to 7 kN/mm2,
with
an average value of about
2 kN/mm2.
The
strength
fibers are thus stronger
than steel and are used to reinforce
in
plastics
applications such
as boat
and
hulls, automobile body parts, furniture,
sports
by the

influenced

is greatly

Strength

equipment.

Glasses have low thermal

conductivity,
high electrical
resistivity
expansion coefficient is lower than those
approach zero. Optical properties,such as

thermal

Their

dielectricstrength.

and plastics

and

absorption,

and refraction can be modified

treatment

the

of

even

may

components

better

possesses

those of the

composites is not

clay matrix for mud huts and

concrete with iron rods to impart
since concrete
in itself
is brittle

them.

One

by the ancient use of straw

of
Another example is the reinforcing
tensile
to
the
necessary
strength
composite,
no useful
tensile strength. Today, cutting
as examplified

bricks.
the
with

materials.

composite

are

new,

components,

and bulletproof

There

materials

together. Each of
but the composite
than
or weight,
stiffness, strength,
them

helmets
golf clubs, prosthetic devices,military
and
so
all
utilize
sailboats,
vests,
aircraft, automobiles,
on,

electrical

advanced

properties of separate

parts.

in a

tools,

such as

properties,

constituent

idea of

The

the desirable

in which

by mechanically or metallurgically
binding
its structure and characteristics,
retains

are combined

generally

the composition and

MATERIALS

Compositesare materials
the

varying

for metals
reflection,

glass.

COMPOSITE

3.11

by

and

many

types

such method is

of

composites

based on

the

and several methods of classifying

the composite
materials are
way

built

up:

1.

2.
3.

filled
with up to
materials, consisting of a matrix
15% particles (size<0.1 (im) of different materials.
Particle-reinforced materials, consisting
filled with
of a matrix
more
than 20% particles (size > 1 (im)
of different
materials.
Fiber-reinforced materials,consisting
of a matrix with up to 70% fibers

Dispersion-hardening

of

different

materials.

Chapter 3

96

3.11.1

Materials

Dispersion-Hardened

are normally
materials
a small
produced by dispersing
of hard, brittle, fine particles in a softer, more ductile matrix.
and creep resistance can be induced,which
Pronounced
decrease
strengthening
only
include
sintered
aluminum or
gradually as temperature is increased.Examples
or copper matrix
of an aluminum
copper powder,consisting
strengthened
by
of aluminum
oxide. Applications include gas turbines
particles
and
electrical
Dispersion-hardened

quantity

components.

This

the
large amounts of rather coarse particles and covers
of metals including
and ceramics,
which
alloys
and good strength
at elevated
hardness,
reasonablygood ductility,
high

group

previously

give

Materials

Particle-Reinforced

3.11.2

contains

combination

mentioned

Particle-reinforced materials are used primarily

as cutting
and
3.9.1 for carbide ceramics. The hard,
stiff
forming tools as describedin Section
carbide
can withstand the high temperatures
of cutting, but is extremely
brittle.
the carbide with cobalt,
the
by combining
Toughness can be imparted
pressing
mixture into desired
and sintering the compacted
material.
Other areas of
shape,
electrical
contacts
for good conductivity
and
applications include
designed
resistance
with powdered
silver and
by mixing tungsten
powder
spark-erosion
temperatures.

processing

via

metallurgy.

powder

Table 3.6 lists

some possiblecombinations

of ceramics
and metals, suitable
for grinding and cutting
which
are often formed
wheels,
from
silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron
alumina
or
nitride
(BN),
(A1203),
diamond
bonded
in a matrix of glass or polymeric
material.
As the hard particles
and are pulled out of the matrix, exposing new cutting
wear, they fracture
edges.

for

cutting

tools

and

The potential speeds with

than those normally
used
removal

rate

TABLE 3.6
of Ceramics

as great

as

that

alumina

with

which are three to four times

higher
tools, represent an increasein metal
steel and by cemented
carby high-speed

tools,

carbide

achieved

Some PossibleCombinations
and Metals

Ceramics

Metal

Cr

SiC

Ag, Co,

TiC

Mo, Fe, Ni,

WC

Co

A1203
Si02

Al,

Cr

Co,

Co

Fe, Cr

97

Engineering Materials

bides. Foundry
(matrix)

Becausethe

combination

The

used types of
as the reinforcing

widely
of fibers

which carry

fibers,

binder

matrix, the
materials may be

in the

uniformly

and particle-reinforced
in all directions.

uniform

Materials

Fiber-Reinforced

most

The

are distributed

particles

reinforcing

particle-reinforced materials.

properties of both dispersion-hardened

expectedto be isotropic, that is,
3.11.3

made from sand (particles) and

cores

and

molds

also made from

are

based on a
binder
as matrix.
compatible
the material and may be oriented

compositematerials

most of the

those

are

and a

material

on

force

to the loading directions, consistof metals,

carbon,
in metals, polymers, or glassesthat
ceramics, etc.,
they
and
The
transmit
loads to the fibers and provideductility
toughness.
support and
about
0.01
mm.
The
is
fibers
are
of
fibers
mean diameter
very strong
usually
in

directions

corresponding

are embedded

and

and rigid because

fiber. Glass fibers, for

example,

the strength

whereas

mm2,

are oriented

molecules

the

sections are so small

their cross

in the

it is

can

have tensile strengths

bulk
form is much

of glass in

unlikely

that

any

and

direction,

longitudinal

that

exist in the
high as 4.6 kN/

defects
as

lower. Glass fibers

are

than steel.

stronger

or polyesters.
Matrix materials are usually
resist
Pblyamides, which
epoxies
in
excess
of
300\302\260C
are
with
for
use
fibers.
being developed
graphite
temperatures
matrices
be considered. Some
Above this temperature, metal
should
also being considered as possiblematrix
materials
since they have a
thermoplastics are

According to
metals,

to

kind

the

main groups,
be described
next.
two

into

divided

the thermosetting
of constituents

than

toughness

higher

used, fiber composites are usually

fiber-reinforced plastics and fiber-reinforced

Plastics

Fiber-Reinforced

were

resins

Glass-fiber-reinforced

and were developedduring

World
for materials having
electromagnetic

and erosionresistance,lightness,
molten

drawing

of

variety

between
fibers,

30
the

and

glass

through

polymers,

small

the first of
II to fulfill

the
by

were made

glass,

chemical

to

U.S.

impact

strength. The
in a platinum
openings

65% by volume. Today, there

a borosilicate glass, which

development

the

high

is

strength

improve

of improved
vapor deposition

which

principal

tungsten

die,
of

were

bonded

fibers

vary

most

common,

has

higher

strength

and modulus of
core

consist

fibers.

in

of glass

types

the

fibers. Boron fibers

on

fiber composites
need
government's

resistance, corrosion
glass fibers, made by

The content

are two

E-type,

Further efforts

modern

the

transparency,

epoxy resins.

generally

a magnesia-alumina-silicate
stiffness\342\200\224and
is more
expensive.

deposited

War

and

S-type,

through

types.

and
and

the

elasticity
of

boron

These

fibers

Chapter 3

98
have

They
high

and stiffness

strength

high

and

tension

in

compression

(tensile

strengths

kN/mm2) and resistance to high temperatures

(up to 250\302\260C).
are expensive,
and because of the use of tungsten, they have a rather
If it is desired,
a cast
metal
density.
they can be incorporated into
of 3.5

excess

in

matrix.

Graphite fibers, although

more

than glass,

expensive

have a

desirable

very

and high stiffness. All graphite

fibers
density,
high
strength,
are made from a textile-grade
tow
the
fiber
in
such
acrylic
by pyrolyzing
acrylic
a way that an oriented graphitic
is obtained in the final
structure
fiber.
Pyrolysis
is the term for inducing
chemical
a length
of
by heat, such as burning
changes
combination

of low

yarn,

becomes

which

carbonizing range

3000\302\260C.

a loose,

filaments,

40,000

length. The tow

be fabricated

and black

carbon

up to

is easily
with

many

The

basic

in

tow

about

containing

fibers of continuous

of parallel

bundle

for

temperatures

form is a

product

untwisted

The

color.

with liquid resins, and the composites

impregnated
of the same techniques used in glass-fiber-reinforced

plastics
including matched metal
technology,
11.
other methods described in Chapter

bag, hand

vacuum

die,

layup,

can
and

of
which is the trade name of an aramid
fiber, has a tensile strength
of
fiber.
Kevlar
can
some
it
the
strongest
organic
making
any
undergo
fracture
and thus have a higher
than other
before
plastic deformation
toughness
is
of
it
is
retarof
about
half
that
and
flame
fibers.
Its
aluminum,
types
density
a
dant
and
to
radio
it
attractive
for
number
of
transparant
signals, making
However, aramids absorb moisture.
military and
applications.
aerospace
Other
fibers used in fiber-reinforced plastic materials are nylon,
silicon
silicon
and so on.
aluminum oxide, boron carbide, molybdenum,
carbide,
nitride,
fibers.
Whiskers are also used as reinforcing
They are tiny, needlelike single
ratios
crystals that grow to 1-10 fim in diameter and have length-to-diameter
from 100 to 15,000.Becauseof their small size they are virtually
free
from
so their strength approaches the theoretical
of the material.
imperfections,
strength

Kevlar,

3kN/mm2,

Fiber Orientation
when combining
the fiber
a fiber is essentially
mentioned,
This means that if the fibers are all laid in the same
in properties.
to that direction will be only that of the matrix.
the strength
transverse
In addition,
fiber length can also
fiber placement is important.
must

variables

Many

and matrix to form

unidirectional

direction,
Therefore,
influence

the

temperature.
Long

of a

performance

long fibers, and

fibers

be taken

into

a composite.As

their

properties

transmit

in critical

consideration

has

been

composite, short fibers being

are

the load

influenced

strongly

through

the

matrix
at

less
by

time

better and

elevated

effective

than

and

are

thus

applications, particularly
temperatures.
of the problems associated with
unidirectionsome
One means to circumvent
in
which
the
fibers
are
a pattern.
is
to
use
a
fabric
woven
into
ally laid fibers
commonly

used

Such cloths

application

commercially

materials,

fibers.

The

allowing them to be

and carbon fibers are

graphite

high-modulus

filaments,

natural

as graphite

fabrics

yarns

can be

designedfor

woven

prepregged

specific

have

mats can

be used as reinforcements

coefficientof

friction.

Therefore,

seals and gears.

bearings,
in reinforced plastics is the strength
of the bond

factor

critical

in the form of mats, composed

bonded together to form a web.

available

mechanically
lubricity and a low

fibers
Graphite

for example,

requirements.

Some

fiber

available,

fiberglass, or other

matrix

various

with

of

are

with kevlar,

together

99

Materials

Engineering

the

for

between the

since the load is transmitted

the fiberpolymer
through
matrix interface. Weak
results
and
in
fiber
delamination.
bonding
pullout
be improved by special
surface
such as coatingsand the use
treatments,
Bondingcan
of coupling agents for better adhesionat the interface,
but careful inspection and
is
in
essential
critical
testing
applications.
and

matrix,

the

Applications
Compositeswith

of epoxy were used for the first time in the 1930s,

and reinforced
boats were made with fiberglass,
1940s,
beginning
to
in
electrical
and
be
seen
aircraft
plastics began
parts,
equipment,
sporting
as well
the
advanced
used
in
are
Today,
everyday
extensively
goods.
composites
as in advanced
such
as
automotive
bodies,
ladders,
components
pipes,
pressure
boat hulls, and military
and commercial
aircraft and rocket components.
vessels,
a matrix

in the

and

of the space shuttle

from graphite/epoxy, which
The cargo bay doors
are made
is also used for the upper aft rudder
of the McDonnell/Douglas DC 10passenger
plane.This company also uses graphite/epoxy for what it calls the largest
the wing skin of the Harrier II fighter
ever built for an aircraft,
composite part
plane,
which
is 26% by weight
material. The skin is laminated from
0.2S
composite
mm thick plies. It is 8.5 m from wingtip
to wingtip
and 11 m2 in area. The
a conventional
factor
completed wing
weighs 20% less than
wing and is an important
in the increase in range and pay load of the aircraft, to which
be added
may
improved

fatigue

and

corrosion

Fiber-Reinforced

resistance.

Metals

are used where operating temperature

is high or
The ductile matrix
material
is usually aluminum,
or nickel,
and the
titanium,
although other metals are also being
investigated,
or silicon
carbide, with
reinforcing fibers may be of graphite, boron, alumina
as other possibilities. Compared to metals, these
beryllium and tungsten
materials offer
at elevated temperatures, and
higher stiffness and strength,
especially
a lower coefficientof thermal
expansion.
Compared to the organic matrix
offer higher heat resistance, as well
as improved
electrical and
material,
they
Metal

extreme

thermal

matrix

strength

conductivity.

composites
is desired.

100

Chapter

matrix are used in many aerospace

Boron fibers in an aluminum
structures,
especially truss structures. This is becausethe boron fibers have high strength
and can therefore be used unidirectionally,
and stiffness
and because
the
to support the fibers without
in itself is strong
aluminum matrix
enough
crossplying,
resin-matrix
as would have been necessary with
This material
composites.
was selected for the structural
tubular
in the midfuselage section of
supports
the
shuttle. Table 3.7 shows some other
of metal-matrix
applications
space

composites:
Metal-Matrix

3.7

TABLE

Fiber

Composite Materials

Applications

Aluminum

1.

2. Magnesium

2.

1.

3. Lead
4. Copper

1.

Boron

3.

Aluminum/titanium

tungsten
From

Ref.

Helicopter

1.

Molybdenum,

44.

1.

Superalloy

plates
and

bearings

and

structural

fan

supports

blades

in

Magnesium

Superalloy

Jet-engine

structures

1.Superconductor restraints
power reactors
2.Storage-battery plates
3.
structures

1.Aluminum
2.Lead
3.
2.

3. Storage battery
4. Electrical contacts

blades
2. Antenna structures

3.Titanium

carbide

Satellite, missile, helicopter

Space and satellite structures

1. Compressor

Aluminum

2. Magnesium

Alumina

Source:

Applications

Matrix

Graphite

Silicon

and

(Co-base)

fusion

transmission

1.High-temperature

structures

2.

High-temperature

engine

components

1.

High-temperature

engine

components

Basic

4.1
The

INTRODUCTION

of metalworking theory
may be made

purpose
and

fracture,

the equipment

design

and

and

and

externalloads

are

homogeneous,

small

a background from
which

which

without

obtainable

in turn determine
for both the

is important

theory

engineer.
fundamental
or

discussed.
continuous,

provide

Thus, the

required.

tooling

production

In this chapter the

describe plastic flow

is to

of the deformations
the forces and work necessary,

evaluations

reasonable
instability

of Metalworking

Theory

For
and

grains as described

in

this

of solid
purpose,

isotropic
Chapter

and laws

rules,

principles,

deformation

materials

the

media,

when

materials
not

3. However,

as

built

that

can

be used

subjected

are considered
up from thousands

this assumption

to

to

will

as

not

of

lead

at this level.
two- and three-dimensional
of stress is
systems
followed
of the stress-strain curve, true stress,
or
by discussions
logarithmic
which
natural strain,
volume
and
the
criteria,
instability.
yield
constancy,
Finally,
the stresses necessary to initiate
determine
and
maintain
plastic flow and the
work necessary
to carry out the deformation,
are analyzed.
to

any
A

serious

short

discrepancies
introduction
to

101

102

Chapter4
AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL

TWO-

4.2

SYSTEMS

OF STRESS
that

forces

The

forces

forces, are

When
processes

per unit

forces,

planning
area
as a

by

the

forces.

as either volume
or mass
which include acceleration

are usually
negligible
acting on the surface of
interaction
of the surrounding

for dimensioning purposes or forming

purposes, it is more appropriate to use the
the load rather than the total force distributed

situations

design

analyzing

or design

for

either

transmitted

element,
or by external

material

mass

discussion becausethey
forces
processes. Surfaceforcesinclude

volume

every

be classified

may
or

in this

considered

not

in metalworking

the

a solid body
forces. Volume

act on

or surface

measure of

force
over

area.

The force

per unit

usually designated

Considering

area
the

by

tensile

the

(1) perpendicular

2) is called the

stress

and

shown in Fig.

axis is

longitudinal

4.1,

the

on a

stress

cross section

definedby

P
A

M0

sine

Yt

P\\n\\
1

I
FIGURE 4.1

load P.

tensile

specimen

is

o (sigma):

symbol

specimen
the

to

in Chapter

(described

with the cross-sectional area

subjected

to the

Basic Theory
o =

of

103

Metalworking

(4.2)

\302\243

is the cross-sectional area.

is inclined at an angle 9 to
considered, the mean obliquestressom is found to be
P is

where

and A

force

the

If a crosssection

(2)

A~Q

where Ae is
(4.2)] lies in

cross section

direction

the

axis

2.

of the

This stress [<o, Eq.

specimen. The forceP

be resolved
or decomposed into two components
P\342\200\236
perpendicular
section (2) and P, parallel or tangential to cross section (2), so that the
stress can be describedby:
the normal
The
stress normal to cross section (2), called
stress (a):

can

Pn

\302\260e

T8

^=

ATsln-9 =2lsin29
oe and

te

(P/A)

both

for

state

with

vary

9 =

of

(4'4)

shear

the

stress

(x):

IP

P cos9

and maximum

to cross

cross section (2), called

P,

stresses

The

A7sln-9=Asin

stress parallel to

The

sin 9

is

axis

longitudinal

(43)

area of
cross-sectional
of the longitudinal

the

the

sin 9

\302\260m

that

(45)
9. The normal

jt/2. The

stress oe is zero

shear stressTe

is zero

for

for 9

9 =

= ji/2 and

for 9 = n/4 and 9 = 3ji/4.

It must be emphasizedthat the description
of the state of stressdepends
on
the chosen coordinate system, but that the most appropriate system is based on
normal
stresses
stresses
and shear stresses (a, t). The normal
are most often
maximum

defined

(P/2A)

as

positive

when they are

tensile stresses, whereas

stressesis chosenas arbitrarily

(see
showsa
4.2a
two-dimensional
Figure
in

two

state of

mutually

perpendicular

Fig.

directions.

the

sign

of the

shear

4.2).
load
It

situation,
is now

that is,

a sheet stressed
describe the

our intention to

P
of o and x on every plane passing through
point
an
and
is
chosen
so
that
(x,
y)
system
appropriate
is obtained,
and based on the stresses in these directions,
the
simple description
stresses o and x on every plane through
P can be calculated as shown
in Fig.
4.2b and c.
From
4.2b it can be seen that
the normal
stress acting in the direction
of
Fig.
the jc-axisis calledax (acting on a plane parallel to the y-axis and in the direction
of the jc-axis) and that oy is acting on a plane parallel
to the jc-axis and in the
direction
of the y-axis. The subscript
the normal to the plane on
thus
designates
which
the stress is acting (i.e., it identifies
both plane and direction). To identify
the shear
the plane
the
first
stresses, two subscripts are necessary,
identifying
stress

(Fig. 4.2a).

in terms

coordinate

Chapter 4

104
its

(by

stress is acting, and the second identifying the

a
shear stress acting
on the plane normal to the xrepresents
Xjy
the direction
of the y-axis. Correspondingly,%yx represents
a shear
on which the

normal)
Thus

direction.

axis and

in

stress acting on the plane

On Fig. 4.2cthe

point

normal

P is

to the y-axis and

shown surrounded

in
by

the

direction

an

of the jc-axis.
element
if it
equilibrium

infinitesimal

on this element
must be in
ABCD. The system of stressacting
or rotate).
From moment equilibrium
is not to change its position (i.e., translate
be complementary
it is found that the
shear
stresses
and
must
and equal
xyx
x^
in
which
to distinguish
means that it is not necessary
between
It
them.
size,
ABCD is so small that
the
stresses
do not vary
is assumed that the element
it (i.e., it is in reality only a point). If the element
is too large, the stress
across
will have different
points
system will vary within the element (i.e., different

states of stress).

acting

a two-dimensional

on a right-angled

to x

normal

shows

4.3

Figure

and

are

prism.

known,

the angle 6 to the y-axis

must be in equilibrium,

FIGURE
system

4.2

of stress).

The state

stress system representedby

It is assumed

and that the

that

the

stresses on the plane which

(Direction of/) are to be determined.

the forces can be resolvedand equated

of stress in

a biaxially

loaded sheet (i.e.,

the

on the

stresses

stresses

planes

is inclined

Since

in any

a two-dimensional

at

the system

direction.

of

Basic Theory

FIGURE

4.3

arbitrary

plane

A two-dimensional stress system; determination

inclined at the angle 0 to the y-axis.

perpendicular to AC (in

Force equilibrium
=

Ox>[AC)

105

Metalworktng

Ox{AB) cos

xxy{AC)

sin 9

-ax{AB)

0 +

cos

ay{BC)

gives

x^AB) cos

sin

x^BC)

(4.6)

plane AC (directiony')

to the

parallel

sin

x^AB)

an

x') gives

+ Txy(BC)cos
Force

0 +

8 + oy(BC) sin

direction

the

acting on

of stresses

(4.7)

Since
AB =

AC

(4.6)

Equations
<V

xxy

If the

and

ox cos2
=

BC =

and

cos

(4.7)

0 +

ax sin 0

double angle

ay

can
sin2

be modified to
0 +

cos 0 +
20 is

sin

AC

oy

21^ sin 0 cos 0

0 cos 0 + x^lcos20

sin

the

introduced,

following

modified

obtained:
oy =
=
Txy

For

l/z(ax

{Moy

the direction

correspondingly

be

ay)

+ V2[ox

ax) sin 20

ay)

cos

+ x^ sin

sin2

0)

equations

20

following

are

(4.8)

+ x^ cos20

y' (see Fig. 4.3), the

found:

20

(4.9)

equation

for oy.

can

Chapter 4

106

oy =

Vz

(ax

oy)

V2

(ax

29

ay) cos

t^

20

sin

(4.10)

Since TyV is equal to xx.y,, these three equations constitute the complete
at the angle 6 to the y-axis(i.e., the
the state of stress on a plane
inclined
is rotated through
the angle
6 counterclockwise relative to the x,
jt\\ /-system
of
description

y-system).
fourth

the

tan

29

be seen

in

the

two planes at
that

means

for

o, >

on

planes

o2. Thus

angles 9

the

It can

are the

be shown

differentiating
and minimum

these

by

maximum

as

of the principal

o,

normal

and o2

and

stresses are called

(maximum)

ov

\342\231\246

(^)2

(4.12)

the
stresses are used to describe
calculations.
in
the
simplifications
resulting
that
By
differentiating
Eq. (4.9) it can be shown

Often,

state of

the principal

occurs on

Tmax =

The normal
(l/2)(o,

magnitude

0\\

shear stress

maximum

the

the

principal

\342\200\224

O2

*4'13*

2
stress

planes of

on the

maximum

can

shear

be shown to

be equal to

+ o2).

EXAMPLE 1.
Determine

stress becauseof

planes inclined at 45\302\260to

perpendicular
shear stress is given
of the maximum
by

mutual

two

planes. The

stresses

Thus

1/2

2 o\\

*}
o2-

of the principal

magnitudes
substituted.

the

shear

normal stresses acting on

stresses are designated

directions

where the shear

system, there exist

stress is zero. These

stress

the

which

The

planes.
stresses.

and 2 (minimum).
the
Equations (4.8) and (4.10) determine
when
the condition
given by Eq. (4.11) is
1

quadrant.

shear stressexists

+ nil,

and

two-dimensional

any

system.

so that

chosen

first

(4>11)

the principal stresses

The principal

that

(4.8)

is, no

that

avoid

Oy)

perpendicular

mutually

stresses

in the

is situated

vanishes;

xx>y>

second

in the
to

planes are called the principal

planes are calledthe principal
equation

that

when 6 is situated
recommended that

6 is chosen so that

defines

(4.11)

stressis zero.This
two

it is

\342\200\224-^

Vl{Ox
Equation

occurs

sign

consequently

be chosen so that

x', y'

system

Eq. (4.9) it can

plane AC when

From
on

and

quadrants,

the

mistakes

that a changein

be noted

must

It

and

state

the principal

of stress

stresses.

is described

by

ax

ay

= 0 and
t^

5*

0.

Basic Theory

of

gives

Equation (4.12)

02J

L-T^

t*v

This

fjry

26

sin

principal stresses

of the

directions

The

107

Metalworklng

28

sin

1 ^>

can be found

from

Eq.

(4.8),

since

:\302\243>

1]

direction

(for

that a state of pure shear is equivalent to a compressivestressand

and mutually perpendicular to each other
stress equal in magnitude
45\302\260
inclined
to
the
at
jr,y-system for the state of pure shear (see
planes

implies

a tensile
acting

on

Fig. 4.4).
In

systems of stress the

To describea two-dimensional
stresses

were

used, only

necessary:
are

three

ax, ay,

oz,

1 \342\200\224
2: Ti-2

FIGURE

4.4

(biaxial stress

xyt,

x^,

oy

at

The

45\302\260
to

If the
x\342\200\236.

system,

principal

corresponding

the

system),three

principal

stresses are

maximum

shear

planes, are:

\342\200\224

Oj

^=

T3*

(~

T2>

\342\200\2242\342\200\224

1-3: t,-3 =
2-3:x2-3

0\\

of stress

For

discussed.

more complicated.

To describea three-dimensional

o,, o2,

necessary:

stresses, occurring on planes inclined

stress were

is a little

analysis

system

ax, ay, and x^.

are necessary:

six stresses

systems of

two-dimensional

1 only

Example

three-dimensional

0\\

- 03
2\342\200\224

02

A state

~~

03

of

pure

(= x,]

shear.

Tn>ax

(absolute)

(4.14)

108

Chapter

The

refer to the principal directions, and the principal

> o2 > o3. The shearing
stresses
in the
sometimes
called the principal shearing stresses,and the suffixes
parentheses are
of the stresses. The absolute
maximum
the directions
shear stress is xmax
designate
of stress is given by o,,
and
is given by (o, - o3)/2 (= x2). If the
state
o2,
= 0, the maximum
shear
stress
Thus
in a threexmax is given by o,/2.
o3
of stress, the greatest shear stressoccurs
dimensional
state
on a plane bisecting
the planes on which
the
between
the
and the smallest principal
greatest
angle
1,2,

numbers

are arranged

stresses

and 3

so that

O)

stressesact.

4.3

CURVES

STRAIN

STRESS-NATURAL

TRUE

AND INSTABILITY

True Stress and Natural

4.3.1

2 the stress-strain

In Chapter

were

stresses

Nominal

nOikmh

Strain

curves obtained

tensile

from

tests were

discussed.

as

defined

P
A

\342\226\240
. .

\"original

that is, the

The

load was distributed

on the original cross-sectional

uniformly
does not always describe the stress that the material
the cross-sectional
area decreases as the specimen
elongates
be able to carry out
calculations
reasonable
concerning

experiences,
plastically.

since
To

deformation of materials,
that

the

The

material
true

area.

stress

nominal

stress

it is

necessary

to

know

true

the

stress (i.e., the

the

stress

experiences).
is defined as

o =

(4.15)
\302\243

where Ac is the
thus obtained by

current

dividing

or

instantaneous
the instantaneous

cross-sectional

force

by

the

area. The
instantaneous

true

stress

is

area (i.e.,

the force and the cross-sectionalarea must be measured simultaneously).

If the stress-strain curves are now plotted as true stress-nominal strain
are
the
the dashed curves in Fig.
4.5 are obtained. The solid curves
curves,
It should be remembered that
strain
curves.
the curve
nominal stress-nominal
labeled
\"other metals\" is typical.
for mild steel is an exception.The curve
strain curve does not
From
4.5
it
be
seen
that
the
true
stress-nominal
can
Fig.
show
the maximum
load/force point M as does the nominal stress curve. At M
area exactly balance
the strain hardening and the decrease in cross-sectional
in a necking
M the decrease
in area dominates, resulting
each other. Beyond
the
instantaneous
to
a
three-dimensional
of
stress
here.
leading
system
Dividing

Basic

of Metalworking

Theory

109

(o.e)

ft

anom

\302\260

-\"\"

\342\200\242

^*

''\"'
M

(twe>

^<\302\243-\342\200\224\342\200\242\342\200\224v
*\302\273
^^^^
^v
\302\253V-\302\253^^
X

'\"
^_-

f\\^jT

^\\.

\\*r^

(Mild steel)

(o,e)
(Other

metals)

(o nom'
__\302\273\342\200\242)
'

'

^
curves plotted
stress-nominal strain curves

Stress-strain

FIGURE

4.5

e)
(Onom\302\273

and ^ue

force by the instantaneous

that is, after the beginning

smallest

stress-nominal

nominal

as

strain curves

(o, e).

area an average
the real \"true\"

is obtained;

stress

\"true\"

only be
three-dimensional stress
system. In metalworking
calculations,
only deformations up to the beginning of
occurs
are of interest; consequently, the correction
necking where instability
of
the \"true\" stress will not be discussed in this context.
The nominal
or engineering
strain was defined in Chapter
2 as
determined

by

correcting

e =
where

is the

/,

involving
natural,

been

j*

can

stress

for the

stress

\"true\"

original

and

length

l2 the

stresses\342\200\224are

final

length.

generally

where large strains

deformations,
plastic
or logarithmic
strain\342\200\224sometimes
called
defined.

true,

given a

defined

the average

way as the nominal

A tensile
now

necking

x 100%

I,

same

the

of

specimen has been plastically

further

elongation

dl and

nominal strains\342\200\224in
for calculations
occur.
the
Therefore,
the incremental
strain\342\200\224has
The

unsuitable

elongated

this incremental

to

the length

increaseof

strain

/.

It

is

is

by

- dl

d*-j
If

the

is deformed

specimen

obtained

from the length

/, to

the length /2, the

total

strain

is

by integration:
rh

\342\200\242l-2

J/j

dl

l2

ln/;

(4.16)

no

Chapter

\"In\" denotes the logarithm to the base e. This strain (4.16) is the natural
and is designated by e, whereas
the nominal strain
was
by e.
designated
Some of the advantages
to the nominal strain
of the natural strain
compared

where
strain

are:

1.

additive. A

strains are

Natural

specimen

deformed from

is first

/,

to

l2

and then from l2 to /3 (case

I). Another
specimen is deformed directly
The
shows
from
to
table
the results as natural
/|
/3 (case II).
following
and
nominal
strains. It can be seen that an interruption
of the
not influence
deformation
does
the final natural
whereas it changes the
strain,

nominal

strain

are not

they

(i.e.,

Case

additive).
e

'3

l2-*l3

]%
, h

7- +

In

Adding

.h-k

/.

lnr2

>

-*i

II

/.

ii-

<.-+<2

/.

/.

'i-'s
\302\273i

natural

The
in

deformed
from

hx

gives the same numerical

is not the case for nominal

strain
which

tension,

to

from

to l2 =

/,

= (M2)hx
h2

2/t (case I) and

(case II). The results

in compression
A specimen

values

strain.
a

and
is

is compressed
specimen
are shown in the

table.
following

Case
I

/,

- 2/,

II

In

2/| =
~r

2/,

In 2

-In 2

The natural and nominal strains

e =

h ~
~V~

Tx~l

are related, below

(1/2)/.,

hx

hi

hi

follows:

\"

/.

\\n-r~-1

- /,

the

maximum

load,

as

BasicTheory

of

HI

Metalworklng

that is,

h
r = 1+ e

or

lnr

In

(1

-I-

e)

alternatively,

or,

(1 +

In
\342\202\254

For small strains,

e)

\342\202\254
give

and

(4.17)

instability)

(until

the same result

approximately

(i.e.,

=
\342\202\254
e).

(true) strain curves (o, e) as well as

Figure 4.6 shows the true stress/natural
work
the true
curves
the nominal stress/nominal strain
(onom>e). In the following
as
used
mentioned,
stress and the natural strain (o, c) will be
extensively since,
that the material experiences.
reflect
the conditions
they

Volume Constancy

4.3.2
on

Based

but

deformations,
compared

evidence

experimental

material is constant
the

to

plastic

deformation.

plastic

during

the elastic

since

is found

it

that, for metals, the

This is not true

deformation is,

deformation,

it

in

be neglected

can

volume

very

general,

without

of the

for elastic

any

small
measurable

error.

constancy can

Volume

(4.18)

\302\260

V is the volume
natural strain.

where
the

be expressed
by

of the

material

undergoing

*^-~~+

^**^

\302\260nom

^^

pother

Mild steel

deformation and

plastic

e)
<\302\260

metals

(cj,.e)
E

FIGURE

4.6

True and

nominal

stress-strain

curves.

is
\342\202\254

Chapter 4

112

Considera parallelepipedwith
to

deformed

/|

(/, +

A/,)(/2

the

/,, /2, and /3,

A/3. Volume constancy

dimensions

/3 +

and

A/2,

are

which

gives

= hhh

+ A/3)

A/2)(/3

as

be written

can

This

+ A/|, /2

or

e,)(l +

(1 +

is the

where e
In

In

(1

Using Eq. (4.17),this

c,

e3)

strain.

nominal

ex) +

(1

e2)(\\

logarithms gives

Taking

e2) +

In

(1

e3) =

becomes

+ \342\202\2543
0
\342\202\2542

(4.19)

as Al = A,/, =
can alsobe expressed
cross-sectional area and / the length. This, combined with

Volume constancy

\342\202\2541-2

Inr r

\342\202\254l.2

,In Ay
-r
7-

ln-

A is

the

results

in

(4.20)

circular cross section,this

with a

specimens

(4.16),

A2

f,

For

where

A2/2,

Eq.

h =
Ax
ln- =

Di2

ln5?

gives

D,
= 21n-

diameter of the cross section.

allows the natural strains to be calculated,even
after
(4.20)
Equation
necking
has started, which
the area strain very meaningful.
makes
In addition
to the relation between natural
and nominal
strain [Eq. (4.17)],
relation
nominal
and true stress can be found.
between
where

is the

0 -~ -

where

A is

Since

1 +

o=

-\" L^l

_\"

TX~A

Al

0nomX

_\"
0wmTx

the cross-sectional area and the

e = ///,, the preceding
equation

(1
o\342\204\242

This relation is

+
valid

suffix

can be

1 denotes

the

original

state.

expressed as
(4.21)

e)
only

until

necking

starts.

Basic Theory of
4.3.3

113

Metalworklng

Instability

As mentioned

and the decrease

the point
where the strain
hardening
other
is called the
counteract
each
deformation
plastic
during
exactly
to the ultimate load. Beyondthis,
and corresponds
point of onset of instability
and the deformation
of the specimen,
occurs
at a weak point
changes
necking
previously,

area

in

in
to local deformation
from being uniformly
distributed
along the gage length
the necking region.
The
the slope of the load-straincurve
of the onset of instability
is where
point
in load).
becomes
zero (i.e., a strain
increase
takes place without any increase
This can be expressed
as

=0

ovt, Eq.

do

dA =

Since

(4.22)

Volume

d{Al)

Since rfe
%

dill,

the condition

of

above to give

becomes

instability

many

without

failure

by

predict

that

means
work

instability occurs when

equals the magnitude

the

of instability,
beyond the point
stress-strain
curve at this point.

true

how

the

point

slope

of instability is

of the

stress-strain

stress. Strain
and hence there is no sudden
of the

hardening)

applied

determined

graphically

on

curve.

stresses,the

the

with the equation

4.7 shows

Figure

parameters

_ n

(4.23)

the

in

stress-strain

withstand

gives

, ,dA

Adl

continues

hardening

change

In

= 0

= o

This equation
curve (rate of

to

is combined

which

dVldz

constancy

dV

as
(4.22) can be expressed

metal working
processes taking
place
maximum
of deformation that
amount
failure

to

avoid
instability

failure can
could

be

a ductile

the action of tensile

material can

at instability. This is because

important to be able
so that the process
instability,
safely specified.In Fig. 4.7 it was shown how

is determined

by

the

strain

normally ruins the product.

necking
the stress and strain
at the onset of

point of

under

be located

on

the

It

is therefore

true

stress-natural

strain curve

Chapter 4

114

0 1i
M

ii

f
jj

\302\260(inst)

e(1nst)

1
\342\200\242\342\200\224

FIGURE 4.7

curve

Graphic

location

of the point

of

on

instability

strain

true stress-natural

(uniaxial).

by tensile test. It would

curve
could be expressed

obtained
strain

of

estimation

both
models

analytical

be far more
analytically,

strain and stress at instability.

of the stress-strain
curve

convenient, however, if the stresssince

this would permit an easy
In the following
section, various

are discussed.

4.3.4 Analytical Stress-Strain Curves

models
of the stress-strain curve can be employed
and
the accuracy required. Herethe most common
material
on
depending
nonmaterials
model
for strain-hardening
1) and a model for
(model
mentioned
that
are
described.
should
be
I
t
materials
(model 2)
strain-hardening
test data,
which can easily handle the numerical
of computers,
the availability
but these expressions are
has decreased the need for analytical
expressions,
Different

analytical

the

convenient

in

actual

most

calculations.

MODEL 1 (Fig.

o=
This

4.8a).

cc\"

(4.24)

model

represents with reasonable

lattice structure. The symbols c and
called the strain-hardening
exponent.
MODEL

o =

o0

2 (Fig.

accuracy
n

represent

annealed metals with

material constants

a cubic
and

4.8b).
(4.25)

is

Basic

115

of Metalworklng

Theory

o.o0

o=cen

PERFECT-PLASTIC

*'

A,

(a)
models for true
Approximate
materials;
(b) non-strain-hardening

4.8

FIGURE

hardening

This model, which

accuracy

or slight,

strain

stress-natural

strain

curve: (a)

strain-

materials.

plastic, can be used with

a perfect

represents

with no,

materials

for

(b)

hardening

(n

=*

0).

reasonable

This

simple model

The
is often used in approximate
calculations
of average stresses and forces.
stress o0 is often defined as the mean yield stress o^ = (o0l +o02)/2,where
the deformation.
and after
1 and 2 indicate the yield stress before
the suffixes

Since the

are very

strains

elastic

are generally neglected.

Model 1 may

=
+
\342\202\254
\302\260ut
niodel
\342\202\254eiastic\342\202\254piastic

combine model 2 with

2 cannot
law o

Hooke's

include

elastic

the

plastic

strains if e is

strains,

they

considered as

include elastic strains. It is possible to

an elastic perfect plastic

- E \342\200\242
e, so that

is described.

material

so that
chosen
analytical models are usually
and the experimental curvesis obtained.
1 (i.e.,
o = ce\,") the
that can be representedby model

The values of the constants

the best agreementbetween
materials

Considering
point

small comparedto

of instability

do _
=
5-

in the

the

models

can be determined

_ _
_
\342\200\236\342\200\236n-l
=
o
nc\342\202\254im

from

Eq.

(4.23):

\342\200\236n
c\342\202\254iMt

n
\342\202\254inst

(4.26)

This means that

equal to the strain-hardening

exponent.
implies
ability of the material to undergo plastic
of the values c
without
deformation
failure.
Table 4.1 shows typical
examples
and n for model 1 for different materials. These values can be used as rough first
the
but in the actual situation
c and n must be determinedfrom
approximation,
stress-strain
occur
for
the
since
rather
variations
curve,
large
may
experimental
same types of materials.

This

the

strain

that n is

at instability is

a measureof

the

116

Chapter

4.1

TABLE

Values of

Typical

c and

n in

Model

(4.24)]

[Eq.

c(N/mm2)

Metal

steel

640

0.22

Stainless steel

1560

0.50

156

0.25

Mild

soft

Aluminum,

soft

Copper,

Brass

525

0.38

745

0.48

the material is subjectedto a more complex

stress system such as biaxial tension, for
sustain
In such cases the same material
only a fraction of or, at the
may
example.
in uniaxial
than the strain of instability
more
other extreme,
tension, depending
value (cins, = ri) found
in
on the actual stress system. Therefore,
the instability
in complex situations. In such
uniaxial tension should be used with caution
situations
the same
o and
procedure as described by Eq. (4.23) can be used when
e are expressed as effective
or equivalent
values (see Section 4.5),da/dl = ct/z
= zn. The constant n is
z is used to determinethe instability
and where
by einst
most

In

stressesthan

uniaxial

strain of

the

and

stress-natural

dl~a
From

such

curves,

which

expresses

not

fracture.

instability occurs

strain

does

as necking

For a given
the true stress/nominal
material
Determine the condition of instability.
(4.23)
Equation

available.

<fo

instability.

2.

EXAMPLE

true

a uniaxial

compressive
systems of stress, instability
here the limits of deformation are set by

Under
occur,

processes,

metal-forming

system of

strain

curve

when

r,
(4.17),

Eq.

the

relation

between

nominal

and

natural

strain,
= In
\342\202\254

it

(1 +

e)

that

is found

de
=
d\342\202\254

1 +

This is substituted
condition

e
in

the

o, e-instability

condition,

giving

the

is

states that, for

o,

e-instability

Basic Theory of

117

Metalworking

EXAMPLE
3. The stress-strain
cc\". Determine the ultimate strength

curve

defined

was

for

is described
material
ultimate tensile strength

by

The

Onon,,,,^

(2.5)].

by [Eq.

inst

Omm,uts

where

is the original

At

Mnst

*\"a*

0inst^inst\302\273

ahmA

The

cross-sectional area.

true

stress,

inst

equation (4.23)

instability

Expressedin

,S\302\273

can be combined

with

o = ec\"

and Eq.

(4.26),

giving

_ _x ,
-_ O
^ Cingt -_

do

This allows the

=

\302\260inst

Volume

= constant

A\\l\\

instability

this

becomes
=

It

\"inst
A-lxax can

this,

A,Mt

In^-

-i
\302\253n

\302\253inst

be determined:

\"

exp

The expressions for

<Wuts>

oinst

and

AifM

are now

substituted

in

the

equation

for

giving

On
'nom.un
that

Thus,

\342\202\254=

From

ajnst.

C\342\202\254instcn

ln/

At

calculationof

constancy gives

Al

n\342\200\236

Ojns^inst

Aj

CrrA
\342\200\224

A{ exp

is,

Otwm,

uw

cnn
exD _

(4.28)

Chapter 4

118

4.4

CRITERIA

YIELD

As discussed
both in Chapter
2 and in this
a material subjected to tensile stressalong
stress-strain

the

its

the yield stress o0. The yield

curve either as a characteristic

exceeds

stress
the

chapter, plasticdeformation

strength, normally defined as the

yield

in

occurs

axis

(uniaxial stress), when

can be determined
stress
value\342\200\224the

at 0.2%

stress

yield

the
from

point\342\200\224or

permanent strain.

as
In

of stress.
states
as the yield condition for uniaxial
following,
00
deformation
takes
or
In most forming and cutting
occurs
processes,
place
to be able to
under more
states of stress, and it is therefore
complex
necessary
is initiated
and maintained. This
the state of stress at which
yielding
predict
of
that
a yield criterion, enabling consideration of all the combinations
means
the

stresses
a yield

will

that

plastic

provide

criterion is basedon

the

of
flow, must be established.The establishment
or empirical observations:
assumptions

following

continuous,

are homogeneous,

metals

The

used

be

will

and isotropic

(i.e.,

have

same

the

in all directions).

properties

and tension.
The metals have the same yield stressin compression
A superimposed hydrostatic
does
not influence the initiation
pressure

of

yielding.

In

Tresca

1864,

maximum

the

Yield Criterion

Tresca's

4.4.1

put forward his criterion

shear stress exceeds a critical

stress, Eq. (4.14),is equal

smallest

*max

^\302\260'

half

stress, Tresca's

principal
=

to

\302\2603^

constant

that

saying

value.

k =

xcri,

when

shear

between the greatest and

the difference

criterion may

flow occurs
plastic
Since
the maximum

be

expressed

the

as

(4.29)

that yielding is independent of the

where ax>
implies
a2> o3. This criterion
is not strictly true. In spite
of this, the
intermediate principal stress, which
and the more correct
difference
in terms
of stresses between Tresca'scriterion
a factor on the rightcriterion
of von Mises never exceeds 15%. By
introducing
hand side of Eq. (4.29) (e.q., 1.075),
the
difference
between
these stresses can

be reduced.

SinceEq. (4.29)isapplicable

critical

value)

uniaxial
=

\302\2602

of stress, the constant k (the

to all systems
be found, for example, by considering
the yield stress o0 in
is given by o, = o0,
Here the state of stress at yielding
tension.
can

\302\2603

0. Equation

Qi
lmax

03

(4.29

then

gives)

Oq

lcnw

Basic

Theory

which

means

tension

119

of Metalworfcfng

shear stress is related

the critical

that

to the

yield stress

in

simple

by

is very

This

o,

In

- o2)2 +

(01

(02

C is the
determine C. Uniaxial

a,2 +
The von

a,2 =

2o02

(o2

~ 0|)2 21constant

for all

same

can
systems of stress, simple tension
=
=
= 0
ax
o0, o2
03
gives

von Mises:
means

This

then

o3)2 +

(o3

as

be expressed
-

o,)2 >

that

ductile metals
best

cases,

it

agreement,

particularly

von

that

is,

to

initiate

been

criteria

= k,

o2

give
=

different

0, o3

results.

= -k:

(4.32)

\\ y

shear stress at

the critical

has

* =

2oo2 =>

= 1.15;
previously by 2/>/3
critical shear
stress
value

(4.31)

2o02

= -z-

Oo^>k
=

6k2

be

state of pure shear, Tresca'sand von Mises'

shear is equivalent to (see Example 1): o,

Tresca:k +

where

tension

Mises' criterion can

o2)2

(03

the

For

Pure

the

O3)2 +

the constant

used to

(o,

(4.30)

03)

as

mathematically

Since

property.

that yielding
occurs when
proposed a yield criterion, stating
unit
volume
of deformation
provided
by the system of stress
per
value for the particular
which can be expressed
critical
material,

work

the

material

von Mises

1913,

exceeds

o2 >

easily obtained

as

expressed

Yield Criterion

Mises'

von

4.4.2

be

thus

(o, >

2= a0

o3

the most

o0 is

since

important,

criterion can

Tresca's

Mises'
yielding

as mentioned
differs
yielding
criterion requires a 15%higher
than does Tresca's criterion. For

shown experimentally

but due to

its

by design

engineers.

simplicity,

that

Tresca's

von

Mises'

criterion

criterion

is applied in

gives
many

In the following table the results of Tresca'sand von Mises'

4.
are
shown
for different
PS
criteria
yield
systems of stress. The abbreviation
means a plane stress system, where
one of the principal stresses is zero and
CS
means a cylindrical stress system where two of the principal stresses are equal.
EXAMPLE

120

Chapter

Principal

stresses

von Mises

0,

o2

<J|

\302\260i

PS o,

o2

PS

03

o,

\302\260i

\302\2603

o2

o2

criteria

Yield

= o0

o,2 + o22
+ o32 = o0

PS o22 +

\302\2602 o3

CS 0|

\302\2603 \302\2603

o32
\342\200\224
=

o3

0|02 =

0, =

o0

- o0

0,

0O2

- \302\260\302\260
\342\200\236
\302\260'

\302\253*-\302\243?

PS o^
PS -0

Tresca

0^3 =
o2o3
o0

0,

o02

o0

o0

= O0

-O3

0|

o3 =
\302\253

-o2

- o02

\342\200\224
=

O0

O3

metal
of
5. Many
a state
EXAMPLE
working
processes take place under
that
direction
deformation called plane strain;
is, the strain in one principal
that
the flow everywhere is parallel to the plane
is zero. This means
(1,3)
the
normal
and independent of the position along
(2) to this
(see
plane
under
place
plane strain
Fig. 4.9). Determine for deformationstaking
- 0, \342\202\2543),
the
of yielding by Tresca's
conditions
initiation
and von Mises*
(et,
e2
yield criteria.

When

a material

directions,

either

prevented

for

being plastically deformed

strain condition implies that

by the

tooling or

by

the

has a tendency

geometry

of

to

flow

in all

direction is
the component (sheetrolling,

flow

the

in one

example).

A plain
It

plane

can

strain

condition

be shown

o2 = lMoi

FIGURE

4.9

0,
(\342\202\254,,
\342\202\2542

from the

flow

rules

c3) does not

[13] that

that

the stress

o2 is zero.
(4.33)

o3)

Examples of plane

imply

strain

conditions.

of

Basic Theory

criterion

Tresca's

03 =

Oi

for

then,

^=

implies [Eq.

(4.34)

Go

1-direction

to

modified

(4.30)]

(4.31)] that

frictional forces are small

and
(rolling and plane strain

If the

strain condition [Eq.

a plane

Go

03 =

Oi

implies

criterion

Mises'

Von

121

Metalworklng

external

no

stresses are

provided in

compression,

become

= -TrOo

-03

the

Eq. (4.34) is

for example),

(4.35)

it can be mentioned that

the plastic
deformation
or flow of metals can
Finally,
(2)
basically take place in three different ways: (1) stretching
(elongation),
and
4.10
shows these three basic
(3) shear (simple and pure). Figure
compression,
In most
types of deformation.
metalworking
processes deformations occur as
of

combinations

these

types.

EFFECTIVE STRESS AND EFFECTIVESTRAIN

4.5
The

of introducing these terms is to obtain a convenient

way of
on
an
This
of
stress
and
strain
element.
complex systems
acting
effective
the
or equivalent stresses and strains
which
defining
by

purpose
more

the
expressing

done by
complex

are

systems

advantage here

curve,

is that

giving,

for

The definition
yield criterion
o =

and

M(<>i -

where the constant

Basically, this can
criterion (i.e., flow

it

is

now

is given

a2)2

1/2

+
[|(\342\202\254,2

A major

situations.

or equivalent stress

o is based

stress-strain
on

von

Mises*

by
(o2

is chosen

be explained
occurs
when

c22 +

uniaxial

possible to make use of the uniaxial

the strain-hardening properties.

example,
of the effective

Correspondingly,the
i =

to equivalent

transformed

is

o3)2 +

(03

so that o = o0 for uniaxial

as another way of expressing
o S: o0).

effective

\342\202\25432fT

or equivalent

(4.36)

o,)2]}\"2

strain

(o,, 0, 0).
von Mises* yield

tension

\342\202\254
is defined

by
(4.37)

122

Chapter

\302\273
w

r.

11
Y=r-=tan0

t=1

(c)

Pure

4.10

FIGURE

shear
+ rotation \302\243

simple

1 \302\253-

The basic

types

of deformation:

(a) stretching;

(b) compression;(c)

shear.

(d) pure

simple shear;

shear

where the constant 2/3

is chosen so that

=
\342\202\254
e,

for uniaxial tension

(e,, -e,/2,

-e,/2).

the intention
of obtaining a simplemethod
and
strain.
The stress-strain
curve
of
stress
describing
complex
systems
a
s
a
be
considered
case
of
an
obtained
a
test
can
from
tensile
(o, e)
special
under
effective
curve (o, e). Testing results (o, e) obtained
stress-strain
complex
to
the
in
tension
results
obtained
situations can thus be directly
compared
simple
is true in normal situations; that
or compression tests. The reverse
is, the
situations
when they
can be used directly in complex
uniaxial stress-strain
curves
are expressed in terms of a and e.
Equations

(4.36)

and (4.37)

6.

As exercises,

fulfill

of

EXAMPLE

for

the

different

stress-strain

the effective stressesand

shown in Table 4.2.

systems

strains

are calculated

Basic Theory
4.2

TABLE

of

123

Metalworklng

Effective Stresses

and

Strains

Complex Systems of Stressand

for Different

Process

Strain

o2

Rolling
lnP\302\2530

>*

>*

7r,=

~7T3

03

V3
\342\200\2245-03

(cylindrical

Forging

workpiece)
1

hi

r~\342\200\224I\342\200\224

In

D2

,no;

CO

,no;

[= 2e2 =

2e3)

z
-o,

Extrusion

>*

lno;

In

(=

-(o,

o3

-2\342\202\2542

-2e3)

o3)

Bulging
In

In

D2

'2

~\302\2533

(=

-M

2e2 =

2e,]

Spherical segment
Tube

expansion

In 22

'2

-a

*2 = *i

(D2

D,),uniform deformation

>/0|2+ 022-0|02

124

WORK

4.6

the

Determination of work

4.11

FIGURE

OF DEFORMATION
of work, depending on
amount
material requires a certain
work
which the deformation takes place.The deformation
of the energy necessary to
determination
a
it
allows
as
quantity,
of the forces involved.
and allows a determination
deformation
under

conditions

is an

of deformation.

of a

deformation

The

Chapter

important

carry out the

Both parametersare necessaryfor

the

of machinery

selection

or the design of

machinery.

curve in Fig. 4.11, it can be seen that the

From the stress-strain
of dt is
increase
a strain
to accomplish
deformation per unit volume
=

dw

The

work

W =
If

every

(homogeneous

the strain

from

e, to the

strain

e2,

the work

per

becomes

volume

w =

of

a dt

If the deformation is carried out

unit

work

(4.38)

dl

to

to deform the

necessary

J jwdV
element

in the

deformation),

whole

volume

V then

becomes

(4.39)

jJVadldV
volume V
Eq.

is supplied

(4.39)

can be

with the
written

same amount
as

of work

Basic

125

of Metahvorklng

Theory

fl

f\342\200\224
\342\226\240V-TN

\\\342\200\224\\-\\\342\200\2241\342\200\224I\342\200\2241
4\342\200\224XJ
v-J.\342\200\224V,\342\200\2241
h^ Redundant
Friction
Homogeneous

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 4.12

of deformation:
Work
(a) original workpiece; (b) homogeneous
work of deformation); (c) nonhomogeneous
workpiece (i.e., homogeneous
of the workpiece (i.e., the work of deformation is equal
to homogeneous
deformation
+ frictional
work + redundant
work of deformation
work).
of the

deformation

work

The

per

yield stress

by

mean

the

Om(\342\202\2542\342\202\254,)

with Eq.

combined

fa

(4.38) gives

\342\200\224
Jei
\342\202\254i
\342\202\254?

</e

(4.40)

curve for the

stress-strain

If the

expressed approximately
strain of deformation, giving

W =
which

by the

multiplied

om

also be

can

volume

unit

material

can

be represented

by

the

o =

model

ce\", Eq. (4.39)becomes

-

If the
volume

work

To find

len+l

fn+

e, is zero and
are supplied with

strain

initial

elements

The

dV

the

(4.41)
deformation

the same amount

is homogeneous (i.e., all

work),
Eq. (4.41) becomes

of

:n+i

(4.42)

n + 1

is the minimum work.

by Eqs. (4.39), (4.41), and (4.42)
represented
to include the work
of friction
total work consumed, it is necessary
work. The latter
includes
the tool and the workpiece and the redundant

the

between
the work necessary to

deform portionsor all of the components, without

in Fig. 4.12, it can
Considering one of the elements
the deformation
seen that the deformation from
(a) to (b) is homogeneous, but
and redundant
from (a) to (c) is no longer
homogeneous,
owing to friction
deformation
sides have become curved).The work to do this curving
(the
straight
the
changing

is the
In

overall

redundant
this

be

geometry.

work.

context

considered, and

it

the homogeneous work of deformation

that this only
must
be remembered

will

constitutes

predominantly

the lower

be
limit

126

Chapter

of the necessary work.

but

consideration,

from

redundant

When

EXAMPLE 7. Determinethe
= 0 to
e2 = \302\253.
\342\202\254,
material

The

dimensions

e2 =
the

e = 2

work

the
the

into

necessary

to deform

curve o =
dimensions
are D2

stress-strain
final

a tensile specimen

cen. The original

and /2. Equation

1ngl
of homogeneous

assumption

calculated from Eq.

w,

by

taken

gives

(4.20)

With

can be described
are D, and /,, and

be

will

be included.

not

will

work

the friction

possible,

work

deformation, the

work

necessary

can

be

(4.42):

fD'2''rtr(21n5!r'

<\302\253\342\226\240\302\253>

of

Classification

the

5.1

Manufacturing

Processes

INTRODUCTION

was
morphological model of the manufacturing
processes
was built up from a few fundamental elements arranged as
a material
an energy flow, and an information
flow. The description of the
flow,
within
the framework of the morphologicalmodel
that the
showed
processes
in groups
with certain common
processes could appropriately be gathered
The
features.
features
that distinguish these groups might
be the state of the
the process
material,
type, the basic process, and so on.
in the following
The more detailed descriptionspresented
chapters are based
on
a classification
of the processes into a few major groups with one or more
basic common feature(s).
The
aim of this text, in general,
is to enable the engineer
to distinguish
among
the
various
and to characterize them
of their possibilities
by means
processes
and
limitations
material, geometry, tolerances, and surface finish.
concerning
For the application
of the processes, both in design and in production, it is
that
the
of the processes rely on the basic principles covered
important
description
the
and imaginative
model, since this enables
ingenious
by
morphological
utilizations
of the existing processes and production equipment. This approach
has
fruitful
been found to be much
and
than
traditional
more
the
challenging
which has the major disadvantage that
those processes
descriptive
approach,
only
In

Chapter

presented.

This

1 a

model

127

128

Chapter 5

here

employed

approach

classification

The

model

morphological

state of

the process type

the headlines
of the
and

material,

parameters,

giving

of the

classification
different

many

technological

criteria,

depending

mentioned, be basedon

the

as characteristic

the

grouping

chapters.

following

PROCESSES
its

may be based on
classification
will, as

processes

manufacturing

on

purpose.

This

model discussed

morphological

toward generation

oriented

a structure

obtain

used

are

OF THE

CLASSIFICATION

5.2
A

are considered. On the other hand,

the
systematic
ensures that all possibilities are included.
discussed
in the next section
is based directly on the
in Chapter 1. As shown
described
in Fig. 5.1, the material,

known

or

remembered

in

1 to

Chapter

of possiblemanufacturing

methods

to

specific components.

produce

The structure

the classification

of

is

thus:

flow

Material

T^pe of

material

State of

material

of process

Type

Basic process
flow

Energy

of energy

Type

Medium of transfer
flow

Information

creation principle

Surface

of

Pattern

motion

This structure is
In

this

specific

(obtaining
the

context,

geometrical

properties(mainly

selecting
dependent

strain

and a
in

properties)

by deformation.
many

previously,

without

properties
very

important

3. Further

processes

changing the
one, constitutes

aiming

primarily at changes

geometry are available.

the heat-treatment processes

information concerning these processescan be

the

elements

in the

classification

structure

are

discussed

in

group,

major

discussed
found

the literature.
Next

2,

in

hardening

Chapter

5.1.

depending on the process. These processbe taken

must
into
consideration
when
properties
be
An
of
a
as
decisive.
may
example
processprocesses,
they
would
be the increase in mechanical
of a metal due
change
strength
mechanical

As discussed
material

in Fig.

schematically

at geometrical
only processes aiming primarily
changes
in Chapter
will be discussed, but, as described
geometries)
are normally accompanied by changes
in other
changes

changes

dependent

to

shown

briefly.

in

FIGURE 5.1

Classification

of the

technological

manufacturing

processes

into groups

having

common

features.

Chapter 5

130

In Chapter 3 the materials were divided

into
metallic,
and composite materials. The classification
structure
(Fig. S.l)
should cover all the different
but only metals and plastics are shown
materials,
further in this text. The major considerationwill be the metallic
and discussed
6 through
10) and 12, 13, and 14\342\200\224andconsequently,
materials\342\200\224Chapters
Fig.
5.1 is primarily
drawn
for metals. The production of plastic components
is
discussed
in Chapter
11, shown dashed in Fig. 5.1.
Material.

of

Type

nonmetallic,

Material.

State of
granular,

or

can be shapedin

of material

type

given

state of the

state. The

liquid

describes

material

the

solid,

the situation

in

the

shaping phase.

Type

the

in

solid

state,

shaping can

be

by:

= 0): the mass

processes (dM
of the original
the
mass
equal to)

Mass-conserving
(or

Considering materials

of Process.

carriedout

closely

of the

component is equal to
The basic process

material.

is plastic deformation.
(dM < 0): the final
processes
the
by
shape of the original

shape can be
and
the excess is
material,
or
chemical
basic
removed
thermal,
by mechanical,
processes.
the final geometry is obtained by joining
the subgeomeJoining
processes:
both
of the abovetries. The subgeometries are produced
or
one
by
Mass-reducing

circumscribed

mentioned

component

of processes.

types

Concerning materials in the granular and liquid states, shaping

carried out
only by mass-conserving processes.
In
the blocks
in Fig. 5.1, the
showing the type of process
the

with

types of

specific

Basic Processes.
chemical.

and
basic

material,

It can

may be

chemical,

and

Type of

for

utilized

for

that,

mechanical,
electrical,

each

chaptersdealing

are noted.

mechanical,thermal,

5.1, since different

of material, state of

in Fig.

specified

combination

material

solid

materials,

are mechanical, the

processes

in

the

the basic processeswithin

basic processeswithin the
but some

mechanical
within

granular

processes

joining

and

liquid

states,

the

mass-

are thermal or
are

predominantly

the

basic processes

mechanical.

main
of energy that can be utilized
types
necessary to carry out a given basic process
and chemical. The type
of energy
is not
thermal,

Energy.

type

processes exist:

of basic

processes are not

processes are predominantly

the basic
processes

mechanical. For
are predominantly
specific

types

materials

metallic

general

process.

be mentioned

mass-conserving

reducing

Three

These basic

processes
and actual

processesfor

is in

of energy

The

to

create

the

are
specified

in

of the

Classification

Fig.5.1,asmore

one type

than

previous parameters,depending

can often be utilized

on

131

Processes

Manufacturing

the

for

each

of the

combination

conditions.

of the media of transfer

are
Medium of Transfer. The requirements
of
and
which the
of
basic
the
in
the
the
by
process, type
energy,
way
type
The media of transfer
can
be classified
about.
surface creation is brought
to their state as follows: rigid, elastic, plastic, granular,
gaseous,
liquid,
according
for the media of transfer
can
and none (unspecified). Since the requirements
is
it
not
have
been
be
established
when
the
selected,
previous
parameters
only
are
in
5.1
the
possible to specify the mediain general;
consequently,
spaces
Fig.
left blank.
determined

Surface Creationand Pattern

can be produced
as a result

surface

Total

seen in

Chapter

1 that

of

(TF)

forming

One-dimensional

forming

(ODF)

Two-dimensional

forming

(TDF)

Free

It was

of Motion.

(FF)

forming

of these, the

of motions
for the work
and the medium
material
pattern
is obtained.
be selected, so that the desired component
creation
and the pattern of motions
information
The surface
(the
system)
describe
of the processes. It is especially
the geometrical
possibilities
important
that at this point,
utilized.
of the
the systems are imaginatively
The specification
carried
as
an
iteration
the
information
must
be
out
system
by detailing
information
and the energy system.
system

For each

of

It

that the joining

generate geometries.

be mentioned

should

not themselves

Based on
following
important
geometrical

now

must

transfer

the

chapters,
in the
possibilities,

structure
morphological
the engineer
will
be
production,
and

processes

are exceptions,

as

they

do

in the
(or model) and the description
to judge the material properties

able

the changes of propertiesby

the tolerances and

the

processes,

surfaces obtainable.

the

Materials:

Solid

Processes

Mass-Conserving

6.1

INTRODUCTION

this

In

group of

major

desired

processes\342\200\224the

manufacturing

called

processes\342\200\224often

is produced

geometry

plastic deformation.

the

by

metal-forming

basic process,

mechanical

couple of decades, this field has developed rapidly, resulting

of applications.This is mainly due to the fact that massnumber
increasing
with
used
solid
materials
processes
conserving
provide good material utilization
waste of expensive material) and excellent
final material properties.
(low
the

Within

last

in an

The mass-conservingprocesses
to
can\342\200\224according
necessary to producea component\342\200\224be
processes and (2) secondary
processes.
of processes
The
initial

order to
properties)and

etc.)
include

of

purposes

that

improve the

primary

processes

primary

materials
material

the

in

are twofold:
of ingots

form

(in particular

properties

location

first,

to

processes.
such

and so

extrusion,

forging,
semifinal

The

as forging,

or

final

secondary

sheet metal

on.

The

components

processes
forming

break

series

the

primary
down the

produced by casting
the mechanical

rods,

rolling,

in

as (1)

classified

to provide products (e.g.,

second,
bars,
plates,
can be processed
by secondary processes. The primary

the production of
processes,

the

of the

structure

their

secondary

sheets,

in

tubes,

processes

processes

aim at

based on the products of the

include mass conserving

(including

bending,

deep drawing,

133

Chapter6

134

and electrochemical
classification

suitable

completely

may

electrodisprocesses, such as cutting,

machining; and assembly processes.
of processes
into primary and secondary categories is not
because, depending on certain parameters,a given
process

mass-reducing

etc.);

spinning,

stretching,

charge,

be regarded

useful because for

characteristics,

allowing

limitations.
Thus
are based on

their

and

possibilities,

as belonging to either group. However,

the
classification
it is possible
to establish some overriding
each group,
to be made of the processes,
their
judgments
general
the

above the recrystallization temperature.Under

be considered
to be perfectly plastic, allowing

heated
metals can

are in general hot-

processes

primary

plastic deformations applied to

that

processes

working

these

is

materials

the

conditions,
deformations

large

in compression.

without fracture

Hot-working processes

The coarse (dendritic)

form a refined

small

with

structure

and

up

following

advantages:

casting is broken
equiaxial grains.

from the

structure

crystal

broken

are

Impurities

the

have

normally

and

more

distributed

down

the

throughout

evenly

to

material.

Poresor voids

closed

are

up.

properties are

Mechanical

considerably
(especially
ductility and
refined
structure.
impact strength),
Forces and energy necessary
to carry out the processes
are relatively small,
due to the lower yield strength of the material
at elevated
temperatures
3
(note, however, that strain rate has the opposite influence;see Chapter
and Fig. 2.5).
(i.e., large deformations are
drastically
Shape can be changed
quite
improved

of the

because

obtainablein

compression).

disadvantages associatedwith
of scales,
Rapid oxidation (i.e., formation
Some of the

Relatively

the

Basically,

made in
cold

of

working

the

working
In

general,

Better

Better

(2-5%),

Since

metals.

no

are mentioned

surfaces).

surfaces.

these

the main advantages and

two categories

cold

working,

working

of metals

will

give:

and tolerances
properties

(strength)

reproducibility

Anisotropy
advantage

(i.e.,
when

directional
it is

properties

possible to

utilize

of the
the

material\342\200\224this

effect)

is

disadvantagesfor

first.

to hot

compared

between

distinction

description,

following

surfaces

rough

in rough

requiresconsiderablemaintenance.
in both the hot and
principles of processingare utilized

same

Better mechanical

resulting

due to the

are:

working

is expensive and

machinery

Hot-working

cold

tolerances

wide

hot

is

only

an

Someof

the

Less

of cold

disadvantages

Increased force

and

energy

and more

heavier

is

working

due to

requirements,

strain

(i.e.,

hardening

is required).

equipment

powerful

working are:

to hot

compared

work material.

the

in

ductility

Anisotropy

135

Matt-Conserving Processes

Materials:

Solid

in the

produced

workpiece (an

advantage

in

many

sheet-

forming processes).

Clean and

surfaces

scale-free

are required on

The distinction made here between

with the classification
be confused

describedin

primary

and

original

workpiece.
not

secondary processes
secondary basic

processes

of mass-conserving

processes

and

must

1.

Chapter

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

6.2

primary
into

the

MASS-CONSERVING PROCESSES
In

some of

section

this

for solid materials

are

the

As mentioned previously,

system and the

characteristics

general

discussed.

material

a close relationship

system

among

[i.e.,

exists

between

the information

the geometry, the

basic process,

be selected
6.1)]. These systems cannot
Here
is
the
mass
the
and
material
is in the solid state.
conserving
independently.
process
The
conditions
under which the process is carried out (i.e.,
the pressure,
an
since
can
the
influence
role,
etc.)
they
velocity,
play
important
temperature,
possibilities
and
of the process to a high degree.
limitations

material

the

and

(see Fig.

Possibilities

Geometrical

6.2.1

of surface
system was described by principles
and tooling (media of
of motions for work material
will not be related
transfer). In
description the information
system
of energy, and media of transfer,
as only the
directly to specificmaterials,
types
details
are given in later
overriding characteristics are considered.More
In

1 the

Chapter

creation

and

information

the pattern
the following

sections.

The principlesof

surface

1.

Total

2.

One-dimensional

3.

Two-dimensional

4.

Free

forming

forming

creation

are:

(TF)

forming (ODF)
forming

(TDF)

(FF)

rotations
be one of the following: translations
(T),
pattern of motions must
rotations
and
(R), combinations of translations
(T/R), and no motion. In
the more shape information that
is built into the media
general, it can be stated that
The

Chapter6

136

The relationship

6.1

FIGURE

among

geometry,

process,

and material.

the less freedom there is in the selection

of the pattern
6.1
6.4
show
of
within
the four
of motions.
Tables
through
examples
processes
is listed for
surface creation principles; the correspondingpattern
of motions
each process.These examplesserve to illustrate
the many possibilities for shape
Here
it
must
be
that
an
utilization
of the
emphasized
generation.
imaginative
in
surface creation principlesand pattern of motions is very important
the
More detailed descriptionsof important
evaluating
geometrical
possibilities.
in Section 6.3.
processes
are given
In practice,
the geometrical
to the
possibilities must be judged in relation
is it possible
For example,
to obtain a desired geometry in a given
specific material.
which
conditions?
in
material, and under
(See Fig. 6.1). This is discussed

of

transfer

Section

(the

tooling),

6.2.3.

Process

6.2.2

Conditions

To be able to judge if a desired geometry and final material

can be
properties
is
the
under
the
carried
out
conditions
which
must
be
known.
process
produced,
The major influencing
factors
are the state of stress in the deformation
zone, the
and
the
temperature,
velocity.

The State of Stress

zone in a process can be characterized
by the magnitudes
of the stresses.
The size of the deformation zone for a fixed state of
stress determinesthe forces and energy necessary to carry out the process. This
The

deformation

and state

Solid Materials:

TABLE

6.1

Pattern

of motions

137

Mass-ConservingProcesses
of Total Forming

Examples

(TF)
of

Examples

Tool

Workpiece

Total

processes

forming

i
Forging

^
Bending

Impact

forging

\342\226\240:\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242:

l\\ibe expansion

Upsetting

^^h)

needed

is

information
determination

of

the

size or

processedusing given equipment

The size of the deformation
between the workpieceand the
distinction

must

total

deformation,

surface

(i.e.,

the

be made

design of the
yield strength

both for the

maximum

or machinery.
zone is determined
of transfer
medium

between

the contact
deformation

total

zone is

simultaneously

the components

whole

by

primarily

for the
that can

extended

deformation. In
of the desired
the whole
through

partial

or most

be

area

the contact

(the tool or die). Here

and

deformation

area coversthe

and

equipment
of

TABLE

Pattern

6.2

Examptes

of One-Dimensional

Forming

(ODF)

of motions
Examples

Workpiece

Tool

One-dimensional

of

processes

forming

Direct extrusion
Wire

drawing

Indirect extrusion

Deep drawing

Sheet
R

and tube

bending

Rolling

Bar forging

Ring

forging

Roll bending

138

139

Processes
Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving
TABLE

Pattern

6.3

Examples

of Two-Dimensional

Forming (TDF)

of motions
Examples

Workpiece

Tool

Two-dimensional

[^\"MWjgf^.

processes

forming

> ft>\342\200\224

|\302\243

\\ \\

t
*'

x&>Xaje>'
f^s^^2r\302\243^

T/R

I
V

\\^\\
\\
V

v^-^^^i
\\zc

(C^^J
\\
l^rl
\302\273
^^\"M

Bar forging
J

Swaging

R/T

Tube

rolling

Spinning

&t

v^

of

Chapter 6

140

6.4

TABLE

of Free-Forming

Examples

Processes

of motions

Pattern

Examples of

Tool

Workpiece

Free

processes

forming

J.

1
<?%W&
Upsetting

M^{

ill
'ifJ

WNf'.

Torsion

In partial deformation, the contact area

covers
only a fraction of
component).
is occurring
within only a
the surface; that is, at a given instant
deformation
fraction of the total volume of the component, thus requiring
a particular
pattern
of motions to describe the whole volume (see Fig. 6.2).

The principles shown

6.2 will, when

the same product
considering
force and energy requirements. If the same
is produced
6.2a and b), rolling
will
reduction
by forging and rolling
(Fig.
will
more
time.
the
much
smaller
forces
but
take
Further,
geometry
require
of the component,
no limitations
on the length
whereas
in rolling puts

or component, result

in

in Fig.
different

forging does.

The

obtain

has been known

today

to

total

based

the same
for

centuries,

mass-reducing

(including

Processes

of the contact

reduction
to

method

on this

processes.

final

area,
deformation

and

thus

deformation
zone, as a
smaller forces and energies

the

with

and is the

philosophy

processes

such as

behind
turning,

principle are often called incremental

many
grinding,
processes,

processes
etc.).
as opposed

Materials:

Solid

Mass-Conserving

141

Processes

SIZE OF
DEFORMATION ZONE

TOTAL

PARTIAL

(c)

(b)

(a)

FIGURE 6.2

&

&

&>

Total

and

partial

deformation.

shows how

an incremental
process can be developed [1]. The
the
reduce
wall
the
thickness
of
a tube without
changing
purpose
or
In
the
basic
tube
is
diameter.
internal
pulled through
process, the
pushed
a conical
is maintained by an
diameter
die, and the constancy of the internal
internal
mandrel. The die is subjectedto high radial forces, and large forces
to pull or push the tube
are required
the die. The deformation zone is
through
from
the
contact
the
die and the tube, through
area
between
circular,
extending
the die
the tube,
to the mandrel. The contact
area
can be reduced by replacing
an
outer
which
rollers
with a number of balls or conical
by
ring,
supported
or
the
of
forces
to
rotates
deformation.
A
reduction
the
push
pull
during
radial
forces.
the tube is accomplished, but the ring is still subjected to high
both these processesrequire
a special
die system for each tube
Furthermore,
and the smaller forces
diameter.
If the number of rollers is reduced
to one,
the
a
are
machine
structure,
process (Fig. 6.3c)
necessary supplied by
spinning
is the result. This is a much more versatileprocess,since different
wall
can be obtained by simply
tube diameters
the
thicknesses and
changing
position of

Figure 6.3
is to

the

roller.

The

principles

reducing
process)

can,

of reducing

the

contact

area

can also be utilized

circular holes

of
processes [1]. For example,the punching
the
contact
be
transformed
area,
by reducing

into

an

in

(a

mass-

total

incremental

Chapter 6

142

SSSSSSSS^
Mandrel

(a)

W/////////////777777?

Mandrel

(b)

WfflM/MA

Mandrel

(c)
FIGURE
deformation

6.3

The development of incremental

processes
by reducing the contact
(c) spinning.
(a) tube drawing/tube extrusion; (b) ball rolling;

zone:

area/

by

process

torch

of rollers

a pair

or die elements

be considered

can

cutting

143

Mass-ConservingProcesses

Solid Materials:

by a

or

an incremental

saw blade.

In

same

the

way,

(thermal) process.

and the next

deformation zone has now been discussed,
of
in
zone?
state
stress
exists
this
The
state of stressis
question
important
the
deformation
obtainable
before
it
determines
because
instability
important,
and fracture occur and the forces required.
and
Most manufacturing
take place under complex states of stress,
processes
to characterize a process by a single state of stress,
it is, in general,
difficult
the deformation
zone. The processes
since the state of stress varies throughout
of the

size

The

is: What

can be approximately

according to the

four groups,

into

classified

dominant

of stress:

state

Tension (one-, two-, or three-dimensional)

Compression (one-, two-, or three-dimensional)

1.
2.
3.

Shearing

4.

Bending (nonhomogeneous)

Often, two
the

of these

or more

process

deep-drawing

states can be found

(p. 1SS),

in the

of stress

state

the

same process. Considering

in the cylindrical wall is

and in the flange, compression.But as described

previously (Chapters
2 and 4), the classification
in evaluating
of the state of stressis very
important
the maximum deformation
that the material
can sustain
before
occurs.
instability
When planning
a particular
process or developing a new
process
concept,
study of the deformation zone (sizeand state of stress) is fundamental. In
Section 6.3,
where some important processes are described,
the
states
of stress are
a basic
evaluation of the deformation characteristics.
listed, allowing
tension,

Temperature
The

in the

temperature

the recrystallization

be obtained
Below

the

temperature
fracture.

without

very

up

important

occurs

instability

strain

and

an

deformations

large

In tension

temperature
to instability,

recrystallization

the possible strains

up to fracture.

deformation zone is

in

hardening

compression

Above
parameter.
in compression can
at very low strains.
in

tension

it reduces

increases

the

strains

Velocity

The velocity

the process is carried out can influence

the
in Fig. 2.5. Different materials react
strongly, as shown
to the
deformation
differently
velocity (strain rate). Some will exhibit
In actual
increased
and some decreased ductility.
the strain
situations,
ductility,
rate must be estimated, and
the influence
on the properties of the particular
maximum

deformation

material

evaluated.

In general,
significant influence

with

which

quite

it

that the strain

rate
stress-strain curve,

is found

on the

at room
but

elevated

temperature has no
temperatures

normally

Chapter 6

144

6.5

TABLE

Deformation

typical

Velocities
Tool/die velocity

Process

(deformation

2 x l0~2-3 x

press

Hydraulic

Tube drawing

Sheet

5 x

rolling

drawing

From

increase
necessary

10~'-25

Ref. 1.

In hot-working processes it is therefore

rate sensitivity.
and its consequences.
rate
situation
carefully the strain
values of deformation velocities (not
strain
rates)
typical

strain

the

to

10\"'

x 10\"'

20-50
30-200

forging

High-velocity

Explosive forming
Source:

10\"2-5

2-10
5-40

Forging

Wire

(m/s)

KT6-KT2

test

Tension

velocity)

analyze

Table6.5 shows

for

different processes.

Other Important Factors

of the tools, friction, lubrication, and the state of
finish.
If the desired surfacequality
is
lubrication
sometimes
leads to poor surfaces,as the lubrication
can
considered, good
A substitution
be entrapped in the small cavities on the surface.
of the tool/die
such
as rubber can result in better
material
from a metal to an elastic material
with a given work material without
destruction
surfaces
occurring.
in general, since they are
The tolerances obtainable are difficult
to describe
on the size of the deformation
zone, the state of stress, the workpiece
dependent
and
are small,
the
tool/die
the
geometry,
system,
equipment. If the deformations
It may be difficult
elastic recovery must be considered.
to obtain
fine tolerances
is of the same order of magnitude as the plastic
when
the elastic
deformation
deformation.
In summary, it can be stated that the major factors affecting
are workpiece geometry, deformation
processing
by mass-conserving
processes
The

zone (sizeand
the

and

geometry

the

determine

stress

properties

surface

final

surface

deformation, velocity, lubrication,

and
the
tool/die
material.
material,
workpiece

of stress),

state

of the

temperature,

Material Properties
The
amount
that a material can sustain
of deformation
without
or
instability
fracture depends, as describedearlier,on the state of stress, the temperature,
6.2.3

Important

and the strain

equal to

the

relation 9

rate.

In Chapter

strain-hardening
\342\200\224
ce\".

If the

it

was

exponent

a strain
that instability occurs when
was reached in a material
following the

found

same material is deformedunder

compressive

stresses,

Solid Materials:

where

locations

are obtainable, limited only by fracture

stresses are generated.
in
a material may be elongated 40%, whereas

deformations

higher

considerably

tensile

high

In a drawing
operation,
be elongated400%.A

it can
the

often so

high

is the

type

cold-working

hardening.

145

Matt-Conserving Processes

major

advantage
improvement

strength

of mass-conserving
of the material,

to casting or hot working,

the
Compared
that
a cheaper work material can be

strength

improvement is

of the

properties

with

reasonable

and the

strains
6.4.

TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF

6.3

PROCESSES

MASS-CONSERVING

In

rolling

processes of
due to strain

selected.

material can be evaluated

from
the
stress-strain
curve
and a knowledgeof the
accuracy
which the process is carried out.
conditions under
Force
calculations
and energy
are discussed in Section
final

The

at

the following

pages short descriptions are

conservingprocesses.

The

processes

are classified

given

of

a number

according to

the

of mass-

fundamental

basic process, energy to carry out the process,

media of transfer,
All the processes
stress.
of
surface
and
the
state
of
creation,
predominant
principle
and solid
materials are used.
are mass conserving
abbreviations
The following
are used in the classification:
elements,

Basic process
M,

mechanical

T, thermal

C, chemical
Energy

Me,

mechanical

El, electrical
Th, thermal

magnetic)

(including

Ch, chemical

Mediaof
Ri,

transfer

rigid

Ea, elastic

PI, plastic

Ga, gaseous
Gr,

granular

Fl, fluid

Principles of surface
TF,

creation

total forming

ODF, one-dimensionalforming
TDF,

two-dimensional

FF, free

forming

forming

146

Chapter

stress

State of

Te,
Co,

tension

compression

Sh, shearing

Be,
The

bending

of the

description

code

classification

Name,

General

processes covers:

description

Applications/geometry (possibilities)
Material

requirements

Tolerances/surfaces

Machinery/energy

(possibilities)

(in general)

zone is characterizedby the size of the zone (the

it) and the state of deformation
(steady,
A
state
of
deformation
occurs when the deformation
steady
pictuic is
'unsteady).
fixed in time and position (e.g., rolling, extrusion) during
the process.
A nonstate
of
deformation
when
the
occurs
deformation
steady
picture changes
In

the

figures,

the deformation

whole workpieceor portions

continuously

with

time

and position

Tables 6.1 through

allow

during

sheets are to be
more details may be found

The information
processes;

of

an evaluation

processes for solid

the

process.

only as an
in the literature.

considered

introduction

to

the data sheets, and the morphological processmodel

6.4,
of the possibilities and limitations
of the mass-conserving

materials.

the

SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 1:

Description.
characterized

state of

(~/i2),
thickness

stress. The

Co)
beam, etc.)

structural

plate,

(sheet,

one-dimensionalforming,

by a solid material,

is

process

rolling

and

a compressive

rolls
(R) with a gap
material (/i,). Since the
the reduction in
the deformation,
the material is nearly constant during
of the constancy
because
in a corresponding increasein length
results
is

which

of

width

The

Ri, ODF,

Me,

(M,

Rolling

147

Procettet

Matt-Conserving

(W)

workpiece

than the

less

between

passes

two

of the

thickness

initial

of volume.

Deformation

between the

zone:

rolls

the

material

State of deformation:

steady

When

Applications.
important

beams,

and so

varying

have

smooth

strips, bars, rods, and

depending on the purpose.

like

sheets,

reductions,

MaterialRequirements.

The

sufficient

at the

possess

volume, hot rolling is the most

are plates, bars,rods, structural
surfaces, accurate dimensions, and

production
considering
most common products

on. Productsthat

strengths,

high

The

process.

ductility

materials
forming

(ferrous

tolerances

in the

Hot rolling produces

2-5%. Cold rolling
produces
range 0.5-1%.

Machinery!Energy.

designedespecially

for

Very

either

specialized

hot or

on,

are cold-rolled

with

and nonferrous metals) must

temperature.

Tolerances/Surfaces.
in the range

tolerances

so

and

slightly

very

massive

cold rolling.

rough

smooth

surfaces

and

surfaces and

equipment is

necessary,

148

Chapter 6

PROCESS2:

extrusion

Forward

Description. The

extrusion

forward

a solid material,one-dimensional
(W)

workpiece

material

is placed
die

the

through

Me, Ri,

(M,

and a

die/container

the

in the

orifice

characterized
is, in general,
by
compressive state of stress.The
the
(L), and the punch
(P) squeezes

process

forming,
in

ODF, Co)

direction of the

State

d~^h

force.

applied

of stress

fs

s
ft

if

si

b3

zone:

Deformation

material

near

the

the orifice

State of deformation:

steady

a hot-working process, extrusion is used extensively

for
wide variety
of regular
and irregular structural
such
profiles,
as window moldings, angle sections,I- and U-beams,
and circular and noncircular tubing.
As a cold working process, it is a variant of cold forging
used
alone
or combined with
cold
backward
and
so
on.
extrusion,
heading,
As

Applications.

of a

the production

working, ferrous and nonferrous materials

at elevated temperatures.In cold working,
nonferrous metals and low-alloysteelsare used,
sufficient
possessing
ductility at
Material

must

In hot

Requirements.

possess

sufficient

ductility

room temperature.
Hot

Tolerances/Surfaces.

is best

for nonferrous

extrusion

metals. Cold extrusion

gives good
gives

tolerances and surfaces,and

excellent

tolerances

(0.1-1%)

and surfaces.

Machinery/Energy.

cold extrusion
presses.

is

carried

For

hot

extrusion,

out on

special

hydraulic

presses are

general-purpose mechanical and

used;

hydraulic

Materials:

Solid

PROCESS3:

Hot

Description. The
solid

die,

a single

with

characterized by a
of stress. The
(P) pushes the metal
through several dies

is, in general,

one-dimensional forming,
on a die (L), and
is placed
forming a cup. The cup can

material,
the

process

hot-drawing

ODF, Te)
a

tension

be

punch
drawn

and

workpiece (W)
through

Me, Ri,

(M,

drawing

149

Processes

Mats-Conserving

the

state

punch.

State

stress

of

f*\"\",,C3

ia\\VP

ess

Deformation

(1)

relatively

thick-walled

Stateof

the

zone:

in the die
deformation:

process is generally
such as oxygen tanks,

The hot-drawing
parts,
cylindrical

Applications.

material

(2)

\\K.J^IM|^7

used

entrance
steady

to produce
shells,

artillery

tank

heads, and short tubes.

MaterialRequirements.
Both

temperature.

High

ferrous

Reasonably

Tolerances/Surfaces.
(often

below 0.5%

draws

available.

Hydraulic

(low yield

metals are hot

presses

surface

(draw

at elevated

strength)

drawn.

good tolerances

of the diameter).The

Machinery/Energy.
are

ductility

and nonferrous

quality

benches)

are

generally

obtained

is good.

for single or multiple

Chapter 6

150

PROCESS4:

forging

Drop

(M,

Me, Ri,

TF, Co)

(or closed die forging/impression die

drop-forging
work material, total
characterized
a solid
by
general,
forging) process
a compressive
state of stress. The workpiece
(W) is placed in the lower
forming, and
the closing
movement (one or more blows)of the upper die
die (L), and during
(U), the workpiece becomesplastic,and the die cavity is filled. Excessmaterial
as a flash (F). The workis squeezed
out between the die faces (peripherally)
from
the die, eventually by an ejector
(E), and the flash
piece is removed
trimmed off in a special trimming die.

Description. The
is, in

Production of a wide variety

(draft, radii, parting
requirements
is, in general, a hot-working
process

Applications.
process/die

forces.The

by the

be controlled
in

Material Requirements.
(various

temperatures

in

but
obtain

the

die cavities, resulting

connectingrods,gear blanks,

of about

final

actual

metals, etc.).
mass give thickness
quality is reasonably good,

milling,

is necessary

etc.)

to

surfaces.

Machinery/Energy.

The energy necessary is mechanical,

(steam hammers, board hammers,
must
The selection of machinery

are available
presses,

the

at

ductility

1 kg

The
surface
range +0.6 to +0.2 mm.
further
some
processing (turning,
general,

in the

differentmachines
mechanical

and the

geometry

with a high
metals
All
steel alloys, nonferrous

Components

Tolerances/Surfaces.
tolerances

process,

shapes limited only

by
etc.) and the necessary
can
and the metal flow

handles.

and

elevated

part
ribs,

line,

fiber structure. Examples include

a favorable

levers,

workpiece

original

of

etc.).

production volume

and

the

actual

process.

and

many

hydraulic

be

based

and

on the

Solid Materials:

5:

PROCESS

total

forming,

placed into
die. The

a stationary
tool

heading

into the die

(Upsetting) (M,

forging

Upset

of stress

State

pin

* \342\200\242''
EF^a
- \342\200\224 ,-\\

(grip)

die

w-4\342\200\224

Deformation

zone:

unsupported

material

State

TThZm'^)?77#//A\\\\

the

of deformation:

nonsteady

as a hot-working
is used to produce heads
process
and shoulders on shafts, and so on. As a cold-working
is used to produce nails, rivets, small
upsetting (called cold heading)
Upsetting

Applications.

process,

Co)

cavity.

Split

bolts,

TF,

characterized by a solid work

is, in general,
forging
and a compressive state of stress.
The workpiece
(W) is
die (L) supported by a knockout
pin or clamped in a split
the workpiece
(P) then moves longitudinally,
upsetting

Knockout

on

Me, Ri,

Upset

Description.
material,

151

Matt-Conserving Processes

bolts, and

valves,
so

flanges

on.

The work material

must possess sufficient ductility
Requirements.
or
cold
for
at
elevated
temperature
heading
temperatures for hot
steels
and
nonferrous
metals).
upsetting (various
Material

at room

Tolerances/Surfaces. In
determined
gives

good

hot

mainly by the amount

tolerances (~\302\2610.2

upsetting,
of
mm)

A
wide
Machinery/Energy.
are available,
horizontal,

often

per

minute.

the tolerances and

lubricants,
and surfaces.
scale,

variety
allowing

of mechanical
production

surface quality

are

and so on. Coldheading

rates

upsetting

of about

machines,

400 parts

152

Chapter

Cold forging

PROCESS 6:

Ri, TF,

Me,

(M,

Co)

The
is, in general, characterized by a
cold-forging
process
a
and
total
solid material,
forming,
compressivestate of stress. The workpiece
die
and
in
the
the
is
(P) moves down and squeezes the
(L),
(W) placed
punch
to fill the die cavity.
material

Description.

State of stress
rfFi

N
o

(Hollow

preform)

zone:

Deformation

whole

the

State of

Cold

Applications.

various types of

using

different

pattern,

The

extrusion,

etc.).

material

properties.

the components
Material

without

Sufficient

Requirements.

metals

available.

wide

ductility

extrusion,

impact

and gives

sustain

excellent
The

of

mass

quality

of mechanical

deformations

the

steel can be coldforged.

range ~ \302\2610.05 mm

The surface

range

to

and low-alloy

in the

Tolerances

are common.
nearly eliminated.
on lengths

Machinery/Energy.
are

used (i.e.,
utilization

material

deformation

the applied

of applications is increasingrapidly.
a few grams and several kilograms.

fracture. Most nonferrous

~\302\2610.2 mm

be

high

parts,

complex

relatively

on

between

vary

Tolerances/Surfaces.

can

depending

may be

names

specialized

process has
The number
may

allows production of

forging

closed dies and

deformation:

nonsteady

Knockout pin

die

Split

body

on diameters

is high,

and

and

hydraulic

and

machining

presses

Back

7:

PROCESS

153

Matt-Conserving Processes

Solid Materials:

(cold) (M,

extrusion

Me, Ri,

Co)

TF,

is a variant
cold
The back extrusion
which
within
process,
characterized
and a
is, in general,
forming,
by a solid material, total
(W) is placed in the die (L), and the
compressive state of stress.The workpiece
down to extrude the material
around
or into the punch.
(P) moves
punch
Description.

forging

State of

stress

the

zone:

Deformation

zone

near

State

of

the

punch

deformation:

steady

Back extrusion, as a cold-forging

process,
structural parts, tubes or tubular

Applications.
produce

on.

regular
A

special

or irregular
is
variant

large seriesor mass

Material

Most

metals

Tolerances/Surfaces.
can be

Machinery/Energy.

available.

extrusion

as the

production,

Sufficient

Requirements.

nonferrous

\302\2610.2mm)

are

can

and

low-alloy

As a

acquired,

(see

rather

to

ductility

steel can

and

so

lends itself to

expensive.

sustain

be backward

used to

components,

The process

later).

tooling is

can be

the deformations.
extruded.

(\302\2610.05
cold-working process,good tolerances
the surface
is
quality
correspondingly high.

to

and

A wide

variety

of

mechanical

and hydraulic

presses

154

Chapter 6

PROCESS8:

extrusion

Can

(M, Me, Ri,

extrusion)

(impact

ODF,Co)

be regarded as a variant
(sometimes even a metal
one-dimensional
of stress.
The workpowder),
forming, and a compressivestate
piece (W) is placed in the die (L), and as the punch (P) moves down, the
material
is squeezed
or extruded up around
it. The die may be provided with
a
conical
bottom face and punch
as for example in toothpaste
tubes.
nose,
cold

can extrusion

The

Description.

of

is characterized

forging,

process,

by

can

which

material

a solid

Of

State

stress

r^L
X
>

~~jf_
/

>

XTL

\\>l

between

State

the

zone:

Deformation

^^^^^^K\\^^

steady

the die and the

of defc rmation:

material
punch

which is a specialback-extrusion
with
extrusion,
process
ratio as low as 0.005, is used to produce collapsibletubes
and so on; cans for food and beverages; and shielding
cosmetics,
Can

Applications.

a thickness/diameter
for
in

toothpaste,
electrical

apparatus,

batteries,

Material Requirements.
materials are aluminum
and
Tolerances/Surfaces.
obtainable,

accompanied

Machinery/Energy.

are available.
developed.

Because

etc.

very

A wide

Extensively used

alloys.

Tolerances in
by a

low strength.

and

ductility

High

zinc

high

variety

of production

the

range

surface
of

of

\302\2610.05

to

\302\2610.1mm

are

quality.
mechanical

and hydraulic

volumes, specialized

machinery

presses

is usually

9:

PROCESS

The

Description.

ODF,Te)

process is,

deep-drawing

in

characterized

general,

the

by
the

by

by

stress. The

state of

a tension

and

placed on the die (L), clamped

and pushed through the die

W) is

wrinkling,

prevent

(M, Me, Ri,

one-dimensionalforming,

(blank,

workpiece

drawing

Deep

a solid material,

(C) to

155

Matt-Conserving Processes

Solid Materials:

pressure plate
(P) to form

punch

a deepcup.

State of stress

The

Applications.
extensively

to

of

variety

flange

of deformation:

process and variants

cylindrical or

deep-drawing

a wide

produce

the

zone:

Deformation

State

nonsteady
it are

of

include bottle caps, automobile panels, tanks,

and bodies, and cans for food. Deepdrawing
is a cold-working
on.

Examples

Material Requirements.
ductility

sustain

to

instability

strains).

and

Nonferrous

ferrous

the actual strains

metals
(i.e.,
In the deformations are large,

used

prismatic cups, and

shells,

intermediate

so

covers

process.

sufficient
anisotropy and high

metals
with

appliance

with

annealing

may

be necessary.
are in general obtainable (\302\2610.2 mm
Tolerances/Surfaces. Good tolerances
diameters and increasing for increasingdiameters).The surface quality

for small

corresponds

but

closely to the

Machinery/Energy.
other
types

purpose.

original

sheet.

Double-acting

(mechanical

and

hydraulic presses

hydraulic)

are

available,

are used extensively,

depending on the

156

Chapter6
Rubber

10:

PROCESS

forming

(M, Me,

Ea, TF,

Be/Co)

The rubber-forming process is, in general,

characterized
Description.
by a
solid material, total forming,
and a state of stress, including
and some
bending
compression. The workpiece(blank, W) is placed on a rigid male die (L), and
the punch
the blank according
(P) with a rubber pad (R) movesdown,
shaping

to the shape

of the

male

die.

of stress

State

Bending

and

uniaxial

compression

in the original
of

State

the material

zone:

Deformation

flange

deformation:

nonsteady

Applications. The rubber-forming

simple

in thin

geometries

is used

process

sheets (aluminum

up

to

3 mm,

to produce relatively
stainless steel and

mild

used for various maledies

punch
It is low-cost
and
flexible fabrication.
(geometries).
tooling, allowing easy
include
cans
for
food
and
for
the
electronic
The
rubberExamples
parts
industry.
forming process can include piercingand blanking.
up to 1.5

steel

mm thickness).The

and
a relatively
low yield
Requirements.
High ductility
mild steel, and stainless steels are typical
materials.

Material
Nonferrous

Tolerances/Surfaces.
are

not

The

The tolerances vary

with
the degree
are equal to the original sheet;

surfaces

of deformation

even painted

ruined.

Machinery/Energy.

be used.

strength.

metals,

(elastic recovery).
surfaces

can be

same

Most types of

mechanical

or

hydraulic

presses

can

SolidMaterials:

PROCESS 11:

Description.
material,

total

a die

forming,

(L), and

Tube

expansion

and a tension

is, in general, characterized

state of stress.The workpiece

a high

in

explosives

high

a solid

by

of

State

is placed

(W)

M (Fl,

a medium

pressure
to the workpiece. The high pressure
in water) or a pressram (P).
(detonated

introducing

TF, Te)

(M, Me, Ea/Ri,

(bulging)

expansion

is transmitted

mechanical
energy

from

by

1\\ibe

157

Processes

Matt-Conserving

in

Ea),

may

be obtained

stress

L(split)

Deformation zone: the

material

(water)

(rubber,

oii

or

undergoing

deformation

water)

of deformation:

State
nonsteady

The

Applications.

wide range
or shells

of

sectional

for the

tube expansion
expanded or

aircraft

industry,

the

or bulging
is used to produce a
process
shaped (irregular) tubular
components
chemical

industry,

and

the

mechanical

industry.

Material Requirements. Sufficiently

without fracture.

high

instability

strain to

withstand

the

deformation

Tolerance/Surfaces.
dimensions (\302\2610.05% of
by the

original

Very

fine

are obtainable, depending on the

The surface quality
is determined
mainly

tolerances

the diameter).

material.

Machinery/Energy.

Mechanical

electrical discharges, and

so on.

and

hydraulic

presses,

high

explosives,

158

Chapter

12:

PROCESS

Spinning (M,

Me, Ri,

TF,

Sh)

The spinning
is, in general, characterized by a solid
Description.
process
The workpiece
material, total forming, and shear state of stress.
(W) is placed
on
a rotating
die or mandrel (L), and the movable
roller (R) progressively forces
blank

the

against

the die.

of

State

stress

(a) complex state

shear

pure

(b)

zone:

Deformation

the material under

spinning (a)

Applications.
and shear

thickness)

the roller

State of

Shear

Conventional

spinning

(b)

Both conventional

(no

spinning

spinning (reduction in
are extensively used

thickness

the

mandrel)
and

diameters),

shafts

(gas turbines,

Material Requirements.
without

depending

geometries

Sufficient

The

ductility to

Tolerances are good,for

of

quality depends on
the rollers, etc.).
surface

Machinery/Energy.
merically

changing

(including

etc.).
withstand

the

actual

strains

fracture.

Tolerances/Surfaces.
diameter.

reduction in
on the enclosed angle
in industry
to produce

significant

alone or combined
bowls, lamps, reflectors, cooking utensils, bells,tubes
of

deformation

nonsteady

controlled)

wide

variety

are available.

the

process

example

parameters

of spinning

0.1 -0.2%

(feed,

machines

(manual

of the
speed,

or

nu*-

Materials:

Solid

PROCESS13:
by

workpiece

bends

and

Me, Ri,

TF, Be)

out on press brakes, is

a bending state of stress.The
material,
forming,
is
and
die
the punch
on
the
(blank,
(L),
W)
(P) moves down
placed
the sheet according to the die/punch
geometry.

Description.
characterized

(M,

(braking)

Bending

159

Processes

Mast-Conserving

The

carried

process,

bending

a solid

and

total

of stress

State

Bending

Deformation zone:

the material against

the

radius

bending

State

of deformation:

nonsteady

bending is used for the production of many

are shown in the
channels, etc.). A few examples
figure. It is used extensively in the
aircraft
and
industry, the automobile industry,
the lighter mechanical and electrical industries. A wide
of
dies gives a
variety
unlimited
number
of shape possibilities. For small
manual
nearly
workshops,
bar folders are used to carry
out the bending, but the geometrical
possibilities
are much smaller.
shapes

brake

Press

Applications.

structural

(i.e.,

angles,

MaterialRequirements.
outside

of the

The

The tolerances

Tolerances/Surfaces.

bending

geometry.

qualitycorresponds

MachinerylEnergy.
mechanical
and

at

strain

fracture

must not

be exceededon

the

bend.

hydraulic

tolerances

Angular

to the

of

depend on the sheet thickness

\302\2610.5\302\260
are common.

sheet.
Press

brakes

are available.

of different

and

The surface

sizes and types

both

the

160

Chapter 6

PROCESS14:

Stretch

Description. The

(M,

forming

TF, Te)

is, in general,
process
and a tension state of

stretch-forming

material (sheet), total

(W) is clamped in the grips
the final shape.
solid

Me, Ri,

characterized

stress.The

forming,

(G) and

stretched and

bent

over

State

Deformation

whole

State

by

workpiece

the male

die (L) to

of stress

zone:

the

component

of deformation:

nonsteady

Stretch

Applications.

utilized

extensively

panelswith
window

and

of sheet metals is a relatively

new
process,
and automobile industries to produce large
skin panels, engine cowlings,door frames,

forming
aircraft

the

curvatures,

varying

frames,

in

so on.

Material Requirements. The processis limited

by the strain at instability
the materials can be evaluated by their uniform
elongation in tensile tests).
Both
nonferrous
and ferrous metals are stretch formed.

(i.e.,

geometry,

but the
and

the

tolerances

are

vary

with

to the
quality corresponds roughly
the stress level (elastic recovery),the

material.

Machinery/Energy.
capacities)

surface

The

Tolerances/Surfaces.
originalsheet,

available.

wide

variety

of stretch-forming

machines (types

and

Solid Materials:

Roll

15:

PROCESS

161

Matt-Conserving Processes
bending

(M, Me, Ri,

ODF,Be)

process is characterized by a solid material,

a
and
state
of stress. The workpiece (W)
is
forming,
bending
fed between an adjustable upper roll (R) and two
fixed
lower rolls (R), which
a bending state of stress in the plate,
induces
depending on the position of the
in
roll
relation
to
the
rolls.
fixed
adjustable
The

Description.

roll-bending

one-dimensional

State

of stress

Bending

between

zone

the

zone:

Deformation

the rolls

State of deformation:
steady

The

Applications.

and so on. By changing

roll-bending
the

position

process is used to produce

of the upper roll, the curvature

changes. Roll-bending machines may

of regular and irregular
production

easy

Material
not exceeded

can be

formed
The

by

this

surface

controlled

(NC),

of

plates

the plate
allowing

shapes.
is

fracture

metals

process.

The tolerances are mostly

within
quality is equal to the surfaceof the

Machinery!Energy.

(e.g., bending

numerically

of

Sufficient ductility,
so that the strain at
Requirements.
at the outside of the bent plate. Both ferrous and nonferrous

Tolerances/Surfaces.
diameter.

be

vessels,

rings,

Bending rolls are

up to 150-200 mm

available

thickness).

in

0.1-0.2%
original
a wide

of the
plates/sheets.

range of

sizes

162

Chapter

DETERMINATION OF FORCESAND

6.4

ENERGIES

1, material flow,
processes involve, as discussedin Chapter
and
flow.
In
the
sections,
(shape
impressing),
previous
energy
in
material
elements
the
flow
have
been
and
information
elucidated.
major
Based
on this and the elementary plasticity
the main elements in the
theory,
The
can
be
determined.
forces
energy system
energy system suppliesthe necessary
as determined by the planned
and energies to carry out the desired deformations
information
and material flow.
be remembered
It should
that the final specifications
for each of the three
The

manufacturing

information

flow

systems are

generally

brought

Basic Principles In

6.4.1

context

In this

iterative

process.

Forceand

More

accurate

require an advanced

normally

to estimate the forces and energies

and advanced methods are available,
but

methods

approximate

only

necessaryarediscussed.

theoretical knowledge

of

plasticity

theory

mechanics.

and solid
The

an

by

Determination

Energy

they

about

method to estimate the forces necessary is based

on
deformation. This method
can be applied
when
the
only
cross
section
of the workdirectly on the wholedeforming
the maximum
force necessary to compress a cylindrical
direction of its axis is given by P = 0(y4max,
where
o0 is the

possible

simplest

yield in homogeneous
load or force is acting

piece. For

example,

workpiece

in the

yield

at

strength

maximum

strain

and

AttMX

the

cross-sectional

maximum

area.

For most processesthis approach

is not applicable, as the forceis not acting
A more general
on the whole deforming cross section of the workpiece.
is to consider
the work necessary
to deform an element of the workpiece
approach
work of
and
this over the whole deforming region. This
total
integrate
a
deformation is then
related to the work carried out by the external force, allowing
of the

determination

is given

latter.

4 it was

In Chapter

shown

that

W necessary to

work

carry

out

a deformation

by
*

where
and

Jv Jit
is the

ode

work of

e2 the effective

(6.1)

clV

deformation,

the

volume

strains before and after the

of the

deforming region, e(

deformation,and

o*

the

effective

as a function
of e).
stress (which can be expressed
volume (the deforming region) are supplied
If all elements in the workpiece
as
amount of work, Eq. (6.1)can be written
the same
with
W =

todl

(6.2)

If

curve for

stress-strain

the

is given by

material

the

9 =

ce\\ Eq. (6.2)becomes

163

Mass-ConservingProcesses

Solid Materials:

-\302\253f

Vj^Tji*Vl

(6-3)

,l

work
is
as the internal work W(. The external
This work can be characterized
(pe),which are acting over a certain
by external forces (Pe)or pressures
as
can be written
that
travel
distance
is, the externally supplied work
(/\302\253);

supplied

We

PJe

e refers to

where

(6.4)

p\342\202\254AJ\342\202\254

Ae is

and

\"external\"

the cross-sectional

area over

the

which

forces/pressures act.

external

By equating

= PeAJe

PJe

and (6.4),

(6.1)

S de

can
the external forcesor pressures

be estimated:

(IV

(6.5)

the velocity
(ve) with which the force
power necessary is to be determined,
the work or the time
(te) during which it is supplied
supplying
the power required is given by
must be known.
Consequently,

If the

or pressureis
=

Ptve =

\342\200\224

(6.6)

moment
power. If an external
Me is acting with angular
velocity
is correspondingly given by Ne \342\200\224
These
methods for
Me(Oe.
forces
and energies are only
as they are based on the
estimating
approximate,
of
deformation.
A
is the
homogeneous
assumption
homogeneous deformation
most efficient way to carry out a deformation and requiresthe smallest
possible
load or force, since frictional
work
work (caused by friction
and redundant
and

N is the

where

the power
ct)\342\200\236

constraints) are neglected.

that the work [Eqs. (6.1), (6.2),and (6.3)]
and the force [of the
=
limits for any process,
type
o0Amax and Eq. (6.5)] are the lower
PnWK
final deformations. The agreementswith
the same
the actual
work and
producing
force are, in general,
reasonable
and simple
for very low coefficients of friction

geometrical

means

This

producing

geometries,
constraints

provide

processes,
appropriate

6.4.2

minimum

redundant

and consequently,
to
to introduce
empirical

Sheet

Rolling:

Moment,and
The

sheet-rolling

forging

process

actions

succeeding

internal

deformation).
obtain

(note that geometrical

not the case for

distortion

This is,
reasonably

however,

accurate

correction factors,

Determination

results,

many

it is often

as discussedlater.

of Rolling Force,

Power

as a barconsidered
process (Fig. 6.4) can be approximately
6.2), where a bar (the sheet) is produced
by forging
other along the bar. The main
here is that the
problem

(Table
each

Chapter 6

164

4
2

\\
'^\"\"frrm^.

contact

of

iArc

<

^r

Ah
hl\"h2 \342\226\240
\342\226\240

T\"

\342\200\224^\"^
\342\226\240

^7\\

\342\226\240--M

Sheet rolling.

6.4

FIGURE

yield

of

strength

(thickness h2)

the

of the

material increases from the entry

roll gap. It is therefore
necessary

(thickness

a mean value and

of the principal stress (see Fig. 6.4).
direction
the curvature
of the rolls can be ignored,
that
Assuming
force can be determined
by
where
\302\2603,m>

where
the

suffix

-o3#w/4 =

the

m refers to

-OymwL(P defined

is the mean yield strength

of deformation, w the width
of the arc of contact (i.e., the

projection

Since for a close approximation

constant
e2

during

state of

external

stress is

longitudinal

Mises'

(2/x/3)o0,
this

rolling

3 of the principal

sheet, and L the

chord

of contact).

width

of the

the

the

load or

state

stresses,

longitudinal

sheet canbe considered

is plane (e, = -e3,

of strain

0).

The
von

the

stress

(6.7)

of the

(Aw = 0),

the deformation

the

yield

refers to

positive)
in direction

o3</n

area

to the exit

h,)

to use a mean
the suffix 3

given

by

(see

forces); o2 =

yield

criterion

where

o0 is

(Oi

Chapter
+

o3)/2

for the plane state of

the

uniaxial

yield

4, Example 5): o, =* 0 (no

= o3/2;
o3. Consequently,

strain

gives

ox

\342\200\224=

o$

If mean values

strength.

\342\200\224o3

are used,

becomes

where the

o0

m can

suffix

be found

the mean uniaxial

designates
from the stress-strain curve of

0,m

yield
the

strength.
material:

The value

of

From

from
simply,
6.4
the
Fig.

L2 =

R2

more

or,

o0m =
chord of

from

Consequently,

P=

P* =

by

and

thickness

in

in

R is the radius
Eq.

(6.7),

of the rolls.
force becomes

the rolling

to P has been empirically

determined
of
total
20%; that is, the
average
rolling force P*

contribution

be an

to

estimated

be given

o<>\342\200\236w(RAh)m

frictional

The

to

(6.9)

(6.8) and (6.9)

substituting

j=

0.5(o0, + o02).
contactL is found

\302\253/?A*

^)2

(R

Ah is the reduction

where

165

Mast-Conserving Processes

Materials:

Solid

and

is

becomes

X.2P

1.2-^ob^(/?A/i),/2

force per unit

The rolling

width

is, consequently,
(6.10)

l.35ot>JRAh)m

\302\243\302\253

gives reasonablygood results.

one of the rolls can be
the middle of the length L. Thus

This expression
P

hi =

= Mto
u) is

where

power per roll

the

the

size

is given

that

by

/>*! to

(6.12)

Determination of the Extrusion

Force

process,
of the

on a

rolls.

of the

velocity

angular

Pressureor

an extrusion

determines

by assuming

(6.11)

Extrusion:

6.4.3

approximated

/\"*\302\247

necessary
N

In

in

is acting

The

to drive

moment

The

the

necessary

extrusion

press

is very important,
as it
pressure
or the maximum cross-sectional area that

It
6.S illustrates the extrusion
process.
Figure
is not possible here to use the simple method to determine the pressure/force
as
in rolling, since the externalforce
does
not act directly on the deforming crosscan

be extruded

area.

sectional

The

work

per

given

Consequently,
unit volume

press.

the work
w is given

by

method or work

formula

must

be used.

166

Chapter

FIGURE 6.5

of bars.

Extrusion

de

J*.

The state

is given

in the extrusion

strain

of

by

-0.5\342\202\254,)
\342\202\2543
(\342\202\254,,\342\202\2542

The

effective

corresponding

I = [\\
and
\342\202\254,,

U,2

+
\342\202\25422
\342\202\25432)],/2

e, is

consequently

e =

C| =

In

strain, Eq.

C,

determined

In -r1

= 2 In

(4.37), becomes

by

(Fig.

6.5):

-pr1

2 refer to the states before and after deformation, / is

A is a cross-sectional
a length,
area, and for circularbars D is a diameter.
in the
volume
element
Assuming a homogeneous deformation (i.e., each
of work),
with the same amount
material
is supplied
e, = 0, and
deforming
where

the suffixes 1 and

the

that

assuming

material

follows

the

of
production
volume
(volume

the

original

bars], the
We

work

= Ph

curve

stress-strain

<?

ce\",

(6.13)

[-t^'-ST

*-*jH*%rl
Considering

the

supplied

PmA^

the extruded volume V

=

constancy)
external forces

by the

j4,/,

[=

A2l2,

which is

can be expressed

equal to

for circular

(ji/4)D,2/,
as

Materials:

Solid

where P is the extrusion

We and Eq. (6.13) gives
=

P^,

and pm is

force

167

Processes

Mass-Conserving

extrusion

mean

the

Equating

pressure.

=A,Jf7(ln^)\"+'

or

* = ;rfr(ln\302\243r'
this becomes

bars

circular

For

(614)

p\302\253-7m{2lnD~2)

Since the

extrusion

extrusion

ratios

the

process

deformation is rather
Allowing
poor.
50%
(6.14) must be increasedabout

|>*\" =

If an

distortion

internal

on average,

of

assumption

distortion for

a homogeneous
and friction, pm

giving
<615>

l\342\226\2405l^-l{iaT^,

corrected mean extrusion

ideal-plastic material is used, <5

pressure.
o0 and

the corrected

extrusion

becomes

p*m
For

for both

of internal

degree

high

used, the

p*m is the

where

pressure

involves

(/4,//42) normally

(6.16)

1.5o0ln^

bars

circular

p*m =

1.5o0e

3oq In D,

BAA Wire Drawing:Determination

of Drawing
Force
Maximum
of Area in One Pass
and
Reduction
As

in extrusion,

drawing,

In
\342\202\254|

ideal-plastic
Eq. (6.2) gives

that

In

to

corresponds

drawing

e3 = -0.5e,,

e =
If an

the work formula must be used to determine

the force in wire
does not act directly on the deforming
material.
The state of

wire

for

strain

e2

this

as

that

for

extrusion,

giving

\342\202\254,,

is,

-p

I =

2 In

material is assumed,

jr- for circularwiresI

<J

o0 (the

mean yield

strength)

and

Chapter 6

168

9,

^22
IPX

Dl

6.6

Wire

Voq6 =

P=

by

In

wires.

circular

V, =

(re/4)D,2/,-

(n/4)D22l2.

(6.17)

j-

force in drawing
6.6) is We

external

the

area A2

Fig.

(see

is

considered

volume

A2o<>

f2

drawing,

VOq

The work supplied

the cross-sectional
Eq. (6.17) gives

Since the

D2

*1
FIGURE

'1

A2l2

a final wire length

= Pl2. Equating

>Mi\302\273tne

drawing

l2 with
and

this

force becomes

(6.18)

In

For circularwires

If a

mean yield stress o0 m

is

used

for 0O in

Eq.

reasonable

(6.18),

results can

be obtained.
When

the

can be found

curve can

stress-strain
in

a similar

be expressedas <J

cc\", the

drawing force

manner. Thus

/4i\\\"+\302\273

(6.19)

'-*irHto\302\256
where
The

At is the original and A2 is the final cross-sectional

in area r is defined by
reduction

area of the

wire.

Solid

Materials:

From

this

the

ratio

be found:

can

AXIA2

169

Processes

Mass-Conserving

of area in one pass is limited

The maximum possiblereduction
by the tensile or
the drawing force. For
ultimate
of the drawn wire, as this must transmit
strength
stress and the ultimate
will be
stress
cold worked materials, the yield
heavily
nearly equal; that is, the maximum stress in the drawn wire can be approximated
o = o0 (ideal-plastic materials, where o0 is the
mean
yield stress). Equation
by

(6.18) gives

P =
where

and

around

\\

area; consequently,

= 63%

rm

rm

(6.21)

50% are

obtainable,

drawing force [Eq. (6.18)]is corrected

increase, Eqs. (6.18) and (6.19)

If the

for

a 50%

by

P =
p

\342\200\224

In -. ~
I

^200

reduction of

rm =

^>

only values
friction.

practice,

friction

x\"

Aj

maximum

y^-t

distortion

= A2Oq In

A2
is the

rm

In

In

oo

A\\

(0 =

1.5i42o0In 7A2

(0 =

,M>;rT-r(,n%r'

owing

internal

to

internal

distortion

and

become

Oo)

\"\

6.4.5 ExplosiveForming:Determination the

of

Charge

Necessary
In

section

this

that

means
the

explosive

the

of Explosives

final

free

The charge is placedin water

and the energy
to
is transmitted
head

of

the

H above

must

charge

Equating

Fig. 6.7).This
determined

necessary

work

to shape

(i.e.,

the internal

size required.

the
and

the

blank

involves
blank

work/energy

the

stand-off distance L from the sheet

as a shock wave created by

at a
the

(the

necessary

be used;this

work formula can

deformation

is considered (see
stress fields

induced

the

by

blank,
the

a loss in energy, the

To avoid too heavy
water
is approximately
exceed a certain value, which

high explosive.
the

equal to the blank diameter.

To estimate the charge
size

external

by

conditions.

process

detonation

of sheets

forming

is created

shape

external

amount

the
high explosives),
of the work of
and a determination of the
the charge to the blank).
of

a determination

(internal
delivered

work)
from

work allows

a determination

of the

charge

Chapter6

170

FIGURE

6.7

Explosive

of

Deformation

Work

It is

assumed

approximated

blank

sheets.

is firmly

pure stretching)

clamped

and

that

the

tooling

rings (i.e.,

shape can

a deflection

the

be

6 (Fig.6.7c).

surface
=

As

InRb

6 is the maximum

where

*D\\

deflection. Volume

constancy

gives

t22nRb

is,

r,

<6-22>

From

R2 =
it

in

the desired

a spherical
segment with radius R and
area of the spherical segment is

by

The

that

the

that

involves

deformation

free forming of

is

(R

found

2*6 =
which,

6)2

that

62 +

when

f\302\243

substituted

in Eq.

(6.22), gives

SolidMaterials:
D

*2 _

'i

4(62

c, =

_
1 +

D2/4)
strain

thickness

The

*(6' 23)
'

4(6/D)2

is, consequently,

-ln[l

ln^=

171

Processes

Mass-Conserving

(6.24)

4(^)2]

the radial er and circumferential \342\202\254q

At the pole of the segment,
principal
=
are equal and thus
in the plane of the segment
er
Cq.
Volume constancy gives the state of strain:
=

-id)
\342\202\254o

er
(e\342\200\236

the effective

Consequently,

becomes

strain

=
\342\202\254
+ \342\202\254r2
+
eo2)]\"2
[\302\247(\342\202\254,2

If it
work

In

-\302\253,

that the material follows

is given by Eq. (6.3),
of deformation
assumed

is

strains

the

[l

stress-strain

when

(6.25)

4$)2]

e, = 0

a = ce\",
e:

curve
and

the

e2

n + 1

other

For

in this

(6.25)

Eq.

Substituting

geometries,

the same

deformation can be used.

Charge

expression gives

procedure for the

to the

Supplied

Energy/Work

The explosiveis assumed

to contain

determination

of

the

work of

Blank

of energy per unit mass of a

with the mass X is equal to Xa.
charge
blank, corresponding to the solid angle

an amount

(J/kg); that is, the energy contained in a

hits the
Only a portion of this energy
subtends the blank
(0, which
(see
Fig. 6.7b):
0)

- L)

2pji(p

4jtp2

where p is
reduced

\"

the

radius

of the

sphere determining to.

This expression
can

be

to

\"

The energy

*\"

^)

if
E\\

directed

toward

the

blank

\"cos

*'

is consequently

(6'27)

Chapter 6

172

E'L = yd

cos<t>)

this energy, only a portion

of efficiency
is tj,

Of

coefficient

El = 1^(1 The

of

efficiency
the

assumed,

EL <

EL

(i

useful

mechanical

of energy

amount

energy.

cos

the

0.5 and 0.25.

between

varies

If r)max

0.5

is

becomes
(6.29)

<|>)

and (6.29)
-

If

can be expressedas
(6.28)

normally

JXfl(l

useful

<}>)

energy

(6.26)

Equating

tj

useful

*Xfl(l

cos

is convertedinto
the

cos

yields
<t>)

or

X >

a(\\

Substituting

4W
cos

W in

..

(6.30)

<J>)

this expression,

where a is the energy per unit

the explosive(i.e., the charge
In other applications a similar

of the

mass

explosive and

is the

total mass

of

size).
procedure

be followed.

can

SUMMARY

6.5
In

is found:

this

chapter

plastic deformation

the mass-conserving
as primary

processes based on

basic process have

solid

materials

been discussed.The

and
discussion

in the
three basic flow systems for material,
This
means
that
this chapter
and the
(shape),
energy.
and general
described
in Chapter 1 constitute a fundamental
morphological model
of acquiring
a
a primary evaluation of those processes
background,
capable
allowing
desired geometry (i.e., it allows an evaluation of the possibilities and limitations
the geometries,
materials, surfaces, and tolerances).
concerning
the basic principles
It
is important
that the engineer be able to apply
described
by the flow systems in a new and imaginative manner to obtain technical

has

elucidated

the main elements

information

and economicaladvances

and

in production

situations.

Materials:

Solid

Processes

Mass-Reducing

7.1

INTRODUCTION

final

vary

the

original

used in the manufacturing

industry. In
is sufficiently
that the
large
workpiece
it, and the unwanted material is removed

circumscribed by
so on (i.e., as scrap).The chips
geometry, tolerances, and surfaces.
and

desired

the

size of

can be

geometry

as chips,particles,
obtain

are extensively

processes

Mass-reducing

these processes the

or scrap
The

from a few percent to 70-80% of the volume

of the original
been
Most metal components have, at one or another
stage,
removal

material

Many other materials

process.

are necessary to
of scrap may

amount

work

material.

subjected

(e.g., plastics

and

wood)

to a
are

processes.
frequently subjected to material removal
to the rather
material
utilization of the mass-reducing processes,
Owing
poor
the
and increasing
of materials and energy,
costs,
scarcity
anticipated
developmentin the
last decade has been directed toward
an increasing
of
application
and
the
cost
of
machines
die
costs
capital
mass-conserving processes.However,

remain
rather high; consequently, mass-reducingprocesses
are, in many cases,
has value
the most economical, in spite of the high material waste, which
only

as scrap.

Therefore,it

maintain

their

Furthermore,
more

rapidly

the

important

be expected that the

in manufacturing
position

must

of
development
for mass-reducing

material
for

many

removal

years

processes

will

to come.

automated production systems has progressed

processes than for mass-conserving
processes.
173

Chapter 7

174
TABLE
and

7.1
Fundamental

Classification
Methods

of Mass-Reducing

Processes

in

of Basic

Terms

Processes

of Material Removal

Fundamental

removal

Examples of

method

processes

Cutting:

Turning

Milling

Drilling

Grinding, etc.
Water

jet

cutting

Abrasive jet
Sand

machining

blasting,

etc.

Ill
Ultrasonic

...CD...

machining

Blanking
Punching

Shearing

Thermal cutting (melting)

beam

Electron

II

Laser

machining

machining

Electrodischarge

machining

III

Etching

Thermal

II

&

III

Electrochemical

cutting

(combustion)

machining

Materials:

Solid

this

In

the following

chapter

reducing processes,

the
topics are discussed:

geometrical

the

As an

be discussed.

describedand

introduction,

definitions

fundamental

the

basic

given,

after

which

processes

of the processes

principles
the

chip

formation

are
and

are elucidated.

conditions

process

conditions concerningmass-reducing

the fundamental

section

this

will

power.

PROCESSES

MASS-REDUCING
In

of forces and

examples of mass-

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

7.2

of mass-

characteristics

typical

possibilities,

the determination

and

processes,

reducing

the

175

Processes

Mats-Reducing

Basic Principles

7.2.1

can be based on four

fundamental
in Chapter
1, material removal
of
the relationship
between the imprinting
which illustrates
methods,
and the energy supply
Table 7.1).
the information
(see
of information
is carried out by a rigid
In removal method I, the imprinting
medium of transfer
which is moved relative to the workpiece,and the
(the tool),
is thus
the tool.
mechanical
The final
energy is supplied through
geometry
of the tool and the pattern
of the tool
the geometry
of motions
determined
from
discussed

As

removal

and the

The

workpiece.

combined

basic process is

mechanical: actually,

a shearing

action

fracture.

with

method II, the

is carried out by an
of information
is moved
relative to the
characteristics, which
the final
is a result of the properties of the energy
(i.e.,
workpiece
geometry
of motions).
source and the pattern
can
The medium of transfer
be fluid,
or
combinations
thereof. The basic processcan be mechanical,
gaseous,
granular,
thermal, or chemical.
In
removal
method
of information
is established by the
III, the imprinting
motion
of a rigid transfer
of
medium
elements
the
desired
geometry
containing
In removal

energy

source,

having

imprinting

certain

is a
the final
(the negative picture) relative to the workpiece
(i.e.,
geometry
of motions).
The
product of the geometry of the rigid medium and the pattern
is provided
is necessary
to
through a coupling medium, which
energy supply
establish and control the basic process. The state of the medium
can
be fluid,
or combinations
thereof, and the basic process can be
gaseous, granular,
mechanical,

thermal,

or chemical.

method

is established through
of
of the two
result
the
rigid
geometry
geometry
of motions).
media and the pattern
This method is similar
I
to method
the
basic
which
is
and
caused
mechanical
fracture
concerning
process,
by
specifically
is
one
of
two
The
the
media.
supplied primarily
shearing.
energy
through
In removal

two

IV,

media (i.e., the

the

final

imprinting

of information

is a

176

methods

removal

accurate

fairly

providing

geometrical accuracies obtainable for the four

shows that methods I, III, and IV have the potential of
due to the rigid media of transfer.
Method
components,

of the

evaluation

An
fundamental

not have quite the

II does

Removal

method

which

I,

thus has the major industrial

sections; the other removal

7.4. This is alsothe

as blanking,

As mentioned

on removal

desired

geometry,

important processes (included

where two tools work
against

IV)

each

other,
or
(curved

patterns

etc.).

method

material in mass-reducing processes\342\200\224

so that the
tool,
by a rigid cutting

unwanted

the

previously,

based

in Section
method

Definitions

Fundamental

7.2.2

following

examples

separated to produce various

straight edges, closed contours,

the

in

in

shearing,

can be

material

the

that

as

and

processes

cutting

in detail

methodsare describedonly

and

punching,

traditional

is discussed

importance,

supply

energy

the workpiece.

and

the

represents

relies

final geometry

geometrically
medium

for such

case

the

because

unconfined

or granular

a fluid, gaseous,

through

same potential
between a

interaction

the

on

entirely

so

Chapter

I\342\200\224is
removed

and surface
are turning, drilling,

obtained.

are

finish

tolerances,

Examples

of

reaming,
milling,
shaping, planing,
processes
group
and lapping.
broaching, grinding,
honing,
or machining
Most of the cutting
processes are based on a two-dimensional
two
which
relative motions are necessarybetween
surface creation,
means
that
are defined
tool and the work material. Thesemotions
as the primary
the cutting
which
the cutting
and the feed motion, which
determines
motion,
speed,
mainly
this

in

In turning

and

zone

the cutting

provides

in

the

primary

it is

planing

provided

motion is a continuous
of

translation

the

motion

the

of the

the

by

rotation

of the

translation

tool, and

in

table;

planing

of the
in

workpiece,
the

turning

it is an

feed

intermittent

tool.

of the

The cutting

v is

speed

tool relative to

Figures 7.1 through

for turning,
as
expressed

be

is provided

the

the

instantaneous

workpiece

(at

velocity

a selected

of the
point

on

the

edge).

cutting
on,

by

translation

Cutting Speed.
primary

material.

new

with

motion

v = n dn

drilling,

m/min

7.3
and

show

fundamental
definitions, designations, and so
The cutting speed for these processes
can

milling.

(7.1)

to be cut
d the diameter of the workpiece
the cutting speed in m/min,
in rev/min.
Thus v, d, and n
and n the workpiece or spindle rotation
kinematic
or the tool, dependingon the specific
material
may relate to the work
measured
in m/s.
the cutting speed is normally
pattern. In grinding
where
in

v is

meters,

177

Mass-ReducingProcesses

Solid Materials:

Primary

motion

rev/min)

(n,

Feed motion
(axial,

Primary

f, mm/rev)

motion

(n, rev/min)

Feed motion
(radial,

Feed

f, mm/rev)

(mm/rev)

Depth of cut

(mm)

(Back

engagement)

Cutting

speed

(m/min)

Area of

cut

(mm

FIGURE 7.1

Definitions

of turning.

bh.,

irdn

= fa

Chapter 7

178

Feed

motion

motion

Primary

Feed

Depth of cut
(Back

Cutting
Area

speed

of cut

FIGURE 7.2

Definitions

f/2

(mm/rev)

f(=

(mm)

a = d

(m/min)

engagement)

(mm2)

(f,mm/rev)

(n,rev/min)

cutting

per

edge)

= Tidn

A =

b\302\253hj

\342\226\240*\342\200\242'
ed9e

5Per

of drilling.

be mentioned here that

are not
cases
the
basic SI units in many
of machining, but the units used are recognized by ISO
and applied in the relevant standards
for Standardization)
(International
Organization
ISO 1000 describes the Si3685.
and
ISO
for example ISO 229, ISO
It should

used

in

the

field

3002/1,

unit

system.

Solid Materials:

motion(n,rev/min)

Primary

motion

Feed

Feed

(vf,mm/min)

motion

mm/min)

(v,

Feed

speed

Feed

(per

Feed

(per

(for table)

(nun/mi

tooth)

rate

Removal

7.3

n)

of cutter)(mm/rev)

revolution

(nun/tooth)

Cutting speed

FIGURE

179

Mass-ReducingProcesses

(m/min)

3
(cm

Definitions of

/min

milling.

or

mm

3
/min)

\302\253\342\200\242

vf/n

f2
v

V =

vf/nz

TiDn

f
e pv,.

a a

180

Chapter

Feed. The feed motion

and, when
/is provided to the tool or the workpiece
added to the primary motion, leads to a repeated or continuous chip removal and
of the desired machined surface. The
creation
motion
the
may proceed by steps
or continuously.
feed speed vf is defined
as the instantaneous
The
of the
velocity
feed motion relative to the workpiece
on the cutting
(at a selected point
edge).
For turning
and drilling,
the feed/is measured per revolution
of the
(mm/rev)
and shaping / is measuredper stroke
(mm/
workpiece or the tool; for planing
of the tool or the workpiece.
In milling the feed is measured
of
stroke)
per tooth
the cutter/, (mm/tooth);
that
between
is,/z is the displacement of the workpiece
teeth.
the cutting action of two successive
The feed speed vf (mm/min)
of the
table is thereforethe product
of the number of teeth z of the cutter,
the
\342\200\224
of the cutter n, and the feed per tooth
revolutionsper
minute
(see Fig. 7.3).
nzft)
(vf
A plane
the directions of the primary
motion
and the feed motion
containing
since it contains the motions responsiblefor the
is definedas the working
plane,
action.

cutting

In turning
(Fig. 7.1) the depth of cut a
back engagement) is the distancethat the cutting edge engages
of cut
the original
surface of the workpiece. The depth
dimensions
of the workpiece. In turning,
with an axial feed, the

Depth of Cut
(sometimes

called

also

or projectsbelow
determines

the

final

depth of cut
radial

with

(Engagement).

is a

feed

direct measure of the

the depth of cut is equal

piece. In drilling (Fig. 7.2) the depth

For milling, the depth of cut is defined
of the cutter. The
radial
engagement

cutter is called ap

(see

Fig.

decrease in
to

of cut
as

radius

the decrease

of the workpiece and

of workin the length

is equal to the diameterof the

engagement a, and

the working

axial engagement

(back

engagement)

drill.

is the
of the

7.3).

state is the
Chip Thickness. The chip thickness/i, in the undeformed
of the chip measured perpendicular to the cutting
and in a plane
edge
of cutting
to the direction
(see
Figs. 7.1 and 7.2). The chip thickness
perpendicular
the actual chip thicknessh2) is larger than the undeformed
after
(i.e.,
cutting
thickness

chip thickness,which
hl/h2 is always

less

means
than

that

The chip width

Width.
the cutting
measured
along
chip
(see Figs. 7.1 and 7.2).
cutting

b in
edge

Area of Cut. For single-point

the

The area

tool

chip thickness

undeformed

of cut can

ratio or chip thicknessratio

unity.

Chip

product of

the cutting

also be expressed

the undeformed
in a

state is the

width

plane perpendicular to the

of

the

directionof

the area of cut A is the

operations,
and
the
hx
chip width b (i.e., A = hxb).
the
feed
by
/ and the depth of cut a

as follows:
/n=/sinK

and

^ =

(7.2)

Materials:

Solid

where k is
forms with

the

major

the

working

For

Rate.

For milling
-

area of

cut

the removal

rate is given

or mm3/min)

(cm3/min

by

the tool geometry

these general definitions,

cutting

cutting edges are described.Cutting

edges are mentioned later.
The

Edge.

Minor Cutting
a portion is partly
Section

major

part of the

for generating

responsible

cutting

Fig.

(see

cutting

with

tools

geometrically

edge

for which

7.4a,

b, and c).

edge is that cutting edge for which

the surface on the workpiece(see

minor cutting

The

Edge.

with

tools

edge is that

major cutting

the

is discussed.Only

7.2.4).

and the minor

edge

cutting

Tool Face.

Flank.

that

is, the

the major

minor
of

intersection

exist.

flanks

Two

edge;

to the

edge

the

(see

Fig. 7.4a).

face), the slope of

rake, is the

normal

cutting

the

flank

a plane

The major

major cutting
that

edge

is established

which

face over which

the

by

chip

to the

adjacent

major

intersection of the
The minor flank is the flank
adjacent
by the

cutting

edge

is formed

by

the

flank.

The cutting
to the

flank

is formed

7.4b).
is, the minor

face and the minor

perpendicular

flank is the

Fig.

(see

edge;

Cutting-Edge Inclination.
between

r is

Fig. 7.4b).

flows (see

and

and

curve betweenthe

the transition

radius
cutting

(or rake

face

tool

The

edge inclination

cutting

cutting

The corner

Radius.

Corner

working

edge
plane

inclination
and

X.

is

the major

the

angle

cutting

edge

7.4c).

(Fig.

Clearance.
normal

tools the removal rate V

and the cutting speed:

(7.5)

Major Cutting

minor

by

(7.4)

a portion is responsiblefor

face

is given

aeapVf

undefined

the

of cut

single-point

7.3)

(Fig.

well-defined

major

edge

Av = fay

After

the cutting

that

angle

(7.3)

is the product of the

the

plane).

fa

Removal

(i.e.,

angle

cutting-edge

Consequently, the area

A =

181

Processes

Mass-Reducing

from

flanks
clearance

direction

and

The clearanceanglesare necessary

to prevent the major and
The
is the
the
most
rubbing against
workpiece.
important
is
7.4c
which
the
and
between
the
(see Fig.
d),
angle
cutting

the flank.

Chapter 7

182

Corner radius
Major

cutting

edge

FIGURE 7.4

Definitions

of faces

and angles:

(a-c)

for

turning;

(d) for drilling.

the

cutting

major

perpendicularto
Minor

the

the

the minor

angle k is
measured

the

angle

in a

plane

The minor cutting

edge
angle k' is provided to
the
from
workpiece over the whole of
contacting
cutting edge
(see Fig. 7.4c).
edge
Angle.

Edge

Cutting

prevent

The major cutting

edge
plane,
edge and the working
working
plane (see Fig. 7.4c).
Angle.

Edge

Cutting

Major
between

183

Mass-ReducingProcesses

Solid Materials:

minor
cutting

Normal Rake. The normal

to
rake y is the angle between the normal
tool
a
direction
and
the
in
the
measured
to
face,
cutting
plane perpendicular
most
(see Fig. 7.4c and d). The rake is the
cutting edge
important
angle of
the
the
mechanisms
of
when
cutting
process
considering
process.
The
Wedge Angle.
the flank, measured in

The
and

normal

angle

wedge

a plane

(3 is

the angle

perpendicular

to

a,

angle

the

betweenthe
edge

cutting

the
the

face

(see Fig.

7.4c and d).

Y is

the

wedge

(5,

and

the normal

rake

90\302\260:

P +

normal clearance

of the

sum

The

y is equal to

90\302\260

shown positive

in

Fig.

(7.6)

7.4.

tool (a twist

In drilling, the

between these is called the

drill)

two major

has

(see Fig.

angle

point

cutting

and

edges

the angle

7.4d).

included
IncludedAngle.
The
and
angle e is the angle betweenthe major
to the working
and
minor cutting edges measuredin a plane perpendicular
plane
parallel to the direction of the feed motion (see Fig. 7.4c).
Moredetailed
of single-point
descriptions
cutting tool geometry can be found
in ISO 3002/1.

Chip Formation

7.2.3
A

is a

process

cutting

the machine. This

speed,
(cutting
and workpiece,
interaction

here,

[14].

and

it

controlled

feed, and depth

and the rigidity
The

interaction

of
of

are

clamping of the tool and the

that the machine will possess

designated

orthogonal

are: the

cutting

in

of parametersin
is considered,

the necessary

the cutting

and

discussed

rigidity and

geometry),

the

conditions. These

7.5.

Fig.
the

workpieceare not

tool (material
and

rigidity),

with an asterisk

To reduce the number

mechanism,

cut),
the

is assumed

power to carry out the process.

The main factors in chip formation
work material (material, geometry,
factors

the workpiece,
the tool, and
the
selected
conditions
by
cutting
the
of
fluids,
cutting
clamping the tool
machine. Figure 7.5 illustrates
this
among

is influenced

interaction

study

which

of the chip formation

approximates

a plane

strain

Chapter 7

184

tool

Cutting

j^v

material

N^

geometry
Workpiece

fluic

/Cutting

amount

\\tool

of

Cutting

'i

process

and work-

\\

/ 'Cutting

etc.

rigidity
etc.

forces

\\

power

* \\

rigidity

\\

Machine

piece

\\

\\

etc.

1 Clamping

\\

rigidity

type

\\

geometry

V*\342\200\224^A

\\

material

\\*

conditions

cutting

speed

depth of

c\\

etc.

problem. In
width b and

consequently,
undeformed

the

[14].

is perpendicular
the major cutting
to the
edge
the depth of cut a becomesequal
to the chip
chip thickness
hx becomes
equal to the feed/(see

cutting,

orthogonal

plane;

working

factors affecting the cutting process

Main

7.5

FIGURE

jt y/

Fig. 7.6).

Chip FormationMechanism
From
confined
intersection

7.6a

Fig.
to

of

it can

be seen that

the

the

shear

plane AB, extending from

free surfaces of the workpiece

shear

the

deformation

in the

model is

cutting edge to the

chip. In practice, shearing

tool

the

and

shear zone. At low cutting

at
is
practical speeds its thickness
speeds the thickness of the zone is large, but
to that shown in Fig. 7.6b and c and can be approximated
to a plane.
comparable
The angle 4> that the shear plane forms with the machined
surface is called the
is

not

shear

confined

angle.

to the

plane AB,

but

in

a narrow

as built up of thin layers, which slide relative to

can be considered
can be compared to a stack of cards
These
each other (see Fig. 7.6d).
layers
normal
exist between the chip and
toward
tool
face.
the
pressures
High
pushed
in
forces
a chip with a smooth rear
frictional
the tool, causing high
resulting
is not shown in Fig. 7.6d.
surface (see Fig. 7.6band c). The influence of friction
The chip

Solid Materials:Mass-Reducing

FIGURE 7.6
Publishing
Company,

Orthogonal

Inc.,

185

Processes

cutting,

Chap. 3, p.

(c) from

32, Fig.

3-2.

Ref. 15, \302\251

1960,
Reprinted

Addison-Wesley

with permission.

Chapter 7

186

In the
the

cutting

(>

hx)

the properties of the tool and the work material and

and v) can be controlled, but
the chip thickness
(hlt y\302\273
h2

process,

cutting
conditions
is not

controllable. This means that

by the chosen parameters.

directly

described

completely
The

r =

or chip

ratio

cutting

ratio

-hi~

cutting

shear

the

zone increases

shear

The

practically possible,

the power

Hard

by the rake

of the

angley and

process.

cutting

the

inverse

C\302\260S
(4>

AB sin

V)

<n B,
V'*>

<J>

gives

ratio

(also called

angle

<)>. The

in

length

the

smaller

(i.e.,

chip
<)>, the

and the rake angle

which
means that the
h2,

compression)
larger

the force and

power requirements

increase).

a large shear angle will give the best utilization of the supplied
chip compression
(kh = Mr) must thus be kept as small as
since this increases the shear angle and,
decreases
consequently,

Consequently,
power.

of the quality

indicator

be expressed

can

hi

The inverse
determine

used as an

**

this equation

Solving

by

7.6d):

Kh (Fig.

-I

1Kh

is defined

not

(7.7)

The
cutting

thickness ratio, which

is

geometry

cutting

\302\253D

be measured and
shear angle <p

can

the

consumption.

do soft
give lower chip compression values than
increases
the chip compression
cutting forces. Friction
and can be reduced by introducing
suitable
cutting fluids.
The chip compressioncan be reduced further by increasing the cutting
speed
or the feed. These increasesin cutting
limit,
speed and feed have an upper
the tool life decreases, which
have a greater economic effect
however, because
might
than
the resulting
increases in material removal rate. Different
theoretical
materials

but

higher

require

been

models have

are

these

materials

work

developed
not discussed
by

experimentally

measuring

(e.g., see Cook [15])to predict

here. The actual
shear
angle 4>
(7.9)].
[Eq.
h2

shear

the
can

angle,

but

be determined

Types of Chip
the

From

actual

cutting

efficient

appearance
process

cutting

properties of the
cutting

conditions.

than
work

can

of the chip,
be gained,

others.
material,

The
the

much

valuable

information

of
as some types
of
is
determined
chip
type

geometry

of the

cutting

chip

about the
indicate more
mainly

tool,

and

by

the

the

Materials:

Solid

It

at fracture

is,

in

of most
which represents the cutting
cast brass, the stresses aheadof the cutting
shear strain exceeds the shear
the actual
in the direction of the shear plane, so that the

material

the

in

material is removed
finish

chip,

edge.

built-up

The DiscontinuousChip. In this

brittle materials such as cast iron and
edge cause fracture. This is because
strain

continuous

the

types of chip: (1) the

and (3) the continuous

three

differentiate

broadly

chip, (2)

(segmental)

with

chip

possible to

in general,

is,

discontinuous

187

Processes

Mass-Reducing

case,

surface
small segments (see Fig. 7.7a). Fairly
good
as
in
brittle
the
these
materials,
cutting edge
produced

in fairly

general,

tends to smooth the irregularities.

certain
conditions
with more
can also be produced under
Discontinuous
chips
a rough
surface. These conditions may
ductile materials such as steel,causing
rake angles
in the range 0-10\302\260for feeds greater than
be low cutting speeds or low
the rake angle or the cutting
0.2 mm. Increasing
speed normally eliminates the
a discontinuous

of

production

The Continuous Chip.

materials that

chip.
This

most ductile

which represents
to take place without
large rake angles (y -

of chip,

type

the shearing

permit

speeds,
produced by relatively high cutting
low friction between the chip and the tool face (see Fig.
and long chips may be difficult
to handle and,
Continuous

7.7b

tool
the

with a chip

breaker, which
be formed
can
breaker
lengths.
tool or brazing/screwing a chip breakeronto
The Continuous Chip with Built-Up
Edge.
be

must

provided

curls

The chip

short

by

of
is

10-30\302\260), and

c).

consequently, the
breaks the chip into
a stop or a recessin

and

grinding
tool

and

cutting
fracture,

the

face.

the

This type of chip representsthe

cutting
speeds
high friction exists on the tool
face. This high friction causes a thin layer of the underside of the chip to shear
off and adhere to the tool face. The
is similar to the continuous
chip
chip, but it

materials at

of ductile

is produced

by

metal
of built-up
separateand
the material surface, resulting
in a

a tool

and

dersurface

on

(see Fig. 7.8a).The

decreases
The

the

(see Fig.
roughness
in roughness
for low

surface
shown

minimum

At sufficiently
and this upper limit
will

generally

increasing
cutting

edge effectively
angle (see Fig. 7.8b).
influences the size of the

speed

cutting

final

feed,

speeds

example,it

a nose

have

high

cutting

is sometimes

necessary

and, consequently,
do not exhibit the

edge

built-up

speeds.

speed
shift

speed

edge

cutting

machining

free machining
(Fig. 7.8c) will
machining

machined surface
increases the rake angle and

the built-up

a lower
the free

escape

rough

7.8c). Some materials

speeds,

the free

is called

the curve
above

cutting

to the tool face.

on the chip un-

welded

built-up edge

built-up

clearance

the

having

of the

portions

Periodically,

where

low

to the
are

than

a soft

left.

In

chosen,

to approach the

disappears,

normally

speed.
most

material
material. At
A hard

processes,

but for broaching, for

minimum

(Fig.

7.8c).

Chapter 7

188

FIGURE

7.7

Basic

types of chip:

(a) the

discontinuous

chip;

(c) the

(b),

continuous
chip.

it can be said that

built-up edge decreases the tool life. Summarizing,
increased
or
eliminated
be
reduced
can
of
the
through
edge
built-up
development
feeds, and good lubrication.
rake angles, higher cutting
higher
speeds,

The

7.2.4
As

the

Conditions of the CuttingProcess

mentioned

workpiece,and

the main factors in the cutting

previously,
that establishes the interaction
machine
the

process

are the tool, the

the tool and

between

189

Solid Materials: Mau-Reducing Processes

built-up

Deposited

Deposited

metal

built-up

metal

(actual)

Y(tool)

^ Cutting

speed

(c
FIGURE

7.8

geometry,

the cutting

The effect

(c) The

speed.

of a

built-up

built-up edge and,

edge

on (a) the work material;

and (b) the
the surface roughness are functions

consequently,

tool
of

Chapter 7

190
the

(i.e.,

support

machine

The

(i.e., type, size,

accuracy, etc.) have

cutting process.
and that the

in the

corresponds

and

the

the

that

following

to

state)

on

influence

a major

clamping

and

rigidity,

stability,

is assumed

It

maintained

is well

standard

(good)

practice.

workshop
properties

rigidity,

the actual

of

efficiency

machine

The

workpiece.

the

work material,

the

speed, feed, depth

data (cutting

and

the tool

between

interaction

of the

the

of cut).

is governed

workpiece

the tool

material,

tool

geometry,
of tools (material

The selection

the

by

and

the

cutting
and

the requirements of
material,
finish, the desired
(economical)
and power. The cutting
tool life, chip formation, the cutting
forces,
data
(based
on workpiece requirements, machine, and tool material)
must be selected so that
an economical
cutting process is obtained.
the tool (material, geometry, wear, and tool life) and the
In
the
following,
The machines are not described
selection of cutting
data
are discussed.
in detail,
in later sections.
but the basic principlesare illustrated
and

geometry)

depend on

data

cutting

workpiece geometry,

and

tolerances

the

work

surface

The Tool Material

high local stresses, friction, wear, and high
tool material must
combine
the properties
wear
and high hardness
or
resistance at high

involves

formation

Chip
temperatures;

high ductility,
temperatures.The
most important
strength,

highspeed

steels

diamond

of

the

consequently,

tool materials are carbon

or sintered carbides

cemented

(HSS),

tool

steels

high

(CTS),

(CC), ceramics (C). and

(D).

steels of about 0.5-2.0%C when

Tool Steel. Plain carbon
hardened
and strength,
and can be usedas hand tools
have a high hardness
The wear resistance is relatively
for cutting softer materials at low speeds.
low,
not exceed
about 300\302\260C. This material
and cutting-edge
is
temperatures must
been replaced by the
used now only for special purposes and has generally

Carbon

and

tempered

materials

below.

described

in the range

temperatures

edge

are

alloyed
The

500-600\302\260C.

and cobalt:

vanadium,

chromium,

tungsten,

1.4%V.

High-speed steels are

Steel.

High-Speed

for

that permit cuttingtypical

alloying elements
22%W,
4.7%Cr,
example,
steels

it
higher cutting-edge temperatures make
about
100%
to
with
that
used
speed by
compared
possible
cutting
steels. This steel is used quite
carbon tool steels\342\200\224hence the name high-speed
and special-purpose
in twist drills, milling
tools and is. in
cutters,
extensively
fact, the most common tool material.
and

The

0.75%C.

to increase

Sintered Carbide.
powder metallurgical
cobalt

(Co)

permissible

the

Sintered

processes.

as a binder

are

(or

Sintered
hard

and

cemented)

carbides

carbides of tungsten
and are used
brittle

are produced
carbide
in

cutting

(WC)
cast

by

with
iron and

Solid Materials: Mast-Reducing

191

Processes

or used as the main constituent,

the
If titanium carbide (TiC) is added
be
in
these
can
used
and
and
can
be
increased,
cutting
types
strength
toughness
hard materials.
A large variety
carbides exist, and each is generally
of sintered
of different
material
developedto fulfill the requirements of effective cutting

bronze.

groups.

Sintered carbidesare
of

200-500%

about

remembered that

to

taken

and they permit

to high-speed steel

hard,

very

compared

they have a relatively low ductility

avoid high-speed
impacts such as

in cutting

increase

an

tools. But

and,

it must

care must be

consequently,

those that

occur

speeds

be

during

interrupted

cutting operations.

Sintered carbidesare, in general,

used as \"throwaway\"
inserts
supported
holders or shanks. The inserts
may have from three to eight
and when one edge becomes dull, the insert
is indexed to a new
cutting edges,
in special

This

edge.

cutting

is

insert

until

all

years, coated sintered carbide tools

higher
cutting speeds and consequently
of about 200% are obtainable
increases

both

allowing

rate

Production

sintered carbides.

on, can

are used,

edges

recent

During

Titanium

decades.

titanium

carbide,

when

a new

Ceramictool

materials

The material

most frequently

the

been

have

developed,
temperatures.
to conventional

higher
compared

nitride,

materials to prolong

as coating

used

be

Ceramics.
couple of

continues

procedure

substituted.

life

aluminum oxide, and

of the tool.

been developed within

the last
is aluminum
used
is
oxide, which
cuts the cutting speeds obtainableare

have

sintered. For light finishing

times larger than the cutting speeds for sintered carbides.They
used mainly where close tolerancesand
surface
finish are required.
high
ceramicsare produced
as throwaway
inserts or tips.
and
pressed
two to three

a very

unwanted

be reduced
cutting

high surface

by

fluid are

Reduction

effects of high

Flushing
Some other
at low

improved
cutting

is required

tool materials
as well

and

is used

mainly

as close tolerances.

in

fluids

of

are on

wear (increasedtool

life)

edge
surface

against

corrosion

chips

tendency
advantages are decreased
cutting speeds, the possibility

component

can

general:

of friction and

away

and high cutting-edge temperatures

cutting fluids. The purposesof introducing

friction

suitable

introducing

of the cutting
Cooling
Protection
of the new

tool

hardest of all

quality

are

The

Fluids

Cutting

The

is the

Diamond

Diamond.

where

so

surface

finish,

the market, and

to produce
of

increasing

a built-up
the cutting

accuracy, and so on. A

among

the

factors

wide

affecting

edge on the
speed, and

variety

of

the selection

are

Chapter7

192
work

the

and
in

the particular process, the propertiesof

in use and storage, and whether
stability

material,
its

lubricant,

way affect the

any

of

health

the operating

fluid as coolant
nontoxic or will

the
it is

personnel.

The Tool Geometry

work

the

and

tool geometry depends on the properties of the tool

material, the most important
parameters
being the normal
wedge
angle p\\ the normal clearance angle a, and the corner

suitable

most

The
material

rake angle Y,

the

r.

radius

rake angle y affectsthe ability of the tool to shear the work

the chip. It can be positive or negative. Positiverake angles
lead
to smaller-cutting forces, and consequentlysmaller
of the workdeflections
normal

The

form

and

material

piece, toolholder,and
reduced as well
the hardness,
range 0-30\302\260,
milling, drilling,

y- For high-speed
on the type of tool

smaller

the

depending
etc.)

often

In general, the

angle

and

heat,

(3

depends

surface

good

work
strength

chosen in the range

Inserts for different

face

milling,

\342\200\224
8\302\260-25\302\260,
depending

work

values of y;

standard

power consumption is reducedby

the

in

on

to

the

quality,

range

materials.

the strength of the

of Y and a.

determines

The clearance a mainly

workpiece. To reduce the
provide

end

on

materials
and
~ 6\302\260
=
or y =

tool-

1% for

each

+6\302\260

approximately

in Y-

The wedge

values

normally

planing,

(turning,

used.

1\302\260
increase

conduct

hard

material.

the work

and

steels, y is

the tool is
work
tools: the higher
chosen
in the
of

strength

heat. In machining
even
for
and
diamond
carbide
small,
negative
to conduct

For carbide tools,y is normally

the type of tool and work material.
holders can be suppliedwith several
are

large, as the

be too

not

must

its capacity

as

be

Y must

materials,

machine.

rake angle

normal

The

the

affects

the

tool life and

of the

deflections

larger a values

5-10\302\260 are

tool

and

its capacity to

values

normal,

For carbides, the

surface

are required. For

the smaller
values

the

quality

of the

tool and the workpiece and to

are

slightly

steel

high-speed

values being for

lower

the

to give

harder

added

tool.

Other important
include
the major cutting-edge inclination
X, which
angles
the direction of chip flow. The major cutting-edge angle k characterizes
the rigidity
the
of tool and directly influences the chip thickness.The higher
type
of the support,
the smaller the values of k that
and vice versa.
are applicable,
workThe angle k is often chosen in the range 20-60\302\260. For small-diameter
=
in
the
k
9
is
used.
value
pieces
turning,
r has a major
of the workThe
radius
ufluence
on the surface finish
corner
r
decreases
the
wear
rate
and
better
it is
surfaces;
piece. Increasing
provides
often chosen
in the range 0.5-3 mm.
can be supplied with
of carbides
Inserts
affects

Materials:

Solid

Mats-Reducing

0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2,1.6,and

r =

geometry,
Tool

the

cutting

process, the tool

in dimensional

loss

causing

satisfactorily,

For further

mm.

2.4

[16-18] and ISO

on

information

tool

standards.

Tool Life

and

Wear

During

literature

the

see

193

Processes

wearsand

fails

eventually

to perform

and power
accuracy, increasedroughness
wear
The
rate
cutting
edge.
dependson

and even breakageof the

on the cutting speed, the
which depends mainly
hardness
temperature,
of the work material, the tool
and condition
and type of tool material, type
of the cut, and so on.
the dimensions
geometry,
wear
is caused by the workpiece and the chip rubbing
Tool
the tool
against
abrasive
surfaces. The wear from the workpiece
the
contact
between
the
(i.e.,
wear and is measured by the
tool and the machined surface)is called the flank
VB (see Pig. 7.9a). The wear from
width
of the land
the chip
(i.e., abrasive
contact betweenthe tool face and the chip that slides over it) is called crater
and is measured by the crater depth KT and the crater width
wear
or cratering
KB (see Fig. 7.9b).
consumption,
the

tool

The

tool

may

wear of the

flank

determined

from

tool must

to overheating,
chipping of the cutting
edge,
most tools fail due to gradual
cracking. In general,
or crater
type. When the wear has reacheda specifiedamount,
the workpiece requirements and the cutting
the
performance,

also

fail

due

and thermal

plasticdeformation,

be

reground

or

changed.

FIGURE 7.9 Tool wear: (a) flank wear

(KT, depth; and KB, width of crater).

(VB,

width of

wear

land)

and

(b)

crater

wear

Chapter 7

194

The

*^max)-

value

cutting speeds

in

may be

(VBtmx or a

land

wear

flank

criteria

failure

or

Wear

the

used as

of materials that
the crater wear in

machining

sometimes necessaryto

include

crater wear

a wear criterion,
the

but

continuous

form

width of

of the

value

of the

value

is predominantly

VBmax

the

defined as a maximum
maximum

(KTmax,

at high

it is

chips,

criteria.

The way in which the flank wear varies with time is very important since it
basis for the determination of the optimal
(economical)
cutting conditions.
VB is plotted against
If the flank
wear
the cutting
time T at different
cutting
7.10a are obtained for fixed
speeds (v, through
v5) the curves shown in Fig.
of cut, and corner radius. Using the flank
values of tool
wear
geometry, feed, depth
is the

VB =

criterion

tool

decreasing

life

VBfmK,

called the Tool life T corresponding

tool life against cutting
speed
the practical range of cutting
the

by

Taylor

vT~vk =

be seen

it can

until tool failure.

that

The

time

to the

VB

(see

yield
is

is obtained

VBmax

speed v. A

cutting
shows an approximate

usually
speeds

until

speeds

cutting

increasing

plot of

logarithmic
straight

line

within

Fig. 7.10b). This line can be expressed

equation

(7.10)

v is the cutting speed in m/min,

T the tool life in minutes,
k a material
where
the slope of the tool-life curve, and C is a constant.
constant that defines
If a certain tool life is desired, the permissible maximum
is
cutting
speed
found from the graph. For single-pointtools Eq. (7.10)is influenced
by the feed

r, the major cutting-edge

/, the corner radius
angle k, and the depth of cut a.
the feed will
Figure 7.10c showsthat to obtain a certain tool life, increasing
The speed, and to a lesser extent
the
necessitate a reduction of cutting
speed.
of the corner radius,
feed, have a major influenceon the tool life, and the effect
and the depth of cut can be introduced
as
the major cutting-edgeangle,
7.
corrections to the cutting
lOd, e, and/. Thecorrections
speed determined from Fig.
it is
small and, consequently, as a first approximation,
are
relatively
generally
them.
to
neglect
acceptable
other
factors
(strain
Among
affecting the tool life are surfaceeffects
and the type and condition of the tool material.
of
the
work
material
hardening,etc.)
data for Eq.
the steel manufacturers
different
For
steels,
normally
provide
with
tables
for
other
various
correction
for
feeds
(7.10)
influencing
together
factors

[18].

experimental

Today,
work

the

important

in

equipment

[17].

are continuously
research institutions
carrying out
with
the industry
accurate
which is very
information,
effective utilization of modern, high-capital-cost
production

several

to supply

The Choice of Cutting

We shall now discuss how
depth of cut)

can be made.

Data
the
The

choice
criterion

of cutting data (cutting

normally used is cost

speed,

feed,

and

(economical

cut-

Materials:

Solid

195

Processes

Mass-Reducing

VB

ilium

(Vl>v2>v3>v4>v5)

'5

\302\273

A 5

\\*

\\z

\\2

\\ !

LLLU

T2

T,

time

Cutting
(

p.

T3

Cutting

T(min)

speed v(m/mln)
(log scale)

( b)

a )

f4 *3<2<1

1.0

V3V2V1

v4

Cutting

speed

Corner

v(m/min)
(

radius

c )

r(mm)

d)

1.0

90

30\302\260

Major

cutting

of

Depth

edge angle

cut

(nun)

( f )

FIGURE

7.10

speeds; (b) the

cutting
showing

speed at
the

(a) Width of
life as a

tool

different

influence

function

feeds;

of corner

as a function

wear

flank

of cutting

(d), (e), and

radius,

major

of cutting

speed; (c)

(f) corrections
cutting-edge

time

the

to

tool

at various cutting
life as

the cutting

angle,

function

speed, part

and depth of cut.

of

(c),

Chapter 7

196

production rate determinedby the power available can

the same cutting
data
as the criterion of cost.
data
based
on
an
The
are
economical
economical
tool life Te
cutting
determined by
considerations.
This can be expressedas the
minimum-cost
maximum of metal
removed per unit cost. The metal removed can be expressed
as
but maximum

data),

ting

also be used and

[seeEq.
Q

where

not give

does

(7.3)]

= AvT

area of cut,

is the

can be written

The cost
E =

(7.11)

MT +

Mtct

the

AvT
\302\243^i

MT

By substituting
to

respect

T< =

+ Mtct
for v

CTVk
7\",

the

~(1 +

life.

tool

the

(7.12)

c,

where M is the machine and operationrate, T

time, and c, the tool cost (including
regrinding).
is
The metal removed per unit
cost
*\302\243
=
=
[! = Q

and T

speed,

cutting

as

economical

life,

the

tcl

tool

changing

CI

+ c,
[the Taylor equation, (7.10)] and
tool life Te is found:

13)
with

differentiating

(714)

'\")

k)(M

k is often

the tool

\342\200\2242
to \342\200\2247.

in the
range
determination

lead to the desired cutting

different combinations of cutting
speed
tool life Te. The combination yielding
and feed can give any desired
the highest
removal rate (V = fav cm3/min)
is then chosen.
If the removal
rate V is plotted
to the maximum
speed
against the feed, the feed and cutting
corresponding
removal
rate
for the desired Te can be determined
(see
Fig. 7.11a). The subscript
e for/and v refers to the economical tool life. Another
is shown in Fig.
approach
7.1 lb, where
the cutting
scale
the feed
speed is plotted on a logarithmic
against
lines
are drawn, each
for a desired tool life Te. In the diagram straight
rate
removal rate (V,, V2, . . . ). The point where a removal
representing a constant
line is tangential to the v,, /, curve determines the economical data.
This
method
cannot
always be applied, because of low power available,
surface
and so on. If
insufficient
of the tool and its support,
requirements,
rigidity
it is generally preferable to reduce the
the power
available is the limiting
factor,
The

data.

cutting

From

Fig. 7.10

it

can

not

automatically

be seen that

speed.

The machining

cuts and a finishing

determined

does

of Te

from

the required

of a component
cut.

economical

surfacequality

is often

carried

cutting data for the

and the
considerations,

The

(see

pages

202-203).

out

in

or more

one

roughing

cuts

finishing

cut

roughing

are

usually
is determined

by

Solid Materials:

Feed

of feed

function

To show
suggested

(a) The

7.11

FIGURE

removal rate
to the

general

trends,

as a

Klog)

f (nun/rev)

Feed

(mm/rev)

corresponding

the

197

Mass-ReducingProcesses

function of feed and

tool life T,.

(b)

the cutting

speed as a

economical

typical values of cutting

speed

feed are

and

next.

m/min). For high-speed-steeltools, the cutting speeds for

machining steel are in the range 20-50 m/min, depending on the feed and the
for machining steel are in
desired tool life. For carbides, the cutting
speeds
of the carbides,
the feed,
80-350 m/min, depending on the quality
the range
and the desired tool life.
Speed (v

Cutting

For most processes the feed is below 1.0 mm.

finish machining
and the higher in rough
in single-point
variations
exist
from
to
process process;for example,
machining.
Large
0.01-0.1
feed
be
0.1-1
in
the
mm, and in
mm, milling
operations
might
mm.
less
than
0.01
grinding

Feed if

The lower

The

mm/rev,

mm/tooth).

values

are used in

Work

Material

is to be established, the interaction

machining
operation
As
be appreciated.
the material, and the process must
the
that
fulfills
mentioned previously, it is not sufficient to choose a material
its technological
properties describing the
required functional
properties;
In
also
be considered.
of the material for a particular process must
suitability
must possess a certain ductility
(formmass-conserving processes, the material
When

among

ability),
machining

an economical

the geometry,

and in mass-reducing processes, it

to take place in a reasonable way.

must
The

have

properties

technological

permitting
de-

properties

Chapter 7

198

scribing the
called

its

of a

suitability

material for

machining

are

processes

cannot be completely described by a single

Machinability
a
on
can
depends
complex combination of properties which

The term machinability

machining process in detail.
how the material performs when
is taking place.
cutting
can be measured
the
wear
on
the
the
surfacequality
tool,
by

general,
performance
product,

number, as it
found only

be

the

studying

the

collectively

machinability.

and the types of chip produced.In

forces,

cutting

is considered the most

can be defined as the

most

describes,
This
of

by
in

the

tool wear

cases,

means that a machinability

index
a
tool
life.
speed
cutting
giving
specified
Experiments
show that machinability
defined
this way is different
in turning, drilling,
milling,
and so on, and
means
must
that a machinability index
be ascribed for a
particularprocess.
When a component is to be machined by several
the
processes,
index
to the process most used is chosen.
machinability
corresponding
which

factor,

important

are carried out under

standardized
conditions
(i.e.,
material, tool geometry, feed, and depth of cut). The tool
the machinability
life for which
index is quoted is generally
30 min (i.e.,
T30)
and the wear criterion is VBmmx = 0.30 mm (see ISO Standard 3685).
The
of a material greatly
the production
influences
costs for a
machinability
Poor machinability
results in high costs, and vice versa. In
component.
given
Table
7.2 the machinability for the different
material
is expressed as the
groups
when
with
removal rate per millimeter
of
cut
carbides
[19]. The
depth
turning
tests

Machinability

specified

of tool

quality

table can be usedonly

The
hardness,

of

machinability

and

composition,

TABLE 7.2

Removal

Depth of

for

When

as

values must be

accurate

Cut

Rate

Different

a general

obtainedfor

per Millimeter
Groups of Materials

rate

per mm depth
(mm2/min)

Constructional

steel

Toolsteel (annealed)

47,000-63,000
17,000-43,000

Cast steel

20,000-27,000

iron

13,000-23,000

50,000-63,000

Copper alloys

Brasses

From

of cut

15,000-37,000

steel

Stainless

particular

60,000-70,000
Ref.

19.

in

situations

actual

material.

material is affected primarily

heat treatment. For most steel materials,

with Carbides

Turning

Material

Source:

the

a particular

Removal

Cast

comparative guideline;

by
the

its
hardness

199

Mats-Reducing Processes

Materials:

Solid

200

150

100

50
U

FIGURE
tempered

7.12
alloyed

The influence of
steel (0.35%C)

in

350

325

300

275

250

hardness

turning

on

HB

the machinability

with carbides

of

hardened

and

[18].

170 to
A hardness range of HB from
has a major influenceon the machinability.
formation
tend to lead to built-up
200 is generally optimal. Low hardnesses
edge
tool wear, as
above HB = 200 lead to increased
hardnesses
at low speeds. High
as the cutting speed for a tool
seen in Fig. 7.12, which gives the machinability
steel.
life
of 30 min (730) for hardened and temperedalloyed
tool
life when machining
it is preferable to accept a lower
Sometimes,
and
hard
materials
rehardening
(HB from 250 to 330) instead of annealing
the material.
on the
The compositionof the work material has a direct influence
the strength properties are affected. It has been found that some
machinability since
affect
the mechanical
that do not significantly
elements
properties have a
alloying
0.2% sulfur
on the machinability. The addition
effect
favorable
of, for example,
In some cases, however,
will increase
the machinability of steel significantly.
a
for example,
of high-temperature strength,
of functional
because
requirements
such as
is acceptable. Other alloying
of only 0.01-0.05%
elements,
sulfur content
on the
influence
and bismuth, have a similar
selenium,
lead, tellurium,
difficult
to produce.
are more
is that these materials
machinability, but the disadvantage
on
influence
can
have
a
material
of the work
The heat treatment
significant
better
has
a
structure
its machinability. A coarse-grained
machinability
generally
and cementite has
of pearlite
than does a fine-grained structure. The distribution
be mentioned,
here. It should
not be discussed
an
too, but this will
influence,
a martensitic
with
carbon steels (>0.35%C)
however, that hardened,
plain
hard constituents, scale,
to machine.
structure are very difficult
Inclusions,
as the abrasive
so on, have a deteriorating effecton the machinability,
oxides, and

wear on the

cutting

tool

is increased.

Chapter 7

200

7.13 shows

groups.

The

materials\342\200\224in
approximately as

high

The

Surface

In a

machining

is again defined

the figure

From

spite

their

of

it

higher

can

as the

be seen that

hardness\342\200\224have

softer materials in turning

in a poorer machinability.
results

as the

hardness

increased

definitions

groups and

of hardness for

a function

as

machinability

machinability

tool life of 30 min.

that a

for different material

m/min)
(vr\342\200\2363o

[18].

Figure
material

The machinability

7.13

FIGURE
processes

and

different

cutting
speed giving a
hardened and tempered
machinabilities

milling.

In drilling, an

Quality
process,

a specific

surface of satisfactory
concerning

quality

the description

of the surface possibilitiesof

A machined surface always
looks like a mountain
surface

geometry is produced,which
be produced. In this section

must

of a surfaceare given,
different

the

deviates

enabling

processes.
from the theoretical

also

implies

a few
an evaluation

surface. The real

(see Fig. 7.14).

in specifying a surfaceare waviness,
lay, and
from
surface
an ideal
and of
Waviness is the recurrent deviations
roughness.
for
than
0.1
Such
deviations
mm,
example).
(greater
relatively
wavelength
large
of
the
or
deflections
vibration,
tool, workpiece,
machine,
generally result from

The most important

terms

landscape

used

Materials:

Solid

or warping,
with as

and
little

is shown

feed as well

in

predominant

Fig.

the

as

for

the

Rmax

of the
and

and

value

surface

few

but

definitions,

more detailed

will be described
the arithmetical mean

by

the

maximum

value Ra. The

the

height

RmAX

is

within
the sampling length. The
peak-to-valley height
from the mean line
deviations
Ra is the average of the numerical

within

For surfaces with

Ra as follows:

relation

height of

maximum

the sample
triangular

length

(see

irregularities,

7.14).
a relationship

Fig.

exists betweenRmax

(7.15)

Ra^-J1
The

descriptions can be

468.

roughness

maximum

arithmetical
mean

conditions.

machining
in ISO/R

example,

Here the
irregularities

the

7.14.

Figure 7.14 gives a

found,

tool and the workpieceshould

be held rigidly
in order to minimize waviness.The lay is the
surface
pattern
produced by feed marks.
deviations,
finely
spaced irregularities or irregular
The roughness is affected by the tool shape and the

as possible

Roughness refers to
and

average, ISO/R468.

that the

means

overhang

direction of the

201

Processes

of roughness height and arithmetic

Definitions

7.14

FIGURE

Mast-Reducing

can

be used for

approximate calculations.

Chapter7

202

surface

roughness;

determine

angles

edge

The
geometry
corner

Turning: (a) the corner

(b) the tool nose radius

7.15

FIGURE

of
roughness
and the feed.
r of

radius

the surface

R
**max

is so

roughness.

surfaceis dependent

a machined

primarily

In
process.
Figure 7. IS showsa turning
the tool and the feed/determine the surface

Fig. 7.15b the roughnessis determined

angles. From

the too! and the feed determine the

small that the major and minor cutting-

r of

radius

Fig.

7.15a,

by the major

tool
7.15a
the
Fig.
on the

roughness,

we have

~t o_

By using the

and in

and the minor cutting-edge

(7.16)

approximate relationship

given

by

Eq.

(7.15),

Ra is

found

to

be

f2
(7.17)

/?\342\200\236-

32r

Considering

the

situation

shown

in Fig.

7.15b, the calculation for RmAX

leads

to

Materials:

Solid

COt K +

from Eqs.

COt

(7.18)

K'

(7.15) and (7.18), Ra

can

be found:

Rn

203

\342\200\224

\"mu

And

Mast-Reducing Processes

k +

4(cot

(7.19)

cot k')

it can be seen that decreasing

the feed gives a lower
corner radius r gives a low roughness.
on these purely
considerations
are the effects of
Superimposed
geometrical
the
cutting
process,
including the possible existenceof a built-up
edge on the
tool. A built-up
surface.
Since the tendency to produce
edge results in a rough
a built-up
is decreased
for increasing cutting
it might be expected
edge
speeds,
that
the surface
decreases
roughness
by
increasing
speed, and this is
cutting
the case.
indeed
an effective cutting
lubricant
Furthermore,
can reduce the surface
the built-up edge.
roughness because it reduces
The tool material
has some
and ceramics and diamonds give the
influence,
these

From

roughness value.

equations
A large

best surfaces.

it can

Summarizing,
surface

quality

improves)

be concluded that
when the

and the major cutting-edgeangle

reduced.

can

Furthermore,

improve
The

milling
revolution.

increasing

roughness

decreases

(i.e.,

the

the surface quality.

preceding

related

description

where the
operation
A calculation
gives

FIGURE 7.16

the

feed is decreased,the nose radius is increased,

k and the minor cutting-edge
angle k' are
and
effective
lubricants
cutting speeds
cutting

Roughness

only

diameter of the

height

in face

milling.

to

turning.
Figure
is D and the

cutter

7.16 shows
feed

is/per

a face

204

Chapter

TABLE 7.3

Typical

(Arithmetical

Mean

for

Ra)

Processes

Different

Process

Roughness (Ra) (u.m)

3-12

TUrning

3-12
3-25

Planing

Drilling

1-10

Milling

0.25-3

Grinding

Kmax

workpiece.As
{Ra) for

7.3

(7.20)

4\302\243

is based on the fact

calculation

The

Values

Roughness
Value

illustrative

different

one tooth is responsible for the

only
Table 7.3 gives typical
values
roughness
to normal workshop practice.
corresponding
that

information,

processes

POSSIBILITIES

GEOMETRICAL

of the geometrical possibilitiesof a process must, as discussed in

based on the surface creation principle
(TF,
ODF, TDF, FF), the
for the work material and the tool, and the fundamental
motions
of the particular
removal method (energy,medium
of transfer,
basic

An evaluation

1, be

Chapter
of

pattern
characteristics

method
process). In this section only mass-reducing processes based on removal
I are discussed (i.e., the traditional
of
processes).
machining
Examples
on removal methods II, III, and IV are given in Section 7.4. An
processes
based
of the

evaluation

geometrical

For the machining

1.

2.

(removal

processes

be classified

may

possibilities can

be carried

out

the

considering

factors.

above-mentioned

into

two

major

method

I), the tools

(mediaof

transfer)

groups:

Tools with well-defined

edge geometry
a. Single-point tools (one cutting
edge)
b.
tools (more than one cutting edge)
Multipoint
Tools with undefined
edge geometry
(multipoint random-edge-geometry

tools)

a. Grinding

tools

was given in Section 7.2.2. Tools with

to
Section 7.2.2 are, in general,
classified
edges according

of

A description
defined

tools

cutting
with

one

tools,

milling cutters,

etc.),

edges

cutting edge (turning,

shaping
planing,
and tools with more than one major cutting
that is, multipoint
tools.

major

single-point

cutting

tools, etc.),
edge

(drills,

that

well-

as
is,

Solid

Materials:

Mass-Reducing

7.17

Examples of primary
(-*).

FIGURE

or

motions (^>), feedmotions

In tools with
random-edge
multipoint
is not valid. Consideringa grinding
abrasive particles bonded
consists of many

(clays/ceramics, silicateof
shape, the

dull

Hie

and positioning

shellac,

the description in Section

wheel) which
bonding material
rubber, resins, etc.) in the desired tool
geometry,
tool

(or grinding
togetherby a suitable

or be broken out,

geometries. This occurseither

dressing process.
of tools are described
types

exposingnew

during

the machining

and

sharp

process

a special
different

The surface
Total

soda,

will fracture

particles

edges with random

during

(->),

motions

adjustment

7.2.2

or

205

Processes

forming

the

having

desired

component

(TF)

One-dimensional

forming (ODF)

later

in

this

section.

geometry may be

producedby

Chapter7

206
Two-dimensional

forming

Free forming

(TDF)

(FF)

The applicablesurface
characteristics of the

creation
removal

principle
depends on the
Most machining
method.

tool

geometry

and the

processes are basedon

but some are basedon one-dimensional

or structure
of the tool has been chosen, the
of motions
for the tool and the work material
must be established. It
pattern
must
be emphasized
here that the design of a process has an iterative
character;
that is, the tool geometry, the pattern
of motions,
and so on, to produce the
desired
must be selected iteratively.
geometry
In the machining
exist: (1) the
processes, three types or categoriesof motions
or adjustment
(3) the positioning
primary motion, (2) the feed motions,
motions.
If the primary
the feed motion
motion is a rotation,
is continuous, and if
the feed motion
is discontinuous. The positioning
the primary motion is linear,
or adjustment
and the tool to be brought
motions enable the workpiece
into
the
the
this
means
correct positions for
setting the depth of cut.
cutting
process;
on the type of machine, one or more
of the positioning
movements are
Depending
and
feed
into
the
motions.
integrated
primary
7.17
shows
Figure
examples of the three types of motions without
relating
them to machinery, which
is done
later. The types of motions
are:
available
two-dimensional

(TDF),
the geometry

forming

When

forming (ODF).

Translations

Rotations

Combinations of translations

and

rotations

Stationary

Considering the primary and feed motions, the

are possible:

Pattern

of motions

Tool

Workpiece

Every one
yielding

of the

a total

Primary

Feed

Primary

Feed

T/R

T/R

T/R

T/R

four

number

in this table has four

of possible patterns of 44 =

columns

combinations

general

following

different

256.

of motion,
a few of these

types

Quite

SolidMaterials:

are impractical, reducing the

imaginative
possibilities
of new and

edge geometry,

tools are

discussedseparately

7.3.1

Single-Point
are

tools

Single-point

in

the

a portion

and
surface

multipoint

geometry

random-edge

multipoint

sections.

Cutting Tools
characterized

out by a
of the minor

is carried

and

following

portion
cutting

major
cutting edge
ends in a corner which

one

by

defined geometry. The major cutting

the transition
curve to the minor cutting
process

allows

the

tools,

with single-point

in cutting

possibilities

well-defined

with

principles,enhancing

favorable applications.

The geometrical
tools

the table

but generally

somewhat,

number

of the motion

utilization

an

for

207

Processes

Mass-Reducing

edge

edge

The

edge.

of the

major portion

major cutting

edge,

well-

constitutes

of the cutting
the corner

while

a major influence on

have

with

the

final

roughness.

contacts
edge of a single-pointtool
normally
only a short line on the
creation
must be based on twosurface
desired surface and, consequently,
dimensional forming.
7.4 shows examples of the
For single-point
tools, the diagram in Table
and the
patterns of motions
of the workpiece and tool, the geometrical
possibilities,
of
is
the
motions
selected
from
machines.
The
processing
practical
pattern
of combined
motions in the table discussedabove.
These
of
applications
patterns
or
tools.
It
machines
machine
motions are providedby the particular
processing
should
be remembered
that the machines possesspositioning
or adjustment
The

motions

to the

addition

in

and size
Table

possibilities

of

the

motions

7.18 and

with

single-point
on important industrial

machining

based

principles

Figures

functional

and

the

defining

of the machined components.

7.4
must not be considered a complete

of all

description

tools,

but

limits

only

as an

of

geometry

the practical
illustration of

examples.

7.19 show schematicallythe

main

elements

and the

basic

for planers and shapers. Thesemotions

and the many possible
pattern
of
or
the
tools
describe
the
of
cutting
provide
shapes
geometricalpossibilities
the processes.
The tools can be of a wide variety of shapes, restrictedonly by the
selection of the correct
material
and sufficient
angles and faces for the particular
of
the
tool
of
the
and
and
machine
to
power
strength
rigidity
producea
of motions

satisfactory

component.

and planing
machines is due to the fact
appearance of shaping
for
of
small parts, whereas
the
shaping
machining
relatively
It
is
is
the
of
intended
for
planing
impractical to build
machining
large parts.
with
ram
to machine
strokes
and
table
motions
multiple
shapers
enough
long

The

different

that

large parts.

is intended

7.4

TABLE

Pattern

Pattern

of Motions,

Geometrical

and

Possibilities,

Machine

Tools for

Tools

Single-Point

of motion*

Workpiece

Tool
Processing

machine
Primary

Feed

Primary

Feed

Cutting

with single-point

toolsh

(machine tool)

Chisel (hand)
(T)

Planer

WtMitfrnL

Shaper Slotter

Horizontal

boring

machine

Horizontal

boring
machine

Lathe

Boring

mill

\"R,

h4>.

rotation;
primary

T. translation.
motion;

-->.

feed motion;

-+.

adjustment

motion.

Crossrall

Table

Ways

(reciprocating
-

FIGURE

7.18

Housing

Planer.

Ram

(reciprocating)

Tool slide

Column

Clapper box
with

tool

post

.Crossrall

Table

FIGURE

7.19

Shaper.

209

210

Chapter7

The

in Table

examples

appropriate machine

motions

tool,

of the

horizontal

and

the

carried

out

on a

tool a

horizontal

Table

where the

7.4,

feed

translatory

lathe, and the

in

machine

boring

The last examplein

motion

7.4, where a

are discussed later

pattern

(Fig.

boring

section

machine

as well

is the

as the

pattern

of

7.27).

workpiece has a rotary

represents turning.
motions
is shown in Fig.

motion,
of

this

primary
Turning

is

7.20.

vertical boring mill, the pattern of

(Fig. 7.20) are the most frequently
used machines in industry,
and they are available in a wide range of sizes. A
of typical turning tools is shown
selection
in Fig.
7.22. Cutting takes place
on
the
side of right-hand,
and
tools.
For round-nose,
left-hand,
facing
and threading
takes
near
the corner of the
cutoff, finishing,
tools, cutting
place
tool.
The tool materials are most often carbides (including
the
coated
ones)
and ceramics.
The pattern
of motions
of the tools (Fig. 7.22)
(Fig. 7.20) and the geometry
a
tremendous
of
yield
range
geometrical capabilitiesfor the turning process. A
transverse adjustment
motion
of the tailstock permits tapers to be turned.
Short
can
be
the compound
rest the desired angle,
tapers
producedby swiveling
locking it, and
feeding the rest manually.
A special

motion

for

FIGURE

variant

of

which

is shown

7.20

Lathe.

the
in

lathe is the

Fig.

7.21.

Lathes

Mass-ReducingProcesses

Solid Materials:

Housing

Vertical

slide

Vertical

tool

head

Crossrail

/
HI

Side tool
head

Carriage
Rotating

table

3L
Cross

Bed

FIGURE 7.21

Vertical

HGURE 7.22

Examples

boring

mill.

of typical

turning tools.

slide

Chapter 7

212

If heavy

and

vertical

are to be machined,the
can
boring mill, which

been developed (see Fig. 7.21).

of special machines utilizing
range

wide

available, some permitting

as a

tools.
cutting
is beyond
the scope of this
and magazines be studied

all the different types of machinery

that journals
recommended
it is strongly
around workshops taken, to acquirebroad

knowledge

of the

are

tools

cutting

single-point

with several

simultaneous

description
of

machine

is

lathe

horizontal

be considered

has

lathe,

the vertical

Therefore,

impractical.

workpieces

large

but

book,
and

tours

various types of

tools.

7.3.2
Multipoint
geometry.

cutting
These

tools
edges

a wide spectrum of tool

FIGURE

of
arrangement

Tools

Cutting

Multipoint

7.23
Examples
the cutting edges

have more
can be
or

than

arranged

cutter

shapes

of multipoint
allows

the

and saw blades;(b) broaching

tools;
cutters, and so on.
metal-slitting

one

major
different

in

(see Fig.

tools

illustrating

edge of

cutting

geometrical

well-defined

patterns

giving

7.23).

how

the geometrical

shapes:
design of a wide spectrum of cutter
(c) twist drills; (d) end mills; (e) plain milling

(a) files
cutters,

213

Solid Materials: Mass-ReducingProcesses

If

the

are arranged after

edges

cutting

blades, and so on, are obtained

Fig.

(see

each other

in

a straight

line, files, saw

The tool angles

7.23a).

must

be

of materials.
The feed is
particular work material or group
provided to the work
material or to the tool.
When
line, inclined at a certain angle
edges are arranged in a straight
cutting
farther
from the line
to the primary
motion (i.e., successiveedgesprotruding
the previous
than
ones), which means that the feed is built into the tool, the tool
to the

appropriate

the feed (per tooth) varies from

is a broaching tool (seeFig.7.23b).In practice,
0. IS mm for roughing
teeth
to 0.02 for finishing
teeth.
The feed depends
on several factors: for example,
the strength of the teeth, rubbing
tendencies,
and the work material.
The major cutting edges can be arranged at the end of a circular
inclined
bar,
at a certain angle to the axis of the bar, yielding twist drills (see Fig. 7.23c).
If the cutting edges are arranged at the end and around the circumference
of
a cylindrical bar, plain end mills, shell end mills, side milling
and so on,
cutters,
are obtained(seeFig.7.23d).If the edges are arranged only on the
about

the cylindrical
so on, are

of
circumference
cutters,

and

The

in Fig.

examples

variety
should be

tungsten

illustrate

carbide
the determination

In

increasing.

7.23

titanium

or

for

appropriate

principles

only, and,
of them
many
inserts

coated)

(eventually

of the practicalpattern
of
of the cutting

geometrical capabilities

saws, T-slot

as one can imagine,

tools.
as standard

tools for

throwaway

is widespread
for the
motions
must be
edges

and

as the examples show, the

of the tools and the pattern
of

But,

by the shape

determined

are tremendous.

motions

the

metal slitting

cutters,

the orientation
components,
the intended direction of cutting.

of specific

production

milling

plain

of tool shapes are available,

mentioned that the use of inserted-tooth

a huge

It

body,

obtained (see Fig. 7.23e).

Table 7.5 shows,for multipoint

tools,
and tool, the geometrical
workpiece

of the patterns of motion

and the processing
possibilities,

examples

for

In the first three

the cutting edges are
examples
to
either
or
to
line
inclined
the cutting direction, and
arranged
straight
parallel
the remaining
in
the
tool
is
examples
body
cylindrical with the cutting edges
in
of
a
arranged
ways.
variety
The machine tools are basically
into drilling machines (Fig. 7.24),
grouped
column-and-knee
machines
plain
(Fig. 7.2S), and horizontal
type milling
boring
machines
Vertical
machines
for
7.27).
(Fig. 7.24) are typical
(Fig.
drilling
but
bench
variants
radial,
exist,
heavy-duty
drilling,
many
including
type,
machines.
In all these
drilling
multiple-spindle,deep-hole,and transfer
of motions and range of
different
the
same pattern
machines,
tools\342\200\224requiring
machines

or

machine

tools.

in a

power

as

Figure
milling

twist

drills\342\200\224can

7.25 shows the

machines,

which

be

used.

pattern

of

motions

are general-purpose

for plain

column-and-knee-type
machines. They are primarily

7.5

TABLE
Multipoint

Pattern of
Workpiece

Pattern of

Motions,

of Geometrical

Examples

Possibilities,

and

Machine

Tools

Tools
motion\"

Tool
Processing

machine
Primary

Feed

Primary

Feed

Cutting

with

multipoint

(machine
tool)

tools*

Broaching
machine

Saw

(Hand)

File

Band-sawing

K\302\243W
^

machine

Tiling

machine

Lathe
Boring mill

Horizontal

boring

machine

Drill press
Milling

machine

cutoff

Rotary

saw

Band

saw

Filing

c<

machine

Milling

machines

\"R,

rotation;

T, translation.

^>, culling molion;

-\342\200\242>,
feeding

motion;

adjustment

motion.

for

Solid Materials:

Mass-ReducingProcesses

215

Head

Drill

spindle

Column

(box)

Worktable

FIGURE 7.24

Vertical

drilling

machine.

for arbor-mounted cutters (see Fig. 7.26a)and have a high degree of

and control
as well as good productivity.
Shank-mounted
cutters
can
also be used to a limited extent in these machines (see Fig.7.26b).Figure
7.26
shows typical milling cutters, but they represent
only a small portion of the many
designed
versatility

and boring. Many

Milling machines canalsobe usedfor drilling
are on the market; examplesare universal
machines
columnmachines
and-knee-type
milling machines (plain column-and-knee-type
milling
with a swivel on the saddle, enabling
to be cut when
helices
supplied
swivelling
the work table), ram-type milling
machines,
bed-type
milling machines, and
machines. Milling machines are among
the most important
planer-type
milling
machine tools, as they can produce a wide variety
of machined
surfaces.
shapes

different

available.
milling

Chapter 7

216

Worktable

-\"

Overarm
^~

Spindle

W\\

^^^-

Saddle

///

-^^^

, Knee

2 Base

f^<s!

FIGURE

7.25

Plain

^$y

column-and-knee-type

Plain

milling

(a)

H
(b)

machine.

milling

Slitting

Side

Double

saw

milling

angle

Am

End

T-slot

milling

milling

Angle

milling
_

FIGURE

7.26

Typical milling

cutters

for (a) arbor-mount

and (b)

Inserted-

tooth
milling
shank-mount.

Materials:

Solid

FIGURE

7.27

Mass-Reducing

Horizontal

boring

217

Processes

(drilling

and

milling)

machine.

and
of motions for horizontal
boring,
drilling,
Figure 7.27 showsthe pattern
machines. Boring is carried out by a single-point tool, mounted either in
bar supported
in a bearing in the end support.
a stub-type
bar or a long boring
but because of
Most shank-mounted milling
cutters
can be used in this machine,
drills
and
can
be
arbors
the
mounted, permitting
construction,
spindle
milling
cutters
arbor-mounted
to be used.
tool
a quick
head
on the spindle, permitting
It is possible
to mount a turret
can
tools.
since
the
turret
head
contain
many
change,
but a descriptionof these will
Several types of boring
machines
are available,
i
n
not be given here. However, recent
years, many types and sizes of numerically
are variants
centers
have
become
available.Thesecenters
controlled
machining
and
and
for the versatile
of or substitutes
machines,
boring, drilling,
milling
SO
hold
to
or
more
are
with
a
that
they
storage magazine
up
equipped
may
machines
are generally
different
tools,
enabling
quick tool changes (5-10 s). These
lot sizes.
used for small and medium
milling

7.3.3
As

described

particles

Random-Edge-Geometry

Multipoint

tools consist of abrasive

the random-edge-geometry
in a suitable bonding
in the desired tool shape.
material

previously,

embedded

Tools

218
TABLE 7.6
Pattern
Tools for Grinding
Pattern

Chapter

of Motions,

Examples of

Multipoint

Random-Edge

with

GeometricalPossibilities,

and

Machine

Geometry Tools

of motion8

Tool

Workpiece

Processing
Cutting
Primary

Feed

Primary

Feed

(grinding)

random-edge

with multipoint
tools

geometry

machine

tool)

(machine

Belt grinder

<#?
T

^z\\

5=T

Surface

grinder

(horizontal

or

vertical)

Honing

machine

Surface grinder

(vertical)
Lapping

&&

machine

(rotary)

R/T

Centerless
grinding
machine

#*

\342\202\254

Cylindrical
grinding
machine (plain

center
R

type)

Surface

grinder

<^-

Internal

grinder
i\302\247
R

Supcrfinishing

machine

<S)
\"R,

rotation;

T, translation.

most characteristic

the

of

One

is grinding.
cutting

219

Mass-Reducing Processes

Materials:

Solid

are

edges

Many

processes based on

tools

random-edge-geometry

and have

simultaneously

cutting

very

short

times.

The

tools are available in many geometrical

so on. The most frequently
used

grinding

shapes,

segments,bands,and

for cylindrical or plain

grinding.
fine surface finishes and has

used

grindingwheel

and

dimensional

control

recent

years, because

quality.

of the

grinding

Formerly,

development is

taking

grinding

Grinding

such as

wheels,

tool is the
offers close

become extremely
in
important
demands
of high accuracy and surface
increasing
was used only
for finishing
but a rapid
operations,

place

with

which may substitute for turning,

Table 7.6 shows examples of the

regard

to

(high-speed)

roughing

grinding,

for

example.
of motions
pattern

(of workpiece and tool),

possibilities, and the machine tools. Figure 7.28 shows the
of a plain
other
center-type
cylindrical
grinder. The many
types
available will not be described here. It is recommended
that relevant literature
sources
be studied and visits made to machine shops.
The
of grinding tools and
the pattern
of motions of the machines
geometry
the geometrical
pattern of motions

provide

and fine

FIGURE

many

geometrical

possibilities

in obtaining

surface qualities.

7.28

Plain center-type

cylindrical

grinder.

high

dimensional

accuracy

220

EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL

7.4

PROCESSES

MASS-REDUCING

In this

section short descriptionsof

mass-reducing
processes
classified in a similar
way

basic process, type

of stress. The
state

The field
machining
machining,

book

to

described.
however,
in

Chapter

be

Chapter

of

used
to

that

in

some

industry

used

of the
are given.

in Section

of energy, transfer
medium,
abbreviations used are the

mass-reducing

processes,

processes
and

most frequently
The processes

6.3 according to

the

encountered
will

be

category

creation principle,
as in Section 6.3.

surface
same

is huge,

containing

the

of
and

conventional

electrodischarge
electrochemical
and so on. It is beyond
the scope of this
machining,
describe them all and, consequently,only
will be
typical
processes
Further
information
must be sought
in the literature.
It should,
the basic principles discussed
that examples illustrate
emphasized
only
a
for
1, providing
background
imaginative and practical applications.
blanking

punching,

shearing,

SolidMaterials:

PROCESS 1:

Description.

(M,

Turning

The

turning

two-dimensional

221

Processes

Mass-Reducing

Me,

process
a shear

Ri, TDF,

Sh)

is characterized
state of

by

solid

work

material,

stress. The workpiece(W)

is
forming,
a
a
rotated
and
and
in
chuck
(the
(O
center]
by
[e.g.,
clamped
supported
feed
the translatory
R). Through the primary motion (R) and
motion,
for turning and Tr = radial feed for facing)
of the tool (V) the
axial
feed

supported
primary

and

workpieceis shaped.
(Ta

is used
Turning
a nearly
with

Applications.
cylindrical

components

cross-sectional

axial

shapes

in the

primarily

number

unlimited

(including tapers,

both regular and irregular shapes.

Turning

is

production of
of external

various
and

threads, etc.). Facing

the

internal

for

is used

used

most extensively

industrial process.

The material
Requirements.
a
minimum
of ductility
possess

Material
should

and

shear

not

to confine

be

too

< 300)

hard (HB

deformation

mainly

to

the

zone.

Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\2610.01

mm.

normally

in

the

lathes,

range

and

Turning provides close tolerances, often

may be obtained. The surface
quality
12 |im.
3si?fl^

tolerances

Tighter

Machinery. A wide
engine lathe, the turret
automatic

should

variety
lathe,

NC lathes.

less

than

is good,

for example,
of lathes are on the market:
and
screw
machines,
multispindle
single-

the

Chapter 7

222

PROCESS2:

Sh)

Ri, TDF,

Me,

(M,

Milling

Description. The milling process is characterized by solid work material,

two-dimensional forming
(one-dimensional
may be used in a few
forming
is clampedon the table
The
of
stress.
shear
state
a
and
(W)
cases),
workpiece
with
the primary motion
that
feed
a
is
which
(D,
together
translatory
(fl),
given
the
of
the
cutter
Many shapes of
(V) provides
possibilities.
many
geometrical
(R)
cutters are available.

The

Applications.
wide

the

variety
accessories

various

of

milling

a versatile

etc.)

<

The hardness

Requirements.

250-300)

and a

minimum

and

the surface

type,

plain

quality

A wide

Machinery.
the

column-and-knee

bed-type,

of

high,

special

in extensive

turning

and

the removal

type.

not be

should

material

too

high

is advisable.

tolerances
1 ^

are normally

good (=

\302\2610.05

Ra ^ 10 |xm.

variety of milling
type (general

and planer

of the

ductility

The obtained

Tolerances/Surfaces.
mm)

Through

different

high.

Material
(HB

process.

many

comes close to
process
shapes can be produced.The milling
are
enormous
the
since
industrial use,
geometricalpossibilities

rate

types of cutters and

high-production

head, attachments,

(dividing

various

the

process\342\200\224through

machines\342\200\224is

machines

purpose),

are available:
universal

for example,

column-and-knee

SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 3:

Me,

(M,

Drilling

223

Processes

Mass-Reducing

Ri, TDF,

Sh)

Description. The drilling process is characterized by solid work material,

two-dimensional forming, and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (MO is
on a table (B) and the tool (V) is given a rotation
motion,
(the primary
clamped
is rotated and
feed
(T). In drilling on lathes, the workpiece
R) and a transtatory
to the tool.
the feed is applied

The drilling

Applications.
circular,

cylindrical

etc.). Drilling

Through

etc.)

different

Material Requirements.
exceed

HB =

tolerances
reamingprocess.

Machinery.

bench,

various tools

(twist

interior

combination

hole

The

shapes

can be

drills,

drills,

hardness

of the

material should

not

normally

250.

Tolerances/Surfaces. For
is around

used to produce

is primarily

process

produced (cylindrical holes,

drilled
and countersunk, multiple diameter holes,
counterbored,
is an important
industrial process.

spade drills,

drilled and

holes.

\302\2610.1mm.

Larger

may be obtained, but finishing

The surface roughness is
Many

upright, radial,

types

less than 15 mm, the

have tolerancesaround

diameters

holes often

is often
typically

of drilling

deep-hole,and

carried
s Ra

machines are

multispindle

tolerance

normal

\302\2610.3mm.

Finer

by a special

out

s 25 |xm.
available:

drilling

for

machines.

example,

Chapter 7

224

PROCESS4:

Ri, TDF,

Me,

(M,

Planing

Sh)

is characterized by solid work material,

The
planing
process
be used), and a shear
may
forming (one-dimensional forming
The workpiece (W) is clampedon the table (B), which is given a
of stress.
state
feed
motion
(TB), and the tool (V) is given a translatory
translatory
primary
the
possibilities.
geometrical
(Tv), providing

Description.

two-dimensional

The
planing
process is,
or inclined flat surfaces

Applications.
horizontal,

vertical,

Material

HB

minimum

Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\2610.05

to

\302\2610.10

Machinery.
housing

planers,

mm.

used

general,

The

of

should
hardness
is
advisable.
ductility
quite

Normally,

surface

open-side

planers,

planers

are

generally

large

in

the

3 ^

range

available:

exceed

not

can be

tolerances

good

roughness is

Different types of

to produce

(e.g., ways, beds, etc.).

The

Requirements.

= 300, and

in

Ra

obtained,
^

for example,

edge or plate planers, and

pit-type

12 fim.

double
planers.

Solid

PROCESS5:
Description.
two-dimensional
of stress.
the

is characterized

process

shaping

(one-dimensional

forming

the

vertical,

The shaping
or

mostly in toolrooms.
the more productive
Material
minimum

inclined
Planing

The

Machinery.
lically

powered.

roughness
Shaping

material,

process.

milling

Different

work

is primarily
used to produce smaller
process
flat surfaces (curved surfaces may
be produced)
and shaping
in
substituted
for by
are,
many cases,

The hardness
Requirements.
is advisable.
of ductility
surface

solid

by

may occur), and a shear

the table (#), which is provided
with the primary motion (Tv),

forming

Tolerances/Surfaces. Good tolerances

mm).

Sh)

Ri, TDF,

feed

Applications.
horizontal,

The

Me,

(M,

Shaping

The workpiece (W) is clampedon

(TB), and the tool (V) is provided
geometrical
possibilities.

state
with
giving

225

Mass-Reducing Processes

Materials:

will

types

is

can

normally

of shapes

gradually

should not

being

be obtained

be in

(\302\2610.1

the range

are available,
replaced

HB

exceed

3^

300, and a
to

mm

Ra

\302\2610.05

12 |im.

mechanicalor hydrau-

by milling.

226

Chapter 7

PROCESS6:

and

(cylindrical

Grinding

(M, Me, Ri,

surface)

TDF, Sh)

grinding
process is characterized by solid work material,
and a shear
forming (one-dimensional forming
occur),
may
state of stress. The workpiece (W) is supported betweencenters (P) or clamped
on a table (B) and given a rotary
(/?) and translatory
(T) feed. The tool V (the
is
a
motion
(Rv) and, depending on the
grinding wheel)
given
rotary
primary
a feeding motion
sometimes
also.
particular
process,
The

Description.

two-dimensional

The grinding processes are used primarily

Applications.
or flat surfaces
which have been produced
by various

cylindrical
Today,

roughing

including

grinding,

sometimessubstitute

for

profile
milling,

turning,

Material Requirements. The material

less than the hardness of the grains.

it is

Tolerances/Surfaces. Grinding
tolerances

around

\302\2610.001

produced,0.25 < Ra
removal

<3

mm

y.m.

is

are

at

grinding

in

finishing

other processes.
high cutting speeds,

can

or planing.
has

Also,
normally

obtainable

The grinding

no limit in

hardness provided that

gives difficulties.

high ductility

a finishing process, and

and very fine surfaces can

processes have a

low

be

material

rate.

Machinery.

Various

types of

grinding

cylindrical grinders, centerlessgrinders,

machines
and

surface

are available;

grinders.

for example,

Electrical

7:

PROCESS

work

discharge

electrical

The

Description.

solid

227

Mass-ReducingProcesses

Solid Materials:

discharge

(T, El, Fl)

process

machining

one-dimensional,

total,

material,

machining, EDM

is characterized

or two-dimensional

forming,

by
and

stress, as the

state of

is removed by melting and

material
principle depends on the shapeof the tool and the
and the
fluid (\302\243>)
The workpiece (HOis placedin a dielectric
of motions.
pattern
tool (electrode, V) is fed toward the material. The electrical
taking
discharges,
of minimum
distance, melt and
place successively at the changing
positions
is composed entirely
the surface
in small craters, so that
evaporatethe material
the potential
difference
of extremely
small craters. The dischargesoccur when
an electrical
is large enough
to cause
between the tool and the workpiece
medium.
breakdown in the dielectric
an unspecified

evaporation.

creation

surface

The

to produce cavities and

Applications. The EDM processis used primarily
and punching
dies, blanking
tools, cutting small holes, and so on. The
and
are unlimited within the constraints of electrodegeometry
geometrical
possibilities
pattern

of motions.

Material
independent

and strength

hardness

Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\261
0.02

to

\302\261
0.005

Machinery.
different

mm,

Various

sizes and

materials

conductive

Electrically

Requirements.

of

(i.e., also in

the

can be shaped

heat-treated

is rather low, but the

rate
The removal
and the surface quality
high,
0.1s^fl<
types

of electrical

capabilities.

state).
tolerances

fine,
10 u-m.

discharge machines are available,

of

Chapter7

228
8:

PROCESS

Shearing

Description. The

(M, Me, Ri,

process

shearing

TDF, Sh)

is characterized

work

solid

by

material,

and
a shear state of
(sometimes one-dimensional)forming,
stress. The workpiece
the tool (V) is carrying
(WO can either be clampedso that
and the feed motions, or moved
out
both
the shearing
so that the tool is
(fed)
the
motion.
The
is
out
metal
cut
between
two shearing
shearing
carrying
only
bladesor rolls with a clearance of 5-10% of the thicknessof the work material.

two-dimensional

The shearing processis used

When the blades are straight,

Applications.
sh<
With

is and

plates.

curved
Material

and

the process often is given

blades,

The

Requirements.

lower

considerably

than the

Tolerances/Surfaces. The

hardness

tolerances

squaringshears,

roll

wide

shears,

process

should

not

shears

be

too

depend

on the actual

mm. The

roughnessof

of machines

< 200)
wear.
heavy

high (HB

to avoid

are available:for
and
machines.
slitting machines,
blading
variety

in industry to cut
is called shearing.

special names.

hardness of the

but are normally in the range 0.1-1.0

10 < Ra < 100 \\im.
in the
range

Machinery.

extensively
the

of

pattern

the

cut

example,

motion

surface

is

Materials:

Solid

PROCESS9:

and

Blanking

229

Processes

Mass-Reducing

ODF, Sh)

(M, Me, Ri,

Piercing

and piercing processes are characterizedby solid

blanking
of stress.
The
material, one-dimensional forming, and a shear state
material (Af),
in the form of sheetsor strips,is placed
on the die (D) and the punch

Description. The

work

toward and through

the
the
is
called
process
blanking,
workpiece,
the process is called piercing.
is driven

(P)

If the

material.

if the

and

piece punched

piece punched

is the

out

is scrap,

out

State of stress

Shear zone
p

ry

-s

(w)

the

Deformation:

narrow

shear

zone

used

extensively

State of deformation:
Nonsteady

The

Applications.

the electrical and

electrical

household

equipment,
a mass

typically

Material
ductility to

blanking

production

appliances,

controlled

Limited

in

fine

surface

blanking,

roughness

in

motors,
is

200, and

sufficient

shearing.

considerably,

and the conditions, the

The fine tolerances are obtained

clearance

the

\302\2610.05-0.5mm.

where the work material

in the range 5

is normally

Machinery. The machinery

are the important
part
or progressive dies.
the dies

HB ^

hardness,

Tolerances/Surfaces. Dependingon

tolerancesvary

processesare

parts for electric

produce
typewriters, and so on. It

to

process.

Requirements.

permit

and piercing

mechanicalindustries

is held

is usually
a
of the process.

Ra

a pressure
50 (im.

by

mechanical or

They may

be

hydraulic

plate. The

press,

single-operation

but

dies

Chapter7

230

7.5
All

flow,

and

material

Basedon
the

elementary
system can be determined.

processes

machinery.
In the following

General

7.5.1
The

sections,

1.

The shear
The

If

wx

but

of

the

and

more

(the Work Method)

to carry

necessary

out a

is

process

cutting

ny consumed

the

when

chip

slides over

the

face

tool

(7.21)

processes,

is approximately

work

frictional

Eq. (7.21) can

equal to

xdy,

value of

can be

from

found

the

shear

stress-shear

(7.23)

odl]

(= f

be shown

a mean

to

modified

be

(7.22)

per unit volume

of the material,

work

(x-yj

f'

the

and, consequently,

work

total

curve

zone (see Fig. 7.6)

in the shearing

consumed

to I.50K

(1.25

can

which

w,

work

cutting

The shearing

ws

are described,

wf

20-30% of the

strain

requirements

detailed specification
of the media of transfer

that

h'v +

most

work

frictional

This means

in the

the

the

out

carry

flow.

information

and

supplies

system

energy

transfer\342\200\224to

methods
approximate
the literature.

Chapter

sections

of

2.

For

in

the

Background
unit volume

per

energy

composed

be found

can

theories

refined

The

elements

major

they set

since

system,

energy

are

and power

of

theory

planned material

to the

according

Forces

I, material
flow,
of this chapter,
the
processes have been elucidated.
the main elements in
plasticity,
in

previous

medium of

a suitable

necessary\342\200\224through

energy

the

on the

and

flow

energy

the

in mass-reducing

flow

information

this,

as discussed

involve,
processes
and energy flow. In

manufacturing

information

POWER

AND

FORCES

OF

DETERMINATION

to be identical to
stress

shear

the

Eq. (4.42).

xm is

used, Eq.

(7.23) becomes
(7.24)

xmy,

For most cutting

ys is

processes

in

the

range

2 to

4,

which

means

that

Eq. (7.24)

can be written
w,

(2 to

Tresca's yield
=

o\342\200\236
2xM,

(7.25)

4)xm
criterion

where

o0 is

for
the

pure
uniaxial

=
shear (Section 4.4.1) gives
o,/2
x,\342\200\236
be
yield stress. The yield stress o0 can

or
re-

of the material

hardness

the

to

lated

231

Mass-Reducing Processes

Solid Materials:

through

\302\253

HB

(7.26)

co0

of relation
is
[Section 2.3.2, Eq. (2.14), relates
outt and HB but the same type
for a given material. This
also valid for the yield stress] where c is a constant

means

\342\200\224

HB

that

(2 to 4)HB =

or

For steel

cutting

necessarywork

10HB

normal rake
the

rake

the

empirical

3
where

feeds/|
To
reference
such

this

angley and

angle

per

volume

unit

equation
most

gives acceptable
of the equations

in units and require

dependent on

the

the

within

traditionally

special

20%
used

[15].
in

attention.

conditions,

especially

of the rake angle

can

cutting

The influence

feed/.

results to

the

be

The necessary work w decreases

about 1 % for every degree
is increased. The influenceof the feed/on
w can be expressedby

follows:

as

formulated

the work

approximation,

(7.30)

homogeneous
w necessary is

work

The

a first

N/mm2

not

are

machining

in

(7.29)

that, as

be rememberedthat

It must

measured

a cutting

out

show that

Experiments

o0 is

the hardness
of
process can be determinedfrom
The lower value 4 of the factor in Eq. (7.29) corresponds to
which means that
it is reasonable
to estimate the
conditions,
in cutting
as

the material.

w ~

is approximately
c \342\200\224
0.3
when
in Eq. (7.28) gives

N/mm2

shows

to carry

necessary

10)HB

(7.29)

Equation

favorable

(7.28)

substituted

(4 to

leads to

(7.22)

Eq.

3)^

(cold worked)
which

N/mm2,

in

substituted

w^ (1.25 to

(7.27)

Uto2)Hp

*>.**\342\200\224\302\243

Equation (7.27)

consequently becomes

(7.25)

Equation

2cxm.

relation

[15]

(T

to carry out cutting

w2 are the amounts of the work
necessary
with other parameters kept constant.
be able to use these two
a
for the influence of y and/,
relationships
value
of w must be definedcorresponding
to known
values of y and/.
and

w,

at

and/2

a reference

Eq. (7.30)

must

value cannot
be

used

controlled conditions(given

be

independent
values

the

found,

approximate

of y and/. Usually,
/, y, etc.) when

of v,

If

value for w given

by
w is measured
under
accurate

calculations

Chapter 7

232

are necessary.If w
N

where

wAv

A is the

7.5.2

(7.32)

wfav

area of cut

feed times the depth

to the

(equal

and Power

Forces

Cutting

force
process, the total
(see Fig. 7.29)
components

of cut)

and

the

v is

P, =

force

tangential

Pa

Pr

= radial

on the tool

can be resolved

into

force)

(cutting

force

axial

force
been shown

it has

Experimentally,

the

that

magnitudes

of these

forces are very

by

given

approximately

in Turning

P acting

a turning

three

as

speed.

cutting

In

consumption N can be determined

the power

is known,

removal rate [Eq. (7.4)]:

times the

= 4:2:1

P,\\Pr'Pa

fcr-(\302\261Y

-Hj
/

'

/
/

k '

iV

1/

r v

V. V

FIGURE

radial

7.29

force,

Forces

and Pa

in turning: P,
the

axial

force.

the

tangential

force

(cutting force), Pr

the

The

P, is

force

tangential

233

Mass-Reducing Processes

Materials:

Solid

force

external

the

component

which

must

the

supply

(internal) work:

necessary

P, =

wA

(7.33)

can be modified to

(7.33)

Equation

P, =

(7.34)

wfa

where

the area

measured

experimentally

of

A is

cut

and,

by A

substituted
consequently,

= fa

[Eq.(7.3)].Often,

the work necessary

can

P,

is

be calculated

[Eq. (7.34)]:
\342\200\242

where

the

many

cases

(7.35)

/.Y

y indicate the actual

suffixes/,
only /

is

which

known,

means

values of/and

in the

used

that the influence

of y on

test.
w

In

must

be neglected.

may also be interpreted as the specific

cutting
per unit area of the area of cut) and in the
literature
this
is often designated by ks. Table 7.7 shows, for different
materials,
of feed/and
rake angle
typical values of ks (or w), and the correspondingvalues
at which
mean
hardness
values are listed
Y,
ks is determined. Furthermore,

The work w per

(i.e., the

pressure

for

different

the

Eq. (7.30),

If the

rule

the

and

force

tangential

N =
If Eq.
N

a comparison of w, determined
from
enabling
values of ks. It can be seen that Eq. (7.30) gives

measured

as a rough

approximation.

Table
7.7 are used at values of/and y other
than
values, correctionsmust be carried out according to Eq. (7.31),
used that ks decreases 1% for every degree y is increased. The
the power consumption,
P, determines

of ks

(or w)

in

(7.36)

P,v

(7.34) is
=

force

materials,

values

the reference

volume

the

with

results

reasonable

unit

cutting

wfav

substituted

into

Eq.

(7.36),

the power

is given

by

(7.37)

kjav

the specific cutting

of cut, and
feed, a the depth
pressure,/the
w
or
From
it
can
be
that
can
also be
seen
(7.37)
speed.
Eq.
ks
as
the
the
to
remove
unit
volume
(i.e.,
power
interpreted
specific
powerrequired
in unit time).
of work material
If the powerN is measured
in KW,/in
mm/rev, a in mm, v in m/min, and ks
where w =
v the cutting

in N/mm2,

N=

ks is

Eq. (7.37)

$m>

kW

becomes

(738)

234

7.7

TABLE

Values of

Typical

ks for

Various

Materials\"

HB

Material

*,

(mm/rev)

(N/min2)

Yo

carbon steel

Plain

steel

Mild

120-150

1950

0.4

-6

140-160

2100

170-210

2250

0.4
0.4

-6

2350

0.4

-6

2250

0.4

-6

230

2300

0.4

-6

250-310

2200

0.4

-6

0.4

-6

(0.15%C)

Steel (0.35%C)

Steel (0.50%C,stress

relieved)

Steel (0.4%C, 3%Cr,0.5%Mo,

and tempered)

hardened

375

Steel (0.35%C, I.4%Cr,1.4%Mo,

and tempered)

hardened

230-330

Steel (0.5%C, 1.2%Cr,2.4%W,

annealed)

steel

Stainless

0.2%C, 179&CR,2%Ni,

hardened

and tempered

0.08%C, 17.5Cr,8.5%Ni,
160

2050

180-200

1900

200

1300
1100

annealed

Cast steel
iron

(gray)

Copper

80-120

Brass

Aluminum

Aluminum

850

550

alloys

700

various sources.

from

'Evaluated

Equation (7.38) determinesthe

efficiency of the lathe is r\\, the
=

\"

-6

steel

Alloyed

Cast

Chapter

consumption

power

required

at the

edge.

cutting

motor power is given

kW

If the

by

<7-39>

6<wki

from 0.7 to 0.8.

that equations such as (7.38)and (7.39) are a result
of an incorrectuse of the SI system. But here it has been decided to use the units
used in the machining
field.
traditionally
The radial force Pr has no influence on the power consumption,
but has a
of the worlcpiece and consequently
on the
major influenceon the deflection

Often, f]
It

should

accuracy

The
consumption

a value

has

be remembered

obtained.

axial force
(<5%)

pa is

relatively

is negligible,

small,

since

the

and
feed

its contribution
speed

normally

to the power
is very low.

Solid Materials: Mass-Reducing

in Shaping and Planing

and Power

Forces

7.5.3

235

Processes

three
on the tool can be resolvedinto
the
of
force
to
direction
cutting is
P, parallel
components.
Only
\342\200\224 Practical
considered.
In general,
is
wfa.
P,
given by P,
experience shows that
in
and
specific
cutting pressure
shaping
planing normally lies 15-20%above
be
value for turning, so that
can
P,
approximated to

the total

in turning,

As

force P acting

the tangential

P,

=*

the
the

(7.40)

1.18*/\302\253

Table 7.7.
from
ks can be found
The power necessary(when
/ is measured
mm2, and v in m/min) is given
by [modification
where

The efficiency

In

with

drilling

major cutting
and

Pa,

and Power in
divided

of Eq.

mm, ks

N/

Drilling

separate

edge P

are working simultaneously. The

forces P, equal in size, acting on each

edges

cutting
the

can be resolved

three

into

components,

force

P, can

be

found

from

Eq.

P\342\200\236

(7.34):

wfa

in

(7.39)]

Fig. 7.30).

tangential

Pt =

two

into

For each

edge.

Pr (see

The

twist drill,

can be

force

total

a in

mm/stroke,

0.7-0.8

is normally

Moment

7.5.4

in

(7.42)

ks{&

where ks has the referencefeed/z = fll (the feed per cutting edge),/the
total
axial
feed of the drill
(see
Fig. 7.2 and 7.30a), and D the diameter of the drill.
The torque acting on the drill is given by (see Fig. 7.30a)

l. LQ.D
0. _
- ks
22 2

w _
-

P
r,
2

that

is,

= ks&-

This means that

of

the

drill.

The total
PA
where
calculated

Pa
as

the

required

The change
axial

2Pfl =

(7.43)

is the

force

in

moment

with

the

feed

and the

diameter D

given by Eq. (7.31).

be expressedas (seeFig.7.30b)

ks with/is

PA can

2P; sin

increases

(^)

feeding force acting

perpendicularto

the

edge.

Pa can

be

236

Chapter

f-^^

D/2

D/2

\302\253
^

The forces in

FIGURE 7.30

r\"

drilling.

K22

where k is the specific cutting

pressure
of cut/72 times D/2). If k is approximated

P' = k

&

that

2Pa =

by

the edge into the

becomes

material

(area

ks, Pa

p.

in the equation for

Substituting
PA

=s

to press

2P, sin

PA,

(^)

is,

PA =

If PA

is

j2,Pt =
related

V3

(7.44)

-fksfD

to the

moment (7.43), it

is found

that

Solid Materials: Mass-Reducing

2Pa =

PA =
The

(7.45)

2j3%
at the

required

power

237

Processes

tool

cutting

is given

by

\"
\"\342\200\242

(746)

4(\302\243fe

where *, is measured
= rev/min).
(n

in

The power required

and,

power

If

the

N/ram2,

to

provide

it is

consequently,
of the

efficiency

/ and D

in

is

the feed

v = nDn

and

mm,

1-5%

only

normally

in

m/min

of the

neglected.

drilling machine

rj

is

the motor

included,

size

is

required

\342\200\224kjDv

Values of

process is more complicated

the cutting

milling,

pressure

may

In most
Vs.

of material

cases

it

removed

can

is acceptable

to consider

it

drilling,

cutting
is necessary

to

only

the

power consumption

specific

specific removal rate and is defined as the volume

unit
per
power per unit time. Thus Vs is often measured in
of the work
is, Vs indicates how many cubic centimeters

that

be removed

per

kilowatt

per

minute.

well as the cutting

conditions
of cut),
engagement (axial depth

If Vs, as
= back

mm/min, are known

(see

Fig.

7.3),

ae = working
mm, and

mm,

engagement,
=
vf

table

feed speed,

the required power can be calculated.

The

rate V is

removal
V

specific

and

be based on the

cm3/kW-min;
material

the

thickness.

can

This

in turning

than

similar to the preceding ones basedon

be carried out. Since the chips are comma-shaped,

calculations

define a mean

ap

from Table 7.7.

Power Consumptionin Milling

7.5.5
In

be found

can

it,

.-

U'*'}

114(60,000)

but

total

aeapVf

mm3/min

(7.48)

The required poweris

N

\302\243

(7.49)

S$*

Table 7.8 shows

values
for Vs where the efficiency
of the machine
typical
is included.
If it is necessary to know the tangential
force
on the cutter or workacting
to estimate
the
the
from
of
this
can be found
required strength
support,
piece
Eq.
(7.49),

since the power,

in

general,

is given

by (Vs

measured

in

cm3/kW-min)

238

Chapter

7.8

TABLE

Values of

Typical

the

Specific

Removal

Rate V,
V,

Material

End

Carbon steel, ouw < 600

Carbon steel, oul, > 600
< 900
Alloyed steel, o\342\200\236tt
Alloyed steel, ouu > 900
Cast Iron, HB < 250
Cast iron, HB > 250
Bronze

N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2

\"
r\\

If

9-11

8-10
22-28

16-20
18-24

18-22

20-28
40-50

35-45

45-70

KT3 kW

Vs

speed and r) is the

cutting

(7.50)

efficiencyof

the

defined by Eq. (7.32) (where

An
calculations.
empirical
relationship
rough

is unknown,
Vs

be used

can

10-12

20.

60,000

is the

11-14

11-14

50-80

From Ref.

where

12-15

12-15

24-30

metal

Source:

Face milling

milling

14-17

Brass
Light

min)

(cm3/kW-

in

the work

machine

w =

(0.7-0.8).

10HB N/mm2)

exists relating

Vs

andHB:

as 1800

V,HB

(7.51)

in cm3/kW*min.
where Vs is measured
Table
a
steel
with
0.35%C,
Considering
substituted

Vs

From
milling

in

Eq.

s*

Table
together

(7.51)

HB =

150,which

= 12cm3/kWmin
7.8 it can
are

be seen (oute < 600 N/mm2) that

which
range 12-17 cm3/kW-min,

V,

in the

givesreasonableresults.In
cannot

7.7 gives

leads to

be distinguished.

these

approximate

calculations,

for

end

means

and face
that Eq.

(7.51)

end and face milling

Materials:

Solid

8.1
In

INTRODUCTION

the production of componentsin one solid piece has been

more economical, or in some cases the only practical
because
of size or geometry, to build
up the desired component by
or more elements produced by the methods
formerly discussed. In this
the fundamental processes that can be used to join elementsor
sections

previous

discussed.Often,
possibility
joining two

section

If the

done in

it is

described.

componentsare

1.

elements (components)A
three

The elementscan

elements

3.

The

the

can

can

elements

first

are to

be joined,

through localized
joined
permanently
and/or adhesion between the elements.

be joined

a geometrical

through

or plastic
be joined through

(rivets, bolts,

joining

Fig. 8.1

B in

be

oh elastic

based

fasteners
In

cohesion

elements

The

and

this can

be

ways:

principal

basedon
2.

Processes

Joining

locking

coalescence
of the

deformation.
the

use of

special

elements

joining

or

etc.).

method, coalescence is

brought

about

through

cohesion

or adhesion:

Cohesion,which
established

means
through

that

the elements

a suitable

form common metallic crystals, is

combination of

temperature

and

pressure

to

239

Chapter 8

240

(a)

\342\226\241

b)

(c)

TYPE

TYPE

TYPE

s^r7xZ2iy
8.1

FIGURE

Joining

examples of joints
geometrical

atomic

of two elements A and B. (a) illustration of the problem;

on the three fundamental
(cohesion/adhesion,
principles

sufficient

bonding

the

elements

of physical, electrical,
common
structures)

This

is not

materials can be joined.

In

many

that

activity

(i.e., the coalescence

are bonded

or chemical

nature

based on cohesion requires

basicstructure.
means

and

proximity

that

together
(i.e.,

the

two elements

a requirement for adhesion;

that

materials (seeFig.8.1band

Assemblies based on

geometrical

locking

c,

assembly

are obtained

forces

surface

through

the elements

do

not

types of

materials,
the

form

have the same

different

is,

it is necessary
to apply filler
joining
processes
the cohesion or adhesionis establishedbetween

and the element

is basedon

forces)

Adhesion means that

Coalescence

(b), (c)

elements).

joining

locking,

create

based

filler

which

material

type 1).
through

stresses

plastic deformation
be shaped
2c). The elements must
according to the chosen assembly
(assembly
type
and
method.
may, for example, be
Assembly
type 2b is called shrinkage
the shaft (A) oversizefor the hole (B) (interference fit). By
established by producing
the two members can be
the housing,
the shaft and/or heating
cooling
arise between
the
stresses
to room temperature, high
assembled. After
cooling
If the interference is not too large, the elements
them together.
elements
locking
generated

by

may be

elastic

deformation

pressed together

cold.

(assembly

type

2b)

or by

241

Joining Processes

Materials:

Solid

JOtNtNO
MECHANISM

COHESION/ADHESION
1

MATERIAL

FL JID

RIOID

CONDITION

MECHANICAL

BASIC PROCESS

RIGID/FLUID

THERMAL

THERMAL

THERMAL

ENEROY

ELECTRICAL

CHEMICAL

COLD WELDINO

WELDINO

DIFFUSION

RESISTANCEWEI. DINO

WELDINO

ARC

SOLDER INO

BEAM

ELECTRON
WELDINO

BRAZINO

FOROB WELDINO

ADHESIVE BONDING
LASER WELDINO

PROCESSES

PROJECTION WELDINO

ARC

ULTRASONIC WELDINO

INDUCTION

EXPLOSIVE WELDINO

RESISTANCE

of

Structuralization

8.2

FIGURE

WELDINO

OAS WELDINO

WELDINO

THERMIT WELDINO

WELDINO

methods.

welding

of joining elements (Fig. 8.1b and

c,
for example. In many cases this type of
in localized areas of the joins and,
assemblyis designedto produce
to
the
result
be
consequently,
may
compared shrinkage.The action of a screw in the
thread,
spring elements, paper clips, wedges,and so on, are examples.
Before the joining
can be selected, the functional
of
principle
requirements
the joint must
be defined.
The joint can be permanent
or nonpermanent.
Permanent
are not intended to be taken
whereas nonpermanent
joints
apart
again,

3) could

joints are
In this

to

intended

chapter

or

be separated
those

only

use

the

bolting,
stresses

at some

joining

methods,

the processes

naming

date.

future

methods

means, that only type

are considered.
Figure 8.2

adhesion

8.2

mean riveting

This

discussed.

different

based on

methods

Assembly

type

based on a

1 assemblies

showsa detailed
most

commonly

specific processare

involving

cohesion

classification
used

and/or

of the

in industry.

OF THE JOINING

CHARACTERISTICS

PROCESSES
To

achieve

a satisfactory

adhesion\342\200\224two

basic

joint or bond

requirements

1. The surfaces
involved
other contaminants.

must

based on

coalescence\342\200\224cohesion

and/or

must be fulfilled:
be free

of oxide layers,

adsorbed

gas,

and

Chapter8

242

2.

forces

bonding

must be

involved

surfaces

The

(atomic forces

intimate

into

brought

or surface

can

forces)

contact so that
be activated.

the

can be fulfilled
These basic conditions
in different ways, resulting
in the various
to
methods.
8.2
should
it
be
out
that
in fusion
Fig.
joining
Referring
pointed
of
fluid
material:
in
of
the
the
the
conditions
(state
weldings
vicinity
joint)
are fulfilled
bonding
by a localized melting along
to
two
be
often
a filler material because of
joined,
edges
parts
using
the
need
to fill gaps in the joints.
These gaps are made by chamfering
the edges
before welding in order to facilitate the conveyance of heat,
when
particularly
material
is the main ingredient
in some
welding heavier gages. The filler
processes:
and gluing, for example.
brazing,
soldering,

a satisfactory

to obtain

necessary

of the

the

family of pressure weldings (material condition:

fulfilled
through pressure applied to the joint. The

the

In
conditions

are

other impurities are

removedby

of the

deformation

plastic

solid)the
surface

two

oxides

and

surfaces, so that

surfaces
are created. Depending on the amount
of deformation
and
virgin metallic
some of the oxide layer becomesdistributed
in
the geometry of the specimens,
the joint causing weaker bonding.
and gluing are processes based on the introduction
of a
soldering,
Brazing,
a lower
filler material having
those
of the materials to be
melting point than

joined. The
as

are fulfilled through cleaning

conditions
and/or chemical) and proper designof the joint,
The filler material is metallic in brazing
place.
and the bonding mechanism is mainly
gluing,

bonding

wirebrushing

action can take

non-metallic
Fusion

in

weldings

weldings by a high

of

combinations

development

In

fusion

create

by

a high

pressure. Between these limits,

temperature
of a large

and pressure

number of

exist,

temperature,
suitable

many

is

which

the

and

soldering,

adhesion.

and pressure
and useful
for
background

the

processes.

important

industrially

so that capillary

WELDING

FUSION

8.3

are characterized

(mechanicalsuch

welding,

cohesion-based

localized
bonding,

melting of the joining

Fig. 8.3. Fusion

is established

surfaces
welding

thus

to

a suitable
requires
a suitable
method

In addition
to that,
energy source to produce the melting.
metal
to protect or shield the molten
from contamination is needed because
melt
has a tendency to react with
the oxygen
and nitrogen in the
the
in a vesicular, porous weld
with
inferior
atmosphere
resulting
surrounding
mechanical
properties.

The

most frequently

chemical, although
characteristics
conditions

other

are electrical
used types of energy
may be used. Because of
types

of electrical and

is given

in the

following

chemical
section.

energy,

a short

(the major
the

highly

type) and
differing

account of important

Solid

Materials:

The molten

FIGURE

8.3

8.3.1

Electrical
(Arc

Under
the

pool of

in fusion

metal

welding.

Energy Released Through Arcing

Welding)
a number
of processes are found
where
designation arc welding,
is
induced
means
of an electric arc. With
few
energy
by
is established between a metallic
electrode
and the specimen. The

the joint

necessary

exceptions,

243

Joining Processes

the

arc

arc is thus

a primary

condition

for

any

arc

welding

process.

Theory
is a stream of electrons.If an air gap is created in the
of the electronsis broken
and the current ceases to flow.
The flow can be reestablished
the air gap, making
electron
by ionizing
movement possible
from
their
During the ionization, other electrons are moved
again.
An

circuit,

electric

current

the movement

not emitted from the atom change orbits

stationary positions; that is, electrons
instead. Some of them
reach
orbits of lower energy levels, releasingenergy
in
the form of electromagnetic waves with
a wavelength
in the visible area.
a light is created in the gap between
the electrodes\342\200\224an arc\342\200\224whose
Consequently,
in several important respects are decisive for all arc
welding
processes.
For precautionary reasons, the maximum
allowable
in arc welding
voltage
is of an order of magnitude
well
below 100 V, which
is not sufficient
equipment
to create an arc by direct f lashover, which
demands
about 5000 V/mm air gap.
Under
normal
small number of
conditions,
therefore, only an extremely
electrons are emitted.
To increase the emission to usableproportions,
so-called
thermionic
is utilized.
emission
This covers the fact that electrons
are liberated
surface
heated
to a very high
of the
because
easily from a metal
temperature
additional
in a cloud around the
energy
given to them. The electronsgather
cathode (see
as the no-load
Fig. 8.4). If a suitable voltage is applied, such
voltage
of the welding
the electrons will move
toward the anode (see Fig. 8.4).
machine,
When
the applied electric field acrossthe air gap, the
passing
through
electrons accelerate
and, after a certain distanceax, they
kinetic
sufficient
possess
characteristics

244

FIGURE
Sandviken,

Chapter 8

8.4

Generation

of an

electric arc.

(From

Sandvikens

Handbook,

0.34 Sv.

Sweden.)

to destroy

atoms in the gap, causing the atoms either

or to have their electrons
orbits,
change
resulting in a change in the energy content of the atoms.This is called ionization
b. The electrons speed on toward
by collision and takes place over the distance
energy

the

to ionize(i.e., loseat

structure
least

of the

one electron)

Materials:

Solid

Arc characteristics

8.3

FIGURE
Handbook, 0.34

the

anode

the

ions

Sv. Sandviken,

at

maximum

and

minimum.

(From Sandvikens

Sweden.)

they collide, converting their

also are created over the distance

where
that

245

Joining Processes

energy

to heat.

b accelerate

Correspondingly,
toward the cathode,

thus
its ability to emit new
electrons\342\200\224is
maintained.
temperature\342\200\224and
electron bombardment is fiercer than that of the ions, causing the anode to
more than the cathode when
direct
current. When alternating
heated
using

whose
The
be

the heat distribution

is, of course,
equal.
and anode areas a, and a2 respectively,
voltage drops are
observed.
sum is the absolute minimum,
Their
below
which
an arc cannot exist.
The total arc voltage is also dependent on the length of the arc (voltage drop
acrossb). Increasing
arc
is therefore, up to a point, synonymous with
length
to
arc voltage, physical conditions in practice
the arc length
increasing
limiting
10-12 mm. Above this maximum
the arc breaks and extinguishes itself. Figure
a general outline
of the curves for maximum and
8.5 shows
minimum
arc length.
The area betweenthe curves
arc.
is the field of activity
for this particular
It has
been mentioned
to start the flow of
that a hot cathode
is necessary
electrons. In practice,
this is achieved by briefly
the anode and
short-circuiting
not
the cathode.
Because of the roughness
the
does
of
parts, short-circuiting
come into being all over the cross section
to
discrete
but is limited
points,
in very high local temperatures and melting
or vaporization
here. The
resulting
causes
the
cloud
of
short
circuit
is
the
broken, by
electrons, whereupon
heating
the welding electrode a short
distance
lifting
away from the workpiece, causing
a rise in the voltage, which in turn accelerates the emitted electrons, and so on,
is used,

current
In

the

cathode

as describedearlier.

246

Chapter

The temperature
the

in

working

arcing. The current

workpiece, typical
current

an

depends

intensity
values

being

of

of magnitude

order

V, with

35

A.

50-80

other

on\342\200\224among

100-600

each possessing

be used,

may

is of

arc

the

voltage is between 18and

to initiate

needed

as direct
such as:

well

as
disadvantages

All types of electrodes may be used with dc (but not

ac
Welding of light gages is more difficult using
dc equipment.
Ac welders are cheaper to purchase than
better
and lower no-load losses.
efficiency
of the arc is practically nonexistent
distortion
Magnetic

with

of the

gage

things\342\200\224the

Alternating

advantagesand

and

5000-7000\302\260C,

ac).

have a

Ac welders
ac welders.

on

but
have, until recently, dominated the welding
field,
in the last few years,
cheap and effective ac machines
developed
are now used extensively in industry.
they
In general,
the arc can be established
in either
of two ways. First, it can be
established
which
between a consumablemetal
is gradually melted
electrode,

Dc

machines

welding

because

the

of

to the joint; that is, the

supplying the necessary filler metal
to the work material and has a lower
melting
point than
the arc temperature. Second,the arc can be established between the work
has a melting
material
and a nonconsumable
tungsten electrode which
point above
the

during

electrode

process,

corresponds

the arc temperature,

material,

and

must be

the

filler metal,

necessary

correspondingto

the

work

supplied separately.

to shield the molten pool against

earlier, it is necessary
contamination
to obtain
a weld with good mechanical
This is often done
properties.
with
a
suitable
material
that
the
electrodes
melts and/or
by
coating
fluxing
a
the
as
well
as
the
process, forming
vaporizes
during
protectiveslag
stabilizing
arc by aiding
the ionization
of the air gap. Table 8.1 gives
for
compositions
As

mentioned

of
the three main groups of electrodes,
the one most commonly used.
of coating
the electrodes, the
Instead
fluxing powder

by inert

of a

gases

which

or basic

the low-hydrogen

arc can be covered

with
to
or
Table
it
8.1,
composition corresponding
a shielding

forming

around

atmosphere

Although the physical phenomena

their practical
utilization gives rise to
to be described
processes
briefly next.

behind

fusion

a number

the

welding

type

is

granulated
be protected

can

welding

are

of industrially

zone.
fairly

simple,

important

Processes
Here the arc is maintained between a bare
and the work material (see Fig. 8.6aand b). To
for the continuous melting of the electrode, it must be moved
compensate
toward
the work material
to keep a constant
arc length
along the weld. In welding
the
with bare electrodes, the arc tends to become unstable
and,
consequently,

Metal-ElectrodeArc

consumable

metal

Welding.

electrode

Joining Processes

Solid Materials:

Types of Electrode Coatings

8.1

TABLE

247

Rutile

Low-Hydrogen

Neutral (%)

(%)

Ca02
CaF2

27

Si02

15

20

36

45

\342\200\224

MnO

9
5

26

FeO

21

34

Ti02

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

A1203

\342\200\224

MgO

\342\200\224

2
7

BALANCE

process is used only

welding, where a
between

the

temperature

is produced,

in special

this

for

to a

known

is stud

application

workpiece.The

is established

arc

and the stud and maintained

until
a sufficiently
high
and the stud is pressed
against the workpiece to provide
in the form of stud-welding
has been
equipment
guns

workpiece

coalescence.Special
developed

The best

applications.
is joined

stud

metal

process.

This
(see Fig. 8.6c) is used
process
the shielded electrodes consist of metal
wires
or
rods (2-10 mm in diameter)
upon which is extruded a specialcoating. During
the coating provides a gas shield around
the arc and forms a
welding
protectiveslag
that prevents oxidation and other contamination.
At the same
coating
time it prevents
too rapid cooling of the molten
metal.
The coating, in general,
fulfills several purposes, some of which
are: It provides a protective atmosphere;

Shielded Metal-Arc

extensively

it

in

the arc;

stabilizes

accumulate

adds

coating;
for the

it

elements;

and so
different

on.

Many

and

of all

80-90%

metal

in

it

the

speciallydeveloped
is done

welding

to
rate;

cooling

recommendation

manual

slag

provides
the

are available,

manufacturer's

the

it

down

rate by powdered

deposition

of electrodes

types

applications,

followed.About

always be

oxidation and slows

increases

it

refinement;

metallurgical

performs

it prevents

impurities;

alloying

Welding.

Here

industry.

should
with coated

electrodes.
Submerged-Arc Welding.
granular

fusible

flux

(see Fig.

In this process the metal arc is shieldedby a

is very similar to
8.6d). Otherwise, the process
The electrode,
in the form of coiled wire,
is copper

shielded metal-arcwelding.
to provide good electrical
supplied ahead of or around

coated

flux,

and

high-quality

and

contact
it.

The

arc is

thus

is fed

into

the

completely

submerged

welds are produced. The processis generally

can be obtained when
thick plates.
welding

and high welding

speeds
used
in large-volume
welding such

as

in

ships,

large

tanks,

material,

granular

by the

automatic,

It is widely
tubes, and so on.

248

Chapter8

Electrode
\342\200\242-Electrode

(a)

metal

Molten

jJ%

drops

material)

(filler

(b)

Extruded

coating
Electrode

Gaseous shield
Molten

flux

Granular

metal

covered

with

slag

*&m
(d)

(c)

Electrode

3s*- Inert

electrode

(metal)

Tungsten

gas

\"\342\200\242\342\200\242-Inert
gas

Filler

material

(TlG-welding)

(MIG-welding)

sz

<msm
(f)

(e)

arc
welding; (b) metal-electrode
welding;
welding; (e) gas metal-arc welding;

FIGURE

8.6

(a) Arc

welding;

(d)

submerged-arc

(c) shielded
(f)

gas

metal-arc

tungsten-arc

welding.

Gas Metal-ArcWelding.
molten metal

Here

arc and the

process

is called

through a

are

MIG welding

special gun,

shielded

a bare

metal electrode

by an

is usedand

atmosphere of

inert

gas.

both

the

This

(metal-inert gas) (seeFig.8.6e).

The
is fed
electrode
also supplies
the protecting gas. The following

which

Materials:

Solid

gasescan

be

249

Joining Processes

used:

is used
dioxide
carbon dioxide.Carbon
For
heavier
weldings,small
cheapest gas.

helium, or

argon,

extensively to weld

steel as it

is the

be supplied through
many applications.
of flux may

amounts

has

a hollow

a process that

electrode,

also

in the
used
The more expensivegases,such as argon and helium, are mainly
is
steel.
Gas
of
and
stainless
metal-arc
aluminum,
welding
magnesium,
welding
at
with
a
even
used
at
welds
rate,
high
speeds
being
growing
giving high-quality
or automatically.
thick plates. The processcan be carried out manually

a nonconsumable electrode of
process,
is suppliedseparately
and the shielding
established
dioxide for steel
or carbon
by an inert gas, for example, argon, helium,
called
TIG welding (tungsten-inert
(see
welding
Fig. 8.6f). The process, often
in light-gage
with other
work and is not competitive
gas), is used mainly
for heavier gages of metal.
weldingmethods
in the
of processes
More detailed
and equipment can be found
descriptions
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding.
In
is used,
the filler material

this

tungsten

literature

[2,21-241.

Fusion Welding Based on ElectricalEnergy

Electron
and Laser Beams
Through

8.3.2

can be utilized in fusion

energy
welding
The latest developments are electron-beam
are described
next.
welding. These two processes

in other

Electrical

arcing.

Electron-Beam

than

ways

and

welding

through

laser-beam

Welding

for coalescence
(see Fig. 8.7), the heat necessary
of the workpieces with a high-intensity
of high-velocity electrons. The processis carried
electron beam
out in a
consisting
vacuum chamber to avoid heavy
of energy and to shield the molten
metal
loss
oxidation. The electron beam is produced
against
by a special and rather
expensiveelectron
to perform welding
chamber
gun. The need to use a vacuum
serious
limitations
on the size of the workpieces
that can be welded. In the
imposes
into
of a type of
the development
past few years, much effort has been put
In

beam welding

electron

is obtained

from

chamber.

by inert

bombardment

the workpiece
remains outside the
welding machine wherein
special precaution must be taken, for example,by shielding

electron-beam
vacuum

the

Here,

gases, to avoid oxidation.

Electron-beam

is usually

welding

carried

material is applied, the penetration

power
affected zone is narrow. The processcan be
materials,

but

also

materials

oxidizable metals, and

welding

process,

be applied.

it is

difficult

super

used

alloys,
primarily

to weld

by

in a

out

other

for example.
when

vacuum

is high (>100
used to join not

chamber. No filler
only

processes:

Because of the

other

welding

the

and

mm)

heat-

common

metals,
this
processes cannot

refractory
high

cost of

250

Chapter8

CATHODE

CHAMBER

VACUUM

ANODE

POWER SOURCE
SEAL

FOCUSINGCOIL

ELECTRON

BEAM

WORKPIECE

Electron beam

8.7

FIGURE

Laser-Beam

Welding

In laser-beam

welding

welder.

(see

light beam (109-1012 W/m2).

8.8),
beam

Emission

Stimulated

by

Amplification

Fig.
This

electrical energy to the media

welding, the

lasers with power

power is mostly utilized

of Radiation)

or indirectly

in

the

welding,
is relatively
versatility

of cases.

welding

small

expensive,
(no

vacuum),

are

wavelengths

industrial

up to 20
rather than
steel with a

components,

welding
the

direct

for example,

through,

is shallow, 10-12 mm in
penetration
affected zone is very small. Laser beam
and at a rapidly increasing rate in
industry
of

mediathrough

range

in pulses

Munich.)

the heat is provided by a high-intensity

is created in special
laser (Light

Depending on the laser media, different

the C02 laser especiallyhas found
many
Commercial

Hanser Verlag,

J. Flimm,

(From

is

mechanical

are

of

Today,

produced.

applications
kW

supply

flash lamps.
in

available.

welding.

In

as a continuous
beam.
The
2-kW laser, but the heatused in the electronics
industry

and other uses.

for light-gage

The laser equipment

but because of the production

rates obtainable
it is becoming economical in an increasing

and the
number

251

Solid Materials:JoiningProcesses

Gas laser.

FIGURE

8.8

8.3.3

Thermo-Chemical

Welding

processes

in which

are of

chemicalreactions

two

Welding Processes
the parts to be joined are fused

types\342\200\224one

frequently called, and one

reaction are used.

in which

This method

thermic

flames,

employing

by the

or gas

heat of
as

welding

exothermic processes such as the

is known as Thermit
of joining

it is

aluminowelding.

Gas

Welding
In the gas welding

is transferred from a flame to the work by

The flame is produced by supplying
nearly
equal volumes of oxygen (02) and acetylene
(C2H2) to a torch, whose function
is to bring together correct volumes of the
fuel
gas and oxygen, mix them

forced convection

by

heat

radiation.

them through a nozzle to form a flame with characteristics

(see
Fig. 8.9). Primary combustion takes place at the base
the cone (Fig. 8.10). The
surrounds
thin shell-like region that
as follows:

and

efficiently,

process

and

pass

suitable for welding

of the flame in a
is

reaction

C2H2 +
Maximum
this

contact
flame

+ H2

+ 106,500 cal

temperature\342\200\224about

combustion

of the

2CO
02 ;\302\261

flame called the reducing

with the work in welding,
from

preheats

the

the welding
material

reached
3500\302\260C\342\200\224is

The products

zone.

point

this

first

reaction

zone. Becausethis
it largely

of view.

and provides

of

beyond the apex of

form the bluish
region
is most closely in
region
just

determines the characteristics

The outer

zone, or envelope,

some shielding

against

oxidation

of the

of the

of the
flame

mol-

Chapter 8

252

^Oxygen

Torch

1\342\200\224F~~,M -

Acetylene

cone

/inner

\\

jBt (luminous)

Flame

JLl

material

Filler

-Outer

\\w| envelope

(a)
Gas welding:

FIGURE

8.9

FIGURE

8.10

ten

metal,

The

owing

process by
the so-called

applications
flame

cone.

becoming

than

it is

reducing,

increase

the

air

is used

it

in

airflow.

altered
to suit the
of acetylene and oxygen.For
used. This is essentially the

less desirableto
is usual

have

to arrange for

a slightly

a slight

excess

white
flicker
at the end
by a slight
volume
of acetylene results in the flame

is indicated
in

the

carburizing.

Carburizing flamesare used when carbon

such
a flame is used on mild
resulting

in

welding flame.

be

is

flame

neutral

welded. When
carbon,

oxygen

the ratio

changing

adjustment

further

of the

oxy-acetylene

of the flame create a favorable

because

one which is

Correct
Any

but

a neutral

in

of the flame can

the welding

of acetylene.

of the

distribution

torch flame.

neutral

(b)

to the fact that some

and that motions

flame as discussedabove,
oxidizing

(a) principle;

characteristics

chemical

requirementsof

most

Temperature

combustion,

secondary

(b)

in a

reduced melting

point

must

be added to the

steel

the surface

so

that

only the

material being

layers pick

up

surface fuses. This

Materials:

Solid

techniqueis useful
oxidized

With a normal
flame,
in the atmosphere.

The essential

FeO 4-

CO

FeO +

2H

be avoided.

-\342\226\272
Fe +
-\342\226\272
Fe +

protection and deoxidationare

With
reducing zone of the flame.

of surface

requirements

process

mainly
by the CO
materials the reactions

ferrous

is to

zinc

and

performed

fusion

brass). The zinc is

(e.g.,
alloys containing
further
reaction.
of the pool where the oxide layer inhibits
and
is
the
oxidizes
zinc
volatilized from
pool continuously

the surface

on

where deep

surfacing,

are used with

flames

Oxidizing

hard

for

253

Processes

Joining

in the

H2

C02
H20

so that clean welds are produced.

The
alumina
temperature,
proceed at welding
a flux
is not reduced
either
CO
or
so
film on aluminum alloys, however,
by
H2
must be used with these alloys. Such fluxes are mainly
halides
of the alkali
because
metals, and
they are corrosive they must be removed from the joint
afterward. Designs
flux must be avoided. Fluxes are also
of joints that might
trap
and
some
with
copper-base alloys and these may be based on
required
copper

boric acid.

in

is formed

an

by

3C -I- CaO
After crushing,
is then

CaC2

calcium

carbide.
at high

The

temperature

CO
carbide

calcium

the

to free

purified

+ 2HzO

CaC2

on

limestone

furnace:

electric

which

by the reaction of water

anthracite
or coke with
fusing

is produced

Acetylene
carbide

^\302\261
Ca(OH)2

Acetylene is unstable at

from

it

is reacted with water

traces of sulfur and

to produce

acetylene,

phosphorus:

+ C2H2

30 psi and cannot be compressed

for
with a porous
directly
cylinders.
Cylinders
acetylene are therefore
packed
The porous mass divides the space
in the cylinder
filler saturated
with
acetone.
of an explosion impossible.
into
small cells, making the propagation
many
Acetone
absorbs
25 times its own
volume
of acetylene for each atmosphereof
and this permits acetylene to be compressed
applied
pressure
safely
up to 2S0 psi.
Between the supply
of gas and the torch it is necessary
to have a pressure

pressuresabove

into

regulator

and

a gauge.

deposit is aided by the optimum choice of

extra deoxidants to control the oxygen content
of
steel
this is performed largely by silicon
but also by
ratio of these elementsis necessarynot only to control weld

Metallurgical control of the weld

filler rod, which

often

the molten

With

manganese.

chemistry
weldingthe

pool.

correct

The
but

products

a dominant

also

contains

to impart to
of deoxidation

effect on

the

fluidity

the

pool

and

suitable fluidity.
During
metal surface which
of the molten bead.

the most

form a thin

film

stability

on the

has

Chapter8

254
Gas

with which

of the
most

has

it

and

has declined,

other

with metal-arc
equal in importance
welding. Since
inert-gas methods (particularly
tungsten-arc
welding,
in common from the view of welding technique), its use
used for repair work and in the field where
now primarily
or where electric energy is not available.
be transported

ranked

once

welding

introduction

the

is

it

cannot

equipment

Thermit

Welding

A number of metal

can be reduced by reaction

with finely divided
of considerable heat, so that the products of reaction
are molten. Molten,
iron produced this way can be poured between
superheated
of
to
weld.
The
is obtained with any of the
two
a
a
reaction
parts
joint
produce
iron oxides but ferric
oxide produces the highest
temperature,
up to 2450\302\260C
oxides

the liberation

with

aluminum

reported:

being

+ 2A1

Fe203

A1203

2Fe

A charge of 1000 g of Thermit

181,500 cal. The ferric oxideis

476 g of slag, 524 g of iron,

and
mill scale to which
is added
other
and the ultimate analysis of the
materials to control the reaction of the Thermit
metal
Thermit powder will not ignite below 1300\302\260C, so the reaction is
produced.
and an ignitor. The reaction is
started with a small quantity of special mixtures
30 s to 1 or 2 min regardless
in about
of the size of the charge. The
completed

steel or alloys
molten

steel

of

for welding
rounds. It
construction

electroslag
joining

and

is

now

shows

8.11a

a few

both

all

of

welding

sides.

for

typical joints for arc

The fusion
applications.

welding

and

gas

processes

and Fig.
welding,
can be used for

of materials, the heavy

gages
necessitating
welding
exist
as well as quality
standards for welding
welds must be carefully
for example,
inspected,
Important

gages

Many

procedures.

welding

national

X-rays.

The quality
the

large,

in Fusion Welding

Joints

control
by

also

has

8.11b shows
from

of the process is for joining

steel, primarily
rails, and
as rectangles
or
compact cross sections, such
been used in heavy
construction,
joining
shipbuilding,
with

joints

bars,

8.3.4

the

600\302\260C.

application

in heavy
repair welding. The use of Thermit
welding
the
from
more
recently developed
receiving
competition
Nonferrous
aluminothermic mixtures have been used
process.
conductors.
copper

reinforcing

Figure

small pieces of scrap

of the metal is improved
by adding
is also avoided, and
In this way excessive
heating
of approximately
2100\302\260C\342\200\224that
is,
produced has a temperature
the powder.

to

a superheat
The
main

the

from

soundness

and

quality

produces

prepared

production

procedure

chosen

of a weld dependson many factors, such as materials, electrodes,

The welding
of the weld, and the geometry of the design.
has

a major

influence on the

distortion

of

the

product.

TABLE

8.2

Process

Groups

255

Joining Processes

Solid Materials:

of Pressure

Principle

Welding and

Some

Pressure

Welding

Energy

Energy to

to heat

create pressure

Solid

Solid

material

4-

(thermal

Heating

Solid

I
\342\200\224O-

basic process)

create

to

Pressure

\342\200\224O\342\200\224

coalescence

(mechanical basic

process)
of energy

Type

of energy

Type

to

Process

create pressure

for heating

groups

(examples)

Mechanical

Cold welding

Electrical

Mechanical

Resistance welding

Mechanical

Mechanical

Friction

Chemical

Mechanical

Pressure gas

Chemical*

Explosive

Mechanical\"

Ultrasonic welding

'Also creates

in the

The

WELDING

term

welding
pressure
of
by a combination

obtained

low temperature,

a combination

flow

plastic

involving

known

slightly

temperature

are thus

all the

processes where coalescenceis

temperature,
pressure
Pressure welding

as

thus

and

cold

welding,

to

low

ranges
pressure

fulfilling the two

high pressure at
combined
with a high
from

The processes
below the melting point
of the workpieces.
of two basic processes:a mechanical
basic
process
and to create
to remove oxides and other contaminants

basic
to facilitate the
and activity,
and a thermal
process
The removal of
by lowering the yield stress of the workpieces.
also
be
done
or chemical
other contaminants
mechanical
may
by

sufficient

proximity

welding

process

oxides and

covers

Table 8.2).

(see

requirements

welding

welding

zone.

welding

PRESSURE

8.4

basic

heat

welding

cleaning prior to welding.

8.4.1
In

cold

Cold Welding
welding

or cold

The pressure

alone.

pressure welding, coalescenceis created

causes the

workpiece

by

pressure

to deform

the
plastically, providing
To obtain reasonably
structures.

between the virgin

metal
the surfaces must be cleaned,
usually mechanically by wire
in the welding
zone
The remaining oxide layers will be dispersed
as
brushing.
islands and will decrease
the strength of the weld. To obtain
the
welds,
good

necessary
high

strength

intimacy

welds,

Chapter 8

256

Plate

thickness

Simple

butt

Single
\"V\"

4-30mm

U
bevel

Double

Double

20-25mm

\302\273v\"

Single

\"J1

Single
>

-u\"

a)

^n

\\

\302\273

\302\273

^
(b)

FIGURE

8.11

Examples of (a) welded

joints

and (b) applications.

25

mm

Solid Materials:

Joining Processes

257

resistance

-contact

Electrode
-interface

impression
(small)

resistance

z
R

-material

resistance
Weld

FIGURE 8.12

surface

Resistance

expansion

welding.

caused

90%. The cold-welding

common

by

plastic

process

must be in the range of 50used to join relatively small parts

deformation

is generally

etc.) as butt or lap (inclusive seam)welds.Materials

cold-welded
are aluminum,
lead, nickel, and zinc.
frequently
copper,
is
the
cold-welded
electrical
connection.
example

(wires, rods,sheets,
most

nugget

rings,

Resistance

8.4.2

To reduce the
materials, they

Welding
necessary

pressure
are

often

heated

to obtain sufficient
to temperatures

coalescence

of the

correspondingto

the

work

forging

Since no melting occurs, resistancewelding

is solid-state
welding.
current
accomplished
by passing an electrical
through the area to
be welded.Most heat develops where the resistance is greatest\342\200\224in the interface
of the two
members
is R = 2RC +
resistance
(see Fig. 8.12). The total
+
the electrodes
and the
2Rm
Rh where Rc is the contact resistancebetween
work materials, Rm the resistance
of the material, and Rj the resistance
between
the surfaces. Heat liberation
is controlled
by the relation W = kRl2t, where k is
a constant
less
than 1 to compensate
for heat loss, R the total resistance,
/ the
two
water-cooled
electrodes that
current, and t the time. The process involves
are pressed against
the work
and a current
is passed
materials,
through the
materials.
The
interface
resistance is, as mentioned, the greatest and depends
on
and material.
The contact resistanceRc is
cleanliness,
pressure, surface quality,
range.
Heatingis

usually

minimized

material

the electrodes
of high-electrical-conductivity
by appropriately shaping
The
resistance
of the
copper
tips and applying a suitablepressure.

with

electrode material

Resistance
projection

welding

welding,

is, in

general,

includes

small
processes

and butt and flash

compared to that
such as spot

welding.

of

the work

materials.

welding, seam welding,

Chapter8

258

Spot Welding
most extensively used resistancewelding
or more metal sheets (see Fig. 8.12).The

is the

welding

Spot

suitable for joining

normally conical

two

of about

diameters

end

with

size of the
sheet)
to keep the temperature low. If different
a reasonable

to give

the

5<fh

are

electrodes

of

the thickness

h is

(where

nugget, and

weld

is

and

process

are

they

cooled

water

different electrical
electrodes
must be

materials

having

welded, the contact areas of the

conductivity.
inversely
proportional
of the process are current, time, and pressure, which
The main parameters
must
be mutually adjusted and coordinated dependingon material
and geometry.
values
are 200-400
For mild steel, typical
0.15-1.0
and
70-100
A,
s,
N/mm2,
to be

are

conductivity

to the

respectively.

Spot
many

limit is about
the

is used

welding

in both
extensively,
and combinations

materials

different

3-4

The

mm.

materials,

have reasonablysmooth

quality

welding

be free of

so they must

dirt,

and large companies, to join

of materials. The upper thickness
is dependent on the cleanlinessof
and other contaminants, and
scale,
small

surfaces.

Seam

Welding
In many applications

This can be accomplished

welds are made. The
is moved

material

and off to form

the work area
in

primarily

the

to obtain

is essential

continuous

spot welds. Cooling

by water streams.

overlapping

is provided

directly

manufacture

which

of

is provided

or

liquid

by a

successivelypressedtogether.
in

spot

of both
Seam

current,

seam

welding,

for the

of

flow

the

current

current

When

the

on

is turned

the

electrodes

and

is used

welding

vessels,

pressure-tight

high-frequency

In

to compensate

welding

sheets.
of spot

series

8.13b).

and so on. By notching

the disk electrodes, irregularities in the
of pipes and other structural
be accommodated. In the manufacture
as a butt welding
flat sheets, resistance seam welding
is applied
heating,

of the

welding

welding, where a continuous

electrodes
can be rotating disks (see Fig.
and between
the disk electrodes, the current
seam

in

by

the

it

tanks, radiators,
workpiece
shapes

can
from

After
process.
the butting surfaces are
must
be higher than
through

the previously

made weld.

Projection Welding
In

welding,

projection

made on one of
The

projection

of the

the

sheets,

the

allowing

process

welding

spot is determinedby

current

the

is

thus

is

concentrated

flat electrodes to
similar

projections

in suitable projections
be used (seeFig.8.13c).

to spot welding, but

made on the sheet.

the

location

in cost reductions
be welded simultaneously, resulting
be
to
The
can
that
natural,
is, they are
projections
compared
spot welding.
of
o
r
associated
with
the
the
that
artificial,
is, they
components,
directly
geometry
Many

projections

can

Joining Processes

Solid Materials:

CZ

259

,?s\\M
Seam

^3
Electrodes
(b)

Electrodes
(a) Spot welding

(c) Projection

-\302\273>-

welding

Seam welding

jr\"n

lift

2*-

\342\226\240+C

^-3

butt

Upset

FIGURE 8.13

(e)

welding

Resistance

welding; (d) upset

3-

-E

cCD=]
(d)

\342\200\242'

butt

welding:

(a) spot

(e) flash

welding;

butt

Flash

butt

welding; (b) seam

welding

welding;

(c) projection

welding.

especially for the welding

process
by embossing,
bending, and so on.
have a diameter corresponding to the thickness of the sheet
and
a height of about 60% of the thickness
of the sheet.
has
Projection welding
many industrial
applications, including
welding
flat or curved
sheets, tubes to flat sheets or cylindrical components, and
together
nuts
and bolts for sheet components.Many
are available ready for
components
are made

The

projections

projection welding; that

is,

they

are supplied

with

suitable

projections.

Upset and Flash Butt

Welding
The butt welding of bars can be carried
out as upset or flash welding
(see Fig.
8.13d and e). In upset butt welding, the mating
surfaces
are brought into light
an appropriate
current flowing
across
the interface to heat the surfaces,
contact,
a slight pressure,
which are kept under
is increased
and after heating
the pressure
to form the upset. Some oxides from the surfaces are normally
distributed
in the

welded zone,
In flash

or

points

boil

in a

slight reduction
more

of the weld strength.

complicated
equipment, the
When the highest
together at a slow, controlled
speed.
causes
these to melt
asperities
approach each other, the large current
is
away; when the next
points approach each other, the process
highest

mating surfaces

and

resulting

butt welding,
are brought

which

requires

Chapter 8

260

Chucks
\"'T-

\"\342\200\242T

Force
-^\342\200\224

C-

l.

\\7
Workpieces

$
8.14

FIGURE

Principle

of friction

welding.

repeated; and so on. The melted surfaces are expelledfrom the interface. After
a short time, the flashing has completely removeda thin layer of the materials
The
at the interface, and they are now pressed together, causing a small
upset.
for
that
butt
is
better
than
of
the
weld
bars,
tubes,
Rods,
welding.
upset
quality
methods.
of uniform section can be welded by these
and structural
shapes

The

Pressure

Other

8.4.3

described

processes

Friction

Welding Processes

below are

listed

in

Table

8.2.

Welding

friction
the heating is provided by mechanical
welding,
to
welded (see
surfaces
be
between
the
under
relative
motion,
pressure,
by
and the other part rotates.
of the parts to be weldedis stationary
One

friction

In
established

Fig. 8.14).

under
an applied axial pressure create
the relative motions
the yield stress considerably.A temperature
up to the
is
rotation
and
the
second
the
is
reached.
In
fusion
stopped
phase,
temperature
the
is
The
until
weld
or
even
increased
is
the
maintained
completed.
pressure
is removed after welding, if necessary.
flash formed due to the deformation
The processis used to weld circular bars, tubes, and so on. In the past few years,
has increased
the number of applications for friction
considerably.
welding
In

the

first

phase,

heat

sufficient

to reduce

Pressure Gas

Welding

is used to butt join bars, tubes, rails, and so on. The

and when
torches,
through suitable water-cooledoxyacetylene
the workpieces are pressed
the temperature reaches the fusion
temperature
other at pressures, depending on the material, up to 50 N/mm2. The
each
against
is relatively
cheap.
equipment for this process
Pressure

heat

gas

is supplied

welding

261

Solid Materials:Joining Processes

8.15

FIGURE

welding.

Explosive

Welding
In explosivewelding
(see
to
a
top plate
high
velocity,

Explosive
the

it collides

when

pressures

removal

collision

and so

high

The cleaning action,

a high-speed
jet emitted from

bottom

on, is provided

accelerate

plate.

by

point.

Explosive

of tubes to

welding

of

manufacture

tube

metallic

so on.

and

plates,

a few companies

by only

performed

in the

is used

welding

materials,cladding,
process

providing

impacts on the

with or

of oxides,

the

the

high explosives are used to

both a cleaning action and

8.15),

Fig.

It

compound
is a

specialized

[25].

Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic

plastics,

welding

in

the weldment are

generatedby

or

dissimilar

materials,

or perpendicularto

necessary clamping

including

or

of

surface

the

attached to one

transducer

ultrasonic

an

which supplies the

tools,

clamping

is used to weld similar

Vibrations parallel

joints.

overlap

of the

force

welding

of the weldment. The oscillatory

shear
or normal stresses
break up and remove the oxide layers or contaminants,
so that perfect
coalescence can
be established
is
through the clamping pressure. Ultrasonic
welding
mainly used to join sheets, foils and wires, and so on, and can be of the spot or
perpendicular

to

the surface

seam type.
Moredetailed

the

JOINING

8.5

PROCESSES

MATERIALS

WITH

SOLDERING,

AND

This group of assembly

adhesion

forces

temperature
the

of the

descriptions

various

processes

welding

can

be found

in

literature.

melting

between

(group

processes

points of the

material
work

T^\342\200\224BRAZING,

BONDING

ADHESIVE

the filler

of the filler

BASED ON FILLER

T, <

3 in Fig.

material and the

Tf
materials

is lower
Tw.

8.2) are basedmainly

work

materials.

The

on

melting

(often considerably lower)

The processes can be divided

than

into

262

two

on metallic filler

based

groups,

metallic filler materials (adhesive

8.5.1
In

Chapter

and

Soldering
and

soldering

materials

and non-

soldering)

Brazing
a permanent

brazing,

materials is obtained by

the

of

joining

metallic

or dissimilar

similar

filler metal with

a
(i.e., no melting of
the joints by capillary

of a nonferrous

application

of the work

point below the melting points

filler material
liquid

melting

and

(brazing

bonding).

these occurs).The

is

materials
in

distributed

action.

The joining
and the

little

betweenthe

filler

cohesion also occurs.This

metal

permits

to be joined by these processes.

Because of the lower
to
of
distortion
the
compared
welding,
assemblycauses

materials

temperature

joining

in brazing,

but

materials,

metallic

all

virtually

primarily on adhesion

is based

process

work

difficulty.

To obtain

the

joint,

high-quality

following

requirements

be

must

fulfilled:

surfaces

Clean

Correctly shapedjoints (i.e.,

permit capillary action)
Correct

joining

the gaps

or clearances

be

must

small

to

enough

temperature

Depending on the temperature (i.e., the

can be identified:
following
processes

melting

point

of the filler

material)

the

Soldering(<450\302\260C)
Brazing

(>450\302\260C)

Braze

welding

(>450\302\260C)

the heating
sources
description of these processesis given,
basic
be
The
is
mechanical
mentioned.
(flow
usually applied
process
primary
of the filler material into the joint), but the secondary process of heating
is
thermal. Table
their
8.3 shows the types of heat source and
practical
applications.
The words in parentheses
whether the heat source is used for soldering
indicate
or brazing or both.

a short

Before

will

Soldering
In

is used

a solder

soldering,

extensively

used solders

are alloys

with

of

a melting
point below 450\302\260C. The most
tin and lead with
amounts
small
(less than

A typical
0.5%) of antimony.
example would be solder with 40%
lead. Higher contentsof tin increase the fluidity, cost, and strength

The

working

temperature

of

temperatures

is about

temperature

solder consisting
about

of

tin,

and

zinc,

300\302\260C.

wide

between 100 and

250\302\260C.

cadmium
variety

400\302\260C.

As

For

the

soldering

is often used,

of solders
mentioned

of

with

are available
previously,

tin

and 60%
solder.

of the
light

metals,

a working
with

working

the surfaces to

263

Solid Materials:JoiningProcesses
TABLE

8.3

Type of

energy

Heat

Sources Used

for

Soldering

Practical

Chemical

Torch

Electrical

Resistance

principle

(soldering/brazing)

(soldering/brazing)

Soldering
Furnace

heating

(flame) (soldering/brazing)

Induction
Thermal

and Brazing

iron

(brazing)

Salt bath (brazing)

bath (dip soldering and brazing)

Metal

Butt

joint

joint

Overlap

Commonsolderedjoints.

FIGURE 8.16

be

soldered

be corrosive

Somefluxes

must be

clean. This is accomplished

by

the use

or noncorrosive. After
the fluxes
soldering,
can also act as temperature indicators,as their

of fluxes, which
can
must be removed.
color

changes

with

temperature.

Soldering is used extensively

in industry
for many different applications. The
shows
8.16
N/mm2).
(25-50
strength
Figure
typical joints. The
clearancesmust be in the range of 0.25-0.025 mm, depending
on solder, flux,
and
material.
The desired strength and the geometry of the joint
also influence
the choice of clearance.Most of the heating methods are the sameas those used
in brazing (see Table 8.3) and
are mentioned
briefly in the next section.

is low

shear

Brazing

In brazing, brazing
with melting points above 450\302\260Care used. Table
metals
8.4 shows typical
of brazing metals and examples of their
groups
application.
Many brazing metals are available,and the right one for the specific application
must

be

carefully

selected.

Chapter 8

264
8.4

TABLE

of Brazing

Examples

Metals

and

Their

Applications

Brazing

temperature
metal

Brazing

Application

(\302\260C)

alloys (Cu, Ni, Co,

Copper with phosphorus
Brass (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni)
Silver alloys (Ag, Cu, Zn, Cd)
Aluminum
(Al, Si)
alloys

Copper/copper

To obtain

Cr)

braze,

high-quality

850-1100

Steels, carbides, high-speed

750-850
850-1000

Copper, copper
Steel, cast iron,

600-850

Copper,copper

500-600

Aluminum,

the

surface

oxides must be

etc.
etc.

nickel,

copper,

steel,

alloys,
aluminum

steels,
etc.

alloys,

alloys

removed, no

surface tension of the brazing

metal reduced. This is accomplishedby a suitable
fluxing agent. Before
be clean
flux, the work materials must
(i.e., free of dirt, oil, etc.).
applyingthe
metals
used. For furnace,
The
flux
must be selected on the basis of the base
and dip brazing,
induction
paste fluxes are used,and for torch brazing, paste or
the surfaces.
onto
powderfluxes can be used. The paste can be brushed
must be cleaned
assemblies
Since the fluxes are corrosive, the brazed
in the joint by capillary action,
brazing metal is distributed
carefully. As the liquid
of
a
must
be
suitable
size
and have parallel walls. For
clearancesor
the
gaps
are
0.02-0.05
in
the
clearances
the
mm; for
generally
range
brazing,
copper
for
and
silver brazing, 0.05-0.20 mm; for brass brazing, 0.2-0.5 mm;
in the form
mm. The brazing metals can be supplied
0.1-0.3
aluminum brazing,
of complex
and
so
the
thin
on.
In
of wires, rods,
shims,
bands,
foils,
brazing
be
used
to
It is often
or
fixtures
assure
may
proper alignment.
components, jigs
to
and
so
in
the
of
the
individual
on,
provide fits, staking,
design
possible
brazed
joints.
Figure 8.17 shows some typical
facilitating
alignment.
components,
were
listed in Table 8.3. Torchbrazing
is used
The heating source for brazing
is
for repair work and small batch production.The equipment
necessary
simple
where
and cheap. Furnace brazing,
assemblies,
preloaded
possibly held in jigs
is used mainly
for
mass
or fixtures,
are heated in a controlled
atmosphere,
oxidation

take

should

place during heating, and the

production.
the preloaded and fastened assembliesare dipped
the melting point of the
a
above
at
temperature slightly
kept
and where very thin or
used
for
is
larger components
brazing metal,
primarily
Induction
where
thick
sections
are
brazed.
brazing,
high-frequency
very

Salt

into

bath

where

brazing,

salt

molten

the preloaded

induction currents

heat

lends itself to

some automation.

assemblies

electrical
supplied

with
industry
through

assemblies, is a
It is

widely used

fast
in

production
industry,

that

method
especially

for

is mainly
used in the
surface finish. Resistance brazing
to braze
conductors,
connections, and so on, and the heat is
of graphite.
Metal bath or dip brazing, where the
electrodes

a good

etc.

Solid

Materials:

FIGURE

8.17

Joining

265

Processes

brazed joints.

Common

assemblies are dippedin a molten

for small components,typically

bath of the

is used principally
metal,
wires
of
in
the electrical
fastening
In
the
metal
bath
or
is
used
soldering,
dip heating
extensively, and the
industry.
of
induction
is
Much
application
heating
increasing.
soldering is done with
is
a
electrical soldering
which
versatile
and
method.
irons,
cheap
The shear strength
of brazed
is rather
assemblies
100-150
high,
normally
but
as
values
as
300
N/mm2
be
obtained.
N/mm2,
high
may
for

brazing

the

Braze Welding
is used primarily
Brazewelding
for the repair of gray and malleable
cast-iron
to
components, and sometimes for steel parts. It is generally
preferred
welding
because
of the longer heating
Braze welding differs from ordinary
time.
brazing
that
the filler material is supplied. In brazing, capillary forces
only in the way
distribute
the liquid filler metal, whereasin braze
welding
using vee or doublevee
as in welding, the material is distributed
An oxyacetylene
joints,
by gravity.
torch is predominantly
used
as a heating source.

Adhesive Bonding

8.5.2
In

adhesive

dissimilar

and the

bonding,
materials.

workpieces,

a nonmetallic
Bonding,
not

between

adhesive material
is used
place betweenthe

which takes

the workpieces

to join
adhesive

similar or
material

themselves, is based on

the

basic
The primary
physical, electrical, and chemicalnature.
the
or
the
flow
of
the
adhesive
material
involving
placing
in a hardening
joint. The secondary basic processis chemical,
resulting

the

adhesive.

adhesive forces
process

of a

is mechanical,

in
of

Chapter 8

266

|y///M//
L=

IWWWWk

\302\273f *

M
\342\226\240
r~r~!

'

'

1.

^
L^

FIGURE 8.18

all types

Nearly

metals

a high-quality

obtain

(b) components

very

adhesive

adhesive

the

in

rapidly

in

right

bonding.

bonding.

past 10

of

Joining

years, and

many

been developed.
adhesive bond, the recommendationsor

must
be followed
by the adhesive manufacturer
adhesive
material is dependent on the actual

prescriptions
given

of the

increased
materials have

adhesive

and

of materials can be joined by

has

adhesives

by

suitable
To

Examples of (a) joints

carefully. Selection
work

the

materials,

chemical,
requirements (loading: mechanical,thermal,
surrounding
media, etc.), and the joining
(or desired). A short
procedure
practical
be given of adhesive materials, joint
descriptionwill
and joining
geometries,

functional

procedures

[26,27].

A wide

variety of

of properties.An
ingredients:
Depending

the

base

on

more of the

the
last

gives

material

are

consists

offering a large
in general of the following

available

material, the solvent, the filler material, and

base material and the desired propertiesof the
three

The base material

solvent

adhesivematerials

adhesive

ingredients
gives

a suitable

the

may be missing.
adhesive the desired

viscosity and releasesthe

cure

the

spectrum

hardener.

one or

adhesive,

adhesion properties.The
of the

adhesive.

filler

267

Joining Processes

Materials:

Solid

to
to increase strength,
and so on. The hardener activates the
expansion,
and
The base material can be thermoplastic
such
artificial elastomers.
of
Other types
materials,
material

be added

may

adhesives. Thermoplasticbasematerials
vulcanized rubbers.Thermosetting
base
and

rubber,

on the

Depending

vinyl.

adhesives can be classifiedinto

reduce

or thermal

shrinkage

adhesive.

and

resins

thermosetting

as ceramics,can

as

be used

also

be polyamides,
vinyls, and nonmaterials
can be epoxies, phenolic
can

the

temperature,

setting

adhesives

cold-setting

thermosetting

low-molecular-

(normally

and hot-setting adhesives requiring

to produce
heat
resins)
Since
the
adhesives
soften
and
lose strength when
thermoplastic
cross-linking.
the temperature increases,they cannot
be used at elevated temperatures.
and thermoplastic
resins may be combined.
Thermosetting
As
of the proper
Selection
mentioned,
many types of adhesives are available.
one for a specificapplication
must
be done carefully and the recommendations
thermosetting

weight

of the

manufacturer

shown

in

and the

adhesive

0.3

overlap

the

and

mm

An important

8.18.

Fig.

Common

followed.

used

thickness

length is generally

overlap

adhesive

in

characteristic of a joint

/0. The

length

joints

is

in the

times

are

of the
range 0.05-

thickness

is the

normally

5-10

bonding

the

thickness

the

range

of

the workpiece.

The shear strengths

N/mm2,

but

obtainable

procedures

special

in adhesive bonding
and adhesives may result

mentioned, rapid development of excellent

increasedconsiderably
the use of adhesive

8.6

SURVEY

When

selecting

the

including

of

10-50

strengths. As
few
years has
past

metals.

JOINING METHODS

method for a

a joining

be considered,
Functional

OF THE

in

in higher

in the

adhesives
bonding

are

specific application,

many

factors

must

following:

requirements

Materials

Design (geometry)
Dimensions

Production

conditions

and rates

methods

Available

Economy

It should
resistance

be rememberedthat

welding

are

normally

Table 8.5 shows

materials.

the

soldering,

used to join
most

common

brazing,
thin

sheets

joining

adhesive
(<3

bonding, and

mm thick).

methods

and

the

suitable

Chapter 8

268

8.5

TABLE

Schematic

Survey of

Joining

Methods

and Suitable

Materials
Aluminum

Process

Steel

Gaswelding
Submerged-arc

welding

welding

Cast

steel

iron

alloys

copper
alloys

aluminum

TIG welding

C02

welding

Spot

welding

MIG

welding

Projection welding
Friction welding

Brazing

Soldering

Braze

welding

Adhesive bonding

Stainless

metal-arc

Shielded

Copper

(X)

(X)

(X)

Solid Materials:

8.7

Joining Processes
OF

EXAMPLES

TYPICAL

269
JOINING

PROCESSES

descriptions of some of the most frequently used joining

The processes are classifiedin a way similar to that used in
of basic process, type of energy,
Sections 6.3 and 7.4: accordingto the category
creation
transfer medium, material condition,and surface
principle. The
6.3. Because the field of welding
covers
abbreviations used
are the same as in Section
are
a very wide area, only
those
most frequently used in industry
processes
described.
Further
information
in the literature.
may be sought
of The Manufacturing Consortium, BrigFigures are providedby courtesy
ham
Provo, Utah.
Young
University,
In

this

processes

section

short

are given.

270

Chapter 8

PROCESS1:

Arc

Shielded

Localized

Description:

arc establishedbetween
The electrode,which

is obtained

melting

Ga, ODF)

heat from an electric

and the work material.

the

using

metal electrode

a consumable

material. The coating

acts as filler

is coated,

(T, El,

(Manual)

Welding

decomposes

around it, as well as forming a protectiveslag

arc, providing
that
oxidation
and
other
contamination of the weld. Further,
the
prevents
the
arc
stabilize
and
refinements.
The length of
coating helps
performs metallurgical
the electrode is 350-450mm, and the melting rate is 200-250 mm/min.
Since
the process is intermittent,
a welder
will usually have to stop and fit a new
electrode several
times in the course of making
a weld.
in the

shield

a gas

METAL CORE

\342\226\240M/t#aWMi/&

. FLUX COATINO
MOLTEN

TOOL

arc
metal

SOLIDIFIED SLAO .

'

WELDBEAD

and

///,\342\200\224
SLAO DEPOSITS

'

OASKOUS

SHIELD

\\

V-&

it can

shipbuilding
steel

mild

be used in

and

of joint

4 mm
of

weld

types.

and

are used
uses

as all

other

runs to

equipment
of material typically
the edges of the
chamfering
fill

Tolerances/Surfaces:
with few welds, ~5

the

portable

and can
3-30
two

parts

It

is a

be appliedto

process.
used

in

as many

low capital
range

a wide

mm, with thicknesses above

to be joined and a number

joint.

Light gages
mm,

put together.

types

Thickness

requiring

Machinery:

all

structural

electrodes

cost processwhich

welding is the most used welding

the process is widely
welding
positions,
Almost ten times
general
engineering.

metal-arc

Manual

Applications:

Because

with

many

Transformer (ac) or

with

few

\342\200\2421
mm.

welds,

welds,

~50 mm.

generator

(dc),

electrode

Heavy

holder,

gages

cables.

271

Solid Materials: JoiningProcesses

2:

PROCESS

Welding

Submerged-Arc

(T, El,

Ga, ODF)

Description:The heat for coalescence is provided by an electric arc struck

between the workpieceand the bare-metal,
consumable
also
electrode, which
delivers
the filler material. Shielding is ensured
a
blanket
of
flux
by
granular
over the area to be welded.The flux is of the same compositionand
deposited
fulfills
the same conditions as in shielded
arc welding.
Since the arc is
covered
the
currents
can be used without
flux, extremely high welding
completely
by
Currents
to
or
entrainment
of
air.
from
200
2000A
are
spatter
commonly used,
in a

resulting

very high

Submerged-arc

Applications:

mild and
It

is a

low

although

its main applications

with
welding has found
it has been used for other materials
as well.

automatic/semiautomatic
welding of
welds are long and straight. Flat butt welds
the most common joints produced.Ships,pressure
vessels,
are typical
fields of applications.
constructions, and storage tanks

method

steel

steels,

alloys

used

thicknessesabove
or fillet welds are
large

productivity.

for

mainly

5 mm

downhand

where the

on the fashioning of the parts to be

Tolerances/Surfaces:Highly
dependent
as
well
as
their
values
are a few millimeters
welded,
setup. Typical
per meter
weld
a
of
metal
has
almost
The
smooth
length
workpiece.
ripple-freesurface.

from

or

Machinery:

Semi-

10 to

50 m/hour.

For heavy

production

rates.

offeringhigher

Equipment

using

fully

continuous

automatic
gages

covered

machines,
welding
tandem
electrodes are
electrodes

is also

welding speeds
often used,

available.

272

Chapter8

This

Description:

is struck between

is fed

of aluminum,

welding

used with

Gas

Applications:

welding

the

when
equipment

may

The

joints
be used.

massive

steel.
electrode

the

with

is a very

for all-position

techniques,

pipes),

nonferrous

and

is about

current

include

shipbuilding,

Machinery:
melting

and a

used

in

the

is always

MIG welding
positive.

versatile process.With
welding

metal

semiautomatic

with

can

be welded from

welding

values

Welding machines

general engineering

that

are

1-5

provide

geometry

(pressure

of the

workpiece and

mm.
a regulated

electrode, a wire feeder which advances

gas, a control system to regulate gas flow
carries the electrode and gas to
which
gun,

of the

shielding

welds, typical

700 A.

industries.

automotive

Tolerances/Surfaces: Dependenton sizeand

on the number of

melts,

He are mainly

and

Ar

thicknesses

Maximum
served

industries

vessel tanks,

for

The electrode
gas. The

the competitive

steels

Higher

gas.
stainless

welding

is used

an arc

workpiece. Shieldingis
/nert Gas.

the protecting

supplies

which

in

with suitable choice of edgepreparation.

process at currents below250 A is manual metal-arc.
currents
than 250 A are used only
with
downhand
welding, and
are straight or simple circumferential
automatic
seams,

sheet gaugesup to
For

it

Using special

equipment.

arc

metal

process

and carbon dioxide.C02is used

and

and usually

than 250 A,

less

of

also

magnesium,

current

direct

for A/etal

acronym

which

used: argon, helium,

steel as it is the cheapest

weld

to

extensively

and the

electrode

MIG is an
gun,

arc welding

electric

an

wire

are

gases

following

(T, El, Ga, ODF)

Welding (MIG)

is

process

a consumable

by an inert gas.
a special
through

provided

currents

Metal-Arc

Gas

3:

PROCESS

dc source of power
the electrode as
and
the

electrode
workpiece.

it

feed,

Solid

4:
PROCESS
tungsten

(TIG) (T, El,

Welding

joining process

in

an arc

which

electrode
the workpiece. The tungsten
high melting point. Shielding of the

and

electrode

Gas

Inert

1\\ingsten

A metal

Description:

273

Processes

Materials: Joining

because of its extremely

the electrode is provided by an inert gas, typically
to the base material, is suppliedseparately
matched
usually required for

coil is fed

Although

Applications:

the leading

into

automatically

edge

joints,

joints,

inert

metal,

and

material,

a wire

weld

pool.

(up to 700 or 800 A)

welding is primarily

are
a process

close

or outside

cornerjoints.Because
the process

welds,

atomic, and

the aircraft,

weldingin

TIG

metal

molten

He. Filler

it must
parts. Before a surfacecan be welded,
or
action.
does
not
gas
fluxing
provide any cleaning
when welding single-pass or double-sided
butt

best

and gives high-quality

thick

is struck between a
is not consumed

or rod. It is not
filler
wire from a
welding,
as

edge of the

currents

welding

high

the welding of
possible, permitting
for welding sheet metal
or small

be clean, becausethe
The process is at its

mechanized

With

materials.

thin

Ar or

Ga, ODF)

is

greatly

industries.

instrument

it is

so easily

favored

mechanized

for precision

Various

automatic

devices

are available.
Similar

Tolerances/Surfaces:

clean,

very

smooth,

Machinery:
a water

The equipment

supply to cool

rod. Powersuppliescan
reverse

polarity

magnesium.

to MIG

welding. The finished weld is usually

and uniform.

is seldom

the

be

consists of a power
supply,
a
and a filler
gun,
shielding
gas,
welding
Dc
polarity.
straight polarity or dc reverse

for
torch,

ac/dc

TIG

used except

welding

occasionallyfor

welding

aluminum

and

Chapter 8

274

PROCESS5:

beam

Electron

welding

(T, El,

Va,

ODF)

as a metal joining
is defined
Electron beam welding
process
is produced by the heat of a concentrated stream of high-velocity
into heat upon impact
The kinetic energy of the electronsare changed
to 5 x 1012W/m2,
at
the
work
can
amount
Energy density
workpiece.
arc
In most
for
other
than
welding
process.
higher figure
any
is used.
filler material

Description:
where melting
electrons.
the

with

a much
applicationsno

DC

FILAMENT SUPPLY

<&>

CONTROL

ELECTRODE
ANODE

rocus coil .

&
WORKPIECE

P7

ZZ2

Because of the

of a vacuum chamber, the

requirement
it
also
makes
The chamber
be
limited.
somewhat
may
geometries
The
the beam.
difficult to position the work and align the joint precisely under
beam as a heat source results in a deep, narrow
of the electron
high density
is
thickness
a very narrow heat-affected zone. Typical
with
penetration
welding
are typically
in the range of 0.02 to 0.3
between
5 and 100 mm, and gap widths
mm. Joints must be machined and fitted
accurately.

Applications:

possibleworkpiece

Tolerances/Surfaces:

affected zone permit

values

being

0.1-0.5

high

cost

components

characteristic
on

finished

narrow

beam

parts to exacting

and

narrow

heat-

tolerances, typical

mm.

features
of the equipment are the electron gun,
Important
chamber. Because of
and beam-control system, and the working
for high-quality
of the equipment, the process is used primarily
other welding processes cannot be applied.
and when

Machinery:
focusing

The
welding

the

the

SolidMaterials:

Laser Beam

PROCESS 6:

specific

is a

welding

heat

the

beam
lenses
and

obtained

Ga, ODF)

metal joining
from a narrow

can travel long

to produce

beam

distances

spots
only by

is equaled

process

in

without

which

the

that

attenuation

the energy

electron

produces

of coherent,

beam.

density
No

which is
and delivery of the beam,
for the generation
each
medium (gas: C02; solids:Nd-YAG),
type having
The laser output can be pulsedor continuous.
Shielding
gas
nozzle most often coaxially with the beam protects the weld.

is required

chamber

generated

(T, El,

Welding

Description: Laserbeam
melting of materials with
This
monochromatic light.
and may be focused through
amounts to over 1012W/m2
vacuum

275

Processes

Joining

in

a laser

characteristics.

blown through a
no filler
Typically,

material is used.

LASER UNIT

^^2ZZ^tS3S5^)

.NOZZLE

SHIELDING CMS

Applications:
manufacturingindustry
penetration
capabilities.

joints, edge
geometries. Because

new technology
in the
welding is a relatively
is seeing wider use becauseof its pinpoint
heat and
Typical
welding thicknesses are between0.3 and 10 mm. Butt
workpiece
flangejoints, and various lap joints are typical
of the limited dimensions of the beam,
high precision is required

Laser

but

Micro-spot welding of electroniccomponents,

field
of
spread of heat is required, is a growing
by guiding the laser beam
application.
Very complicated welds may be produced
in space without
and mirrors to any desired
loss
via
lenses
position
significant
of energy.

of the componentsto
where

particularly

be

welded.

minimum

Tolerances/Surfaces:
Machinery:
laser

gun

(often

The equipment

As

for

electron

beam welding

The essential
equipment for
COz or Nd:YAG, the workholding
is expensive.

(see Process 5).

laser beamwelding
device,

and the

includes

the

power supply.

Chapter 8

276

PROCESS7:

Spot

(T, El,Ri,

Welding

TF)

is a process
in which contacting metal
surfaces
Spot welding
from
resistance
to
The
the
heat
obtained
electric
current
flow.
by
electric current
the heat is introduced to the work
electrodes
in
generating
through
to place
contact with the work, resulting in a weld nugget. Pressure is required
The diameter of the
and is an important
the parts in contact
process
parameter.
of the weld and must be
the size and shear strength
affects
electrodesdirectly
adjusted accordingto the thickness of the work.

Description:

are joined

ELECTRODE

Mwftttm.

POWER

SUPPLY

WORKPIECENUOOET

WELD

of sheet
welding is extensively applied in the joining
in mild and stainless steels, heat-resistingalloys,
of operation,
ease of
aluminum
and
speed
alloys, etc. The high
copper
the
absence
of edge
nature of the lap joint, and
mechanization, the
self-jigging
spot welding
preparation or filler metal are attractive features of the resistance
for mild steel are: current
200-400A,
parameters
process. Typical welding
Spot

Applications:

metal (thickness^3

time per

welding

nugget

resultant

geometry,

tolerances,

Machinery:
different

special

0.15-1

The

Tolerances/Surfaces:
inaccuracies.
Size,

mm)

s, welding

shaping,
values
typical

Because of the
types

of

holding

being

about

wide variety

of spot-welding

N/mm2.

as such introduces no

process

and

pressure 70-100
the workpieces
2 mm.

of applications,

machines, all

containing

serious
determine

there are

the

many

a power

supply

of current,
time, and pressure;
(transformer); arrangements for the setting
electrode holders;
and water supply for cooling of the electrodes.

PROCESS8:
Description:
convection

277

Joining Processes

Materials:

Solid

Gas

Welding

this

In

process

and radiation.

Ga, ODF)

(T, Ch,

heat is transferred from

The welding

a flame to

the

work

by combustion

is produced

flame

by

of

and acetylene
is to bring
(C2H2) in a torch, the function of which
(02)
mix them, and form a flame with
together correct volumes of gas and oxygen,
suitable
characteristics.
steel
Acetylene and oxygen are suppliedin separate
oxygen

cylinders

in

between

the

cylinders

supply

some shielding
separate rod.

necessitating pressure regulators and gauges

and the torch. The outer zone of the flame provides
of the weld. Filler material
oxidation
is supplied
from a

form,

compressed

against

OXYGEN
FILLER

METAL

a
I
WORKPECE

The gas welding

Applications:
applications

as

introduction,

in places

the

where electric

power is not

has

process

more efficient Shielded Arc

its use has declined. Today, it

Tolerances/Surfaces:
holding of the workpieces

2-5

\342\200\242ACETYLENE

same fields of

processes; and since

used primarily
for repair work

and
is

about the

MIG

iheir
and

available.

Depending
primarily
as well as on the number

upon

of

size,

welds,

geometry,

and

typical values being

mm.

Machinery:
welding torch,

connecting

The
pressure
hoses.

necessary equipment is fairly

cheap
bottles for oxygen and acetylene,

and consists

of a

regulators,gauges, and

Chapter 8

278

PROCESS9:

(T,

Soldering/Brazing

Ri/Ga,

El/Ch,

ODF/TF)

and brazing the gap betweenthe parts

to be joined
a lower melting
metal
by adding
having
point than that of the
is not melted.
Coalescence is thus brought
about primarily
through
of similar or dissimilar metallic materials. Heat
adhesion, permitting
joining
be supplied through electric, chemical, or thermal
Surfaces
to be
may
energy.
action can distribute
joined must be clean and shaped correctly so that capillary
the
filler
material
in the joints. Filler metals are available
in a wide variety of

Description:

In

soldering

is bridged
work, which

a liquid

shapes, sizes,and

consistencies.

Soldering

Applications:

methods,

temperature

joining
little

the

in

primarily

and

are

brazing

mass

producing
compared to welding,

distortion

joining

important

industrially

Because of

industries.
of

the

lower

the

causes

assembly

difficulty.

filler materials

When

with

melting

temperatures

joining process is called soldering.Such fillers

much used in the electronics industries.
The name brazing
is used for the process

may
when

temperatures above450\302\260C. Ag-Cu-Zn

used for sheet or tube
joining.

with melting
examples often

Tolerances/Surfaces:

and

geometry,
Machinery:
soldering
resistance

holding

A heat

for single
and
furnaces,

iron

of

below 450\302\260Care used,

be Pb-Sn alloys, which
employing

and Cu-Zn

filler

a gas welding

torch

are

materials

alloys are

As for gas welding, tolerancesdependmainly

the work. Typical values are 0.5-1 mm.

source such as

the

or an

on

electric

electrical
piece production or repair work. Salt baths,
so on, are used in mass producing
industries.

size,

Solid Materials:

Adhesive

Description:
or semiliquid

Bonding

(M, T/Ch,

is a

bonding

state is applied to

process

. . .)

Ri/Fl,

in which

a substancein

a liquid

to provide permanent
and/or heat of
pressure,

workpieces

adjoining

through the action

to curing

due

bonding

Adhesive

10:

PROCESS

279

Joining Processes

of a catalyst,

or dissimilar materials may be joined

and the workpieces,
the
adhesive material
place
bonding
come in a wide variety
of
Adhesives
not between the workpiecesthemselves.
of
has
in
the
metals
adhesives
increased
and
and
forms,
by
rapidly
types
joining
to be joined must be clean, preciselyaligned,
and kept
past few years. The parts
to
aid
adhesion
of
at
of
force
the
the
source
a
Curing
workpieces.
together by
is usually
controlled time and temperature
necessary.

nonmetallic

material.

bonding

since the

Similar

between

takes

ADHESIVES

LIQUIDS
PASTHS

(\342\200\242\"
fg>

u '

CLUB STICKS

-Z>

APPLICATORS

The geometrical possibilities for adhesivebonding

are
in such areas as the automotive,
construction,
applications
and medical industries
other
as well as in making joints for wood and

Applications:
virtually unlimited,

aerospace,

with

lightweight

relatively

0.1 to 10N/mm2
range

may

joined

to

solids.

Several

from

while

5 to

gauge
automated

heavy

fabrication materials.
resultant

100 N/mm2.

Bonding

pressure

may

range

from

depending on the adhesiveused

include thin sheets or foils
Typical
geometries
mounted component parts, and fabrics to

shear strength,

workpieces,
systems for

applying

the

adhesive

are available.

on the size, geometry,

Tolerances/Surfaces: Dependsprimarily
a
0.2-1
mm
workpieces,
being
typical range.

and

holding

of the

is varied,
and
Machinery: The essentialequipment
including hot glue guns
both
of
which
a
are
to
adhesives
in
used
caulking
guns,
apply
essentially
paste
or semiliquid form. Spray applicatorsare used to apply liquid adhesives and can

be automated,

whereas

brushes

are manipulated

manually.

Materials:

Granular

Powder

9.1
As
the

Metallurgy

INTRODUCTION

in Chapter

described
solid,

granular,

the shaping
can

1, the forming

liquid

of materials can be done from

state of the work
material
in
the material.
Shaping and stabilization

or shaping

to the

state\342\200\224referring

phase prior to stabilization

sometimes

The

or

of

be integrated.
of

manufacture

a product

from the

granular

or

state covers,

particle

in

as
such
general,
spectrum of materials and componentsor products,
carbide tools
or
cemented
metal
sand
tool
(sintered
inserts),
components,
powder
and
bread.
molds, ceramics, concrete, tablets,
A granular material is a mixture
of solid grains or particles possiblyof
Each grain or particle may
of smaller units,
for
be a combination
varying sizes.
the crystals
used
for
in metal grains. Granular materials are generally
example,
one or more of the following
reasons:
a broad

material is only

The particular
granular

The

or can

available

only be producedin

the

state.

desired

obtained
Manufacture

properties (porosity, combination

from

granular

of the product is cheaper

Small components

of materials,

etc.)

can

only be

materials.

are difficult

to

than

produce

by

other

methods.

by other methods.

281

Chapter9

282
of

Production

from

components

granular materials

will

generally

follow

the

same pattern:
Production of the
Conditioning

granular

material

or preparation

for

stabilization

and

shaping

Shaping

Stabilization of the

shape

operations

Finishing

on the material and the requirements

of the
these
component,
In this context, only
different
basic processes.
the production
of
phases involve
this area is, in general,
metal powder componentswill be discussed;
called
Depending

powder

metallurgy.

the last

Within
increased

has

decade,

to come. This

the

The production of simpleor complicated

and with high dimensional
operation
A

100%) material

(nearly

high

final

The

even if

properties,

from metal

of components

production

with a probable yearly

to one or more of the

rapidly,
is due

of 10-20%

expansion

powders

in the

years

reasons:

following

can be

geometries

performed

in

one

accuracy.

utilization.

not on

are

they

the same

level as corresponding

are satisfactory for most applications.

materials,
of
that can be produced
production
components
by other

solid
The

with

Powder

is

metallurgy

Powder metallurgy
sections

the characteristics

9.2

of powder

economic

process

in many situations.

with casting, hot and cold forging, and

involve several operations. In the following

discussed

metallurgical

post-sintering

sintering,

compacting,

are

normally

processes

treatments,

(powders,

etc.), properties and

[28-31].

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POWDER

PROCESSES

METALLURGICAL

Production
the

only

primarily

competes

methods

cutting.

applications

most

the

These

preparation,

methods

difficulty.

of a

componentby

stages

following

Production or selectionof
including

Preparation,

Pressing
Sintering

powder

metallurgy

or phases:

the

powder
mixing

and

or compacting
or

Post-sintering

heat

treatment

treatment, if necessary

blending

techniques

normally involves

Granular Materials:Powder
Metal

9.2.1

283

Metallurgy

Powders

have been developed.

Different methods for the production of metal powders
and electrolytic
The most important
are the reduction of ores, atomizing,
deposition.
In conventional
powder metallurgy, powders producedby the reduction
of powders
but in recent years the
of ores are used extensively,
application
produced

by

has increased

atomization

deposition are used only

is decreasing. The types
the

final

for
and

of the

properties

Powders

rapidly.

component, so that

by electrolytical

produced

purposes, and the market

of the powders have
properties

for these

special

powders
on
knowledge of

a major

a fundamental

influence

is important.

powders

Produced

Powders

by

the

of Ores

Reduction

to produce iron powders. The purity

The reduction processis used primarily
of the powder is directly related to the purity
of the ore. In the production
of iron
and
iron
ore
is
heat-treated
in
sealed
coal
drums
with
dry
together
powders, pure
and
chalk
at
about
about
1200\302\260C
for
h
90
dust, coke, gravel,
(the Hoeganaes

method).After
heat-treated

and

this

reduction,

the resulting

iron

sponge

in a

to provide
hydrogen
atmosphere
contain
The
powders
powder particles.

cake is crushed,
a reduction of the

ground,

oxides

the impurities from the

anneal the
and a single grain
unsuitable
has many
internal pores, making the powder
ores,
for pressing to very high densities,
as it will require
high pressures
enormously
the
to close these internal
on the production
conditions,
Depending
pores.
number and
is
size of the internal
and
of
the
the
general shape
grains
pores
vary,
In
to
iron
nonferrous
addition
metal,
cobalt,
irregular.
powder,
molybdenum,
and tungsten
of ores.
powders can be producedby the reduction
and to

Powders Produced

by

Atomization

from
the liquid state, which
the powders are produced
gives
freedom
of
in
in
the
choice
materials
and
the
great
alloying process. The purity
of the powders
is directly related to the raw materials
and the melting and
sizes
of
the
The
and
can
wide
be varied within
refining
shapes
particles
processes.
on
the
limits,
depending
process
parameters.
A flow of liquid
metal
an orifice is broken up by a jet stream of gas
through
or inert gases),
water steam, or water.
Gas
atomization
(air
gives spherical and
without
large particles; water atomization
gives smaller and irregular
grains

In atomization,

internal

pores.

can be

Atomization
stainless),

lead,

The use

zinc,

used to producepowdersof
bronzes, brasses, and

aluminum,

of powdersproduced

by

atomization

purity obtainable, the alloying

possibilities,
be mentioned
that in the past, the price for
for reduction
than
powders, but now these

steels

iron,
so

has increased

and the

(including

on.
rapidly

due

powder properties. It
atomization
has been
powders
prices are comparable.

to the
should
higher

Chapter9

284

PowdersProducedby

Deposition

Electrolytic

is crushed
After electrolytic deposition, the metal
to
the
desired
sizes.
Iron
grinding
grain
powdersproduced

and ground

are more

or atomization.

powders

electrolytic

density,

purity,
As
exist.

expensivethan

mentioned

will

They

produced

by

by reduction

for

The
high

(including

processes

by these

processes

applications.

special

powdercan

deposition

electrolytic

only where their special

properties
and compressibility)
can be utilized.
several other powder manufacturing
previously,
not be described here, as the powders
produced
are used

are used only

A metal

those

mill

by

be

characterized

by:

Chemical composition

Particle-sizedistribution
Particle

(spherical,

shape

irregular)

Surface characteristics
structure

Internal

Flow

(pores,

(ASTM

ability

etc.)

213.48/212.48)

Compressibility

Green

(strength

strength

after

compaction)

Sintering properties or sintering

abilities

(change

of dimensions,

strengths,

etc.)

these characteristics, severaltesting

have been developed
methods
(SAE/ASTM/MPI standards or recommendations).
Powder
manufacturers
about
their
supply all the necessary information
these should be studied carefully before selecting a powder
for a
powders, and
specific application.
Most of the listed characteristicsor properties of the powder
influence the pressing and sintering
as well as the green
and final
processes
To describe

strengths.

the

In

information

additional

9.2.2

context, powders will not

present
can be found in the literature

Preparation

be described

further,

but

[30].

of the Powder

of metal powder components

is the
The preparation
of a powder
for compaction and sintering.
consistsmainly of mixing or blending to obtain a uniform distribution of the
must be carried out
base
and alloying elements. The mixing
process
powder
Too heavy mixing may cause strain
wear of the particles
hardening,
carefully.
the
and so on. Recommendations from
against each other,
layering,
An

stage

important

preparation

of the

must
manufacturer

in the production

powder

be followed.

or external lubrication.
can be provided
as internal
(zinc stearate or stearic acid, 0.25-1% by
and decreasing
the powder, increasing its compressibility

Lubrication
lubrication,

mixed

with

a lubricant

In

internal

weight)

is

its green

Granular Materials:Powder

285

Metallurgy

1
\342\200\242H

sx
\342\200\242H

W
W
d)
M

/1

o
u

m
\342\200\242h

S^

*>%
\342\226\240H
tn
4J *\342\226\240\342\200\224\302\273

^,^***

-\342\200\224\342\200\224\"\342\226\240'

>i

^C^-

TJ
0)

\342\200\242H

tt

#-l

4J

r^\"^\"

of

The influence

9.1

FIGURE

(%)

element

Alloying

compressibility of steel

on the

elements

alloying

powders [28].

After pressing, the

strength.

before

375-425\302\260C),

the die

lubrication,only

drive out

the

in a

sintering

walls are

is driven

lubricant

lubricated,avoiding
method does not

but this

lubricant,

out by heat
the

the

Considering
nonmetallic

and

elements
thus

elements,

alloying

alloying

diffusion rates
In general,
nonmetallic

other

must be
varying

require

metallic

between

distinction

made, sincethey

have

quite

sintering times to obtain

iron powder should contain very small amounts

alloying elements, as theseincreasethe hardness

the compressibility (see Fig. 9.1).The compressibility

for a compacting pressure of 400 N/mm2.
density obtained
to mix the powder with graphite
(1% graphite results
so that good compressibility is retained.
sintering)
Alloying

require

reduce the

and

different

of carbon

is measured
The

in

preferred
a steel with

and

and decrease

as the
method is
0.8%C after

the powder with the right amounts of metallic elements

by mixing
a very long sintering
time
to achieve a homogeneous structure. To
time required,
as the
sintering
prealloyed powders are preferred,
is not

in compressibility

are used,alloying
which

the improved

provide

structure.

homogeneous

reduction

air at

necessary to
flow and

treatment

heat

(in

external

properties.

compaction

will

treatment

controlled atmosphere.In

requires

with

metallic

a special

alloying

very

severe

elements
stage.

(see Fig. 9.1). If reduction powders

is normally based on partial
alloying,
The pure powder is mixed with
the

286

Chapter

has taken

powder

place.

During

an

that

final

the

If atomization

is completed.

diffusion

so

heat-treated

and

elements

alloying

incomplete

sintering,

diffusion into the base

after compaction, the

powders are used, a regular

is produced directly from

true

or

alloying

is obtained, as the alloyed

the
state.
powder
liquid
Such powders are called prealloyed
powders.
In the past decade, a rapid
increase
in the consumption of partial alloyed
and prealloyed
(reduction)
(atomization) powders has taken
powders
By
place.
excellent mechanical properties of the components
can be
using these
powders,
obtained with tensile
in the range 400-1000 N/mm2,
and even values
strengths
of 1500 N/mm2
can be reached
with
and more expensive powders. The
special
elements
are primarily
Cu, Ni, Mo, and Mn. Stainless Steel powders
alloying
are being employed at an increasing
rate. The development of powdersleading
to high-strength
for
market
considerably increases the potential
components
powder metallurgy.
The
above focused on iron and steel powders, but it must be
discussion
that

a wide

brass,

bronze,

emphasized
including

of
Pressing or Compacting

9.2.3
The

of pressing

technology

requiring

are

powders

available,

powders.

Powders

or compactingis a

and

broad

complicated

ingenuity. Therefore,

of engineering

degree

high

the

subject,
description

be consideredas elementary.

here must

given

spectrum of nonferrous metal

nickel and zinc
aluminum,

Background

section

In this

the

compacting

the

as

The

apparent
in

(resulting

effect of the different

on die
powders
die design principles(i.e.,

the

various

specifiedby

powder

is specified

the

desired

by

its

density,

compressibility

strength, tolerances, and

curve, that is, its

pressure (double-actionpressing)(seeFig.9.2a).
or filling density is 2.4 g/cm3 and for a compaction
ratio of 2
half the original height), the density
will
be 4.8 g/cm3 For practical

function

density

before

are discussed.

methods)

The component is

so on, and

for the

background

design is discussedbriefly

of compacting

ratio must be in the range 2.5-2.8,

corresponding to
9.2b
shows
the
6-7
compressionratio versus
rage
g/cm3. Figure
9.2
a
new
curve
the punch motion
From
showing
pressure.
Fig.
compacting
of the compacting
be
based
the die as a function
can
constructed
within
pressure
and
shows
that
for 100% punch motion. Such a curve
on the desired density
is already
carried out at compacting pressures of
about 85% of the motion
For the remaining 15% of the motion,
the compaction
200
N/mm2.
pressure

purposes,the
densities

must

increase

compaction
short

in

press
travel

compaction

the

from

200 to

is required
length.

about

800-1000

only to provide

N/mm2,
high

which means

compacting

pressures

that

the

over a very

Powder

Materials:

Granular

.Filling

(apparent)

400

200

(a)

in

the

components
components

of

because

600

200

800

PressureN/mro

Pressure

(b)

as a

function of

1000

800

600

400

Density and compression ratio

9.2

Approximately
densities

^ratio

2.4

density

iron powder

Compression

(g/cm )

Density

FIGURE

287

Metallurgy

N/mm

for

pressure

compacting

[30].
of the

have
industrially applied powdercomponents
few
but
in
the
the
years,
application of
g/cm3,
past
has
the
7.0-7.2
densities
in
increased;these
g/cm3
range
having
excellent
have
mechanical properties. This has becomeeconomical
with
wear resistance
the development of better die materials
higher
90%

range 5.7-6.8

and powders

with

compressibility.

high

is generally achieved through

volume
The filling
of the die cavity
dosing
where the powder flows into the cavity and excess powder is scrapedoff, giving
must be
tolerances
of \302\2611%. If higher accuracy is required, dosing by weight
used, but this is more tedious.
When

the

powder

phase

ejection

must

has
be

been compacted, it
carefully,

considered

must

since

be ejected
fracture

from
may

The

die.

the

arise

at weak

forces
act
when the elastic energy is released,or when
the
of the powder surface. To obtain
over a small fraction
optimal
production,
and ejection
must
analyze both the compaction
designer of the component
before
on
the
final
geometry.
phases carefully
deciding
points

or

weak

Compacting

sections,

or Pressing

Thedesiredcomponent

Principles

in general, have a
must,
When
compacting powder in a cavity
throughout.
(single-action
(Fig. 9.3a), the properties
pressing)
distribution
due to friction
nonuniform
between
density
and the die walls. This means
between the particles

uniform

of the
the
that

distribution

density

with

one movable
cause

powder

individual
density

punch

grains and

decreases

with

Chapter 9

288

Vi

Y/

111
\302\253

%m&4

2#

\342\231\246

Ippf
4

\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240:\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240-4

a)

(b)

111

it

I\"
t

\302\243

Jr

h2,P

\342\226\240

(d)

(c)

77 h'\342\200\242:\"\342\226\240'/V

P^|i;^
sw

am.*

11

K?

N$

*:.'i

it
I

^^3
FIGURE

action

I-

9.3
pressing;

(e), (f) examples

E5SSS555J
Powder
(c),

of

compaction

(d) compaction
double-action

SSWS

KSSS^to

(b) doubleprinciples: (a) single-action

pressing;
of components
with more than one level in height;
with sectional punches.
compaction

Granular Materials: Powder Metallurgy

9.4

FIGURE

The

four

main

principles

289

of die

design

in

powder

compacting

[30].

increasing distance from the punch. Because of this, only nearly plane and thin
can be produced satisfactorily by single-action
components
By
compaction.
sides
from
both
(double-action
pressing
density
pressing) a more uniform
a reasonably
distribution
can be obtained
(see Fig. 9.3b). To obtain
good density
ratio
the
should
be
below
1-Vh
whenever
distribution,
height/width
kept
possible. For the compaction
of components with different
levels in height, it is
to
lower
to
section
the
obtain
the
same
necessary
punch
compression ratio (i.e.,
the
9.3c
and
d) (Ah,/Ah,,
density)
throughout
component (see Fig.
p = Ah2/
f show
of
die
when
sectioned
Ah2,
p). Figures 9.3e and
examples
design
are necessary.
punches
how
the die
Figure 9.4 shows the four main die design principles, illustrating
The single-action compaction, Fig. 9.4a,
design affects the pressing
equipment.
two motions:
an active pressing motion,
requires
by the upper punch,
provided
and an ejection
motion, provided by the lower punch. As mentioned, only thin
flat components can be produced
by this method.
Double-action compaction (Fig 9.4b) requires
the same number of motions as
the
difference
single-action
only
being that the lower punch is
compaction,
active during
not simply used for ejection. During
the
compaction,
compaction,
two punches move against
each
other with the same velocity.About
80%
of all
powder components in the United States and about 40% in Europe are produced
and

in

this

way.

9.4c shows compaction with a floating

container or die, where the
lower punch is stationary
during the compaction phase. An effect similar to that
of double-action compactionis obtained
moves
container, which
by the floating
down a distance equal to half of the punch
between
the
travel, because of friction
Figure

Chapter 9

290

powderand
farther

or by

moving

In

with the lower punch

the lower punch upward.
a controlled
with

down,

compacting

(Fig. 9.4d), the

mechanical

crank, cam,

(eccentric,

press

can be

press

hydraulic
there

free,

container

the

of

down

the container

moving

by

by moving the
the component is

motion

withdrawal

out

is carried

ejection

either

until

stationary

the

until

is free.

component
Any

Ejection may be carried out

die walls.

the

container

used

with

in powder

possibilities

of powder compactionand the

of die design can be found

descriptions

knuckle

and

any

dies, provided

that

etc.)

joint,

withdrawn

room for the tooling.

is sufficient

The geometrical
principle

and

floating

compaction depend

on

primarily

the

engineer. Moredetailed

of the
ingenuity
in the literature

[30].

Sizing and Coining

If

and/or the mechanical

obtained
properties
of the compacts producedby one of the
a sizing or coining operation can be
unsatisfactory,

tolerances

dimensional

the

after the sintering

methods described

(or

heat

treatment)

aboveare

carried out.
The

which is carried

at moderate

compacting
pressures,
of the product. For a small batch of
the primary pressing or compacting
die can be used to carry out
components,
the sizing
of compacts
of the compact. Large batches
are normally sized in a
an
die using
inexpensive
sizing press.
special
The coining operation serves two purposes:
the mechanical
improving
and improving
properties of the product
the dimensional
tolerances. The mechanical
of the compact,
which
propertiescan be improved only by increasing the density
means high compacting
or
to
than
the
(higher
equal
primary
pressures
sizing

serves to

operation,
the

improve

in general, coining requires a specialdie for the purpose,

than the primary die, because of the higher
quality
pressures

higher

and the adverse

When

accuracy

Thus,

pressures).
compacting

often of a

dimensional

out

wear conditions.
is involved,

coining

the

out between the

carried

process

sintering

incomplete
primary compacting and the coining operation is often
the form of pre-sintering for a short time and at a temperature

below
After
excellent

of

the

the normal
coining,

the compact is

mechanical

product

properties

fully

sufficient

but

temperature

sintering

sintered,

are exceptionally

high,

a sizing

takes

considerably

to anneal

producing

and dimensional

and

the

compact.

with

a component

tolerances. If the

requirements

may follow the

operation

coining operation.

Details

of sizing

and

coining

operations

are described

Various Compacting or Shaping Methods

The
axial pressing
methods described above are
methods

for the

production of constructional

metal

by
powder

in

far

the

literature

the most
components.

[30].

important

To pro-

Granular Materials: Powder

duce specialized

components,

been

have

processes

291

Metallurgy

in

often

two of

developed,

to shape,

difficult

materials

various

here.

described

are

which

is placed in a deformable
container
Isostatie Compaction. Here the powder
is subjected
mild
to a high fluid
made of plastic, rubber,
steel, and so on, which
pressure in a heavy pressure chamber. The container is removed after the
densities can be obtained with
this
which is
method,
compact
compaction.
High

used to producehigh-speedsteel products

components. It

last few years

the

many other specialized

at
high temperatures, and
compaction
has become relatively widely
used
in industry.

to carry

is possible

process

out

Extrusion and Rolling.

properties, different
field of
9.2.4

green

is expanding

compact
necessary

to acquire

surface

particles,

If sintering
constituents,

Solid-state

is used

phase

liquid

sintering

state sintering
will

sintering

will

the

and

the

of

If sintering is carried
two constituents,
sintering with

a liquid

as carbidesand
here,

the

at temperatures

out

components;

for special products such

given the most attention

the

applied.
of

points

the

obtained

shape of

pressure

the melting

structural

and

size

compacting

below

is used for all

practical
factors in

The properties

material,
the

strength

the

important

atmosphere.

of

the

and

results.

although

sintering

phase
with a
Solid-

ceramics.

liquid-phase

phases

briefly.
the particles in the compact
form a coherent whole.
sintering,
in the sintering process can be identified.

first phase, the contact

grow and form rounded

areas

(or contact points) between the

is still present in the
porosity

necks, but
channels.
interconnecting
the second
phase, the necks grow

particles

form

of

of channels gradually
tend
to
become
time,
pores.
spherical,the
smaller
ones vanishing and the larger
in
thus
the average
size;
increasing
size
but
total
the
decreases
increases,
pore
slowly.
only
porosity
reduces

second

combination
of

to isolated

In

and

the

only

phase

the

network

the pores

first phase
is fully completed,
is partially completed, resulting
channels and isolated
interconnecting

In practice,
the

and

temperatures

In the

In

This

chosen.

be

be described

solid-state

Two major

be

porosity

characteristics,

points

causes

which

to decrease,

by the powder

sintering

the melting

between

time,

takes place at

solid-state

process,

these changes. The most

the temperature,
the
are
influenced
sintering
their

its

and

sinteringare

In

or rolled
and the desired

rapidly.

both the

covers

sintering

to increase

operations

results.

in the

Sintering

The term

after

state. Dependingon the material

of heating and processing may

sequences

production

to manufacture extruded

is possible

It

the powder

from

products directly

and

the

and depending
in a product

pores.

on conditions,
with

Chapter9

292
The

takes the form of

generally

process

sintering

of the free

surfaceenergy

mass transportation

with

force. Theoretically, the

force
will not disappear before the surfacearea
a minimum (i.e.,
reaches
driving
to
surface
area
of
the
the
external
But
the
time
to proceed from
compact).
equal
the
end
of the first phase to this
ideal
situation
is so great that it never occurs
in practice.
The mass transportation
mentioned
here is carried out
by plastic
surface
deformation,
diffusion, and volume diffusion. Of
evaporation/condensation,
these,the surface and volume diffusion are the most important. The sintering
mechanism is not discussed
further
here, but detailed descriptionscan be found
in the literature
[30].
The sintering temperature and time have a major
influence
on the final
properties of the product.
The density
of the component
is approximately
independent
of temperature
and time. The shrinkage
of the component
(0.1-0.3% by
is balanced by a loss in weight
from the reduction of surfaceoxides,the
volume)
of lubricants,
and so on. For iron powders the tensile strength
evaporation
when the temperature has passed 650\302\260C. This
increases
generally
considerably
in strength
slows down when
the temperature
has exceeded about
increase
900\302\260C.
Iron
are normally sintered in the range 900-1150\302\260C.
The sintering
time
powders
iron
has considerable influence on the final tensile strength. When sintering
at 11S0\302\260C, about 85% of the maximum obtainablestrength
powder
to a sintering
time of 2 h) is obtained
after 15 min. Often, sintering
times
(corresponding
minimization

range 0.5-1.5

in the

with

componentvaries

tensile

coining,

gone too far,

much. For
in

used

are

temperature

the driving

in practice. The
and time in a way

similar

final

the

of

ductility

to

in

variation

the

strength.

During

when

as

smallest forces are required when

the sintering
has not
words when the mechanical strength
has not increased
too
is
in
carried
out
the
powders,
pre-sintering
range 650-850\302\260C,
the

in other
iron

have become

the particles

higher
out in

necessitating
is carried

strength,

without

annealed

fully

any significant

increase

coining pressures.

to prevent oxidation
protective
atmosphere
to
remove
to
from
reduce
heating
existing oxides,
gasesresulting
during
to
the
and
other
and
control
the heating of lubricants
carburization
material,
of iron and iron-rich compacts. The most commonly
and decarburization
used
on
and
are
actual
the
material
the
(the
type
depends
purpose)
atmospheres
Sintering

and

dissociated

hydrogen,

gases,

is carried

Sintering
continuous

or

batch

In recent
developed,

burned

ammonia,

ammonia, exothermic and

endothermic

vacuum.

and

out

in various

furnaces,

which

can

be of

the

type.

years, a new process

the spark sintering

dischargedfrom

types of

a capacitor

combining
process.

and sintering
has
compacting
a high-energy electrical

Here,

bank removes,

within

a second

or two, the

been

spark
oxides

Granular Materials:Powder

Metallurgy

and other

the

is pressed
in

been

has

to

different

many

but

materials,

it

to a

subjected

10 s,

desired

the

obtain

then

about

the

and

density.

is not

powder

This

yet widely

used

industry.

The

different.

discussion of sintering

foregoing

one of the

major

of

involves

very

accuracy

carbides

sintered

the process

sintering,

during

sintering. When
is quite

solid-state

high volume shrinkages, of

than that of solid-state sintering.
(WC, TiC, etc., with cobalt as a binder) is

phase

dimensional

lower

only

example.

important

9.2.5

a liquid

with

Sintering

covers

is liquid

constituents

40-60%, causing
The production
an

to

applied

for

maintained

the electrodes

between

further

which are

particles,

is

current

The

pressure.

compaction

process

from

contaminants

293

Treatments

Post-Sintering

(Finishing Operations)
desired properties
after sintering to obtain

the

on

Depending

a product

treat

of the component,it
these

properties.

be necessary

may

These

to

finishing

take
the form
operations may
be specially developed for particular compacts or may
of conventional processes. A few of these processes are describedbriefly
next.

A wide variety
of self-lubricating
bearings are made from
with a type of lubricant,
impregnated
mostly oil. The compact,
is produced
which
with a porosity of 25-35%, is immersed
in heated
oil under
so that the network of pores is filled
with
oil. The
pressure or is vacuum-treated,
at a rate depending on the load and the
lubricant is released during
service
The
are generally bronze or iron-based.
materials
temperature.
The
of compacts with plastics, for example, can be carried out
impregnation
Impregnation.

compacts

porous

to achieve
or

or airtight
other desired

pressure-

to produce

by closing

components,

the pores prior to plating

properties.

in the
are closed by filling
compact
of
the major
constituent
melting point than
the compact. The infiltration
can be carried
out either in a special pre-sintering
normal
The infiltration material can be applied
process or during
sintering.
upon
or below the compact as a solidwhich
at the actual sintering
melts
temperature,
or it can be appliedas a liquid.
molten
The
metal is drawn
into the compact
by

In

Infiltration.

them

with a

this

process,

metal

the pores

lower

of

action.

capillary

The

molten

strength of

100%.A

Heat Treatment.
methods. The higher
Hardening
processes

compact

nitriding,

with

Powder compacts can be heat-treated

of the compact, the better the
density
for
and

iron

and

steel

carbonitriding.

from 70 to

by infiltration

infiltrated

the

are applicable

gas carburizing,

is an iron

increased

be

can

component

example

typical

compacts;

copper.
by

conventional

results.

phase transformations,

Chapter 9

294

Surface Coatings and

standard

by

plated

and so on, may also

ing, as well as the

conventional

properties of the

corrosion

Some

Machining.

special

must

corrosion,

coolants

containing

Powder compactscan
welding

In this
powder

section a short

metal

densities,

used to

can be

peening,
chromiz-

improve

the

compacts.
can be machined by the standard
processes, but
to the tool materialsand geometry.
To avoid
water must not be used during machining.
welded
together to provide complexshapesby the

be

methods.

PROPERTIES

9.3

methods,

plating

be

densities can

high

lower

having

compacts
be given

attention

usual

with

Compacts

but for those

or plastic, for example, may

be necessary.
Barreling,
be used. Phosphate coatings, steamoxidation,
and

wax

impregnation
with

Treatments.

procedures,

AND

APPLICATIONS

descriptionof
is given;

components

the

properties

and the

more detailed information

applications of
be

can

found

in

the literature.

9.3.1

Properties

mechanical

The

of powder

properties

metal componentsare

mainly

dependent

on the porosity, size, and distribution

of pores
and the properties of the base
the
metal.
9.5
in
the
mechanical
illustrates
Figure
change
propertieswith
shows
Table
values
for
To improve the
9.1
different
material
density.
typical
groups.
mechanical
the
be
must
increased
the
(i.e.,
properties,
porosity
density
and
this can be accomplished by:
decreased),

Increasingthe
of

Application

pressures

compaction

compactions

Multiple

powders

or pressings
with high compressibility

Infiltration

Hot

pressing/forging

An increase

in

the

compaction

die wear. Normally,

industry

for

single

pressures

pressure
within

to above 600 N/mm2

the range

300-500

will
N/mm2

result
are

in heavy
in

used

pressings.

or coining can be used to increase

the
As mentioned previously,
re-pressing
of the component. The dimensional
density and thus the mechanical
properties
at the same time, but a particular
is increased
accuracy
sizing operation can be
the
mechanical
properties.
applied to obtain high accuracy without improving
of powder metal components can
The following procedures for the production

be chosen,depending
1.

Pressing +

on

sintering

the

requirements:

Powder

Materials:

Granular

295

Metallurgy

(a)

(b)

40

400
N/mm

30

300
\302\260uts

I\"/

20

200
\302\2600.2^
*

100

10

*<\342\200\242

1,

8.0

7.5

7.0

6.5

6.5
Density

g/cm\"

Density

(c)

40
N/cm2

8.0

g/cm~

(d)

200

1 1000N/m

Impact

7.5

7.0

^r

strength

30

150

20

100

50

0
Density g/cm

FIGURE

9.5

strength;

(d)

from

7.5

7.0

6.5

of elasticity

and

as

7.5

7.0

Density g/cm

(a) Tensile strength

modulus

iron powder.

6.5

8.0

8.0

at fracture;
(c) impact
yield stress; (b) elongation
of density
for components manufactured

function

TAfiLE 9.1

Examples

of Properties

of Powder

Metal

Components

Tensile
Material
Iron

group

and low-alloy

Alloyed

steel

compacts

compacts

Stainless steel

compacts

Bronzes

Brass
Source:

Density

strength

(g/cm3)

(N/mm2)

5.2-6.8

6.1-7.4

6.8-7.4

6.3-7.6

5.5-7.5

7.0-7.9

From Ref. 31.

5-20

14-50

20-80

30-75

10-30

11-24

Elongation

Examples of applications

(%)

2-8

8-30

2-15
5-30

2-11
5-35

Bearings
Medium-duty
Heavy-duty

and

good

structural components
parts, magnetic components
parts, components
corrosion
resistance

and

machine

light-duty
structural
structural

Components with
Biters, bearings,
Machine components

components

Granular Materials:
Pressing +
Pressing +
Pressing +

2.

3.
4.
In

sintering

297

sizing

pre-sintering+
pre-sintering+

coining

sintering

coining

sintering

procedure 1 is used for

a
quite few applications.The

the simple

general,

2 has

procedure

are used only

for

powders

a high

with

As described

earlier,

is

this process

but

70-100%,

the

but

3 and 4

procedures

complex

also due to

rather

the strength
and is used

increase

will

infiltration

of all applications,

of

development

one

in

treatment.

heat

with

more

giving high-strength-components

compressibility,

combined

+ sizing

80%

about

This is

components.

special

possibly

pressing,

by

Powder Metallurgy

expensive

of the compacts
for

only

special

products.
In the past few

years, applicationof hot forging or pressing of powder

or sinter forging,
rapidly. This process, called P/M forging
a
of
about
98-100%
and
mechanical
final
relative
propertiesequal
gives
density
solid material, with even better fatigue properties.
to the corresponding
Concerning dimensional accuracy,it can generally be stated that:
increased

compacts has

gives tolerances

+ sintering

Pressing

practice in turning, milling

radial
~0.002
mm/mm).

Pressing

sintering

sizing

The
the

Ra is

roughness

these figures to 1-4

reduce

discussion

foregoing

powder

information

must

producers,
9.3.2

metallurgical
be obtained

and

the

gives

+ coining +

+ pre-sintering
to grinding
(axial
tolerances

generally

in

the

range

10-15

workshop

0.005 mm/mm,
mm/

-0.003

to

corresponding

casting, and mean-coarse workshop

radial ~0.005 mm/mm).

mm/mm,

The surface

treatment

common

(axial ~

so on

die

casting,

~0.010

(pressing

corresponding

mm, radial ~0.001 mm/mm).

4- sintering
+ heat
Pressing
investment

and

drilling,

tolerances

gives

sintering)

comparable to

|im,

practice (axial
but

can

sizing

|im.

the general
of
capabilities
only to illustrate
and
in
detailed
processes,
specific
applications
from metal powdermanufacturers,
powder
component

serves

literature.

Applications

The geometrical possibilitiesof the powder metallurgical

processes can be
how
react to the various
evaluated from
of
metal
a fundamental
knowledge
powders
is
and
a
surface
created
realization
that
the
process
by the total
parameters
on
some
rules
the
Based
fundamental
(TF).
this,
concerning
design of
forming
suitable
for
can
metal
components
production by
powder compaction be established.
A few of these are:
The

must

compact

The height
in

be ejectable from the

(length)/diameter

thick-walled

components)

(width)

ratio

die (no
should

undercuts,

be kept

grooves,

etc.)

below 2-2.5

(3-4

298

Chapter 9

Plane or flat

give

punches

Burrs can be

solution-.

removed

the

simplest
in

Acceptable

Avoid

Prefer
30

min.

30^

barreling.

0.1-0.2

60v
.

<~

,i i i

ri

jj>i.

-V-i\\i

Prefer

Avoid

Prefer

Prefer

FIGURE

9.6

Examples

of the

design of acceptable
powder

metal

components

[30].

Granular

FIGURE

Materials: Powder Metallurgy

9.7

Typical components

produced

299

by powder

metallurgy.

Chapter 9

300
below

thicknesses

Wall

2 mm should

Sharp edges,corners,and
As

few

on,

as possible

variations

In general, the

so

shape

must

in

allow

be avoided
be avoided

should
wall

the

thickness

design

of

strong

dies

of these rules are illustrated

in Fig. 9.6.
The designer must be aware of the fact that powder
allows for the
compaction
geometries,
production of componentshaving
properties
(including
porosity),
of materials that cannot be producedby other
materials, and combinations
methods. Before
a decision concerning the application of powder
is made,
metallurgy
the designer or production
must check that the process is both
engineer
Some

technically and

acceptable.

economically

Summarizing, the principle

are: no waste of material,
high

shapes,elimination
or

materials
disadvantages

are:

Powder

production

powder

rate,

metallurgical

production

processes

of complicated

and production of componentsin various

of materials with special
The principal
properties.
than
the corresponding
high die costs, lowerstrengths
material
costs, and geometrical limitations.
high
parts are used in many fields in industry. Examples

of machining,

a combination

solid materials,

advantagesof

relatively
relatively

metallurgical
rotors
for
gears,

contact
pawls,
parts,
pumps, bearings, cams, levers,
A
metallic
and
sintered
carbides
few examples
filters,
(tool
inserts).
magnets,
are shown
in Fig. 9.7.
As described previously,
the application
of extrusion and rolling
to produce
and
structural
so
is
and the
sheets,
on,
rods, bars,
shapes,
increasing
rapidly,
same is true for the isostatic compaction of specialcomponents.
include

10

Materials:

Liquid

10.1

Processes

Casting

INTRODUCTION

In previous

chapters

the

or

shaping

state was discussed.Shaping

can

forming
also take

of materials

place

in

the

in

liquid

the

solid

material

or granular

state;

this

as casting and is described

in this chapter.
In
the
material
is
casting,
liquid
poured into a cavity (die or mold)
in the liquid material is
to
the
desired
The
corresponding
geometry.
shape obtained
now
can
be
removed
from
and
the cavity as
stabilized,
solidification,
usually
by
is known

a solid component.
to produce
metallic components. The
process
alone but are also
confined
to
metallic
materials
stages,
of a suitable
to some
applicable
plastics, porcelain, and so on, are: production
mold cavity; the melting of the material;
material
into
the
the
liquid
pouring
stabilization
of the shape by solidification,
chemical
hardening,
cavity;
so on; removal or extraction of the solid component
from the mold;
evaporation, and
and cleaningthe component.
In principle,
no limits
exist
the size or geometry of the parts that
regarding
can be produced by casting.
are set primarily
The limitations
by the material
the properties of the mold material
properties, the melting
temperatures,
and the material's production
characteristics
chemical,
(mechanical,
thermal),
(i.e.,
whether it is used only once or many
times).
Casting

main

is the

which

oldest

known

are not

301

302

Chapter

more

field allows

one

The differences

liquid

state.

an

easier

the

between

understanding

many casting

the principal

in general,

for most

same

term casting should

The

the carryover of new

industry, plastic industry,

glass

industry,

knowledge of

from the

allowing

broadly,

(foundry

is applied to metals, but

problems are the

casting

the characteristic

of

many

be shaped

can

which

term

the

Normally,

stages and

ideas from
etc.).

one

Having

10

materials

be treated

to another
a good

field

of another field.
processes are due mainly

to

the

and thermal properties of the work and mold material, the

of the mold, the cooling method
acceptableworking
and cooling
rate of
temperature
of heat from the work
the workpiece, the radiation
and the mold material, the
the molten
chemical reactionsbetween
metal and the mold,
the solubility of gas
in the
work material,
and the functional
of
the
requirements
component.
In this
the discussion will be confined
to the casting of metals,
but it
chapter
should be remembered that the principles
are generally applicable to most
can be melted.
materials
that
mechanical

Casting processesare

and
used manufacturing
extensively
of
or
intricate
in nearly all
methods, enabling
very complex
production
parts
to
and
of
with
metals
tolerances
types
high production rates, average good
of the
and good material properties. The competitiveness
surface roughnesses,
fact
is
on
allows
based
the
that
the
casting processes
primarily
casting
in alternative
of substantial
amounts of expensive machining
often
elimination
required
important

the

production methods.
different

The
casting processes have been developed.
be
related
to
of
mold
the
(nonprocesses
may
type
or to the mold material or the
method
permanent, permanent)
pouring
(gravity,
the
of the names is
high pressure, low pressure). Furthermore,
application
which
causes
confusion.
10.1
shows
not
sometimes
Table
consistent,
always
to the different
the major casting processes classifiedaccording
characteristics.
most commonly
used names are given,
but if doubt about them arises,
The
can
be identified
are
by their characteristics. The individual
they
processes
As

many

mentioned,

names associated

described

the

with

later.

casting processes appropriate for specific

components
The casting processesused to produce
ingots
materials for use in primary
metalworking
processes are not described.
those

Only

discussed

10.2
Casting

in

this

chapter.

CHARACTERISTICS

are

common

material and of how

10.1

Figure
production

of

shows

components

PROCESSES

a few fundamental operations or

into
of the work
processes and independent
is produced (see Chapter 1).
the mold
the principal operations or stagesin the
schematically
From
from the liquid
state.
the specifications of the

can

processes

stages which

OF CASTING

are
and other

be broken down
for all casting

TABLE

10.1

Some Characteristics of

Type of mold
Nonpermanent

Mold

the

material

Major

Casting

Processes

Pouring principle

Sand (green)

Pattern

metal, plastics

Wood,

Gravity

material

Permanent

Green sand,
core sand

(single-purpose)
Alloy

steels

High

name

Process

dry

Grouping

sand,

Die casting

pressure

Sand

casting

casting
Permanent (metallic)

mold
cast

Low pressure

steel,

Graphite,

\342\200\224

iron

casting

Low-pressure

mold)

(permanent

casting
Cast

iron,

steel

Gravity

Non-pressure-gravity

mold

permanent

casting

Nonpermanent

Nonmetallic (sand,

(single-purpose)

plaster,

ceramics,

etc.)

Gravity

Shell mold

Metal

casting

(Low pressure)
Wax,

plastic,

Plaster

Precision

mold casting

(rubber, metal)
Wax,

plastic,

(rubber,

metal)

Wax, plastic,
(rubber,

Nonpermanent/

permanent

Nonmetallic/metallic

Centrifugal forces

metal)
\342\200\224

casting
Ceramic
mold

\"Lost

Investment

shell

casting

casting
wax\"

(investment

casting

casting)

Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal

casting

Chapter 10

304

Raw material

Component
specifications

Melting

Control

t| Productionof

and
of

correction

mold

composition

L_\302\243

Pouring

L
Solidification

Extraction/

removal

Cleaning,
inspection,

FIGURE 10.1
liquid

material

desired
properties,

The

stages
casting

or operations
of metals).

component (geometry,
number

of components,

is melted

Depending

on
the

in

tolerances,type
etc.), the

raw

the

of components

production

of

material,

material

and the composition controlledand

the specifications,
the casting process can
mold
(mold material and
production

material

consequently,

main

state (the

etc.

can

final material
be chosen. The

shaping

raw

corrected.

eventually
be

from the

selected
method)

and,
can

be

305

Casting Processes

Liquid Materials:

and refined work

molten

identified.

The

the mold.

The shape obtained

dependent

on the work

is

material is now

stabilized

into

or poured

inserted

solidification; a process that

by

material, the mold, and

is

After

conditions.

external

the

or removed
from the mold. The
solidification, the componentis extracted
heat
and
If
cleaned
is
treatment,
finally
component
inspected. approved,machining,
out.
be carried
and other processes can then
be analyzed
listed
in Pig. 10.1 can now
Each stage or operation
according to
1 (i.e.,
material flow, energy flow, and
the principles describedin Chapter
double-lined
in Fig. 10.1 will be
In this context, only
the stages
information
flow).
and
solidification.
mold
discussed:
melting,
production, pouring,
either by
As mentioned previously, the casting processescan be characterized
which
makes it
the type of mold, the mold material, or the pouring
principle,

mold production, pouring,

processes. Melting can

to describe

difficult

to specific

relating these

covering all casting

mold

of
characteristics

processes.Therefore,

first and

described

methods are

processes are discussed,including

casting

In a

solidification.

final

presentation
to the
introduction

pouring, and solidification is

production,

section,

descriptions

general

design

without

solidification

section

a general

the melting

in this

a short

then

and

be describedin

primary

given. After

pouring,
rules and comparisons of

processes

10.3

MELTING (AND CONTROLOF COMPOSITION)

the

selecting

be discussed

be

produce

limited

the

the

and

the

production

requirements,

be considered. Among
of the melt, and

temperature

rate. Before

the

melting

processes

fulfill

the

several factors or

these are the

the

to

equipment)

melting

metal

chemistry

capacity,

are described

or

including

these factors

will

briefly.

Metal Chemistry (Metallurgy)

10.3.1
To

must

features

characteristic

process (i.e., the furnace

melting

casting specifications
the metallurgy,
the delivery

and

are presented.

casting

When

the

this,

of molding,

the requirements
material properties and to
fulfill
concerning
must
have the right composition, with
a
casting, the molten metal
content of metallic and nonmetallic
contaminations,
gases.
including

able

to

a sound

raw
material
the metal fed into the furnace),
a refining
(i.e.,
of the composition
of the melt might
be necessary.
This
process or correction
can involve the removal
or addition
of elements, the removal of dissolvedgases,
so on. When a considerable proportion of uncontrolled
and
is used in the
scrap
raw
and contaminants are introduced and the need for a
material,
impurities

Depending on the

refining

process

increases.

306

Concerninggaseouscontaminations,
can dissolve these in greater

it should

metal

freezing,
gas
of the particular

during

consequently,
Another

10

Chapter

effect

of the

the ductility

Thus, the

final

composition

that

occur

of the
and

during

procedures can be divided

nitrogen

(i.e.,

casting

final

the changes

is precipitated,

gases

into

two

be mentioned
than

amounts

causingporosity

and

that

molten

the

the solid material;

hydrogen

in the

is that

casting.

they

reduce

can

they promote brittleness).

melt dependson the raw material

after

the

categories:

process.

melting

(1) melting

without

The

and all
melting

refining

and

first category, the raw material

and the minor
(2) melting
refining.
caused
the
determine
the
final
by
specific
melting process
changes
composition
to the compositions can be carried
corrections
of the material. However,small
out
before
of this procedure include
pouring. Examples of the application
just
low
with
the
of
the
of light metals,
alloys
melting
melting temperatures,
melting
the
vacuum
of
and
with
the latter
In
case
melting
alloys
high
melting
points.
other
than
vacuum
be
can
used.
atmospheres
protective
In the
second
the
category, melting is followed by a refining
phase to obtain
in
desired
other
are
corrections
made
to
the
words,
composition;
significant
For example,
in steel the carbon content as well as
composition of the material.
the content of other elements are changed
either by deoxidation
during
melting
from the atmosphere or by reactions
the
caused
by
slag protectingthe melt. The
melt
in
the
must
be
content
of
oxygen
adjusted frequently
by the addition
In the

with

materials.

deoxidation

various

The

properties
influences

selection

the

composition of

melting processes
cooling

(machinability,

the

10.3.2

Temperature
to cast

the

melting

properties,

with

etc.).

different

\"hereditary\"

This consideration

process, as doesthe size,

The various melting
processes

of the melting

raw materials.

able

providematerials

and
shape,
are discussed

later.

of the Melt

complicated shapes, the molten metal must be maintained at

If pouring is carried out at too low a temperature, the metal
temperatures.
high
to
freeze
before the mold is filled, causing
start
misruns
and other defects.
may
is carried
If pouring
out at too high a temperature,
the metal may react with the
mold material,
causing gaseous inclusions in the casting. The high thermal
also
cause
detrimental deterioration of the mold in the latter case. The
loading may
are
or
must be chosen so that these problems
temperature
pouring
tapping
To
various
assist in specifying
the correct tapping temperature,
avoided.
fluidity
and the
tests
have been developed, for example, the sand-cast fluidity
spiral
of the spiral obtained at a
suction-tube method. In the spiral test, the length
The
maximum
of
relative
an
index
provides
fluidity.
tapping
temperature
given
obtainable
from
decisive
for
the
furnace
can
be
the
tapping temperature
To

be

selection of

process.

Liquid Materials:

307

Casting Processes

10.3.3 MeltingCapacityand
are of

Rate

Delivery

importancehere: the

of the delivery and

the
mode of
rate
a
be
from
or a
for
can
obtained
batch
Mg/h,
example,
delivery.
In casting
melt.
continuous
processes
large components, the batch melting
the
are normally
preferred, as it may take too long a time to accumulate
In addition,
furnace.
a
a
of
metal
from
amount
continuous-type
large
necessary
at the required
furnace is required
to maintain the molten metal
high temperature.
In the
of small castings, the continuous
production
type of furnace is normally

factors

Two

of 5

rate

preferred.

When

selecting

costs must

the

costs and the

capital

to be

the choice

allow

that

operating

madewill

Melting Processes/Furnaces

10.3.4
be

melting equipment, both

The calculations
here.

considered.

be discussed

not

To

be

able

temperature

to obtain a sound casting, molten

metal
must be produced. The furnacesmust

metal and allow correctionsof

Sincemelting

the

of the

to be

composition

right composition

and

of the

contamination

prevent

made.

to line the
place
temperatures,
metal against oxidation,
material. To protect the molten
dissolution of gases, to limit or reduce the content of other undesired elements,
and
so on, it is necessary to cover the
metal
with a layer of slag.
on
of
furnace
the
the
process can be classified
Depending
type
lining,
melting
as acid or basic. In the acid process, the lining consists of fire clay and quartz
sand.
is used. The acid processis
In the basic process, a lining
of magnesite
often
to
the
as
the
is
a lower
basic,
preferred
lining
strong and cheap, giving
acid linings
higher production. In general,
energy consumption and a slightly
is necessary and a small quantity of sulfur
are used when
no refining
can
be
tolerated. The basic processprovides
low-sulfur
iron and allows for carburizing
to give higher carbon contents.
The lining and the slag must be of the same type, both acid or both basic. In
the acid slag, quartz
sand
(FeO, MnO, etc.) is used, and in the basic slag,
limestone is used.
After establishing the melting process, the sourcesof
furnace

with

contaminations
must
The

at high

takes

it

is necessary

a refractory

Typical sources

be minimized.
(02,

atmosphere

N2, H20,

are:

C02), for examplein

electrical

unprotected

furnaces.

Combustion products

coal, coke,and

(C02, CO, H20,S02)

so on.

Where solid

firing

in
materials

are used,

often contaminates the melt.

The lining may contribute to the contamination if it is
inactive. Both
metallic
and nonmetallic impurities (e.g.,
be introduced.
phosphor

fired by oil,

furnaces

the

sulfur

gas,
and

content

not completely
Al,

Si,

02,

H2) may

Chapter 10

308
TABLE

10.2

Melting

Furnaces

the

Most

Used Industrial

Frequently

Furnace

of energy

Type

of

of Some

Classification

Chemical
Solid

Application

Cast

Cupola

sometimes

iron,

alloys

copper
Granular

Steel

furnace

Open-hearth

dust)

(coal

(Siemens-Martin)

Cast iron,

Rotary furnace

Liquid (oil)

steel,

alloys,

Crucible furnace

Gaseous (gas)

(gas

copper
metals

light

metals and alloys

Nonferrous

or oil)

Electrical
Arc

Arc

Steel, cast iron

furnace

Direct

Indirect

Induction

Induction

Low
Resistance

cast iron

Steel,

High frequency

Copper,

aluminum

Alloyed

steel, sometimes

alloys

frequency

furnace

Resistance

cast iron,

and

aluminum

copper alloys

Based on the requirements

can be developed
only

given. If the

type

a characteristic

a
of

classification,

the chemical group, a subdivision

shown. In the last column typical

Cupola.
charged

materials
supplied

cupola.
to

the

production

The

cupola

continuously
and

alloying

melting

furnace

process,

approach
morphological
of the most frequently
classification
used to create the thermal
energy

using

this context,

of the

the

the summary
according
applications

shown
to the

in

building principles

described
used
basic
Table

in

Chapter

furnaces

is used as
process
10.2 results. Within

state of the firing

furnaces are

of the

1. In
will be

material

is

listed.

to produce
cast iron. It is
(Fig. 10.2a) is used primarily
with alternating layers of cokeand iron; eventually,
flux
elements
are also added. An air blast (cold or hot) is

of the
(tuyeres) around the periphery of the lower part
openings
to the combustion of the cokes (i.e.,
The melting rate is directly
related
can be either acid or basic. The
of the air blast). The lining
amount
meter of the furnace crossis typically 8-10 Mg per hour
rate
per square

through

sectionalarea.

The open-hearth
furnace (see Fig. 10.2b)is an open
Furnace.
oil-fired furnace used in steel foundries to produce steel casting. The
and
it takes about 8 h to
is often in the range 25-350 Mg per charge,

Open-Hearth

gas- or
capacity

produce

a charge.

Liquid Materials:

309

Casting Processes

Charging
\"\"\"\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\342\226\240\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\342\226\240\302\273'
7

Preheating

Lining

zone

Shell

Melting

Wind

zone

box
Superheating

Tuyeres

zone

Crucible

Taphole

Mw;/;//////yZ>////,

^^%Lm

w//////////////////a

FIGURE

(a,

10.2

Furnaces

hot combustion

(gas fired).

(B) open-hearth furnace

(A) cupola;
using chemical energy:
furnace;
hot
(D) crucible
air; c, preheated gas); (C) rotary

gases; b,

Chapter 10

310

Mg, for

Rotary

of copper

melting

iron

cast

or oil-

gas-

to preheat the air.

are used

products

in a wide range, 0.1-1

in the range 10 Mg for

capacities
and

metals,

light

Fig. 10.2c)is usually

furnace (see

rotary

gaseouscombustion

have

furnaces

and

The

Furnace.

Rotary

fired. The

and steel

alloys

production.

or oil-fired crucible furnace (see Fig. 10.2d)is

gasnonferrous
metals, mostly
extensively
copper
alloys and light
in the chamber,
so that the combustion
burner
metals. The
is arranged tangentially
products move in a spiral around the crucible.

CrucibleFurnace.

The

to melt

used

the direct-arc

types
Fig. 10.3a)the arc is
graphite electrodes and the charge. In the
two

into

groups:

type (see

direct-arc

the

consumable

the

between

established

are divided

furnaces

Arc

Furnace.

Arc

and the indirect-arctypes. In

the graphite
and the
electrodes,
type, the arc is establishedbetween
heat from the arc is transmitted
to the charge by radiation, conduction, and
convection.
Arc
furnaces
are used most commonly
in the production
of cast iron

indirect-arc

steel.

and

the

in

range

of the

wear

the

are few,

applications

lining,

generally
a low efficiency,

factors.

other

and

is

to

owing

and the
used for

applications,

2-50

smaller capacities, but

excessive

direct-arc furnace dominatesthe

Mg. The indirect-arctype

The three-phase

capacity is

Furnace.
furnaces
Induction
are divided
(1000-30,000 Hz) crucible-typefurnace
high-frequency
Induction

into
(see

two

Fig.

groups:

the

10.3c) and the

furnace
(see Fig. 10.3b). The highlow-frequency (60-180 Hz) channel-type
crucible
is
in
the
furnace
used
mainly
production of cast iron and steel.
frequency
The low-frequency channel-type furnace is used for the melting
of copper and
aluminum

The

alloys.

Resistance Furnace.
electrical

furnace

is used

mainly

heat produced
heat is
to melt

by

rapidly.
the

radiated to the

melt

and
type, where the

aluminum

of the crucible
furnace is frequently
the crucible.
about melting and furnaces can be found

surround

elements

information

Further

of

The

resistance

The

alloys.

heating

type

use the

elements.

heating

are increasing

furnaces

induction

furnaces

Resistance

graphite

furnace. This

and the
copper

in the

resistance

of

applications

in the

literature

[33,42].

10.4

MOLD PRODUCTION,POURING,
AND

10.4.1

The
cavity

next

and

properties.

SOLIDIFICATION

Mold
step

mold

Production
10.1) is the

(Table

must be
10.4 illustrates

material
Figure

of

manufacture

such that
how

the

the

a suitable

final

mold. The mold

has the desired
of the mold can be

component

requirements

liquid Materials:

IV-

FIGURE
furnace

10.3

Processes

Casting

>YiWn

Furnaces

(low-frequency);

311

lYnYhVy

electrical
using
energy: (a) direct-arc furnace;
(c) induction furnace (high-frequency) [32].

(b) induction

Mechanicalenergy
Liquid

Thermal

Solid

Liquid

Liquid
I

Solidification

Pouring

(mechanical

basic

process)

Molten

metal

Geometry

(allowances)

Tolerances and

Temperature

Erosion

principle

Low pressure

for

Allowance

Gravity

Material properties
Number

Delivery

of gases
and

solidification

cooling contraction
Must

FIGURE

for escape

cannels,etc.)

10.4

Determination

of the

requirements

not

react

of the

with the

specifications

metal

mold system.

and surface finish

Tolerances

resistance
conductivity

Allowance

High pressure

component

Geometry
finish

surface

Temperature resistance
Thermal

Pouring

Casting or

requirements

system

Composition
Amount

process)

Phase 3

Mold

specifications

basic

(thermal

Phase 2

Input

energy

(porosity,

Price

of

components

time

The

determined.

and

melting

metallurgy,
materials,

and

determined.

This

lead to specifications of the input

and a fundamental knowledge of

specifications

component

(i.e., the molten

material

313

Casting Processes

Liquid Materials:

metal).Basedon

this

heat transmission,

solidification,

the general requirements

of course, an interactive

so on,
is,

fluid

mechanics,

can be

mold system

the

of

process.

of mold design,
the principles
requirements have been defined,
can be
of mold material and method of mold
selection
manufacture,
utilized.
in
1
be
described
can
Here
the morphological
Chapter
approach

When the
including
analyzed.

This approachwill
differences

be considered

not

characteristics

the basic

the casting

in

and

in detail,

but

provide

discussion

a brief

will

reveal

understanding of the

a fundamental

processes.

Three factors have

on mold

influence

a major

design and

manufacture:

of mold

Type

Permanent (nonexpendable)
once)

(expendable\342\200\224used

Nonpermanent

of

Category

pattern

Permanent

Nonpermanent

principle

Pouring
High

pressure

Low

pressure

Gravity

This is

in

illustrated

identified:

I,

10.3, where three

Table

III in the

II,

basic production methods can be

column.

left-hand

The mold is permanent

and the mold material solid (i.e., metal,

The
is
a
which
etc.).
graphite,
cavity,
negative of the desired part, is produced
and
so
on.
To
able
to use the mold, a suitableparting
be
by machining,
pressing,

I.

Method

the

parting

line and the

for use. Thus,

plaster, ceramics,

leaving

or

basic

the

MethodHI.
dissolved,

mold are formed around

of the

halves

two

The

etc.),

mold

otherwise

is

meet.

(sand, plaster,
granular
is employed.
The

times

are separated
mold is ready
be removed.

The molds
pattern.
After reassembly
the

the

that

the

nonpermanent.

removed

if sufficiently

can

a complicated

have

material

the

is nonpermanent,
pattern

halves of the mold

used several

removed.

requirement

and the

a cavity which

two halves.

pattern

the two

where

mold is nonpermanent,
a pattern
that can be

The

II.

Method

ceramics, etc.), and

at

This line marks

be available.

must

line

pattern

can

the material
The

granular

pattern

(sand,

is melted,

elastic (e.g., rubber

shape. The mold is not

patterns),
split

into

Chapter 10

314
TABLE

10.3

Type of

mold

Features

Characteristic

Mold

Influencing

Category of

Mold

material

Permanent

.Molds

swvs^a

Design

pattern

Pouring

pattern,

material

principles

Metal

High

Graphite

Low pressure

etc.

pressure

Gravity

.parting

777T//A

avity

*\302\243

Sand

Permanent

Plaster

Wood

Ceramics

Metal

etc.

Gravity

Plastic

Pattern

Nonpermanent

Sand

Nonpermanent
Wax

Plaster

/Mold

Gravity

Plastic

Ceramics

etc.

Permanent

Rubber

Pattern

No parting

These

three

used today,

but

fundamental

concepts. Mold manufacturing

where the most commonly

10.4.2
The

mold

of mold design
methods cover the major methods
if
analyzed carefully, may lead to new
approach,
are discussed
further in Section
methods
10.5,
used
casting
processes are described.

the systematic

Patterns
is not a true
for some or all

cavity

compensate

negative

of the

of the

desired component,

following:

Shrinkage

Contraction

from casting temperature to

Contraction

during

solidification

solidificationtemperature

since it

must

Category of
Permanent

Classified

Patterns

10.4

TABLE

315

Casting Processes

Liquid Materials:

Type of

pattern

Loose

pattern

and Material

Type,

Category,

by

Wood

pattern

Metal

Single piece

(removable)

material

Pattern

pattern

Plastic

Split

Gated

pattern

etc.

Rubber,

Match-plate pattern

Cope and

pattern

drag

Sweep and skeleton

pattern

Wax

Plastic
(polystyrene,

styrofoam)

in the

Contraction

The

if necessary

dimensions,
to remove
necessary
mold
permanent

draft

from

solid state

final

to

Machining

Considering Table

10.3, it

the

be seen that

can

mold (for permanent

expendable molds). Patterns,
either in the

these allowances must be considered

the pattern
or
(for nonpermanent

or in

molds)
in

component

an important

play

general,

role

in

casting

are described

the

and

mold or the

the

from

pattern

below.
briefly
principles
The requirements
or specifications for the desiredcomponent
lead
to the
of a casting
If
selection
a
or
casting processemploying
nonpermanent
process.
molds
the
next
is
concerns
the
manufacture
of
the
selected,
expendable
question
a classification of
10,4 shows
pattern necessary to produce the mold. Table
processes

patterns
The

of the

quality

process.If only
a larger number,
can

Patterns
in

employed

nonpermanent), type, and material.

on
the
number
of castings
and the casting
pattern depends
soft wood
be
few castings are to be made,
may
employed; for

to category

according

hard

mold

or

a plane

(see Fig.

small

are,

Section

(see

castings
or

metal

numbers,

and

when

patterns
metal

used in the

normally

solid piece (like the

or

surface

irregular

loose
Because of their

in principle,

10.4.3).

Match-plate
wooden

large

types, accordingto

will

how

they

be

used.

are

desired

casting of up
component

to facilitate

to

100

with allowances)

extraction from

the

mold

10.10).

Gated patterns
runners

are

which

as one

made

along

split

halves

very

into different

production.

Loose patterns,
components, are

and for

wood;

divided

be

thus

(permanent,

the

number

are

plate (known

split

with

patterns

higher

of castings is
patterns

as a match

gates and

used

they are

high

(\342\200\2241000).

mounted
plate)

attached

cost,

giving

on

opposite
the parting

only

for

sides of a
surface (see

316

10

Chapter

jfiiSIEliL

W////////W/////////>/////)//?//

Hk

^rTrA*:::: RF

\"Tft
*

\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242'

-fpffiffiff^^ffiff^^Z

a)

(b)

FIGURE 10.5 (a) Copeand

and (b)

pattern

drag

pattern.

match-plate

Gates and

runners
are
also mounted
on the plate. Locating pins
location of the plate between the upper
and lower
(cope)
the mold halves. The
(drag) flask. A flask is a four-sided metal frame containing
match
is used in machine molding, allowing
the cope and drag mold halves
plate

10.5b).

Fig.

be

to

accurate

an

provide

the plate.

around

made

brought together,

the

giving

After

removal

desired

cavity.

of the plate,
Because of the

plates, they are used only when a large number

Cope and drag patterns are split patterns

two

the

are
of match

halves

cost

high

is required.

of

castings
on
mounted

separate plates (the

the production
of the mold halves on
drag plate), allowing
different
machines
(see Fig. 10.5a).
are wooden cross sections of very large
Sweep and skeleton
patterns
used
of
in
hand
a mold. A sweep can be used to form
components
forming
cylindrical shapes
the
rotation
of
section.
Skeletonsare wooden
frames
by
outlining

cope plate

and

the

of the casting which

the shape

discussed

As

shrinkage,

and

previously,

the
In

cope

flask and

(see Fig. 10.6b).

The

core the

placed in
cores

are

internal

the

split
in the

half

the castings

cases,

many

pattern

for draft,

allowances

include

must

provided to enable the

(see Fig. 10.6a).

Normally,
in

for the molds.

as guidance

machining.

Draft is

Draft.

serve

the

shape.

cavity

made of

Cores

when

patterns

are hollow,

the

the external

are produced
pattern

which

has

by

been

baked sand and can be handled

removed from the mold

so that

drag flask. The draft

gives

pattern

to be

pattern

are used,

half

is often

necessitates

shape of the

of the

casting,

of special
removed. In sand

a number

(see

Section

pattern is

in the range
the use of

1-2\302\260.

cores

and

the

methods and
casting, the

10.5.1).

Liquid Materials:

(a) Pattern

10.6

FIGURE

317

Casting Processes

and

draft

(b) cores.

for the shrinkage

of the casting
Shrinkage Allowance. To compensate
from the casting temperature to room temperature, a shrink
rule
is
cooling
used to transfer
measurements
to the pattern. The linear contractionor shrinkage
here
must not be confused with
the volume
shrinkage, which\342\200\224to some extent\342\200\224
is compensated
for by the application of risers.
during

Allowance.

Machining
machined,
varying

On

those

surfaces where

must be provided with

pattern
2 and 10 mm for cast iron,
between
the

a reasonable

depending

the

casting

machining

on the

wall

be
allowance,

is to

thickness

and

the tolerances.

Selection of pattern

as mentioned, on the casting process,

depends,
the tolerances, and other factors.If disposable
patterns
or Styrofoam
made of polystyrene
are used, they are not removed from the mold.
When pouring the liquid
metal
into the mold, they
or burn. If wax is
evaporate
used as the pattern
of
the
mold
the
of the
results
in
removal
material,
heating
wax before the molten
metal is poured into
the cavity.
Figure 10.7 shows examples of models for sand casting.
the

number

of castings,

material

FIGURE

10

Chapter

318

10.7

10.4.3

Examples

of molds

ready

for

pouring

(gating system

not

shown)

[34].

Pouring

of the
casting without defects dependson many factors. One
mold
into
the
is
the metal
cavity.
in which
is the way
factors
poured
important
can be characterized by the filling or pouring pressure and
This pouring
process
can
pressure
the
(channels for delivering the metal). The pouring
system
gating
The
or
higher
gravity.
be classified as high (2-15 MPa), low (0.12-0.30 MPa),

The production

of a

pressures permit the

the same time, there

casting of thinner
is a requirement

sections,
for

higher

higher-strength

quality, and so on, but

mold material. High

at
or

Materials:

Liquid

Schematic

10.8

FIGURE

sand

319

Casting Processes

illustration of

the

main

elements

of the gating

system

for

casting.

low pouring

pressures normally
as graphite,

such

materials,

require

can be

used for

perma-nent
the lower

metal molds,

The general
supplied

to

objectiveof the gating system is to allow

mold cavity at the proper rate and temperature.
may cause excessive heat loss (i.e., require

the
system

gating

temperature

influencing

actual

elements
gating
elements,

grain

structure,

other

metal

liquid

A poorly
too

porosity, etc.),

high

turbulence

to be

designed
a pouring
in

the

erosion, and so on. The

on the molding
gating
system depends primarily
method, the mold
the metal,
the geometry, and the pouring
or injection pressure. The main
in the gating system are the same
for most casting processes. Thus, the
for
sand
will
be
described
to illustrate these main
systems
casting
since
this process involves most of the problems
met in other casting

fluid stream,
material,

the

but

pressures.

entrapping

of

gases,

slag, dross, heavy

processes.

for sand casting (Fig. 10.8)generally

includes
a pouring
a runner, and a gate. The liquid metal is pouredfirst into a pouring
basin to avoid too heavy
erosion
at the bottom of the sprue and to prevent
slag
from entering
the cavity.
The pouring basin is especially important
with
large
molds. In pressure casting, the basin is replacedby an injection
system.
From the pouring
the metal flows through
the sprue,
basin,
which should be
filled constantly
The sprue is tapered about
so a higher
during
2\302\260,
pouring.
occurs
at the bottom and
does
not cause aspiration of air through
velocity
the
mold. It is sometimes necessaryto place
a special well or splashcore at the sprue
A

basin,

gating

a sprue,

system

Chapter

320

10

fO

jto2
well

Sprue

(a)

(b)

?Q
V

(d)^

(c)

10.9

FIGURE
centrifugal
gating;

system
Typical gating systems: (a) gating
or finger gating.
(c) horn gating; (d) comb

bottom. If more than

The
through a runner.
10.9

Figure

is no

is necessary,

final

flow

into the mold cavity

a few

typical

general agreement

different

about

gating
the

relative

designs of gating

place

20%

larger

than the

total

area

of the

in the

more exist,

advantages

area of the

gates, to

obtain

there

of the

sprue is made

of the runner
is decreased after

filling

area
of
from the beginning. The cross-sectional
has been
of proper gating
The importance
systems
gate.
out
carried
is
no
the
and
the last few years
recognized during
longer
design
craftsman but by the engineer.
for a well-engineered
requirements
Summarizing, the most important

the

these

gate(s).

but

and disadvantages

the cross-sectional

systems,

to

distributed

takes

Several

systems.

well; (b)

systems.

In the
about

shows

the metal is

gate

one

with sprue

runner

each branching

system

are:

the
Prevention of slag and oxides from
entering
of air or gases
Prevention of the inclusion
Prevention of mold and core erosion
Decreasing the requirements for a high pouring

mold cavity

temperature

by the
gating

Materials: Casting

Liquid

the

Leading

metal

liquid

rate, resulting
Details can
When the
avoidance
during

the

be found

1.

in

of shrinkage
from the
cooling

literature [33,42].
has been designed,

to

be given

must

attention

voids. As mentioned, the total

pouring temperature to room

the

or shrinkage

contraction

up of

is made

temperature

contributions:

three

Contraction
solidification

the

system

gating

following

into the mold at the right place and at the correct

with minimized shrinkage voids and distortion
of metal used in the gating system

in castings

the amount

Minimizing

321

Processes

from

cooling

during

the pouring

temperature to the

temperature

2.

Contraction

during solidification

3.

Contraction

during

from the

cooling

solidification

to

temperature

room

temperature

For carbon
aluminum

steel, the

the carbon

on

solidification

and for

6-7%,

cast

iron

from

is in the range
shrinkage
1.9% to an expansion of

2.5-3%, for

2.5%, depending

content.

To compensatefor
pouringtemperature

the shrinkage
to solidification,

taking place during

a reservoir of molten

from

cooling
metal

should

the
be attached

or connectedwith the component.

To supply liquid
metal
to compensate
for the
or riser must solidify after the component
has solidified.
shrinkage, the reservoir
The size and placementof the risers are thus of utmost
The riser
importance.
and will not be discussedhere. Risers
be
should
complex
design can be quite
sections
of the casting. If they
are placed
large in section and located near heavy
at the top of the section,
assists in feeding the molten metal.Risersmay
gravity
also
serve as vents for steam and gases. An example
is shown in Fig. 10.10 and
further

information

can

10.4.4

Solidification

The mold

design

be found

in

the

literature

[33,42].

mold material have a significant

influence
in
and
molds
is
sand
shell
pattern.
relatively
directional solidification is desired, starting
at the lowest parts
solidification

and

on the

Solidification

slow,

of

the

and

casting

a directional
the mold.
The possibilities of obtaining
up through
solidification
on
the
of
the
depend
component.
design
With permanent
the
mold
is
molds, solidification starts even before
filled
and
terminates
This
means
that
thin
sections
after.
completely
shortly
may
close to prevent further
to other sections. Consequently, the requirement
feeding
of uniform
sections is very important
In die casting (permanent metal
here.
is
the
the gating
molds),
feeding
supplied by
high pressure acting through
system.
to obtain
Modifications
to the component geometry may
be necessary

and continuing

asound casting.

Chapter10

322
Drag

flask

flask

Drag

Drawing

Pattern

Core

Cope flask

Air

&??*,

-,^r-V^

FIGURE 10.10

Sand

the most

section

this

in the

production of sand

molds

using split

patterns [35].

important

casting

processes

are described briefly.

Sand Casting

10.5.1
this

stages

CASTINGPROCESSES

10.5
In

Typical

channel

of cast

casting

description,

iron, steel, and metals is extensively

molding materials,

mold

used in

and

production,

industry.

In

applications

are

discussed.

Molding Sand
Sand

is

1000kg, it

the
is

most extensively used mold

material.
to
4000-5000
kg
necessary
employ

words, large amounts

of

molding

sand must

To produce
of

molding

be handled and

a casting of
sand; in other

maintained.

The

sand
are: temperature
resistance,
requirements of the molding
a
the
to
retain
and
to
withstand
mechanical
given shape
strength
loading from
the
the
of
and
metal,
(to permit
liquid
permeability
escape gases),
collapsibility
of these requirements is obtained in
(to permit shrinkage).The fulfillment
from the following ingredients:
moldingsand

fundamental

The sand (giving

temperature

resistance

and permeability)

Liquid Materials:
binder

The

323

Casting Processes
strength)

(giving

Additives (giving collapsibility)

Water
the binder)
(to activate
is silica (Si02) or quartz
type of sand used in foundries
because
and
of its harmful effects
available
cheap. However,
readily
olivine
sand (especially for
on the lungs, it is being replaced to some extent
by
sand
can also be used, but it is more expensive. In most
steel casting). Zircon
natural sand is being replacedby synthetic
sand, which has a
countries,
specified type
of grain and grain-size distribution.
The
elements are
compounding
added in the foundries. The binder, which together
with water gives strength
and

The

most

widespread

It is

sand.

can be:

formability,

Clay

Cement
silicate

Sodium

process)

(C02

Oils

Resins
In

sand,

molding

are

sand.

clay is generally
or illite.

kaolinite,

bentonite,

Cement

(portland)

used as the
The amounts

binder.

primary
vary

can be used asa binder

between

when

strong

The types

of clay

5 and 20% of the

molds are desired.

Sodium silicateand oils are used primarily in core production

(see later). These,
The
the
resins
are
used as primary
with
additives,
together
give high strength.
Cereal (flour, starch, dextrin,
and cores.
in both molds (shell molding)
binders,
to increase
wood flour, and sea coal are used as additives
etc.),
strength,
but
will not be
surface
and
other
characteristics,
permeability,
they
quality,
in

discussed

the

present

The water content

binder.

primary

context.
in

sand

molding

A molding sand

some additives, is called green

If a sand mold is baked in
mold is obtained. When
sand
and

flour
porosity

1-2%
in the

of pitch

4-8%

when

and

clay

water,

is used

perhaps

as

the

with

sand.
an

oven

using

are added. Dry

(at
dry

for several
hours, a dry
molds, usually 1-2% of cereal
molds reduce gas holes, blows,or

100-300\302\260C)

sand
sand

casting.

The molding sand must

control
the properties.

The

is usually

based on sand, clay,

be

maintained

very carefully and

tested

frequently

to

molds can be analyzed using

the morphological
the molding processes must be considered
in the same
categoryas other shaping processes. The shape of the mold is determined by the
tool and the pattern
of motions.
The surface creation principleis generally
total
The tool, determining the shape of the cavity,
is called a pattern
and
forming.
was described
in Section 10.4.2.
approach

sand

production

of

(Chapter

1), so

Chapter10

324

10.11

FIGURE

molds.

of flaskless

Arrangement

Mold Production
the

When
produced,

and

made (see Section10.4.2),

the

has been

pattern

Fig. 10.10 shows some

in flasks
(i.e., four-sided

typical

stages

in this

mold

can

be

process. The molds

are

metal frames), usually

of a top
consisting
flask (cope)and a bottom flask (drag). The flasksare suppliedwith handles and
location
of the mold halves. To facilitate
mold
guide pins for accurate
different
production,many
molding machines have been developed,to facilitate
the molding
sand to a suitablestrength
at a high rate. These machines
compressing
be activated by a compression punch
combined
with a shaking
can, for example,
or vibration
to obtain uniform strength.
motion
The
sand can also be slung
into
produced

flask by sandslings,

the

a high

giving

rate.

production

methods.
development of flasklessmolding
10.11 shows two different
in the arrangement of flaskless
Figure
principles
molds.
10.12 shows an automatic molding machine producing
a
Figure
horizontal
of molds at enormously high
This process,
string
speeds.
developed by the
late V. Aa. Jeppesen at the Technical
University of Denmark, has revolutionized
the mass production
[36]. Further information on molding machinery
foundry
can be found in the literature.

Much

been

has

effort

put into the

Applications

Sand casting is used

metal

castings.

very

complicated

processes
sand casting

Casting

(by

in

components
been

have

is,

developed
far the most

various cast iron, steel, and

cheap method of obtaining
different
types of sand casting
purposes.
Examples are green
sand
to
dry
casting (similar

in industry for
a relatively
general,

extensively

in one stage. Many

to fulfill
special
widely

used

process),

Liquid

Casting Processes

Materials:

325

(a)

(c)

(d)

(e)

RGIIRE 10.12
(b) compressing;

Disamatic

(c)

separation;

flaskless
(d)

molding machine:
of mold; (e) separation;

automatic
removal

(a) injection
(f)

of sand;

ready [36].

Chapter 10

326

bakedgreen sand molds),

casting, which

core

shell mold

Shell

10.5.2
In

silica

dried

metal

is heated to

pattern

so on. An

is

variant

important

Mold Casting

casting, which is a
sand mixed with

mold

shell

from

sand casting, and

next.

is described

variant

of

casting, the mold is

resin (phenolic). An

sand

a thermosetting

150-250\302\260C,

and

sand mixture is

the

produced
accurate

dumped on

the

is placed in a mold box. After a few minutes,

a layer of the sand
pattern,
mixture
is cured,
is removed
and the excess mixture
by inverting the mold box.
The pattern and the partially
cured shell are baked in an oven for a few minutes
to obtain complete curing. The pattern
and shell are now
and the
separated,
which

mold halves assembledwith clamps,

mold
is
glue, or other devices. The shell
a
or
If
it is
in
and
backed
shot
or
sand.
placed
up
supportedby
pouring
jacket
sufficiently
by pins.
rigid, the shell mold can be supported
The advantages of the shell molding
are: high dimensional accuracy
process
for example cm/cm), smooth surfaces, high
unit,
(0.02-0.05 per dimensional
a
of
The
main
minimum
cleaning, and easy automation.
reproducibility,
moderate
is
but
even
at
the
the
volumes,
costs,
disadvantage
process,
high pattern
which has a relatively high
rate, becomes economic. The process is
production
used extensively
to cast
stainless steels, but most
metals
can be cast by this

Investment

10.5.3
In

part mass is

Maximum

method.

investment

(also called \"lost

is used. The main
stages

of

Production

10-20

kg.

Casting

casting
wax

of

pattern

about

a master

sometimesused),used

wax

or \"precision

casting\"

in the

investment casting

pattern (normally in metal

a master die
to produce

but

wood

(low-melting-point

casting\") a

processare:
or plastic is
alloys

or steel)

Production of wax
Assembly of wax
iron

soldering

patterns
patterns

can be

of the

by pouring or
and a common

injection of

used), called a cluster

gating

system

wax

into

with

the master die

a sprue (a

patterns are to be united

of
investment
material
layer

if several

pattern assembly
slurry of fine-grainedsilica)
the coated pattern assembly
Production
of the final investment by placing
a flask
to remove
into
and pouring investment material around
(vibrated
air,
etc.)
entrapped
for several hours
and
Drying
hardening
the mold and inverting
it to
the wax pattern assembly by warming
Melting
allow the wax to flow out
(850-1000\302\260C)to drive off moisture
Heating the mold to higher
temperatures

Coating

(dipping

and

in

with

a thin

volatile

matter

a thin

Liquid Materials:
the

Preheating

Pouring

of

the casting

or

frozen

Removal

Polystyrene

used for

may be

to

mold

500-1000\302\260C

sections to give better

the metal (by gravity,

thin

327

Casting Processes

pressure,

can also

mercury

patterns

of the

molten

to

metal

control)

or evacuation

from the mold after

permanent

flow

(facilitating

dimensional

be usedas the

whenever

of the mold)

solidification
it is

pattern

material.

possible to extract

Rubber
it

after

investment.

or sodium ammonium phosphate),

silicate
tetraethyl
temperatures, for example, with magnesium,
some copper alloys) or ceramicscan be used as mold material. The
aluminum, and
use of plaster molds and ceramic molds has increasedrapidly
recent
during
shell molds are
cases,
years. The molds may be reinforced
by fibers. In many
used (producedby dipping
the quantity of
about five times), which
reduces
investment
eliminates
and simplifies
time,
material,
flasks, reduces firing
of the casting
from the mold.
removal
The investment
can be used to produce castings in all ferrous
and
process
nonferrous alloys and is important
in the casting
of special metals such as unmachinable
alloys and radioactive metals.
Fine silica

The main

and

of investment

casting are: the production

of very

in high melting temperature alloys [this

thin
includes
undercuts, etc.], very fine details, exceptionallygood surface

even

mm),

(~0.4

finish,

by

pouring

advantages

shapes

complicated
sections

(bonded

low

(for

plaster

very high

dimensional accuracy(0.003-0.005per

dimensional

unit,

cm/cm).

The labor costs in

high; consequently, the
the

require

process

etc.).

Examples

are
casting
is used mainly

of the process
are metals that are

characteristics

special

complexity,

investment

costs
are also
high. The pattern
to produce componentsthat
tolerances, high
(good surfaces,
to machine or to deform
difficult

plastically.

10.5.4 Die Casting

die casting is characterized by a permanent
metal
or injection pressures. The injection
under
pressure,
which solidification also takes place, may vary from 2 to 300 MPa; the usual
die casting
methods are employed: (1) the
range is 10-50 MPa. Two different
hot-chamber
method
and (2) the cold-chamber method. The principal

As

mentioned

mold

and

previously,

high

pouring

is the location of the melting

which also reflects the final
pot,
method, the melting pot is included
equipment. In the hot-chamber
in the
machine
and the injection cylinder is immersed in the molten metal (see
Fig. 10.13aand b). Figure 10.13a shows the metal being forcedby air into the
die (pressures ~0.5-5 MPa)
and Fig.
10.13b shows the metal being forcedinto
the die by a plunger
in injec(activated
by air or hydraulic
pressure),
resulting
distinguishing

design

feature

of the

Chapter 10

328
solidification

and

tion
casting

is used

pressures

in the

for the casting

mainly

range 10-40 MPa.Hot-chamber

of alloys

of

die

tin, lead, and

zinc,

The cold-chamber

magnesium.

has a separate melting furnace, and

the
molten
process
from the furnace to the cold-chambermachine
or
by hand
the metal is forced into the die
mechanically (see Fig. 10.13c).In the machine,
activated
The injection and solidification pressureis
plunger.
by a hydraulically
in the
force and more are
range 30-150 MPa. Machines of 25 MN plunger
the casting
of components of up to 50 kg. The cold-chamber
available, allowing
method
is used mainly
for brass, bronze, aluminum,
and
magnesium
castings.
The die casting processis rapid (production
rates of up to 1000 castings per
and
it gives smooth surfaces, good dimensional
hour)
(0.002-0.003
accuracy
dimensional
cm/cm
of length) and thin
sections
unit,
(0.6 mm in zinc, 0.90
per
mm
in aluminum,
and 1.25 mm in magnesium,
and bronze). The draft
brass,
varies
between
and
0.35
dimensional
unit (cm/cm),
0.125
per
necessary

metal is transferred

the

on
depending

material.

Die casting requires, in general,

no machining
except for the drilling
and threading. Flash and fins must be removed.
are
made
from heat-resistant steel and
The dies for die casting
cooled through internal
and for small castings,

channels.
multiple

For large castings,

dies are used,
cavity

Optimum

Zinc/zinc

often

alloys

Magnesium/magnesium

the

Low-Pressure

10.5.5
In

this

of castings
and die

machinery

high

process,

number of

\342\200\2245,000
(thickness

number

high

induction furnace,

necessary to give
costs.

>

the

castings
1

mm)

1.5-2.5
> 1.25
>

used

inserts.
for zinc.

mm)

mm)
2.0 mm)

economicalproduction

is due

to

Die Casting

mold\342\200\224made
and

castings

\342\200\22460,000
(thickness

Copperalloys
The

million

\342\200\22450,000
(thickness

alloys

up from

built

\342\200\224200,000
(thickness

alloys
Aluminum/aluminum

water-

are

a single-cavitydie is

for brass to several

The die life varies from
10,000
The optimum numbers of castings are approximately:

Alloys

of holes

metal

from

graphite

is forced

into

or
the

metal\342\200\224is

die

cavity

mounted

by inert

above

an

gas. The

varies
between
0.12 and 0.20 MPa. Castings made
by this method
are dense, free of inclusions,
and have high dimensional accuracy.The
process
and other
is used for railroad-car wheels, steel ingots,
applications.

gas pressure

Liquid Materials:

(c) cold-chamber

activated;

10.5.6
In

Die casting:

10.13

FIGURE

gravity

metal

the

(a) hot-chamber

329

die

casting,

air activated;

(b) plunger

die casting.

Gravity or Permanent MoldCasting

or permanent
mold casting, the
a refractory
with
material.

perhapscoated
that

Casting Processes

mold
Pouring

is made

is similar to sand casting, but the sand

often made from cast iron. The process, which

process

mold,

from metal

is by

finish, good reproduction of details,and tolerances

is used mainly for aluminum, aluminum alloys,

in the

or graphite,

gravity, which means

mold is replaced by a
gives

good

range ~0.02

zinc/zincalloys, and

surface

(cm/cm),

sometimes

330

10

Chapter

FIGURE

10.14

for brass

and

Depending on the
or

manually

and

finish,

nonpermanent

required

cast

of gray

has

iron

acceleration

the

inclusions

and

metal

centrifuge

(see

pressure

Fig.

solidification

in cast

by

10.14a). This

iron, st Unless steel, copperalloys, and

A
is
riant of centrifugal
casting
force is \342\226\240\342\200\242
d to create a suitable pouring

process is limi1

a common

the semicentrifugal
axis,
are removedby
the
axis
along
slush
In
casting, which
gives

sprue

works, sculptures,
and bronze.

by

inverting

toys,

and

so

fo symmetrical

components.

>er is situated along the

obtained. The

impurities

machining.

a shell-like

component,
a thin

liquid

processes

metal

is poured

layer, the still-molten

the mold. This process is used

on. The common materials are

Several other special-purposecasting

here.

an

casting process is

into the mold and, after solidificationof

out

where a
10.14b). The

Fig.

method.

this

centrifugal

rotational

to flow

(see

a rotational speed of n = 300 Jg/nVr,

of the pipe.
to gravity and r is the radius
is usually
are segregated at the inside
of the pipe, which

a stock of molds with

allowed

casting,

centrifugal

by

due

which

in

tolerances,

necessitates

are produced

casting,

givesbetter

500 to

from

vary

Casting Processes

machined. Pipesor bushings

bearing

be operated

properties.

is often carried out

mold rotates during
force

centrifugal

where g is
Impurities

described

casting

die casting

permanent

casting,

mechanical

of pipes

casting

permanentor

sand

Miscellaneous

10.5.7

If

the

the permanent
mold can
The economical number of castingscan
the die is water cooled.
places

critical

in

Comparedto

to be

years,

requirements,

mechanically.

40,000, and

The

casting [32].

centrifugal

(b)

In recent

bronze.

aluminum

and

in interest.

gained

surface

casting

(a) Centrifuge

exist,

but they

for
tin,

will

is

metal

ornamental
lead,

not

zinc,
be

10.6

331

Casting Processes

Materials:

Liquid

POSSIBILITIES

GEOMETRICAL

Introduction

10.6.1

One of the

unlimited
of casting results from the virtually
can
be produced).
possibilities
very complex shaped components
But the cost of the components
depends
directly on the complexity. Most
factor. To achieve the
foundrieshave
cost estimation
methods involving
a complexity
advantages

major

(i.e.,

geometrical

certain
be
casting for a given
design rules must
complexity,
to obtain a goodcasting. When
a component
for casting, it
designing
so that the possibilities
to know the casting and molding
method,
necessary
possible

cheapest

followed
is

of the

limitations

and

particular process

concerninggeometry,

surfaces, tolerances, and so on, can be considered.

An important factor is the minimum
wall
thickness
3 mm for aluminum
this is about
normal sand
casting,

depending on

of

dimension

maximum

another

(1 is best
process

must

be

between

comparison

as a

obtained.

General

10.6.2

castings having

some important casting

rough guide. Table 10.6shows
of the castings are graded from 1 to 7
poorest) [16]. The comparisonsin these figures are based on
in actual
about
the particular
cases, detailed information

and
information;

for cast iron,

mm

mm.

is intended
comparison
only
where the properties
comparison,
The

general

1-6

material,

be cast. In

that can
and

figures correspond to

These
400

about

a rough

Table 10.5 shows

methods [12].

size.

actual

the

size,

Design

Rules

A few
of the main design rules that
are described briefly below. Figures

must

to

be followed

10.15and

10.16

sound

obtain

illustrate

castings

the most

importantrules.

When
considered,

designing
since

cost. The

most

Pattern and

a component for casting, several

they can each contribute

if forgotten
important

factors

main
to

factors
considerably

must be
increased

are:

costs
etc.)
(plane
parting surface, simple, draft,
(method and properties)
Core production
(simplicity, methods, and properties)
risers as a function
of geometry
Casting
system,
[gating
(Fig. 10.16)]
Cleaning (easy accessto core cavities, easy removal of gating
system)
Table
allowances,
(where, how, and what
10.7)
Machining
Thermal stresses [reducedby uniform
thickness or when
section
changes

Mold

pattern

production

necessary,

gradual changes

take place without

restraints]

(Fig. 10.15),by

permitting

the contraction

are

to

General Characteristics of Some Casting

10.5

TABUE

Processes

Tolerances

Sand

Range of metals

method

Casting

cast iron,
(examples:
steel, Al and Cu alloys)
Die

Al, Mg,

casting

Zn,

Al, Mg, and

cast iron

casting

Shell

mold

casting

Investment casting
Centrifugal

Source:

From

limitations

No limitations

No

casting
Ref.

No

12.

limitations

(-0.05

alloys;

to

roughness

(mm)

Ra(lim)

lot

Economical

5-25

0.5-2

1-2

Minimum

kg

2-3

More

than

2-5

More

than 100

kg

0.5-0.8
6

Unit to

sand

casting)

Up to

50 kg

of 1000

for Cu)

-0.01-0.025

-0.02-0.05

-0.003-0.005

-0.03-0.10

Few

Up
Few
Up

grams
to 20
grams

to 50

1-3

kg
to 10

to several

Mg

size

mass production

2.5-5

Mg

precision

(-0.003
Cu

thickness

range

Few grams

Surface

section

Normal

mass

-0.0015

and

Cu alloys

Permanent mold

unit

(cm/cm)

-0.03

limitations

No

casting

Minimum

per

dimensional

1000

1.5-2 100-5000
5-25 A few hundred

Comparisonof Various

TABLE 10.6

Casting

Processes
Casting

Die

Porosity
Surface

quality

Dimensional

accuracy

Strength

Die casting

Permanent

Investment

Centrifugal

(cold chamber)

4-3

3-4

2-1

1-2

6-7

3-2
1

4-5

5-4

6-7

2-3
2

5-4

3-2

5-4

7-5

2-1

1-2

7-5

3-2

mold

casting

casting

casting

section

Minimum

5-7

thickness

Mold cost
rate

Production

Small

lot sizes

Large

lot

sizes

From

Ref.

Source:

casting

(hot chamber)

Sand casting

Property

process

1-2

6-7

2-3
7-6

4
5

6-7

7-6

4
3

16.

1-2

2-1

Chapter

334

10

=T

rT

FOR

rr^f-

T<1.5t

=T
T>1.5t

FOR

E
R*T
T

15

FOR

T<2t

(a)

X~R =T

3 It

1 It

0,9T<R<1,3t

M
R

t2<R<t]

=T

ki

kl

t2<R<t1

\342\200\224<\342\200\224u-

*2

(c)

FIGURE 10.15 Design

directions; (c) T-joints.

rules

for castings:

(a) changing

of

dimensions;

(b)

changing

of

Liquid

Materials:

Casting

Processes

Avoid

R=2T

Preferable

Avoid

Preferable

Avoid

Preferable

FIGURE

10.16

Design rules

for

castings.

335

336

Chapter

10.7

TABLE

Allowances for

Machining

Sand

Castings
dimension

Main

0-300

Material

600-1000

9.0

Nonferrous metals

1.5

2.5

2.5

Steel

3.5

3.5
5

Mechanical

(in the

loadings

considered along

1000-1500
6.5

5.0

10.0

8.0

shaping of the
the

with

(mm)

300-600

Cast iron

must be

10

component,proper
of the

characteristics

force

transfer

casting process)

Appearance

More

information

detailed

and so on, can

this

section
a

most frequently

Figures
Brigham

are found short

used

in

Young

University,

elements

in Chapters
are described.

courtesy

Provo,

casting processes,

CASTING PROCESSES

descriptions of some typical

used

by

of castings,

design

[32-35,37,38].

fundamental

industry

are provided

the

literature

OF TYPICAL

according to the
way similar to that

classified

stressin

concerning
in the

found

EXAMPLES

10.7
In

be

Utah.

of

6, 7, and 8. Only

The

processes,

casting

and the predominant

Manufacturing

those

state of
processes

Consortium,

Liquid Materials:
1:

PROCESS

Casting Processes
Sand

Casting

337

(M, Me,

In sand

Ri, TF,

Co)

is poured into a prepared

casting
and
contoured
the
desired casting. Internal
to
match
dimensioned,
in
obtained
baked
cores
are
shapes
castings
placing
by
consisting of silica sand
The
and a binder in the mold cavity.
melt is poured into
the pouring
basin and
of gates.
After filling the
flows to the mold cavity through a gate or a system
act as a reservoir of excessmetal
mold cavity,
the melt enters the risers, which
of the casting. A new mold
solidification
to compensate
for shrinkage during
must
be made
for each casting.
Description:

metal

molten

the

sand mold,

Applications: Sand casting

in industry.

used

It is,

in

of

general,

cast

steel, and metals is extensively

cheap method of obtaining

iron,

a relatively

very

stage. It is a low-volume
production
process
when not automated/mechanized and a high-volume
when automated.
process
from 500 g to 50 kg, but the method
is feasible
Typical component weights
range
for weights
of several
metric tons. Wall thicknesses are generally
5-50
mm.
are engine
blocks, crankshafts, connecting rods, bearing
Examples
pedestals,
machine
tool
beds, turbine housings, etc.
in one

components

complicated

and less accurate

surfaced
Tolerances!Surfaces:Sand castings are rougher
than
finish
any other
type of casting. Toleranceand surface
of pattern, cores and inserts, pattern
and
smoothness
depend
upon
accuracy

dimensionally

stability,

sand

compaction,

allowances of 3-10 mm
Machinery:
commonly

made

continuous
string.

the
compressing

Equipment

of wood
For

applications.

sand

gating and rising

for the castings.

Many

for

shaping

system,

the molds

or metal and flasks with

automated applications
different machines have

to a suitable

strength

at

etc.,

handles

necessitating

consists of
and guide

patterns

pins for

flaskless molds are used in

been developedto facilitate

a high

rate.

machining

manual

Chapter 10

338
2:

PROCESS

Casting (M,

Mold

Shell

Me, Ri,

TF,

Co)

This method is very much the same as sand casting, but with
Description:
resin instead of
mixed
with thermosetting
a molding mixture of fine, sharp sand
A
metal
mold
nonreusable.
is
As in sand casting, the
sand.
pattern of the
plain
with
and
covered
is
to
150-250\302\260C
heated
with sprue and gate
complete
casting
mm
is
5
a
shell
about
thick
a few minutes,
After
a layer of sand mixture.
in an oven
baked
The shell is then
removed.
and the excess mixture
partially cured
be
that
must
mold
and heat-resisting
and becomes a rigid, strong,
destroyedto
remove

the cast

component after

Shell

Applications:

solidification.

its

mold casting

offers greater

dimensional

accuracy

and

sand casting. It also offers better capabilities

than
better surface finish
sharp
etc. But the need for metal
intricate contours, small
holes,
patterns
corners,
a few identical
it too expensive if only
makes
workpieces are needed.
surfaces smooth enough to avoid subsequentmachining
as-cast
Componentsneeding
in air-cooled
with cooling fins, etc., as encountered
and components
are typically
combustion
produced by shell mold casting. Almost any type of
engines
mass is about 10-20 kg.
metal or alloy can be cast. Maximum
part
for

Tolerances/Surfaces: Shell mold

separation
Dimensional
about

the

from
accuracies
50-100

and the

from

\302\2610.2%

\\im, are generally

Machinery:
pattern, pattern
an oven for curing

The process

mold

may

for

Equipment

plate, and a dump

the
also

shell

need

castings

reproducibility

to

\302\2610.5%

and

very little

cleaning after

process is
smooth
surfaces,

of

the

high.

/?a-values of

obtainable.
the mold

producing
box

for

shells consists of

the shell mix.

mold and a furnace for melting

be mechanized.

Further,

the

a metal

and
material.

a burner

casting

Investment

3:

PROCESS

Description:
mold made

by

339

Casting Processes

Liquid Materials:

process

means

of a

(M, Me, Ri, TF, Co)

Casting

molten metal is

in which

disposable

silica, plaster,or ceramic.The use of

investment
material, eliminates flasks, and

layer of
of

the

from

mold.

complex

shapes,

MOLTEN

Before casting,

the
allowing
which cannot

it,

inverting

METAL

is melted

pattern

No draft

out.
by

other

a preheated

coated with a thin

shell molds reduces the quantity
of the casting
removal
simplifies

casting

the mold and

warming
by
is necessary and very
processes are possible.

_^^

v.

Tf^y-

MOLD

the

wax to flow
be made

poured into

or plastic

of wax

pattern

CAVITIES -J

^%
CERAMIC

SHELL

ttfjfip

ffl

%#

9\302\273

Geometrical
of investment casting are almost
possibilities
mold geometry and draft are not a consideration becausepattern
and workpiece
do not need to be removed
from
the mold. Workpieces with
wall
as thin as 0.4 mm can be cast by this method.
thicknesses
The castings typically
in size from 100 g to 20 kg. TUrbine
and other products
wheels,
range
gears,
Applications:

since

limitless

of
calling for exact dimensionsin metals with a high melting point are examples
can be used to produce castings in all
applications. The investment
process
ferrous and
nonferrous
in the casting of special metals such
alloys and is important
as unmachinable
and radioactive
metals.
alloys

Tolerances!'Surfaces: Tolerancesof
to 15 mm. For large components
roughness of investment
castings
range
componentsup

remembered,

work

and

however,

skill,

that

making

the precision
investment

\302\2610.075%
\302\2610.7%

from

1.5
too

for

obtainable

be expected.
The
may
to 3 u,m Ra. It should
involves

attainable

casting

are

expensive

a lot

for

of

surface
be

preliminary

routine

foundry work.

producing the ceramic mold consistsof slurry

the wax or plastic pattern
for making
is also
needed as well as furnacesfor melting
the patterns from the mold
and for
metal. The facilities may be more or less automated.
meltingthe
casting

for
Machinery.
Equipment
tank and baking oven. Equipment

Chapter10

340
Mold Casting

Permanent

4:

PROCESS

(M, Me, Ri,

Co)

TF,

metal is poured into

a
In permanent mold casting the molten
Description:
or
low
under
and
mold
held
until
(reusable)
gravity
pressure
permanent
to sand casting except for
This means that the process is similar
solidification begins.
is finemold
which in the case of permanent
the
material,
molding
typically
cast

grain
giving

or steel.

iron

favorable

more

mechanical

It

to heat or cool the mold

conditions for the workpiece,

in critical

is possible

cooling

places,
in

resulting

better

properties.

mold
The permanent
casting
process can produce a wide
but complex shapes require considerableexpensein mold design
and fabrication. It is used primarily for aluminum,
zinc,
magnesium,
copper and
for
cast
iron.
also
their
and recently
gray
Component
weights typically
alloys,
costs of the molds are high.
between
30 g and 10 kg. The initial
range

Applications:

variety

of

parts,

Dimensional

Tolerances/Surfaces:

mold

and

by

changes

in position

of

is affected

accuracy
moving

parts

in it.

to \302\2614
mm
across parting lines. Surface finish
\302\2610.25 mm
of the mold wall, mold coatings used,venting,
casting
are 25-100
etc.
ranges for surface finish
Typical
design,

Machinery:
gate and runner

The setup

normally

system and a pouring

consists
basin,

of two
alignment

of the
by the
quality
Typical tolerances are
on the finish
depends

temperature,

gating

u,m Ra.

mold halves

containing

pins, an ejection

system,

of metal

or sand

and clampsto hold the mold halves together. Simplecoresmade

is possible.
are sometimesused.Automation

Liquid

Die

5:

PROCESS

341

Casting Processes

Materials:

(M, Me, Ri, TF,

Casting

Co)

Description: Diecasting

is forced
is a process where molten metal
by a ram
(10-100 MPa) into a reusable mold and held under
is hastened by
occurs. Cooling of the workpiece
pressure
water
in the die, which
also
increases
the life of the very expensive die.
circulating
Diecasting is economical for large production runs only. Two different methods
are employed:the cold-chamber
which has a separate melting
furnace
process,
from which the molten metal
to the machine by hand or
is transferred
the hot-chamber
has a melting furnace as an integral
method, which
mechanically,and
of the machine.
part
under

high

injection
pressure
until solidification

is rapid\342\200\224production
of up to
rates
Applications: The die casting
process
1000 castingsper hour\342\200\224and is used for components of a wide range of sizes and
geometries, such as engine
parts,
gears,
fly wheels, rotors, frames,covers,etc.
method

cold-chamber

The

is used

for

mainly

magnesium castings while the hot-chamber

lower
lead,
melting points (e.g., zinc, tin,

ranges from

1 to

40 mm,

range

weights

and

from

takes care
about

of

alloys

with

Wall thickness

magnesium).

10 g to

and

aluminum,

bronze,

brass,

method

50

kg.

Tolerances for die cast components

to
Tolerances/Surfaces:
vary
according
the method and material
used. Values of \302\2610.1to \302\2610.005 mm/cm
of length may
be obtained. Surfacefinish
values
from 5 to 25 \\im Ra. In general, no
range
is required,
of holes. Small amounts of
machining
except drilling and threading
flash around
the casting
edges may be present.

Machinery:
cylinders,

plunger,

die

and mold

to 500 shots/hour,
are feasible for

although

machine

casting

or die

cavity.

high

consists of

Typically,

production

small components.

pressure and

production

outputs of

power

rates range from

2000 to

5000

shots/hour

50

11

Plastic

and

Plastics

Processing

11.1

INTRODUCTION

In

this

plastics.

a short
Then some

chapter

is given

description

of the

more

important

of the
methods

manufacturing

of

properties

of processing

plastics are

be emphasized that the manufacturing

methods for plastics
materials themselves; consequently,this chapter
a selection
presents only
methods.
To acquire a more
of the most important
must be studied and contact
with the manufacturers
the literature
complete picture,
must
be established
to obtain detailed information
about
materials.
particular
Plastics have becomeimportant
materials
in recent years, and the
engineering
of applications is increasing steadily.Therefore,
it is necessary
number
to have
a fundamental
of plastic materials and methods of processing.
understanding
It should

discussed.

are as diverse

11.2

can

plastic

PROPERTIES

MANUFACTURING

In Chapter
discussed,

as the

based

3 the

most

on their

be classified

OF

PLASTICS

of plastic materials
characteristics
important
molecular structure. Depending on the structure,

were
plastics

as:

1.

Thermoplastics

2.

Thermosetting plastics (having

(having

a linear/chain

structure)

a cross-linked

structure)

343

Chapter 11

344

(e.g., elastic modules)

The consistency

11.1

FIGURE

as a

of thermoplastics

function

of temperature.

The secondary

the chain

allowing

heating,

change is reversible;

chains

the

between

bonding

is weakenedby

in thermoplastics

molecules to move relative to

increasingtemperature
them harder

softens

each

This

other.

and

thermoplastics
The strong primary

bondings
not
plastics are, in general,
to a very limited extent.
influenced by temperature; and if influenced, only
Classificationof plastic materials into thermoplastics and thermosetting
behavior
in processing and
their
valuable
information about
plastics thus
gives
makes

temperature
decreasing

(cross-links) betweenthe

chains

and

stronger.

in thermosetting

service.

11.2.1

Thermoplastics

(e.g.,

The consistency

classvaries
11.1 for

with

considerably
both

Below the
ductile,

measured

depending

and

amorphous
glass

transition

the

temperature.
crystalline
temperature,

modules) of thermoplasticsas a
in Fig.
This is shown
schematically

elastic

thermoplastics.
the materials

are hard,

actual material. It must be emphasized

of certain portions of the
the existence
for different materials.
different

on the

and levels, and even

Fig. 11.1, can be quite

by

brittle,

or

that the regions

curve

indicated

in

Plastics and Plastic Processing

and
crystalline
glass transition temperature, amorphous
For amorphous materials, the structural
changes
differently.
of the structure
to rotate
and slide (reversibly) relative to
short
segments
solid to thermoelastic (leathery) to
from
other. The state changes gradually
For
or liquid
(i.e., decreasing viscosity with
temperature).
increasing

Above

the

thermoplastics

behave

allow

each
rubbery

345

the crystalline materials, the behavior depends on the degree of crystallinity

(i.e., the relative sizes of crystalline and amorphous
regions).
Figure 11.1 shows
until the
with
the
that
increasing
consistency
changes gradually
temperature
solid
materials
remain
is
the
reached
(i.e.,
crystalline
crystalline melting point
for
This
that
the
means
to higher temperatures).
rubbery
region
crystalline
Most thermoplastics
contain both
is very small or is not
material
present.
crystalline
and

amorphous

between

the

in

utilized

curves
lying
regions, resulting in consistency-temperature
state
flow is
in Fig. 11.1. In the rubbery
(rubbery
materials) the temperature must be controlled
very
crystalline
shown

limits

shaping

carefully.

The

of the

states

different

processedby

the

In

or solid

glassy

drilling,

(turning,

machining

of
materials enable the application
the
materials
can
be
state,
milling, etc.). The existenceof the

thermoplastic

processing methods.

different

has allowedthe

or leathery state
The material
processes.

thermoelastic

of many

development

different

can,
state,
undergo large reversible
forming
deformations
of
the
orientation
accompanied
by
long-chain molecules. By
will
cause
this
orientation
internal
which tend to establish the
stresses,
high
cooling,
when
heated
again (i.e., components formed in this state have
previous shape
and vacuum
a low thermal
stability).
Examples of processes are blow
molding
this

in

forming.
the

In

flow or

rubbery

(i.e.,

after

most

thermoplastic

state,

liquid

and

cooling,
materials are

forming

results).

product

shaped using

sliding takes place

this state that
such as extrusion and

molecular

permanent

a stable

processes

It is in

injection molding.

Thermosetting Plastics

11.2.2

propertieswith
At a

structure.
or

thermal
In
only

heat

the
by

carried

machining.
out
in the

and/or

or cured)thermosetting
of thermosetting

However, forming
uncured or partially

cured state, the

after

temperature,

in consistency or
change
molecular
of their cross-linked
a chemical decomposition (i.e.,

significant

because

In general, thermosetting
than do thermoplastics.

resistivity
solid state (hardened

the partially
during

high

sufficiently

place.

any

temperature

increasing

takes

destruction)

exhibit

do not

plastics

Thermosetting

forming.

final

network

cured

state.
structure

plastics have a higher

can

plastics
plastics,

If forming

(curing)

be processed
in general,

is carried out
then develops

is
in

Chapter 11

346

\342\200\242H

\342\200\242H

\342\200\242H

Time

Hardening

FIGURE 11.2 The change

(time): A, liquid; B, granular

The
liquid

forming)
illustrate,
agitators)

11.2 shows
Figure
for a liquid (A) and

the

how

process

until

the

final

solid

during

forming

plastics are

granular

availablein

granular

or

changes with time (during

Curve A may
(B) material.
the necessary
initiation (using

consistency
(solid)

a polyester
example,
to cause
The
hardening.

for

plastics

(solid)

for thermosetting

materials

raw

form.

for thermosetting
consistency
raw materials.

of

region with
heat developed during
state has been reached.

curing

will accelerate

the

are available
in the powder
plastics, which
the heating
of the material.
forming is combined with
has two different
effects: the material becomessofter
and attains
a
or
can be used to shape it; and the hardening
plastic state, so that processes
After some time, the curing
dominates
and changes the
curing is initiated.
process
state
from thermoplastic
to solid. In the forming of thermosetting plastics, the
Curve

B represents

or granular
The heating

importance of control
termination
When

of

forming,

the

curing

is obtained), the

thermosetting

Here

state.

of the process,
so that
must be emphasized.

process

has reached

the

a certain

final

curing

level

(i.e.,

starts after
sufficient

the

strength

mold.
in forming both thermoplastic and thermosetting
The main parameters
the necessary
materials
are:
chemical agents), the
the actual plastic material (with
of temperature
has been discussed
temperature, and the pressure.The influence

componentcan

be

removed

from the

Plasticsand

Plastic

briefly. The
accuracy,

the mold

the soft or

on

temperature

and

a knowledge

detailed

about

information

process

parameters

detailed information
In the following,

can
some

plastic componentsare

of

the

particular

sufficient geometrical
to flow into all portions

of

material

and the influence

of
1

can

to have

the particular
material (from the manufacturer)
and surface creation principlescan be selected.
More
be found in Chapter 3 and in the literature.
of the most important
used to manufacture
processes

discussed

briefly.

PROCESSING

PLASTIC

11.3

plastic

the morphological procedure describedin Chapter

describe
forming processes. It is important
plastic

pressure,

to analyze and

be used

to acquire
material

used
liquid

or die.

Based

before

pressure is generally

to force

i.e.,

347

Processing

METHODS

materials
are
variety of methods to processplastic
broad knowledge of plastic materials
and
their behavior,
the
1) will reveal the common factorsin the
morphological approach(Chapter
of many
described
below
plastics. Therefore, the important
processing
examples
consideredas
from
should be
the morphological
structure.
specificcasesderived
As

mentioned,

available.

Based

11.3.1

a great

on a

Casting

the same main phases as the casting

involves, in general,
of
a
suitable
or
the production
die
mold, including cores; the melting
of the material or mixing
of liquid
and
agents; pouring by gravitation;
The
\"solidification.\"
\"solidification\"
on
the
actual
material
and may
process depends
involve oven curing.
The
molds
and cores are producedas simply
as
and cheaply
necessary
molds of lead are used, produced
possible. Often
a
steel
or
metal
model
by dipping
in molten lead and stripping
the shell of lead off the
model
after solidification.
Cores can be produced
in plaster,
lead, rubber, and so on. Molds can also be
from
rubber
wood,
(to allow undercuts), or
glass,
produced
plaster,
synthetic
The

casting

of plastics

of metals:

other suitable

materials.

for thermosetting
materials such as phenolics,
but
also
materials such as ethyl
resins,
epoxies,
allyl
thermoplastic
cellulose
acetate butyrate, acrylics, and vinyls
can be cast.
cellulose,
The casting processhas many industrial
rods
including short
applications,
and tubes, toys, jewelry, clock and
instrument
cases,
handles, knobs, drilling
and punches and dies for sheet metal
and
jigs,
forming,
including
drop-hammer
stretch
dies.
The case components can be reinforced
in various
manners (steel,

Casting

polyesters,

is used

primarily

and

glass fibers, etc.).

348

11

Chapter

FIGURE 11.3
(3) solid shaft,

(4)

rotational
mold

Rotational

11.3.2

machine. (1)
molds,
(5)
(6) oven

molding

tables,

Motor

and

gear,

(2)

tubular

shaft,

wall.

Molding

rotation
of thin-walled
models (of metal
to
each
distributes
the heated
and
other)
(perpendicular
molten material in the mold in a layer covering the inside of the mold. The
of material
thickness of the layer is determined by the amount
fed into the mold.
mold.
the
is
from
the
A
After
removed
rotational
cooling,
component
molding
in Fig.
11.3. Heating and melting
machine is shown
is carried
out in a large
In

rotational

molding,
two
axes

sheets)about

oven using

water, and
the mold
temperature

air

hot

so on,
can

wall

a simultaneous

and, after forming, cooling can be carried out

air,
by cold
in the heating
oven
or in a special coolingchamber.
Oil within
be used for both
and cooling,
heating
allowing for close

control.

For many years, only

small
(doll heads, toys, ornaments,
process has
been used primarily
garbage
purposes.
components

containers,
The
with

chairs,

were produced by rotational

molding
in the last 10 to 15 years the
of larger components such as
production

products

bulbs, etc.), but

in

the

tanks of

various sorts, and

obtainable
thicknesses
main dimensions
of 2-3

wall

vary
m

are

between

not

drums

2 and

unusual.

for

various

12 mm, and

Plastic Processing

Plastics and

11.4

FIGURE

forming of

Open-mold

used for

The materials

example,powdered

reinforced

plastics

rotational

the

(100-300

u,m)

are the most

which
paste,
used.

349

molding

polyethylene
but

important,

most

(manual).

of thermoplastics are, for

resins and polyvinyl
chloride
of the casting plastics may

be

of the

Advantages
components

cost. The molds

molding

on

the

same

process
equipment,

are: flexibility (various

even in the same cycle), low

and open-ended components,good surface

from
sheet metal, cast aluminum,

closed-

costs,

tooling

rotational

be produced

can

and low

finish,

can be produced

and

other

materials.

11.3.3

alone

action

temperature

after

are

primarily

be used. The fiber

form, asbestos,cotton,
materials

can

or temperature action
a fiber material is

that

is

feature

(resin) which,
materials

and

by a

synthetic

variety

of

fibers. Fiberglass

the

mold

vacuum

commonly

action.

plastic
used

materials can
random
or woven

other

many
in

other

composite

processes.

In open-mold forming, a male or female

can be made from wood, metal, or other
but

a liquid

The most

and

under

a pressure
with

impregnated

of methods

out

be carried

combinedwith

is allowed to \"solidify/*
and epoxy resins, but
polyester
materials
can be glass (predominantly)

be made

are placedin

can

forming,

mold

is applied,

includesa wide variety

composite materials.These methods

to produce

The main

of plastics

and lamination

reinforcement

The

and Laminated Plastics

Reinforced

mold

is used

materials.

and the entrapped air removed.

or pressure bags can be used to

(see Fig.

11.4). The

fibers and resins

In most
cases, no pressure
a
low
give
pressure. CurGlass

Chapter11

350

Heat

channels

Heat

11.5

FIGURE

ing normally
aircraft
boats,

or

11.5). The moldsare generally

surface

finish

Examples of

closed-mold

(both

sides),
pressing

luggage. Closed-moldforming
hydraulic

Cutting

reinforced

plastics.

of open-mold processing are fiberglass

and containers.
components,
takes
in
molds
(see Fig.
pressing
place
two-part
made
from metal, and the process gives a good
rates.
good tolerances, and high production

takes place in air.

parts, luggage,

Closed-moldforming

Excess

forming of

Closed-mold

channels

Examples

truck

include
requires

bus

and

trays,

helmets,

relatively

expensive

and

housings,

machinery

tooling and a

press.

of equipment,
but if larger
Open-mold
forming generally requires a minimum
number of componentsare desired,special
be
can
machinery
developed. Figure
11.4 shows the simple manual method, but in many cases, for example, boats
and
other
the spray-up method shown
in Fig.
11.6 is used.
large components,
Here glassfiber (cut into small lengths) and resin are depositedsimultaneously.
The production
of tubes, pressure cases, circular
and other
bodies,
cylindrical
products is carried out by filament winding. Single strands of fiber yarn are used
as reinforcing material, which
is passed
through a bath of resin and wound onto
a mandrel. This processhas become
in recent years.
important
Laminated plastics consist of sheets of paper, fabric/cloth, asbestos, wood,
and
so on, which are impregnated or coated with
resin
and formed under heat
and pressure to the desired shape.The resulting
is cured under
\"sandwich\"
at elevated
are
pressure
temperatures. These products, which
commercially
available as stock materials in sheet form, rod, tubes, and many
special
shapes,
have excellent strength
properties,
high impact resistance, and good electrical
Common

insulation.
handles,

and

furniture.

applications

Laminated

include gears, electrical

plastics have good machining

insulating

properties.

parts,

Many

and Plastic

Plastics

Pressure air

Pressureair

11.6

FIGURE

for

further

details,

Resin

mixture

been

developed

and various laminated products

produced;

see the literature.

Extrusion

11.3.4
The

^-ss^

of fiber-reinforced plastics.

Spray-up

special processeshave

.Cutting

mixture

Resin

351

Processing

extrusion

of plastics

is extensively used to

as long profiles,rods,tubes,
important
application
wires and cables.

is the

sheets,
extrusion

and foils,
coating

various
geometries,
in different lengths. A special
of the electrical insulators

produce

such
but
on

The extrusion processrequires

the material is in a rubbery
that
flow state, so
can take place. Most extruded products are thermoplastic
materials,
shaping
but if special precautions are taken,
materials
can also be
thermosetting
extruded.
11.7 shows a typical
extrusion
Figure
press. The plastic material is fed
from
the hopper
into the screw chamber, where it is heated,
and
compressed,
a heated
forced through
die. On leaving the extrusion
die, the product is cooled
that

air

or water,

giving sufficient
strength
through
hardening
is a cheap and rapid method of molding.
handling.
Products
close tolerances can be calibrated
(i.e.,
requiring
after the extruded shape has left the extrusion
die.
by

for

further

Extrusion

11.3.5
The

blow

formed) just

Blow Molding
hollow
process is used to producethin-walled
components
materials. A cylinder
of plastic material (a parison) is extruded
in the opened two-part
mold
(see Fig. 11.8).

molding

thermoplastic
and

finish

positioned

in

Chapter 11

352

Heating

Cylinder

Extrusion

bands

(jacket)

Screw

die

Pressure

bearing

Water

cooling

of screw

Air blower

FIGURE

FIGURE
cutting;

11.7

11.8
(e) split

removal of

the

Blow molding:
component.

blow

cooling

extrusion press.

Single-screw

mold; (f)

Water

(a) extrusion

mandrel

or core

press;

(b) extrusion

tube; (g) closedmold;

die; (c) parison;

(h) opened

(d)

mold and

and Plastic

Plastics

is cut

material

The

tube,

expanding

opened and

the

Examples of

heater ducts, and

11.3.6

is the

molding
of

metals.The
it

hollow

the

the mold is

cooling,

bottles,
containers,
floats,
materials are polyethylene,

include

Suitable

packaging.

After

mold.

the

blow-moldedcomponents
cosmetic

pressure fed into

and air

closed,

walls of
removed.

the

for example.

acetate,

Injection Molding

Injection
components

mold

the

component

cellulose

and

polypropylene,

off,

toward

it

353

Processing

is heated

most

widely

used

process

materials. The process

thermoplastic
material
is fed from a hopper
granular
and melted and

then

under

injected

for the
into

of

manufacturing

is similar

to

a screw

high pressure

casting of
chamber, where
the mold or die
place when the

the die

into

(see Fig. 11.9).

material is still under pressure, giving rather close tolerances.The die is often
is normally
water cooled. The injection
in the range 50-200 MPa.
pressure
are
machines
different
available,but they will not be
Many
injection
molding
described here.
of the applications
of this important
include toys, cans,
process
Examples
allowed

and

to solidify

The

takes

solidification

boxes,fittings,

elements,
pumps,
propellers,
gears, bearings, guiding
caps, and
of
rates
for
Because
the
obtainable, it is a
housings
high production
appliances.
to \302\2610.5mm,
in
the
\302\2610.1
Tolerances
cheap mass-production process.
range
the
on
are
obtainable.
size,
readily
depending
The materials are primarily
but in recent years the injection
thermoplastics,

molding

of thermosetting plastics has

of processing
capable

molding machines

well
materials\342\200\224as

as

been

rubbers\342\200\224have

becomequite
thermoplastic

extensively
and

used,

and

thermosetting

developed.

The molding machines are characterized

by the injection
capacity (typically
kg) and the clamping force (up to 30 MN).
It should be mentioned
that the properties
of the components dependto a high
and on the cooling
degree on the proper
filling of the mold, gates, and runners
1-5

conditions.Consequently,
injection molding.
components

must

Since

mold

the mold

be manufactured

or die

design plays

an

important

role

11.3.7 Compression and TransferMolding

and transfer
since
Compression
molding are closely related processes
produce
In

components
compression

part of the mold

(up to 60 MPa),

in

a large number of
system is rather expensive,
to make the processeconomical.

both

a two-part mold.
the plastic material is placed in the heated
lower
molding,
and the mold is closedunder
the application
of a high pressure
causingthe softened material to fill the cavity (see Fig. 11.10).
using

Chapter11

354

forward,

Injection molding screw machine.

under pressure, (3) plasticizing
solidification

11.9

FIGURE

(2)

is opened and the component ejected, (a, electric

d, feed hopper; e, screw;f, heating
adjustment;
plasticized

material; h,

injection

nozzle;

(1) Injection:

motor;

elements

i, mold;

of next

the screw is forced

shot terminated: the mold

b, hydraulic cylinder; c,
for the plasticizing cylinder;

k, component.)

stroke

g,

Plastics and Plastic Processing

FIGURE

11.10

FIGURE 11.11

Compression

Transfer

355

molding.

molding.

is placed
in a separate well or
molding, the plastic material
heated and forced under pressure into the cavity
(see
Fig. 11.11).
to process
Both processes are used primarily
thermosetting
plastics. The
or
can be supplied in granular
material
to about
160\302\260C.The
molds are heated
tablet form.
than
Transfer molding provides better geometricalpossibilities
compression
but for simple geometries,
(more complicated shapes can be obtained),
molding

In transfer

chamber,where

it is

compression molding

is usually

preferable.

Chapter 11

356

11.12

FIGURE

Examples of
installation

materials

filler

11.3.8

(i.e.,

differential

11.13).

The

for example, and

fibers,
the

requirements.

Figure
by

infrared

componenttakes

place

shows

11.13

Figure

then

is

increased

These stages
can be obtained.

thicknesses

The thermoforming
componentsof
components,

process,
into

the

mold

where

after
the mold

the material,

by evacuating
the
by

blowing

a size

complicated process.Here,the sheet is heated and

as shown
lines. The male
by the dashed

the mold.

through
wall

a more

by pressurized air
introduced
into the formed

the mold

onto

mold

Figs. 11.12and

over it.

cold air
drawn

pressurized

cooling.

by

is sucked

radiation,

(the therair

soften

into

atmospheric
pressure forms the sheet). Coolingof
partly by the sheet contacting the mold and partly

the

(i.e.,

cavity

or

pressures),

are heated until they

the mold by vacuum,
by mechanical means (see

forced

shape obtained is stabilized

11.12 shows the vacuum forming

heating

boats,

reinforced with glass

added dependingon

sheets

thermoplastic

thermoforming,

plaster,

appliances,

Thermoforming

moelastic region,Fig. 11.1)and

uniform

parts include electrical

knobs, handles, pulleys, and

molded

transfer

parts,

insulating

are
components
may be

Many

bearings.

In

compressionand

materials,

different

(by vacuum).

Thermoforming

process

up to

skylight

about

covers,

or plastic.

and the vacuum

can be balanced

so

that

gradually

reasonably

is used primarily to produce shell-type

x
7 m. Examplesincludes
car body
m
boxes,

panels

appliances, housings,

sheet

and

(aircraft, automobile industry),

The molds are made
panels.

shields,

small

of wood, metal,

Plastics and

FIGURE

11.4

11.13

357

Plastic Processing

Thermoforming.

EXAMPLES

OF TYPICAL

PLASTIC

PROCESSING

METHODS

A few typical plastic processing methods are described

in
the
abbreviations used are the same as in chapters 6, 7, 8, and 10.
are provided by courtesy
of The Manufacturing
Figures
Provo, Utah.
Brigham
Young
University,

following.

The

Consortium,

Chapter 11

358
Blow

1:

PROCESS

Description: A

forming

short.

in which

process

extruding a heated thermoplastic

part mold where pressurizedair
of the now closed mold. After
removed.

(M, Me, Ri, TF,

Molding

cylinder\342\200\224a

Te)

hollow

the parison
the mold is

expands
cooling,

products

parison\342\200\224into

to match the

usually

formed

an

open

by
two-

contours

inner

opened and the component

is
and the cycle time

in thickness
quite uniform
Raw materials for blow molding are generally

are

Parts

are

either pellets or granular

compounds.

fl

.-AIR

1m

MOLD.

PRESSURE

,-\302\256N

fi

\342\226\240
WORKPIECE

PARISON

r%

Jul

of thin-walled
is used to form a wide variety
Blow molding
Applications:
are
Wall
thicknesses
etc.
ducts,
such
as
floats,
bottles, containers,
components
mm
in
5
to
and
mm
bottle-sized
in
0.5-1
larger
up
components
typically
are polyethylene, polypropylene, and
materials
Suitable
containers
(cans).
cellulose acetate.

Surface quality of blow-molded

from
lines
mold surfaces.Parting
the
of
quality
of
flash.
Tolerances
of
amount
minimal
as
a
as
well
present
Tolerances/Surfaces:

matches

the

componentsclosely
the mold parts are
are obtainable

\302\261
1%

for external dimensions.

Machinery:
extrusion die
supply.

for

The

producing

blow-molding

machine

the parison,

two-part

consists
mold,

of extrusion press,
and a pressurized

air

Plastic

and

Plastics

PROCESS2:

359

Processing

Extrusion

Description: In

The

fixtures

cooling
regained

the

carefully

jacket
is then

some

extrusion

materials.

Typical profile
components.
material
produced,

controls

continuously

the

forced

a die

locatedat

temperature
the

through

the

of the
die

end

of

plastic.
and

opening

are

Granular compounds and pellets

are typical
materials
be
molding.
Scrap
may
choppedand
materials
are the only
Generally,
thermoplastic

material forms
mixed

ones

with

extruded.

extrusionsare pipe,film

or sheet,
rain gutter, and window
is
a
volume
with accurately controlled
molding
high
process
from
0.1
to
10
mm.
Intricate
can be
thicknesses,
ranging
profiles
3
and
between
30
m.
lengths
typically
Extrusion

Tolerances/Surfaces: Depending
of workpiece

material,

tolerances

dimensional

to 5 degreeson
Extruded parts
Machinery:

heating/cooling
cutting

toward

barrel

to produce a hollow
To maintain the desired shape,
workpiece.
used. When the component
has cooled enough to have
it is cut to desired length.
strength,

Applications:

used in

type

ODF, Te)

a mandrel

around

virgin

heating

material

molten

Me, Ri,

materials are fed from a

molding,
thermoplastic
an extruder.
A rotating helical screwinside the

extrusion

into the heated barrel of

hopper
barrel
the material through
pushes

the machine.

(M,

Molding

system.

angles.
thus

on

the condition

pressure,

working

and geometry of the dies,

of process etc,

temperatures

from 8 to 10%on thickness

and around 4
finish varies between0.2 and 2 u.m (Ra).
little or no finishing
work.

typically
range
The surface

require

Specialized

very

extrusion machine

systems, die,

mandrel,

conveyor

with

with

hopper,

cooling

extrusion

screw,

fixtures, and a

360

Chapter

PROCESS 3:

Description: In
screw-type

then advances and the

plunger
to
it
enter the mold cavity
allowing

cold so the

mold remains
with this

produce

very

mm

500

is used to produce more thermoplastic

molding
process. Applications include toys, boxes, fittings,
to produce
only a
housing, etc. Molds can be designed
made for one plastic material
in one cycle. A mold
parts

many

be used with
plastics. One of the

cannot

various

be used

Injection

bearings,

gears,

single part or
usually

also

any other

than

propeller

solidifies

circumstances thermoset plastics can

process.

Applications:
products

plastic

In some

is filled.

mold

the

thermoplastic material is fed

slowly move forward
granules
by the
into a heating
chamber where it is
is forced through
melted
a
plastic
a
and
runner
The
through
gate
system.
to its configuration
almost
as soon as

the

The

molten.
nozzle,

TF, Te)

granular

molding

injection

heated barrel. As
the
plastic is forced
plunger,
into a

a hopper

from

Me, Ri,

(M,

Molding

Injection

11

another
major

geometric

complex

in length

or

width

for
because of different
shrinkage
to
of the process is its ability
size ranges
are between 50 and
typical

material
advantages

shapes. The
up to about 400

and

mm

in

depth.

To prevent undesired stresses and weak spots,

wall
thickness
and streamline shape.
have a uniform
Tolerancesof \302\2610.2to \302\2610.05 mm can be obtained. Surface finishes of 1 to 2 u.m
as are rough textured or pebbled surfaces.
(Ra) or better are easily obtained
Tolerances/Surfaces:
molded
parts should

injection

machines
consist of a material
molding
normally
a
and
ram
or
screw
plunger,
heating system. Practically
hopper,
injection
type
all
machines may be operated on an automatic
cycle. They are
injection
molding
rated accordingto the number of ounces of material
by one forward
displaced
or by the closing force of the dies. CNCstroke of the injection
plunger

Machinery:

Injection

controlled machines

are available.

Plastic

and

Plastics

PROCESS4:

361

Processing

Thermoform

Description: Thermoforming
is heated

material

thermoplastic

is a

to

its

against the

contours of a mold

applied

to

plastic

allowed

to cool.

the

and sealing

of

An

excess

sheet

the

forming

softening

pressed

pull

(M,

Molding

by

process

point
a plug

tightly against
of material
is

to the

Me, Ri,

mold. This

the

TF, Co)
in

of

a sheet

which

radiation

by infrared

then

and

or pressurized air. A vacuum

contours
of the mold where

needed for proper holding,

excessis trimmed
off in

is
it

is

forming,

a secondary

operation.

Applications:
undercuts.

bowls,

Production

thicknesses

Varying

of simple
with large radii
and no
geometries
on the finished product are to be expected.Trays,

car accessories, dinghies, etc., are

skylights,
from plastic sheet or film.
Sizes
can be as large as 3

cups,

formed

typical

examples

10 m.

Tolerances are often quite rough, and dimensional

Tolerances/Surfaces:
of the finished
at elevated
parts suffer from residual stresses, particularly
of material
is a major problem.High
working temperatures. Uneven distribution
surface
quality
may be obtained, especiallyin free forming.
stability

Machinery:

a plug

assist,

of sizes.

and

Thermoforming machines normally

a workpiece holding
device.
They

consist

of an

are made

in

oven, a mold,
a wide

range

12

Nontraditional

Manufacturing

Processes

12.1
In

INTRODUCTION

the previous chapters several of the most commonly

have
been described.
However, over the years,

processes

used manufacturing
sophisticated

increasingly

on these processes.
They have
designs and new materials have imposeddemands
beenable to meet these demands only with great difficulty or, sometimes, not at
has therefore taken
in manufacturing
in
all. Since the 1940s, a revolution
place
order to remedy the shortcomings
of the traditional processes.
As
the conventional manufacturing
in use today
described,
already
processes
for material removal
on
electric
carbide
tool
materials
motors
and
primarily
rely
to perform tasks such as sawing, drilling,
and so
milling,
turning,
broaching,

on. Conventional
electric motors
energy

sources

are performed with

the
forming
operations
and material joining
is accomplished
or hydraulics,
arcs.
such as burning gases and electric

In contrast,

sources in

nontraditional

new

ways

Material removal
electrochemical
liquids

and

form
powerful

can now

reactions,

abrasives.

are now

electric

be

considered

with

sparks.

that
magnetic

in

the

utilize traditional energy

unconventional

with beams

accomplished

high-temperature

Materials

formed

processes

manufacturing

or sources

from
with thermal

energy

not

of

light,

sparks,

plasmas, and high-velocity

past have been extremely

fields,

Material-joining

explosives,

years ago.

many

jets of
to

difficult

and shock waves

capabilities have been

from

expanded

363

364

Chapter

sound waves and

of high-frequency

use

the

with

beams of

12

and

electrons

coherentlight.

As discussed
processes

the

in

\342\200\242

Increase

either

productivity

are

geometries

since their

nontraditional

described

new

a steady

for the

growth

many of them

of

this

workpieceproperties

today

are

nontraditional

processes

used alongside

commonly

give a more detaileddescription

to balance the traditional
partly to show that there is still a large
of materials processing.
is to

chapter

partly

processes,

and

principles

nontraditional

processes

will be

type of energy source they

utilize:

chemical/electrochemical.

those

are

manufacturing

of

some

of

processes
potential

in

PROCESSES

12.2
The

old

be met with conventional

techniques,
hardness of the workpieceor becausecomplicated

and

previously,

developing

the

in-process breakage of fragile

counterparts.

The purpose

the

operations

required

introduction,

traditional

their

of overall
performing

that cannot

attributes have secured

These

reducing

detrimental effects on

or minimizing

a capability
because
of the

Provide

either

a product or by

used method
rejects experienced by

repeatability,

increasing

workpieces,
\342\200\242

manufacturing

number

the

reducing

by

to produce

needed

faster than the previously

\342\200\242
Reduce
the number
of
by

nontraditional

to:

manufacturing
operations

method

the

sections,

following

be applied

may

Only

grouped

electrical,

processes

into

four

sections

according

thermal,
most commonly used
mechanical,

to the

and
in

industry

discussed.

Electrical

12.2.1

Discharge

Machining (EDM)

or \"spark erosion\" the removal

of metal
electrical
discharge
machining
from the workpiece is obtainedby means of energy released by repetitive
spark
two
conductors
referred to,
discharges
arranged to take place between
or tool, and the workpiecein which the eroded cavity is
respectively, as the electrode
In

required.
in
in Fig. 12.1, the electrically conductiveworkpieceis positioned
machine and connected to one pole of a pulsed power supply. An
conductive
electrode,
electrically
shaped to match the dimensionsof the desired
to
or
is
connected
the other pole of the supply. The two parts are
hole,
cavity
separatedby a small gap flooded by an insulating (dielectric) fluid to provide a
resistance in the gap. An increasing voltage is
controlled
amount
of electrical
As

seen

the EDM

NontradiHonal

365

Processes

Manufacturing

Servo

System

a^
Dielectric

Electric Discharge
Dielectric

Schematic of

12.1

FIGURE

EDM

an

Generator

Workpiece

System

Berger, VDI, DOsseldorf, 1987.)

system.(From

stress being created on

fluid
them until
nonthe
between
eventually ionized, and the gap, normally
to flow from one
current
conductive,
suddenly becomes conductive, allowing
electrodeto the other in the form of a spark discharge.The spark channel in the
has a very small cross-sectionalarea resulting
first
few microseconds
in a
A/
current
calculated
to
be
the
order
of
104\342\200\224106
on
density,
correspondingly
high
cm2. Because of these extremedensities,
is
also
the
in
the
channel
temperature
then

to the

applied

electrodes,

in an

resulting

increasing

it is

considerable,between
vaporization

of a

the workpiece at

vaporization, a
around

the

spark

the

small,

rapidly

by

the

in the

resulting

of

the surfaces

contact. Fed by the

is created
bubble

melting
the

both

gaseous
in

the

and

and

electrode

of

byproducts

fluid

dielectric

channel.

pulse is terminated,

solidifying

both the

causes

of cool

inrush

metal from
formation of a small

the

gap

of spark

of molten

resultingin

from

expanding

rapidly

This
stopped instantly.
collapse. The violent
expulsion

10,000\302\260C,

of material

points

the electrical

When

and

5,000

small amount

both

the

crater

balls

hollow

the

spark

spark channel

dielectric

fluid

and heating
and

results

action are

vapor bubble
in an explosive

the

to

and workpiece surfaces,

surfaces of the two conductors
and
of material, which
are removed
from the

electrode
in the

fluid.

The sequence

just

described

is repeated

anywhere from a few hundred

per second. Each

to

at a
shortest distance betweenthe electrode
An
of the workpiece, and to a smaller extent
of the tool, takes place
erosion
also
the distance.
across
The repetitive discharges wander
the
locally,
increasing
the shortest distances, and erode the material
electrode surface, always
seeking
in a form that matches
from
the workpiece
the contour of the electrode. As the
toward the workprocess
automatically
progresses and the electrode is advanced
a constant
is generated
in a
piece to maintain
gap distance, a hole or cavity
of the electrode.
reverse
image
several
point

hundred
that

thousands

is the

of times

spark

occurs
discharge
and the workpiece.

Chapter 12

366
modern

On

electrode

the operating

machinery

material,

makes

it

tool electrode to a
Since the cross section

on the

to

precisely

the

above
proceeds

of

shape

impossibleto

machine

the

point of
of the

melting

independently

for

hardening

of

distortion

the

or

removal

wear

corresponds

cavity

be

and

by the workpiece.

experienced

that very

within

selected

be

choice of polarity

the material

means, can

conventional

complex geometries,
formed

accurately

by

operating
temperatures, well
Metal removal therefore
material.
Heat treatment
workpiece

high
material.

known

any

that

it follows

stems from

may

a suitable

workpiece

resulting

electrode,

by

of

fraction

of the

the

with

to minimize

possible

small

Another advantage

EDM.

parameters

of settings.This, combined

wide spectrum

hardness of the
thus be applied at

an early
can
stage, eliminating the risk
of the work
after
with
difficultAlso, working
machining.
to-machine
materials such as tungsten
and cobalt
constitutes
no problem.
the cutting
the spark alone is in contact
with the workDuring
operation,
is
to
the
mechanical
of
a cutting
which
therefore
not
stresses
piece,
subjected
tool. This results in the ability of the EDM processto machine
extremely
fragile
It is also worth
that the surface finish
workpieces without
damage.
mentioning
of the lifts and scores that
none
produced
by the process is nondirectional, with
are characteristic
of chip-forming machines. This is an asset where polishing is
reduces
the time necessary
required as a final finish since the surface uniformity
for this operation.
metals

Equipment

Although
refinements

there are severaltypes of

and equipped to meet a

EDM system is comprisedof

supply,

dielectric

schematic

EDM

four

electrode,

system,

spark

erosion

user'sparticular

major

subassemblies

and servosystem.

machines, each
specification,

with

the

its own

typical

that include a power

Figure

12.1

shows

system.

The powersourceconverts

the input ac power to dc powerby

A crystal-controlled oscillator governed
a square-wave
of
by a part of the dc power generates
signal that triggers a bank
to control
which act as high-speedswitches
the flow of the
transistors,
power
to obtain desired
dc power.
In addition, the circuit makes it possible
remaining
variations in power and pulse repetition frequency since the techniquein spark
erosion
machining is to remove the bulk of the workpiece material at high power
small
and low frequency (the roughing
and then to remove remaining
operation)
of material at low power/high
amounts
(the finishing operation).
frequency
is a schematic arrangement of a transistor
circuit
Figure 12.2
providing
square
to control
This type of circuit can be modified
heavier currents by
voltage pulses.
transistors
introducing
arranged in parallel, or to vary the on/off duty ratio of the
different values of circuit componentsand thus varying
transistor
by introducing

Power Source

solid-state

conventional

the pulse

width

and

rectification.

repetition

frequency.

Nontraditional

367

Processes

Manufacturing

nnn

jljljlj

circuit providing

Transistor

12.2

FIGURE

pulses.

voltage

square

and the workpiece is an additional

Sensing the voltage betweenthe electrode
of the power supply.
Because
a direct relationship exists betweenthis

function

the electrode gap, the voltage is used to

maintain
a constant gap distance throughout
of a velocity servo which
means
\"senses\"

and

voltage

enabling

achieved

by

required feed rate and

correction(see

it should

That

serve as an

of a

requirements

standing

insulation

in the

the
the

spark,

functions,

efficiency.

Poor

machining

residue

circuits.As
dielectric

results

flushing

shown
fluid

flushing

cycle

particles
in Fig. 12.3,

through

paraffins

low viscosity,

and

is by far the
in stagnation

the

and
have

light

oils,

a flash

occurred.

most critical for

of the

and

fluid

in

low

value of

a consistent

process

optimum

of tiny
rates or short

a buildup

removal

gap, resulting
several methods are available

cutting
spark

has

discharge

is essential if a
leading up to another spark

in the

The dielectricsused for

available

breakdown

the

until

are:

which

* That ionization
should
occur as quickly as possibleat
breakdown voltage.
*
That
it should serve as a flushing
agent.
four

appropriate

dielectric fluid

spark gap

once a

rapidly quench the spark

This deionizes the dielectric in

continuousarc
is to be prevented and
is to be established.
discharge

Of the

between the

is attained.

voltage
*

The

servosystem,
This is

process.

error

the

actual

the

System

it should

That

the

cutting rate and makes the

under Servosystem).

below,

Dielectric
*

the

control

to

it

for

flushing

the

zone.

are almost invariably

machining
which
are reasonably cheap,

point

high

enough

to make

commercially
have

a suitably

them safe to

work

368

Chapter

t-

PRESSURE

12

THROUGH

ELECTROOE

4
THROUGH ELECTROOE

SUCTION

TT
PRESSURE

THROUGH

WORKPIECE

THROUGH WORKPIECE

SUCTION

JET FLUSHING
FIGURE

12.3

Urbana,

Illinois).

with. The
by

means

The EDM

flushing

techniques.

is continually
fluid
cleaned,
of pumps and filters.

(Courtesy,

recycled, and

Hanstvedt EDM

returned

to the

Division,

cutting

gap

to the accuracy of the shape

limitation
The
main
by
produced
wear depends on the material of
is the unavoidable electrode wear.
This
of dielectric,
and of the electrode itself, the type
the
flushing
workpiece
of cutting,
and type of power source. Many materials have been
rate
conditions,
are that
used for EDM applications.Common
requirements
successfully
low wear,
be electrically
must be easily machinable, exhibit
electrode materials
surface finishes on the workpiece, and be readily
conductive,
provide
good
that the performance of any one type of
It is important to bear in mind
available.
on the type of machining
electrode may vary considerably
operation.
depending
a roughing
For example, the wear of a given electrode might be low during
a finishing
but high during
operation
operation.
and give good cutting
conductivities
thermal
have
and
brass
high
Copper
materials
are reasonably cheap and
Both
the former has a low wear factor.
rates;
are easily formed.
tungsten
provides much lower wearrates than copper
Copper

Electrodes

EDM

Nontradltlonal

_^

j-

FIGURE 12.4

but

is a

Processes

Manufacturing

OVERCUT

H H-

EDM electrodesand

resulting

material to machine.

difficult

molding electrodes

from

this

material.

overcut

in the workpiece.

Techniques(expensive)
Besides

are

available

for

machining of copperelectrodes,

to the
used to produce a copper shell
corresponding
with
allow
then
material
to
shell is
filled
a suitable
component;the
fastening.
electrode materials. Both are
are very popular
Graphite and copper graphite
of grades for application to all
easy to machine and are availablein a number
materials.
The
wear
rate
of
is
low because of the very high
workpiece
graphite
at
which
it
temperature
vaporizes.
in the workAll electrode materials and configurations producean overcut
The
amount
of
and
hence
the
overcut
12.4).
piece (see Fig.
necessary
once the workpiece and electrode
as well as the
compensationare
materials
predictable
electroforming

EDM operating

is

parameters

Allowances must also

are known.

be made

for

electrode

wear.

The efficiencyof the EDM process is closely related to the

Servosystems
between electrode and workpiece,
and the servosystem which
feeds
the electrode to the workpiece during
the cutting
continuously
operation must
the optimum
maintain
distance
the
of
the
electrode to
infeed
gap
by controlling
the
rate
match
of
material
removal.
precisely
12.5
shows
the principle for controlling
the
feed: the
electrode
Figure
set
to
distance
is
a
certain
gap
required
corresponding
gap voltage
Vg. During the
the
actual
is
The
monitored.
difference
process
gap voltage
Va
constantly
between
and Va, known as the error voltage,
which
is fed to a servo amplifier,
Vg
in turn controls a servo valve
and therefore
the flow of hydraulic
to a
fluid
a piston rod connected to the work
cylinder with
is
If the gap is as set, there
head.
no error voltage, and the work head remains stationary.
increase
of
Subsequent
the gap distance causesa corresponding
error
increase
in Va and the resultant
the
to
lower
causes
valve
until
and
are
the
work
head
voltage
Va
equal again.
Vg
Movement in the opposite
direction is, of course, accomplished
if a piece of
the gap between the electrode
and
has bridged
electrically conductivematerial
In
case
is
less
will
this
than
and
the
valve
react
workpiece.
Va
by increasing
Vg
the gap distance until the dielectric
fluid flushes the gap clear.
gap distance

Chapter12

370
VOLTAGE

ERROR

=a
ELECTROMAGNETICUUUU

DOUBLE-

VALVE.

ACTING
CYLINDER

M>fDR*UUC

FLUID

%i

bdA

WORK

MEAD

I
-OELECTRODE

P^^jWQgKPIECE

+ oFIGURE 12.5

Process

Schematicof EDM

holes,

slots, and

servosystem.

and Applications

Capabilities

EDMis capableof machining

is
of hardness. The process
shaped

velocity

all

particularly

cavities

with

conductive materials regardless

well suited for producing irregularly

electrically

accuracies

of

\302\2610.025

to

\302\2610.1mm.

With

special care, accuracies as fine as \302\2610.005 mm are obtainable.

chosen.
wear and by the method of flushing
Taper is affected by electrode
electrodes
it can be eliminated by using
When taper is not acceptable,
separate
for roughing
and
finishing
passes.
are strongly
rates
Volumetric metal removal
dependent on the parameters
of each discharge).
for current, voltage, and frequency, (i.e., the power
chosen
the
influence
method
of
and
electrode
material,
dielectric,
flushing
Further,
for
used
are
commonly
roughing
passes
settings
power
working speed. High
as typical
with a removal rate of 25-50 cm3/h
values, whereas the rate for
as
0.01
cm3/h.
low
as
be
may
finishing
the surface finish of the workinfluence
also strongly
The
same parameters
for low power, high-frequency
RMS
from
1
u.m
Values
range
commonly
piece.
work

to

10 Jim

RMS for

high-power,

low-frequency

machining.

Newer

and parameter
selection, are
special care in operation
to maintain
surface finishes as fine as 0.2-0.3 (*m RMS.
able
now
is removed from the
material
of the process is that because
A limitation
of
and
solidified
a
melted
thermal
material, known as
action,
layer
by
workpiece

machines,

combined

with

Nontradltlonal

Some typical

FIGURE 12.6

371

Processes

Manufacturing

erosion

spark

machining techniques

[48].

between
0.002
on the machined
surface. The recast is typically
mm thick and is very hard, in excess of HRC 65, and brittle. Because
be removed
from
of the poor physical propertiesof such a surface, recast must
of
For
levels
resistance.
surfaces of products that require
many
high
fatigue
however,
purposes,
subsequent
finishing is unnecessary and the matte finish from
craters can be an asset for the retention
the
minute,
saucer-shaped
overlapping
of lubricants.

recast, remains

and 0.0S

The EDM processis

stamping or
tons\342\200\224up

used

to

its

to
ability
materials

conventional

processeshave
processes

Electrical
conventionalEDM
electrode.

The

been

discharge

are

production

instance,

of
making
to several
and

electronics,

parts

such as

geometries
complex
produce highly
is turned to good account.Figure

or

injector
in

12.6

shows

operations.

Processes Derivedfrom

electrical

the

weighing from a few kilograms

of tools for the watchmaking,

or
of
even
seriesproduction
industries,

otherwise difficult-to-machine

the

industry\342\200\224for

manufacture

the

nozzleholes,where
some typical

and dies

punches

forging

high-precision

From

in industry, from

extensively

of tools for the automobile

modification

dealt

derived,

with briefly

Process

a number of subprocess just described,

and
among which electrical dischargewire cutting
have
industrial use. These
found widespread

spark

grinding

EDM

the

in

erosion

the

following:

EDWM
differs from
(EDWM)
Discharge Wire Cutting
a thin wire is used as an electrode
of a formed
instead
and is taken
wire unwinds from a spool, feedsthrough
the workpiece,
in that

Chapter 12

372

Nozzle

for

dielectric
wire

Moving

(dcionized water)

electrode

Workpiece

motions

Engineers

(From SME Tool A

machine.

EDWC

Manufacturing

of
pulses
spool. A dc power supply delivers high-frequency
is eroded ahead of the
wire and to the workpiece, and material
Either the workpiece or the wire is moved, causing the
discharges.

a second

on

wire

to the

electricity

spark

by

A schematic of an
Handbook, 4th ed.)

12.7

FIGURE

up

Spark gap

like a handsaw. The spark gap is flooded

ized water. Figure 12.7 shows the fundamentals
cutouts can be made
In this
way, complicated

to cut

wire

usually deionof a wire-EDM

machine.
without
the need to use higha dielectric,

with

EDM
electrodes.
cutting processes or expensiveformed
High
and
finishes
are
obtainable
and
fine
surface
make
wire-EDM
accuracy
extrusion
in the manufacture of stamping
dies,
dies, dies for
particularlyvaluable

conventional

cost

powder metal

has
EDM

not

compaction,
been

fully

die configuration
parts (if the final stamping
and even for the fabrication of conventional

prototype
determined),

electrodes.
(EDG)

As shown

in Fig.

conductive

wheel is

used as the

Electrical

Discharge Grinding
electrically
operation a rotating,
the wheel and the workpiece

Pulsedelectrical
energy
250,000 pulses/s,resulting

in a

flushing

problems.

in

a tank

flow

sparks, each removing

rotating motion of the
of dielectric

an

EDG
Both

containing a dielectric.

flow of
The

in

electrode.

to the wheel and workpieceat

is delivered

of material from the workpiece.

from graphite, ensures a constant
any

are submerged

12.8,

wheel,

to the gap,

thus

of up

rates

a small

to

quantity
made

often

eliminating

Nontradtttonal

373

Processes

Manufacturing

Current -fo
control

FIGURE

12.8

American

Society

An EDG system, depicting

for Metals, Ohio.)

and

wheel

zone. (Courtesy,

interaction

to produce
Wheels can be dressed
complex shapes in a single pass, and since
contact
EDG is
there is no mechanical
between the wheel and the workpiece,
often used to perform
on very fragile parts or to producethin sections
operations
without
damage or distortions.
Electrical discharge grinding
is popular
for form-grinding carbide thread
turbine
blade fir-tree root forms, and similar
with thin cross
chasers,
geometries
sections. Conventional grinding
sections
would
tend to distort the thin

the

rendering

thermally,

workpiece

Electron Beam Processes

12.2.2

the electrons

can be accelerated

field. The beam

electromagnetic

used in many types

are

beams

Electron

formed

thus

much

fields,

In electron

beam

beams are used with

impinges

upon
into

and

can be

of

formed

industrial

electron

focused and bent

can be focused

to be treated, converting
energy with an efficiency

melting the material

glass

by

a very

the material
thermal

by

welding
equipment,
from 30 to 75%
velocities

is focused on

locally,depending

on

The process is usually

out in a
carried
electrons and gas molecules,which
would

the

of

whether

scatter

of the

small

of light.
where it

speed

spot

energy of

kinetic

100%,

cutting

or

prevent

lenses.

relatively high-power

nearly

vacuum to

because

by an electric
and
electrostatic
beam

narrow

and

of electrons

today

equipment

into a

as light rays

machining

This high-speed stream

electrons

unacceptable.

welding

or
vaporizing
is desired.

collisions

the electron

the

beam.

between

Chapter12

374
lead

voltage

High

Cathode

grid

of electrons

Stream

Magnetic lens

chamber

Vacuum

View

12.9

FIGURE

Components

drilling,

heat-treating,

of electron

types

power focused

on

of an

electron beam machine

used for a wide variety

beams are

Electron
cutting,
different

vacuum pump

port

[45].

of applications

and glazing. Different

beams since specific power

area varies with the

a particular

including

welding,

applications require
or the

density

application.

amount of
the

However,

and so on, the beam to its desired

guiding,
principles for creating, focusing,
of the final
use of it, which means that
regardless
point of attack are the same,
all the mentioned
applications may be achievedby the same equipment simply
by

different

varying

parameters.

Equipment

The three major subsystemsthat

the

beam

electron

together
environmentfor

in Fig.

to

gun, power

generate
the process.

12.9.

supply,

make
and

up an electronic beam system are

vacuum
system. These systems work

the electron beam and

A typical
beam
electron

to

the optimal

provide

machine

is

shown

schematically

Nontradltional

Electron Beam Gun

which is basically a triode
1.

A cathode,

375

Processes

Manufacturing

The

beam

electron

is

which

is formed

inside an

electron

gun,

of:

consisting

a tungsten

filament heated

to

inductively

electrons
emitting
high-negative-potential
with
to
the
filament
biased
negatively
respect
which
ions pass
the accelerated
ground potential through

thus
approximately 2500\302\260C,

2.
3.
A

stream

accelerated

cup,

grid
anode

An

at

is emitted

of electrons
toward

the anode

The degreeof negative

and is also used to turn

by

a high

from

the

surface

potential

of the

between

the

hot

anode

applied to the grid cup controlsthe

the beam on and off. Because
of the

bias

cathode

and

and the
flow

cathode.

of electrons

shape of the

are electrostatically
electrostatic
focused
by the grid cup, the electrons
as
a
and
the hole in the anode without
pass
colliding
converging beam through
is provided by an electromagnetic
field
with the anode itself. Final
focusing
produced
coil. As soon as the electrons
have passed through the
by a focusing
have reached their maximum velocity for a given
anode, they
accelerating
voltage
will
this velocity since the process
and
maintain
takes place in a collision-free
until
environment
they impinge on the workpiece.
coils after the
set of electromagnetic
Most EBW guns incorporate
a final
is
as
the
beam
This
of
coils
known
deflection
set
focusing
system.
system and is
used to provide a small amount of programmable beam motion.
beam
is a heat source which,
The electron
with
its power density, precision,
exceeds
such as
and
mobility,
any known commercial heat source. Light
rays
whose
those emitted by a laser produce electromagnetic wave radiation
energy
content depends on the temperature of the light source. Light rays cannot be
to increase
accelerated
the energy content.
Electronemissionis different.
beam consists of negatively charged
The
particles
whose
is
determined
mass and velocity of the
content
energy
by the
individual
the
acceleration
particles.
process, due to the potential between
During
in the beam can reach intensities far
anode and cathode, the energy content
in
excess of those obtainable from
the
a
beam
variable
light.
By refocusing
through
colide
with the workpiece
strength electromagnetic lens before the electrons
overa well defined area (typically 0.01-0.02 mm in diameter),
power densities
of 107\342\200\224108
W/cm2
are reached at the point
of impact,
immediately
vaporizing
material. Table 12.1provides
a comparison
of power
any
type of workpiece
field

density

of

some

formed

thermal

energy sources

used for

The powersupply
provides
the
the bias
electrons,
accelerating
controlling
deflection
coil.
most
the
The
operating
important
since these determine what
voltage and current,
will be capable of performing.
particularsystem
Power Supply

production-welding

energy

applications.

for heating the filament,

grid, focusing the beam, and

of these
are the accelerating
kind

of applications

the

376

Chapter

TABLE 12.1

Gasflame
flame

Hydrogen

TIG torch
beam

Electron

beam

Laser
Source:

Electron
a total

O2

\"1\" C2H2

10 W/cm2

02

+ H2

30 W/cm2

200 A

150 W/cm2

continuous

107 W/cm2

continuous

107W/cm2

beam power
efficiency

between

and

generally
is high,

machine being delivered

utilizing

are available

beam systems
voltage

conversion

Heat Sources

from Terai, 1978.

Adapted

accelerating

of Various

Densities

Power

12

generate

ranging

from

of

15 W

300

from 30 to
beam

current,

to 200 kW.

The

kV

of

resulting

in

electrical

to the
approximately 60-70% of the power supplied
the workpiece.
For comparison, laser systems
an efficiency
of 10-20%.
dioxide lasers exhibit

to

carbon

high-power

that

0.0005 and 1.5

the
The vacuum system comprises two subsystems:
All
electron
beam
the
vacuum
chamber.
systems require some
pumpingsystem
a
vacuum
in
the
sort of pumping
to
electron
high
system
generate
gun. The first
and
were
the
the
as
available
of
required
workpiece
systems
high-vacuum type
the
vacuum
well as the electron
to
be
enclosed
in
which
of
course
chamber,
gun
Vacuum

System

and

limited
the productivity
because of the time necessaryto evacuate
the chamber
in it. In order to increaseproductivity,
mediumafter placing a new workpiece
vacuum
and even nonvacuum systems have been developed.
These
still
systems
to
a
a
but
deliver
the
beam
vacuum
in
the
electron
gun
workpiece
require
high
thus reducing or avoiding
low
at
vacuum/atmospheric
pressure,
nonproductive
welding
cycles. Current penetration capabilities for electron beam
pumpdown

a high-vacuum
vacuum is limited to
using
mm

system are about 300

approximately 50 mm

mm,
and

a medium
while welding with
to
about
10
welding

nonvacuum

penetration.

and transmission
of the
A vacuum chamber is required since the generation
of 10~4-10~6 torn
The
of
electron
beam takes place in a vacuum
impingement
it
to
shield
results
in
electrons
emission,
X-ray
making
necessary
high-velocity
stainless
steel or lead\342\200\224to
materials\342\200\224thick
the vacuum chamber with suitable
and
are
mechanisms
absorb
this radiation.
positioning
Appropriate workholding
installed in the vacuum chamber.

Process
As

Capabilities

mentioned

applications,

electron

previously,
usually

subdivided

Electron beam machining

Electron

and Applications

beam welding

into

beams are

used for

two categories:

(EBM)

(EBW) and

heat

treatment

a number

of different

Nontradltlonal

Manufacturing

377

Processes

process is used to cut or drill a wide

as nonmetallic, such as ceramics,leather,
remain
on the
effects
and plastics.
Since it is a thermal process, some thermal
machined edge after processing,
but because of the extremely
high beam power
interaction
and
the short
duration of the beam/workpiece
time, thermal effects
are usually
to a recast layer and a heat-affectedzone, which
seldom
limited
mm. Typically,
on the exit side of the hole.
exceeds
0.025
no burr is generated
Table
in various materials.
12.2 gives data on drilling
holes
of the EBM process due to the high-power
Another
density is its
capability
Beam

Electron

The EBM

Machining

range of materials,

metallic

as well

ratios as high as
deep, high-aspect ratio holes.In most materials,
with hole diameters from
0.1 to 1.5 mm in thicknesses
up
to 10 to 12 mm.
The
tolerance
on the hole diameter is typically
\302\2615%of the
or
diameter. Since the beam does not apply any force to the workpiece, brittle
Minimum
materials can be processedwithout
of fracturing.
fragile
danger
In
permissible
between
distance
holes is generally twice the hole diameter.
can be perforated with
limitation
and
practice, this
poses no difficulty,
workpieces
features
of
is one of the really strong
small
holes at up to 1000 holes/cm2,which
to drill

ability

IS:1

can

be achieved

the process.

EBM is also adaptable

To
slots in thin-gage
materials.
short
beam
minimize heating
and melting adjacent to the cut, extremely
pulses are
to
used with considerably
periods between pulses
longer
permit
dissipation
by
thermal conductivity of any incidental
heating
adjacent to the cut. The cutting
lower
than the actual efficiency of the equipment
efficiency is therefore much
of time.
since the power is off a large percentage
Figure 12.10 shows metal
rates

removal

since the

power.

material

removal

cuts are
rate is

the production of

makes
contour

versus

relatively small

Only

in

narrow

to cutting

possible
any material.

economically

feasible

with EBM

techniques

approximately 0.2-0.5 mg/s. However,

very

precise

and fine

cuts of

any

EBM

desired

and
of EBM are for aerospace, insulation,
food
applications
of
a
industries.
turbine
combustor
and
The
chemical,
clothing
drilling
engine
dome made of a CrNiCoMoW
has a wall
steel
is a good example. The part
thickness of
mm
1.1 mm and is perforated with
3748
0.05
holes
that are 0.9 \302\261
in diameter. Each part
is drilled
in 60 min, that is, a drilling rate of
hole per second [47]. Filters and screensused in the food processing
approximately one
also
of holes
to be drilled through
thin,
industry
relatively
require thousands
formed sheet metal.
A rather
new use of electron beam perforation
involves
the shoe
A
of
are
from artificial
made
fabricated
shoes
manufacturingindustry.
today
percentage
leather consistingof a plastic-coated
textile substrate. This artificial leather is
not
to moisture and air, which
makes its level of comfort poor.Partial
permeable
material
EDM
for use in shoes. A similar
the
makes
it
by
perforating
acceptable

Most

current

00

12.2

TABLE

Holes

by EBM

Drilled

in Various Materials

Workpiece

Average

Hole

Thickness

Drilling

Diameter

Work

Speed

Accelerating

Voltage

Pulse

Beam

Current

Pulse

Width

Frequency

mm

in

mm

0.010

0.25

0.0005

0.013

<1

130

60

0.030

0.76

0.012

0.30

30

125

60

80

50

0.010

0.25

0.001

0.025

<1

140

50

20

50

0.040

1.0

0.005

0.13

<1

140

100

80

50

0.080

2.0

0.005

0.13

10

140

100

80

50

0.100
0.040
0.080

2.5

0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.003

0.13

10

140

100

80

50

140

100

80

50

140

100

80

50

140

100

80

50

140

100

80

50

130

100
10

80

50

Material

in

kV

Hz

\\ts

H-A

400 Series
steel

stainless

Alumina

A1203

Tungsten

90-10Tantalumtungsten

3,000

90-10 Tantalum-

tungsten

90-10Tantalumtungsten

steel

Stainless

Stainless steel
Aluminum

Tungsten

Quartz
NOTE:

(Source:E. J. Weller

parameters

within

et

0.13

0.13

1.3

0.13
0.076

0.025

<1
10
10
10

<1

<l

140

the hole are the pulse width for the depth of the hole, the beam current
well as the position of the focus with respect to the workpiece.
Dearborn Mich. 1984).
al, Society of Manufacturing
Engineers,

The main control

distribution

0.2

2.5
0.100 2.5
0.016 0.41
0.125 3.18 0.001
0.100

Stainlesssteel

the power

1.0

for shaping

the beam as

12
for

the diameter

50

of

the hole and

Nontradltlonal

METALREMOVAL
FIGURE
efficiency

method
diameter

12.10

Metal

379

Processes

Manufacturing

rates

removal

RATE

<CM3

versus power,

SEC

W ~3)
\342\226\240

assuming

15% cutting

[46].

is used for
holes at

Electron

Beam

source results

not

for rainwear,

material

a rate of
Welding

only

5000
The

in deep,

drilling these materials

with

0.05-mm-

beam

as a heat
associated

holes/s.
high intensity of the electron
narrow penetration but also

in the

Chapter 12

380
i (

II

I
I
I

II

I!
it

I
I
f

ii

ii
it
\302\261

w
FIGURE
croft,

Types of joint specifically

England 1973.)

12.11

Cambridge,

effect of narrow
properties

in joints

use a vacuum

they

variety
speeds

high

to electron

beam welding.

(Hould-

zones.
Both effects together are of considerable
result in reduced distortion and improved mechanical

when compared
once both an

is at

welds of unequaled quality

is limited
by the vacuum
A

applicable

heat-affected

as

importance,

to

<*)

to

with

other

welding
processes.
and a disadvantage.

advantage

be made,

but the size

and

shape

The necessity to
It

enables

of the

fusion

workpiece

chamber.

of joint

types can

attainable,

however,

be weldedby
and the

difficulty

the

process. Because of
filler wire through
feeding

EBW
of

the

close butt edge preparations

which
be
machined
so
that
are
faces
edge
require
square;
surface finish
must be equal to or better than
3 (Am RMS,
and a gap between
parts
no larger that 0.15 mm must
be provided.
Cleaning is also a very important
step
for successfully
joining parts with EBW in order to avoid porosity in the weld
and possible contamination of the pumps
and
vacuum
chamber. As shown
in
three
to
of
are
electron
beam
with
12.11,
(a)
Fig.
types
joints
unique
welding:
vacuum

the

do

not

beams

chamber,
filler.

of narrow

it

Joints must

convergence

in the bottom

to use

is customary

it

of a deepnarrow

is

possible

to weld
(b) the

in

inaccessible

positions

deep penetration technique

what
is called the spike
of a fillet joint from the outside using
permits the making
and
with
beams
also permits
fine
(c)
technique,
deep penetration
high-density
or more welds to be made at once,
two
one above the other.
A wide
Materials
range of metals and alloys can be welded by EBW.
are stainless steels, low-carbon
steels,
exhibiting very
weldability
good
copper,
and refractories
such as zirconium, tantalum,
nickel, aluminum and their alloys,
and niobium.
and cast iron are more
titanium,
carbide,
Tungsten, tungsten
and brass, cadmium, and zinc are examplesof materials
difficult
to manage;
that
are impossible to weld.
Electronbeam welding is applied by a wide spectrum of industries,
ranging
and space over energy
and heavy
from aeronautics
industry to mass production
in the
automobile
industry. Because of the restrictionsimposedby the vacuum
(e.g.,

cavity);

Nontradltlonal

volume of

than

more

of jet

Components

industry.

etc.\342\200\224and

welding

Use of

in the

catalytic converters are practical

for heat

beam

electron

an

with a
nuclear
rotors, nozzles,

chambers

giant

vanes,

guide

engines\342\200\224compressor

of automotive

Treatment

Heat

examples.
is

treatment

finding

systems operating at high to medium

popularity
of vacuum. The method
is used
to selectively surface-harden carbonof being transformation-hardened.
steels
capable
is performed on

and

increasing

levels
bearing
A

parts are of moderatesize,although

260 m3 exist for welding
components

EBW

most

chamber,

381

Processes

Manufacturing

of about
beam, with power density
to be hardened. The beam density

powerful

moderately

over the

is scanned

surface

1.5

104 W/cm2,

a thin

causes

to the materials
part surface to rise almost immediately
austenitizing
As
the
beam
is
or
either
turned
off
moved
to a new location, the
temperature.
cool
core of the material rapidly
draws
the heat from the surface to provide a
thus
a thin layer of the surface material to
action,
self-quenching
transforming
portion

of the

martensite.

hard

so little energy is used,

the process is so rapid, and because
and then
the
fabricated
to final
dimensions
to
be
negligible,
allowing
part
further
electron-beam-hardened without
requiring
any
finishing operations.
Because

distortionis

12.2.3

Laser Processing

Laser

processing

is

acronym

an

is based on
of /ight

processdependson
variety of
treatment,

beam of light
from

be focused
Directivity:

10~2to

The

light

emitted

using simple

The

beam

10~4

radians.

is

laser

has several

by lasers is

Before

discussing

of the

These

must

principles

marking,

characteristics

collimated

with

typical

heat-

be

that

can

divergence angles

divergence,
a very

onto

types of laser systemsand their applications

fundamental principles involved will

brief explanation

a wide

perform

monocromatic. The beam

Because of its small beam

be collected and focused
as high as 107 W/mm2.
densities

power

to

welding

material

optics.

highly

High power density:

beam energy can
producing

to remove or melt

and

The

coherent,

directional,

Lasers are able to

drilling,

cutting,

word laser

of radiation.

cladding.

The light energy emitted by the

other light sources:
distinguish it from

Spectral purity:

highly

a workpiece

with

The

recently.

emission

stimulated

the material.

modify

selective

by

of an intense,

interaction

tasks, ranging
and

principles discoveredonly

amplification

the

and monochromatic
from it or even thermally

(LP)

explained

at the

atomic level.

all of

the

laser

small area,
to machining,

aid

of

understanding.

Chapter 12

382

a/^

E,

E,

E,

E,

a)

spontaneous

emission

|A/V
E.

b) stimulated
Interaction

12.12

FIGURE

between

emission
light

and

matter

[52].

An atom's orbital electronscan jump to higher energy levels (orbits further

from the nucleus) by absorbing
of stimulating energy, e.g., heat,
away
quanta
When this occurs,
the atom is said to be in the
chemical
reaction,
light,
the absorbed
\"excited\"
state
and may then spontaneously emit or radiate
energy.
Simultaneously, the electron drops back to its original orbit or to an
intermediate
while the
level.
If another quantum of energy is absorbedby the electron
or photons are radiated, and
atom is in the excited state, two quanta
of energy
the electron
level.
The radiated energy has precisely the
drops to its original
As a result, the
same
as that of the stimulating
wavelength
energy.
is amplified
as shown
in Fig.
12.12. This principle is the basis of
stimulating energy
laser operation.
can be made to undergo stimulated emission. However,to
must
be met. First, the energy
conditions
laser, additional
stimulation
must be powerful
source
that provides the initial
to ensure
enough
in the lower. This
that there are more electrons in the upper energy level than
as population
inversion and is a condition
for
condition is known
necessary
materials

Many

build

a working

laser operation.

The second condition

required

to produce a
a portion

mechanism. This captures and redirects

into the active
to stimulate
medium
same

frequency

small

light,

but

the

emission

of

the

and

of the

to

a feedback

provide

coherent

of still

phase. The feedback mechanism

photons to escape the system
majority of them will still be available to

percentage

amplification
process.

the

laser is

photons

back

more photons of the

is designed
to allow
in the form of laser

maintain

the

Nontradltlonal

Schematicof a gas laser [52].

FIGURE 12.13

is a

glass tube

cavity,
gas at low pressure.
delivered by electric
which

the working

shows

12.13

Figure

383

Processes

Manufacturing

placing parallel

mirrors

Energy

principle of a gaslaser.It

containing

to

discharges
at both

stimulate

consists

active medium, in
the atoms or moleculesof

the

laser

supplied from a
ends of the tube,

made to

high

voltage

the

necessary

of a

laser

this

case

the

gas

is

power supply.
feedback

By

to 100% reflectiveas
the laser output.
possible,
transparent
provide
is
the
it
When
to
forms
a
electricity
applied
gas,
plasma, and photons are
The small percentageof them that were emitted along
emitted
in all directions.
the optical axis of the tube or resonator are reflected by the mirrors to provide
amplification, while the photons that were not emitted
along the axis are lost
and
from
the
removed
as
waste
heat.
The
result
of this is a standing
system
wave
between
the
S
ome
mirrors
of
the
light
(Fig. 12.14).
light is emitted through
its
the
from
where
is increased
mirror,
reflecting
partially
power
density
mechanism

is established.
while

by

the

One mirror is
is partially

be

as close

other

to

focusing.

Equipment
in a laser
lasing capability, each medium
resulting
but
a
few
parameters,
output
only
types are powerful
and reliable
Lasers can be
enough to be practicalfor machining
operations.
classified by their
or gas. The two types
lasing medium. They are solidstate,
liquid,
most used in machining are the C02
gas laser and the solid state laser.

Many mediums have

its own characteristic

having

As

already

mentioned,

gas lasers

usually

consist

of an

optically

transparent

a single gas or a gas mixture

as the lasing medium. A
commercial
typical
C02 gas laser contains C02, He, and N2, where the C02
He provides intracavity
supplies required energy levelsfor laser operation,
The C02
collisions.
cooling, and
N2 keeps the upper energy levels populatedthrough
wave.
laser operates at a wavelength
of 10.6 u,m either pulsed or in a continuous
tube

filled

with either

Chapter 12

384

PARTIAL

MIRROR

FIGURE 12.14

MIRROR

Transition

from

nonlasing

to lasing

conditions

[46].

to cool the
is limited
by the ability
gas lasers, the availableoutput
properly.
gas and to stabilize the gas discharge
or glass host material and a doping
Solid-state lasers consistof a crystalline
ions
needed
to provide the reservoir of active
for the lasing action. The
additive
of
with
0.05%
solid-state
lasers used ruby (A1202)doped
approximately
original
the
common
Nd:YAG
Another
solid-state laser is
Cr203 as the lasing medium.
of yttrium
aluminum garnet (YAG) shaped as
laser, which uses a single crystal
a rod with parallel, flat ends, which are optically ground and polished and doped

In high-power

Nontradltlonal

FIGURE 12.15 The Nd:YAG

385

Processes

Manufacturing

solid-state

laser [52].

This laser is relatively

with neodymium (Nd) as the lasing
medium.
efficient,
allows
for high pulse rates and can be operated with a simple coolingsystem.
at a wavelength
of 1.06 u.m. In contrast to most
The
Nd:YAG
laser operates
which
other solid-state lasers,
only in the pulsed mode, the Nd:YAG
operate
(CW) mode.
operated either pulsedor in a continuous-wave
it cannot
laser material is electrically insulating,
be
powered by electrical
excitation.
Instead, xenon-flash and high-pressuremercuryThe light is
are used to generate an intensive
flux.
discharge
lamps
light
absorbed by the medium and collimated into a laser beam. Figure 12.15 is a
of a solid-state
laser system.
diagram
In solid-state
removal of waste heat (i.e., the excess
not
lasers,
energy
converted
a
fundamental
of the
into
laser
is
The
radius
radiation),
usefully
problem.
rod is limited by the need to conductsurplus
heat
to its cooled periphery. This
sets
a practical
requirement
upper limit to the power that can be extractedper
unit
and
thus
water
of
rod,
length
per system.
Typical cooling systems are water,
laser

may be

Since the

Nd:YAG

water to

water.
inherent
with
all
lasers,
speeds
essentially
high
processing
laser manufacturing
are
controlled.
Machine
systems
computer
designsvary,
of the particular application, but they can be as
the requirements
upon
depending
driller
or as complex as a seven-axis
cutter.
The processing
simple as a two-axis
motions can be accomplished
the
the laser
by moving
workpiece, by moving
a combination
of the two.
beam, or through
to air,

water,

and

refrigerated,

recirculating

Because of the

Process Capabilities
Lasers

are

processing is

and Applications
mark, weld, and
as a mass
employed

used to drill, cut,

not

usually

heat-treat
material

but laser

materials,
removal

or

heating

Chapter 12

386

to
good coupling of laser energy
application
requires
is essentially
be machined sincelaser processing
a controlled
heating
The
material properties and characteristicsare:
most important

process.Successful

the

part to
process.

Those

the
is absorbed
by the material.
light
surface at the particular wavelengths being
of the bulk material. Materials with
used and the absorption coefficient
such as gold, copper,and aluminum
electrical
are poor
good
conductivity
and
wood are almost perfect
light energy absorbers, while
plastics

in which

manner

the

affecting

These are

of the

reflectivity

absorbers.
Those

flow of heat

the

governing

thermal

material:

in

conductivity

and

diffusivity.

Those

to

relating

Laser

Drilling

single or multiple

cause a desiredphase
heat of vaporization.

amount
of energy required to
heat capacity, heat of fusion, and

the

density,

change:

drilling

is a processfor

from

pulses

small

producing

laser beam to

a stationary

holes by using either

the material.

penetrate

This technique is often referredto as laser percussion hole drilling.

It is
the workpiece at or near the focal point
of the beam. A short
accomplished by placing
from the laser causes a small
volume
of the illuminated workpiece
pulse
melt
material to both
and
The explosive escape of the
partially
vaporize.
partially
the
causes
most
of
molten
volume
to be removed as a spray
material
vaporizing
of

droplets.

Holes with diameters

50:1. They are

ratios of about

diameter

degree of roundness.

to

0.1

from

ranging

mm

can be

produced

by a tapered,

characterized

with

length/

rough

shape

hole exhibit
a recast
layer
and a heat-affectedzone that can vary in thickness from 0.002 to 0.10 mm
Almost any
the material type, thickness, and drilling
parameters.
depending
upon
as 15\302\260
from
the
material
can be drilled, and hole entry angles can be as shallow
\302\261
10% of the diameter. Application of
surface. Diametral repeatability is about
in industries producing
fuel
the
to drill small holes may
be found
filters,
ability
and
holes
in
blades.
carburetor
nozzles,
cooling
jet engine
a high

lacking

by
In

practice,
are more often

mm they

lens in a

a focusing

stationary
and will

limited
by

by

a CNC

enabling

size

system
cutting

larger

than

of

density

larger in
drilled.

than

focused spot

of the

1 to

will

diameter

Systems

than approximately
0.5
are available for rotating

an axis coincident with

be on the focal
always
lens. The effective radius

circle with the

lens used. Other systems
to move the workpiecerelative
of the

any desired

1.5 mm cannot be produced

in the defocused beam.

is lacking

on

plane

in a

rotated
the

laser-cut

horizontal

beam. The
be

walls

because power
when holes are

drilling

percussion
common

diameters

with

Holes

Cutting

The

shape.

use
to

of

incoming
the lens

operation

is

table controlled
laser beam,
stationary

an X-Y
a

the

axis of

Nontradltional

387

Processes

Manufacturing

Laserbeam

A)

B)

Gas inlet

Lens

Nozzle

(gas outlet)

12.16

FIGURE

Laser cutting
showsa typical
such as

of laser cutting

Principle

and

drilling

gas-assist

cooling

area

the

system [52].

is usually assisted by a flow

The flow of gas performs
system.

around

the cut and

away

blowing

of gas. Figure
several

12.16

functions,

and slag and

swarf

from contaminating the focusing lens. Reactivegasses

keep
but
can cause poor kerf
increase
self-burning of the material
cutting
speed,
be
the
It
is
the
between
that
gas jet and the workpiece
quality.
proper
gap
important
maintained. This may be accomplished
with self-adjusting, height-sensing units

also helps to

debris

the gap automatically, regardless of surface

unevenness.
either
laser
beam
can
be
CW
or rapidly
the
cutting,
operated
pulsed.
while
a
beam
CW beam results in the highest
cutting speeds,
pulsed
least distortion
in the lowest thermal effects and
the
of the workpiece.

control

that

When
The
results

The laser is able to

and minimal slag.
focal point positioned
surface,

using

produce

Kerf widths
about

Focusing

points. Since a short

wavelength,

it follows

wavelength

that the

C02 laser for these

Examples of applications

to a

in

with

achieved

thicknessbelow

gas jet nozzle positioned

progressively more critical for

It is also critical for materials

becomes
is increased.

thickness

with

of the material

one-third

a 1.25-mm-diameter

affected

heat

0.5

about

zone
the

the

mm above

surface.

the

cut

a very narrow kerf, a narrow

of 0.1-0.4
mm are typically

metallic

better focusing

than

laser
for any given power output
of
work.
types
be found in almost any industry
may

in thicknesses
types of material
of
high degree
precisionand complex

Figure

ability

12.17 is

an

example

of a

as

between

melting

is preferable

with a need to
0.5 and 10 mm

cut contours,

layout for a

its

a long

Nd:YAG

or other

a relatively
batches.

small

gives

material
given
with very high

cutting

preferably
sequence

388

Chapter

12.1?

FIGURE

for

Layout

laser-cut

items

in

mild

22-mm

steel for

12

just-in-time

[52].

production

in 2-mm mild

steel. The items

Notice

machines.

that waste

used

are

material

in a just-in-time production of photocopy

the metal
sheet has been reducedto

from

a minimum.

A more
automobile

and a

advanced exampleof
is seen

Industry

seven-axisgantry

holes and

three-dimensional

cutting

of items for the

into shape,

12.18. The item is punch-pressed

is then used for trimming
machine

in Fig.

cutting

and

producing

openings.

of more conventional joining

methods
welds
are
desired.
B
oth
and
seam welding
low-distortion,
high-speed
spot
can be performed,
rates or
although
only pulsed lasers capable of high
repetition
for seam
CW lasers can be used effectively
welds. Parts to be weldedmust
have
of the thickness of the material. Various
a tight fit with
a gap less than
5%
or argon
are used locally to protect
shielding
gases,
preferably helium, nitrogen,
from
the
weld
oxidation
contamination.
puddle
being used, laser weldsare accomplished
Dependingon the parameters
or
as
either
surface
welds
primarily
penetration welds, of which the former occurs
with
low beam power densities or high
The penetration depth
is
speeds.
welding
Welding

are

Lasers

used

in place

when

in this

to a

case limited

maximum

of

by

2.5

Deep penetration

power densities high

\"drill\" a
to as

small molten

thermal

conduction

of the energy, restricting penetration

mm.

welds are
enough
channel

a keyhole, is held

by

accomplished

high-power

open by

vapor

pressure

as

lasers

producing

to actually
and
vaporize
This hole, often referred
the beam is traversed across

W/cm2 or more)
(5.105
the workpiece.
through

Nontraditional

FIGURE 12.18
Volvo,

the

instead

cutting

of item

for

automobile.

(Courtesy,

Sweden.)

This

workpiece.

material

laser

Three-dimensional

Gothenburg,

389

Processes

Manufacturing

of only

allows the

beam energy to be depositeddeepwithin

the beam
As
is traversed across the

on the surface.

the
work-

surface of the keyhole

is exposed more directly to the beam
than
piece,
the rear surface. The major
of
the
at
therefore
takes
vaporization
part
place the
the
forces
to
from
the front of
and
ablation
the
metal
flow
front,
liquid
pressure
the molten pool around
the keyhole
to
at
the
solidify
trailing edge of the
cavity
the front

in Fig.
12.19, the final
ripple pattern. As shown
and beam power.
on
material,
depth
welding
speed,
depends
workpiece
of
as
those
laser
the
same
in traditional
encountered
welding
joints
types

pool in
penetration
In

a characteristic

have
lasers
12.20
illustrates
some examples. Although
welding are found. Figure
the mid- 1970s, it is only in the last decade or so that
been used for welding
since
have gained real industrial
the development of highthey
acceptance
through
lasers
with
beam
and
reasonable
power
prices. Table 12.3 shows
high
quality

some typical

laser

industrial

welding

Other Laser Processes While

important

industrial

removal

drilling,

implementations of the

marking, surfacetreatment,
Laser

applications.

marking utilizes
of material from

and

the

top

laser,it

is also

cladding.
laser

short

and welding, are the most

used successfully for

cutting,

1 fis

pulses\342\200\224duration

or

less\342\200\224toensure

material only. At such

millimeter below the surfaceis not

layer

of the

lengths, material a few tenths of a

affected
by the radiation, although
temperatures
have
been reached at the surface. As
temperature
a series of overlapping
surface, it vaporizes

well
the
blind

beam

short

pulse

thermally

above the boiling

is scanned across

holes

to produce

the

smooth-

390

Chapter 12
Weld Speed,

m/min

12.5

\302\251

o
Q.

40

120 160

80

FIGURE

Possible weld

12.19

240

200

Weld Speed,

for a C02

depths

penetration

280

320

in./min

laser [53].

bottomed grooves that make up the identification letters or symbols. Often

a
is used to control the laser beam
and the timing of the
positioning
The laser marking process is very
fast
and offers significant
energy
pulses.
in
methods.
improvements
legibility
compared to conventional marking
Laser surface treatment is a transformation
used for nearly
process
hardening
caused
distortionless, localizedsurface
by rapid heating of a localized
hardening
area
from a laser beam, followed
by irradiance
by a rapid quenching. As in
computer

conventional

hardening,

the

material

must contain

sufficient

carbon

to produce

the

martensitic phase that is the sole source of the hardening

mechanism.
The laser
beam is defocused to producea power
of only a few hundreds
to a few
density
thousands watts per square centimeter at the part surface and is traversed
across
the work at a rate fast enough
to avoid melting. Heat is conductedfrom
the
surface into
a thin volume of metal
beneath
the beam. The volume is rapidly
heated
its
critical
it
to
austenite.
As
the
beam
beyond
upper
temperature, transforming
moves on, self-quenching
of the heated
occurs
because
of
the
layer
instantly
flow
of
heat
into
the
cold
substrate.
is
Laser
most
often
rapid
hardening
performed

by

In laser

C02

cladding, a defocused

and selectively
cladding

are

lasers.

those

deposit specialalloys
small areas to
onto

that reouire

shield gas are used to melt

Parts suitable for
part
he nrotected
from corrosion or wear,

and

beam

a local

surfaces.

Nontraditional

391

Processes

Manufacturing

Joint

Corner

(a) Conventional
(a)

(b)

(b)

Modified

1
Butt Joint

T-Joint

Edge Joint

Joint

FIGURE 12.20
but do

J
Lap

used

Commonly

types

joint

expensive materials
seats, piston rings,

require

that

applications

include

valve

12.2.4

Abrasive Jet Machining

not

Abrasive

workpiece of
Abrasive

abrasive

fine,

jet

[52].

welding

be used for
turbine

entire

the

and

blades,

the

by

in

entrained

particles

blasting

process parametersand cutting

occurs through a chipping
such as glass, silicon, tungsten,
materials
effective on hard, brittle
such as rubber and some plastics,
resilient
ceramics.Soft,
materials,
chipping

removal

Material

controlled.

free

with the

carrier

gas

Figure

12.21

as a

objects.

coolant,

because

problems
AJM

to

produce

In addition, the

cutting

and

experience

workpieces

the main elements

action

intricate detail
since the
no thermal damage.

of an

fine,

in

is cool,

AJM

system.

Parameters

Major processvariables
type, abrasive

abrasive
treated

and

vibration

and

resist the

by AJM. The process is

the tool is not in

processed

effectively

depicts

schematically

Process

not

workpiece, enabling

sensitive
serves

chatter

from

inherently

contact
extremely

are

thus

and

action

on the

impingement

in that the
are
action
carefully
which is especially
action,

finer, and

is much

abrasive

part. The
rock drills.

a high-velocity gas stream.

from conventional sand

differs

machining

laser

removes material

(AJM)

machining

jet

in

briefly

in the

affect

that
flow

following

rate,

and

discussion.

rate are nozzle

tip distance,
of
variables
these
Each
pressure.

the removal
gas

is

392

Chapter

12.3

TABLE

Typical

Industrial Laser

C02 laser welding

Precision

and electronics

Electrical
Terminal

Applications

Welding

laser welding

Nd.YAG

12

engineering

Membranes

ports

Gas sealedbatteries.
Cathode picture tubes
Precision engineering
Pressure sensors

Sheet metal

plates

Tubes
Mechanical

engineering

Mixer

Air

frames
Spectacle
Dental instruments

parts
condition

compressor

pulley

containers

Sealing

Membranes

Thin

Metalworking

Mechanical

Automotive

Engineering

idler rolls

mine

Coal

foils

industry

Gear parts

Springs

Motor

Thermostats

Etc.

components
filters

Fuel

Body parts

(doors,roofs, windows,

etc.)

Diaphragms

Caburetors

Nuclear

plants

power

Tubes

Pipes

Etc.
Source:

52.

Ref.

Various nozzle tip distances

are used depending upon
the application.
(NTD)
is required,
as in cutting, the nozzle is positionedvery
When exacting definition
mm. At this close distance, cutting
to the workpiece, typically
0.8
close
rates
for the sake of increasedaccuracy.
As the NTD is increased, the
are sacrificed
to much higher
the cutting speed
are accelerated
increasing
particles
speeds,
until

an

gas

decreasing
addition,

is reached.

optimum

expanding

as

accelerates

shape

even

(see

increases.
Fig.

At

distances\342\200\224about

larger

as well as

cutting speeds as shown

the nozzle is moved away

width of the cut

tapered

At

radially

the

in

Fig.

from

same

axially

and

energy

7-13

mm\342\200\224the

is lost,

resulting

a glass workpiece.In
work, the diameter of the hole
the walls of the cut assumea

in

12.22 for
the

time,

or

12.23).

The various abrasivesused in AJM are selected by application. Aluminum

and deburring,
or silicon carbide is commonly used for cleaning,
oxide
cutting,
For very soft
or peening often is accomplished with
beads.
while
polishing
glass
for AJM
bicarbonate
of abrasives
materials, sodium
may be used. A summary
is given in Table
12.4. Particle size is important. Best cutand
their
applications

Nontradltlonal

393

Processes

Manufacturing

HIGH-VELOCITY
GAS (AIR) + ABRASIVE

ABRASIVES
AND
WORK PARTICLES

PARTICLES

NOZZLE TIP (TUNGSTEN

CARBIDE)

SWEPT OUT TOGETHER

NOZZLE

Abrasive jet

,'

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

POWDER)
\342\200\242

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

'

#.

/
/I

i
\342\200\242
\302\253.-

&

MATERIAL:

3
0.19

0.28

4.8

7.1
NOZZLE

FIGURE

GLASS

CUTTING
Tl\302\273
HE:
30 SEC
J
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\302\273
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
'
\342\200\242
\342\200\242

MATERIAL

S. S. White

(NTD)

[46].

(AJM)

machining

I ABRASIVE
\342\200\242

o>
10

12.21

,'

tu

DISTANCE

ACTION

ABRASIVE

FIGURE

TIP

12.22

Influence

Company.)

0.5

0.41

13

10.3

0.59

15.1

\\

0.78

19.8

DISTANCE |in./mm)

of nozzle tip

distance

on

cutting

speed

in glass. (Courtesy,

394

Chapter

TYPICAL CUTTINGACTION

OF

NOZZLE

DIAMETER

.018\"

TIP

HOZZLl

DISTANCE

DIAMETER

NTOI

Of

.031\"-,

.018\"\342\200\224\342\200\236^3t

12

CUT

--T-\"
..025\".

.197\".

-J-..
FIGURE 12.23

2\302\243

394\"

059\"

590\"

079\"

is a

Kerfwidth

-1
\342\200\224

function of nozzle

distance

tip

(Courtesy,

S. S.

White

Company.)

ting

results

Abrasive

are obtained

when

should

powder

bulk

the

not be

of particles

reused becauseits

between

vary

and

cutting

15 and

abrading

decreases and because it

45 \\im.
action

becomes
contaminated
with foreign material.
abrasive particles is directly relatedto the metal removal
in Fig.
12.24. The curve showsa maximum
in the
rate, as shown
because,
the flow rate means more abrasive particles available
for
beginning,
increasing
the abrasive velocity
However, as the powder flow is further
increased,
cutting.

The flow

rate

of the

TABLE

The AJM

12.4

Abrasives

Abrasives

Silicon

Carbide

Glass beads
Crushed glass
Sodium

Source:

bicarbonate
Ref.

Their

Application

Applications
oxide

Aluminum

and

47.

Cleaning,
As
Matte

above,

cutting, deburring
but for harder materials

polishing,

cleaning

Peening, cleaning

Cleaning,

cutting-soft

materials

Nontradltlonal

-J

20

hj
<

16

<

395

Processes

Manufacturing

see
:PLATE

MATERIAl
\302\253s

GLASS

1/32

MO:

3g
CC\302\253c

3*

FLOW GRAMS PER

ABRASIVE

White

Effect of

12.24

FIGURE

16

12

flow

powder

rate

on

material

20

28

24

MIN

removal.

S. S.

(Courtesy,

Company.)

decreases,

is modest

helps
pressureresults

compared

increases are
20-100
N/cm2 are,
small

effect

becomes

and consequently

which also

Increasing the nozzle

the effect

rate. This

IS g/min,

about

10 g/min,

at

performed

the removal

reducing

rates greater than

with

to

conserve
in a

the other

nozzle

with flow

apparent

most

are

operations

life.

small increase

in

removal

offset by decreased
nozzle
therefore, seldomly used.

life, and

pressures

but

rate,

process variables.However,

these

higher

than

Process Capabilitiesand Applications

about 50-100
The
mass rate of removal is low,
usually
mg/min, but this is
more than compensated for by the ability to produce intricate detail in very hard
Slots as narrow
as 0.15
mm can be producedwhen
is
materials.
stray
cutting
are easily
minimized with rectangular
nozzles.
Tolerances better than
\302\2610.1mm
obtained while
surface
finishes
range from 0.3 to 1.5 \\im, with the finer
the best finishes. Steel as thick
as 1.5 mm and glass 6.3 mm
abrasives achieving
have been cut, but at very slow rates and with
of taper.
thick
amounts
large

AJM has been successfully

ceramic

elements
of

removal

conductive

in the electronics industry

to shape
employed
for resistor adjustment
accurate
and controlled
through
material.
Semiconductor materials such as germanium,

and so on.
gallium are cut, cleaned, drilled,beveled,
in steel molds and dies after
possible to make small adjustments

and

silicon,

It is
have

and

been

given a

final

hardening

treatment.

Precision

they

deburring is another area

Chapter 12

396

l:Tool

\\/

\\

r^

2: Abrasive slurry

3: Workpiece

Ultrasonic

12.25

FIGURE

for AJM

applicationssincehigh

standards
are required in such
quality
equipment, and computers.
can be used for
mentioning that abrasive
jet machining

medical

technologiesas

aerospace,
is also worth

It

smears on ceramics, oxideson

of metallic

removal

machining.

etc., especially

from

to

too delicate

parts

The

conventional grinding.

is

process

amounts of material. Also,

low value components.

it

not

not

manual

withstand

heavy

safe

coatings,
or

scraping

for removing

practical

should

resistive

metals,

or

burrs

large

large parts or surfaces

be used for

or

Ultrasonic Machining

12.2.5
Ultrasonic

high-frequency

machine

effectively

is a
(USM)
in hard

mechanical

used to
shaped tools,
mechanical
and an abrasive slurry.
USM
is able to
motion,
all hard materials whether
are electrically
conductive
they

machining

erode holes and

cavities

or

brittle

removal

material

process

by using

workpieces

or not.

The processis
frequency,

typically

corresponds

to

the

kHz,

shape

to be

reciprocations of the
workpiece (see Fig.
impact of the abrasive
in

The

the

form
tool

of small

material,

The tool is
magnetostriction.

tool

drive

12.25).The
is the

produced in

being

principally

this

by

and

exploitation

phenomenon,

are

The

The

workpiece.

across a small
with

a magnetic

gap

against

much

as

field undergoing

the

force. The

for material

tool

high-speed

a uniform

away by the

wears out at
ductile,
of an effect known

high

of the

shape

responsible

carried

at

oscillates

which

fed

is gradually

tool

energy

tough

the

the abrasive grains

wear particles that

oscillated
With

a cutting tool,
in an abrasive slurry.

by

performed

20-40

removal

abrasive

slurry.

slower

rate.

longitudinal
variation

in the length of a
frequencies causes correspondingchanges
A magnetostriction
within its region of influence.
transducer,
placed
a piezoelectric
in Fig. 12.26, or (more common
such as that illustrated
today)

ultrasonic

ferromagnetic
object

at

Nontradltlonal

397

Processes

Manufacturing

Leads to

energize

transducer

winding

Cooling water

Magnetostriction

transducer

Concentrator

Tool

Abrasive

slurry

/% Workpiece
12.26

FIGURE

transducer

a millimeter
removal
can

resonance

Material

between

Elements

of ultrasonic

machining

[45].

a few hundredths
is used. The tool vibrates
with
a stroke of only
in a direction
parallel to the axis of the feed. For efficientmaterial
be designed
to take place, the tool and toolholdermust
so that

be achieved

within the frequency range of the machine.

when the abrasive particles, suspended
in the
slurry
are struck by the downstroke of the vibrating
workpiece,

occurs

removal

the tool

of

and

them
impact propels the particles across the cutting
gap, hammering
into
the surface
of both tool and workpiece.
Since the tool is made of a ductile
the abrasive grits only
rise to plastic deformation here, whereas
material,
give
at the workpiece
actual disintegration
occurs
by the chipping out of small
pocketsat the surface.
Besides direct impact,
researchers
also report that cavitation erosion
tool.

The

contributes
to

disintegration.
suspension
results
in very

Collapse

of the cavitation bubbles

high local pressures.Underthe action

waves on the abrasiveparticles,microcracks
are generated
The effects of successive shock waves
lead
workpiece.
from

the

workpiece.

in

the

of the

abrasive

associated shock

at the

interface of the
of particles

to chipping

398

Chapter

The

made

contribution

relative

have been found

cavitation effect

vary

with the

general

accounts

to
in

to material removal by
operational conditions, but
for less

than

5%

of the

the

two

it seems

12

effects
that the

total volumetric

rate.

removal

Equipment

machines for USM range from

table top-si zed units
to largesmall,
as
for
installation
machine
heads
in
other
tools,
cutting
supplied
capacity
as bench units, and as self-containedmachine
tools.
machine
Power is rated
tools,
40 W to 2.5 kW. The power
and can range from about
in watts
determines
rating
the area of the tool that can be accommodated and thereby
influences
strongly
the material removal rate.
USM
are made up of common
All
machines
subsystems
regardless of their
size or power. The most important
of these
are the power
subsystems
physical
transducer,
toolholder, tools, and abrasive.
supply,
The

that
the
offers
supply is a sine-wavegenerator
and
of
the
It
power
generatedsignal.
frequency
converts low-frequency
(50/60
Hz) power to high-frequency
(\342\200\22410-25kHz)
power,
into mechanical
which is supplied to the transducerfor conversion
motion.
Power

over both

Transducer
supplied

The

Supply

user control

power

the

Two types

of

of operation:

transducers

are used

motion. They are

to mechanical

energy

and

magnetostriction

in

based on

USM
two

to convert
different

the
principles

piezoelectricity.

from a laminated stack

transducers are usually
constructed
of nickel or nickel alloy sheets. Magnetostriction is explainedin terms of domain
of the order of 10~8-10~9
in
cm3,
theory. Domains are very small regions,
cause
moments of the atoms to be
which there are forces that
the magnetic
in a single direction.
In
each
domain
are
the atomic magnetic moments
oriented
which coincide with the
oriented
in one of the directionsof easy magnetization,
of the crystallographic axes of the given crystallite.
In the cubicdirections
of iron and nickel there are six directionsof easy
lattice crystals
magnetization.
in equal numbers and,
In unmagnetized material all these directions
are present
of the order less, unorientated
domains
therefore, the magnetic moments
another.
When the material is placed in a sufficiently
one
compensate
strong
the magnetic
magnetic field,
moments of the domains rotate into the direction
of
this
the applied magnetic field and become
to it. During
the
parallel
process
all the domains have become parallel
until
to
material expands or contracts

Magnetostrictive

another.

one

Among practical
highest

current losses, the

magnetostrictive
ratings

materials, iron-cobalt,

transducers

up

to 2.5

and nickel have the

iron-aluminum,
and eddy
temperature is raiseddue to hysteresis
strain diminishes, and
magnetostrictive
require cooling by fans or water. They have power

As the

magnetostriction.
amount

therefore

kW.

of

NontradiHonai

transducers generate mechanicalmotion

certain materials such as quartz

Piezoelectric

by which

piezoelectric
effect

generate a

the material

is applied,

the material instantly

of small
composed

is removed,
are

materialundergoes

when compressed.

current

electric

small

electric current

materials

399

Processes

Manufacturing

particles

by heating

polarization

to its

an

When the

in size.

original shape.
together

above

the Curie

point;

current

Piezoelectric
The

by sintering.

bound

it

titanate

zirconate

Conversely, when

increasesminutely

returns

the

through

lead

or

it is

when

placed

cooling, the orientation is preserved. Such transducers

exhibit
eliminates
the need
a high electromechanical conversion efficiencythat
for cooling. They are available
with
power capabilities
up to 1 kW.
The magnitude
of the length change that can be achievedby the two types of
transducers is limited by the strength of the particular transducer material. The
in

field on

electric

an

mm.

0.025

is approximately

limit

The toolholder

Toolholder
tool. Its function

between the transducer and the

and to match the
amplitude
the toolholder must
be detachable

the link

provides

the tool

to increase

is

vibration

to the acoustic load. In this capacity,

vibrator
It must be constructed of a material
threaded.
and is therefore often
with
good
acoustic properties and be highly
to fatigue cracking. Monel and
resistant
with
titanium have
stainless
good acoustic properties and are often used together

steel, which is
are

that

properties

cheaper. However, stainlesssteelhas acoustical

inferior to those of monel
and
titanium,

and

fatigue

low-

it to

limiting

applications.

amplitude

are available

Toolholders

the output

amplitude at

section that
function.

of

concentrator.

end as at the
toward

diminishes

are designed

They

relaxation

the toolholder
Figure

two

in

12.27

input

and
nonampiifying
in the same stroke

configurations:

are cylindrical and

holders

Nonampiifying
amplifying.

end.

result

Amplifying

the tool, often

have a

toolholders
an

following

cross

exponential

to increase the tool stroke

and
through
stretching
material. An amplifying
is also called a
toolholder
shows how sonic energy is propagatedin an exponential

concentrator.

Because of the gain in tool stroke, amplifying holders are able to remove
the nonampiifying
up to 10 times faster than
type. The disadvantages
toolholders
include increased cost to fabricate, a reduction
using
amplifying
surface
finish quality, and the requirement
of much more frequent
tuning
maintain resonance.
material

Tools Toolsshould
stainlesssteels,brass,
wear

rate

will be.

It

constructed
mild

is important

on the tools

are sometimes

in the

workpiece.

reproduced

be
and

The geometry of the

be made, but because

tool

of the

generally

in

to

materials such as
tool material, the faster its

from relatively ductile

steels. The harder the

to realize that finishing

necessary

of

because

or polishing

their surface

corresponds

unavoidable overcut,

finish

to the geometry

allowancesmust

operations
be

will

of the
be

cut

to

made

to

400

12.27

FIGURE

Energy

propagation

use tools that are slightly

holder are often attached

smaller
by

silver

in

toolholder [51].

an exponential

than the desired

holeor cavity.

Tool

and

tool-

brazing.

Slurries of synthetic
abrasive
in a liquid,
Abrasives
water,
usually
powders
The
criteria
for
are generally used in ultrasonic
selection
of an
machining.
abrasive for
a particular
application include hardness,usable life, cost, and particle
is
far the fastest abrasive, but
is not practical
size. Diamond
because of its
by
cost.
is
economical
and
Boron carbide
rates. It is
good machining
yields
thereforeone
of the most commonly used abrasives
for USM,
but silicon carbide and
aluminum
oxide are also widely
used.
Grain

size has

strong

influence

on removal

rate

and

surface

finish.

Coarse

rates,
grain size becomes
grits
highest
a
the
tool
maximum
is
reached
and larger grains cut
with
comparable
amplitude,
be
the
the
more
As
would
slowly.
expected, larger
grit size, the rougher the
surface.
Water is the liquid
medium
machined
used, with an abrasive
predominantly
mixtures
are used to promote
concentration of about 50% by weight, but thinner
cavities.
efficient flow when drilling deep holes or when forming
complex
exhibit

the

removal

but

when

the

Nontradltlonal
TABLE 12.5
at 700 W Input

Penetration

401

Processes

Manufacturing

Tool Wear

and

Rates

Ultrasonic

in

Machining

Maximum

Practical
Ratio

To Tool

Aresi

Wear*

100.1

Glass

Ceramic
Germanium

carbide

Tungsten

mm/min

3.81

25.8

0.150

19.4

0.060

1.52

100

3.5

22.6

0.085

2.16

1.5

7.7

0.010
0.005

0.25

0.020
0.080
0.125

0.51

Carbon-graphite

100

Ferrite

100 1

Quartz

50 1

Source:Data

in./min

3.0

2 1

Boron carbide
Glass-bonded mica

cm2

4.0

100

ruby

in.2

1 1

of pearl

Synthetic

Rate**

75

Tool steel
Mother

Penetrating

Removed

Stock

Material

Average

Machining

21
100

1.2

0.875

4.0
0.875

3.0

3.5

3.0

0.875

3.5

5.6
25.8

5.6
19.4
22.6
19.4

5.6

22.6

0.13

0.150

3.81

2.00
3.18

0.065

1.65

0.008

0.20

0.125

3.18

Raytheon Company,
Impact Grinders for Ultrasonic Machining,
cold rolled steel in all cases; #320 mesh boroncarbide
abrasive.
**Vi\" (12.7 mm) diam. tool; W (12.7 mm) deep.
from

1961.

\342\231\246Tool
material;

Process

Capabilities

and Applications

Ultrasonicmachining
does
not compete
with conventional material removal
of the process
operationson the basis of stock removal rates. The productivity
extent
on the hardness and brittleness of the workpiece.
depends to a marked
The best machining rates are obtained
on materials
harder than HRc 60, with
ferrites,
ceramics, glasses, and tungsten
germanium,
representing
or impossible
to process conventionally
or by spark
groups that are difficult
but are well suited for ultrasonic
A representative
erosion,
machining.
ranking of
for various
hard and brittle
is shown in table
materials
process performance
carbides,

12.5. Note that slow material rates are associated with

The USM processis particularly
well suited to:

high

tool

wear rates.

mulMaking holes of any shape for which a master can be made,

including
tihole screens. The rangeof obtainable
shapes can be increased by moving
both tool and workpiece relative to each other
during
cutting,
permitting
to be carried
out.
operations such as threading
on glass, hardened steel, and
sintered
Coining and engraving
operations
carbides.

Parting

and

machining

of

diamonds

and other

precious stones.

Chapter12

402
holes that can be cut by USM
are approximately
size being limited by the strength
of the tool and
for the abrasive. The largest
diameter
solid tool used so
hole

required

mm diameter, but
is limited by tool
end of the tool.
are

and

finish

rough

workpiece

can, of course,

holes

larger

and

wear

finish

Surface

best finishes

easily

0.08 mm

smallest

The

diameter,

in feeding

difficulties

by

be

cut

by

has

far

a 115-

Hole depth
to the
slurry

trepanning.

fresh

in

clearance

the

cutting

is governed primarily
the abrasive
by
particle size. The
order of 0.25 jim RMS (800-grit).
For accurate holes,
cuts are advisable. The surface
of an ultrasonically
machined
a nondirectional
exhibits
surface texture
and is therefore

on the

usually

polished.
involve
applications of ultrasonic machining
in nonconductive
ceramic materials, making

successful

Most

cavities

machining

holes or
a
process

drilling
the

valuable supplement to spark erosion. USMis often used simultaneously

a multitude
of holes in precise
in germanium or aluminum
patterns
in the electronics industry
substrates
and for the production of spinning
in ceramics,
the process has found
use
metals, and minerals.
Lately,
of
silicon
nitride
turbine
blades.
tistep production
(Si3N4)

to
oxide

produce

Electrochemical

12.2.6

nozzles

in a

mul-

Machining

(ECM) metal is dissolvedatom

by atom
of electrolysis. The processis very simple in its principle of
operation, but its dependence on electrical, chemical, and fluid flow phenomena
of technical
gives rise to a number
problems that have proved themselves
in the field of electrodedesignwhere
a great deal
difficult to overcome,
particularly
of trial-and-error work is still required before the exact shapeof a new electrode
is fully determined.
for a given
job
on particularly
hard and tough
Like spark erosion, ECMcan operate
but with much higher
removal
rates.
material
materials,
electrically
conducting
In

electrochemical

Because

machining,

the principles

to
according

and bearing

of this,

so

of applications

component shapesand
in

gas

turbine
The

manufacture.

machined

in

contrast

simultaneously

in the

design problems, the

aerospace industry,

of the

can preclude the

high-strength,

use of

where

field

of

heat-resistant alloys used

methods

conventional

also be economic

main

the complexity

of

of very
since with electrochemical
to conventional machining, the whole surface can be
less than by
and the machining time can be very
much
can, however,

complex workpiecesin
machining,

the electrode

mind

toughness

engines
process

in

is found

far

relatively

soft

for

the

machining

materials

conventional machining.
As

determined

placed in

a conductive

by

Faraday
electrolyte

(1791-1867), when
bath and energized

two

poles are
direct current, metal

conductive

by a

Nontradltional

Manufacturing

FIGURE 12.28

Principles

between

closely

be

deplated

may

plating

of electrochemical

from the

of current

flow

positive pole, or anode, and

plating

metals to the surface

in a controlled manner

electrochemical

machining. Distribution

spaced electrodes.

pole, or cathode. The

adding

403

Processes

onto the negative

plated
has been used for many
for
years
of parts, but it is the reverse action of metal defrom
the anode that is used in modern
mechanism

machining.

In order

to obtain competitive machining

a
must be used with

current densities, about

between
the
and
gap
workpiece
a suitably shaped tool (seeFigure
The density and direction of current
12.28).
flow
is indicated by lines joining
the electrodes.
The smaller the gap, the greater
will
be the current
flow and rate of metal removal from the anode. The dotted
line shows
the shape of the anode
after a period of time. It can be seen that even
with
the shape produced resemblesthat of the cathode.
electrodes,
stationary
The high current
solids
and
promotes rapid generation of hydroxide
density
gas bubbles in the electrode
gap. These become a barrier to the electrolyzing
current after a few secondsand must be continuously
removed by circulating
the
800-1000

A/cm2,

rates,

narrow

high

404

12

Chapter

a high
circulation
velocity through the gap. This forced
permits
from
the anode, and the original gap increasesin
fast metal removal
at first, but then at a progressively decreasing rate becausethe
size,
rapidly
as the gap, and hence the electrical resistance,increases.
current falls
To
maintain
the current density at its initial
moved
toward
the
high value, the tool is therefore
the metal is being dissolved. This ensures a
anode at the same rate at which
removal
and current and metal
rate will remain
constant
gap
spacing,
high.
its
the
electrode
in the
(cathode)reproduces shape accurately
Theoretically,
all
since
is
conducted
of
the
current
from
surfaces
cathode
workpiece (anode)
smaller
the gap spacing between confronting
to all surfaces of the anode. The
will
the
the
be
current
surfaces,
density and the greater the rate of
higher
of
the
cathode
towards
With
movement
the anode, the two
removal.
progressive
the
surfaces
will ultimately
In
final
fact,
correspond closely.
shape of the workthat
the
of the
is
of
of
not
the
inverse
tool,
piece
exactly
requiring
adjustment
of
trial
and
since
one
the
cathode shape (usually
error)
by
outstanding
is the calculation and design of tools to produce a given workproblems of ECM

electrolyteat
continuous

piece shape.
removal from the anode is calculated by
for each
constitutes approximately
cm3/min
1.5-2
have been built that are capable of removing metal
1000 A
in a wide variety of
ECM machines are available
at a rate of up to SO cm3/min.
have
dc
sizes and configurations.
between
10,000 A
they
poweroutputs
Usually
and 40,000 A. Potentialsof 5 to 25 V applied across the tool and work
to circulate these currents through
are required
the
resistive
electrodes
machining
rate

theoretical

The

of metal

of electrolysis
and
of current.
Machines

Faraday's laws

gap. Voltage must be closely controlled since

of the machining gap, that
size
is, the accuracy

Electrochemical machine tools are

by their

characterized

often

necessary to
high

flow. Although
resulting forces can

the

electrolyte

high,

a large
The

the

is a factor in determining
the
of the work contour.
to buy and operate. They are

becausea very

containing

electrolyte

be tremendous

when

is

construction

solid

the forces generatedby the

themselves are not
pressures
the pressures
are applied to

surface.

corrosive

considerationsfor

contact

while

deflection

withstand

expensive

enormous size

it

with

nature of the

Any portion

the electrolyte

must be

corrosion-resistant materials. Drive

be protected
clean air.

ECM electrolytes

machines.

ECM

by

sealing

and

of

the

made of

units

such

may even require

special
or tooling that

promotes
machine
stainless

steel,

plastic,

comes in
or other

as ball screws and motors

positive pressurizationwith

must
dry,

Equipment

system consists of
provides high-velocity electrolyte flow between the
In

broad

categories,

an ECM

an

electrolyte
electrodes;

system that
electrical

an

Nontraditlonal

2 to

405

Processes

Manufacturing

20

Vdc.

Centrifuge

that supplies the electrolyzing current

that locates and provides movement

system

power

electrochemicalmachine

Schematic diagram of

12.29

FIGURE

structure

mechanical

elements are shown

of

and a
electrodes,
the electrodes.
These

12.29.

in Fig.

diagramatically

to the

[SO].

Electrolytes

The electrolyte
reaction

and

as

reactions

machining

from the

away

products

therefore

the circuit

completes

permits the desired

have

sodium chloridein
although
machined
electrolyte,

used as

which

water,

its corrosiveness
with
less

sodium
corrosive

effective

electrolyte should
nontoxic, safe,
at present is
electrolyte

most widely
used
desirable characteristicsoutlined

has the

presents a problem.A

potassium

and

be inexpensive,

and

chloride. Sodium nitrate

than sodium chloride.

electrolytes include

An

zone.

machining

good electrical conductivity

as possible. The
noncorrosive

between the tool and the workpiece

to occur. It also carried heat and

range of metals
is another
commonly
wide

Other chemicals

chloride,

sodium

that

above,

have been
used
have

hydroxide,

been

sodium

406

Chapter12

main

Schematicrepresentation

FIGURE 12.30
in

ECM

and

chlorate,

sodium

latter

All electrolytes

be

must

having
current

better

far

a constant

Most electrolytes need filtering

and
purification
insoluble byproducts of hydroxides or hydrated
150cm3 per cubic centimeter of material removed.A

produce

the

should

of tiny

form

filtration,

no more

have

particles as
and/or

settling,

Electrode

its

as

small

results
etc.

machine,

components.
because during work
oxides
at a rate of
properly

in

may
Both

temperature

they

100-

functioning

The sludge generallytakes

Purification
systems incorporate

content.

\\im.

centrifuging.

there
material can be used asa cathode
tool,
steel.
is
or
stainless
copper
Copper normally
resistant, easy to machine, and its
preferred material since it is corrosion
ensures distribution of the electrolyzingcurrent
to all parts of
conductivity

Although

high

sludge

which

Tools
almost

are many advantages

the

2%

than

the

since

temperature

of temperature,
conductivity changes as a function
in the machining gap. Further,
variations
higher
electrolyte
cause changes in the thermal expansion of tooling, fixtures,
of the machined
factors affect the dimensional repeatability

electrical

electrolyte

control

dimensional

characteristics.

density

to maintain

cooled

on overcut

electrolytes

[45].

selection is important. As seen in

accurate
than does
components

less

much

electrolyte

efficiency and

its current

different

chloride.

electrolyte

Proper

chloride yields

the

nitrate,

of

because

of

of effects

nitrate, (b) sodium

acid.

sulfuric

sodium

12.30,

Fig.

(a) sodium

drilling:

gap

machining

operating

any conducting
in using
either

surfaces

without

overheating or

have the qualities

of copperwith

thermal

but

capacity,

Determination

its

of the

piece constitutesa major

regard

to chemical

resistance

shape of the
problem

powerloss.Stainless

tool necessaryto

in the

steel

does

and electrical conductivity

corrosion is good.

to thermal

produce

or

the required

application of ECM. Ideally,

not

work-

it should

Nontradltional

be possibleto
stage, but this

407

Processes

Manufacturing

calculation of the shape at the drawing board

practicable. Available methods of tool design allow
of only
a first approximation to the final shape, to be followed by an
calculation
of tool shape on an empirical
basis.
amount of adjustment
often considerable
Process

is not yet

Capabilities

ECM

The

a theoretical

perform

is

process

and Applications
usually used to machine hard,

would be less economicalto work

material can be processed,although
High-silicon
to an acceptable surface

machined
same

possibilities

much

higher

removal rates for

is completely determined.
mm, and taper can be limited

\302\2610.05 mm

process parametersbeing

workpiece

material,

of

RMS-values

Typically,

density.

workpiece,

tool,

range

be produced

may

at the

overcut

the

with

but

side of

once the

tool

shape

tools is about

0.15

depending on the specific

used.
Surface
finish is dependent upon
the electrolyte flow,
and the current
between 0.2 Jim and 1 Jim at the tip

to 0.001

type

of the

material

be

and EDM hold

ECM

Basically,

and

The typical

design and

the

finish.

metals the

ECM.

of approximately

Tolerances

conductive

electrically

Any

that

materials

intractable

method has proven

aluminum alloys, for example,cannot

geometry

regarding

ways.

some

for

uneconomical.

or

difficult

in other

mm/mm,

tool
the

of

the tool.

When compared
slightly less fatigue

a part

produced by ECM will have

the ECM process removesmaterial
resistance
because
without inducing
any work hardening in the part surface, whereas mechanical
often
state of compressive residual
leaves the part surface in a favorable
machining
stress.If necessary,
shot peening can be used to improve
the fatigue properties
of ECM-processedworkpieces.
A

very

common

in shape
complementary

to the

peaks of the

surface
are

irregularities

mechanical

with

irregularities
therefore
removed

attractive

shown

in

Electrochemical
blades

of gas-turbine

densities

at the

and the
elsewhere,
that
the workpiece
becomes
times
being 5-25 s,
process

those

than

preferentially so
fast process, typical

a fixed,
stationary tool. The processis
the intersectional regionof cross-drilled
holes,

with

drilling is commonly
(see Fig. 12.32) and

engines.
depths of more than 300
Multiple-hole

as

An example

pattern

of 9

It

is

possible

used
for

for drilling

many

to drill

the cooling

other jobs

holes of a

in

diameter

the

holes in

manufacture
of

1 mm

to

mm.

for which the ECM process is well

task
drilling is another
of this is a stainless steel burner
with 198 holes in a
plate
22 holes,
each with a diameter of 1.25mm.
Because
of the close
this
the
holes,
holes, one at
part was previously made by drilling

suited.

spacing of the

are higher

tool,

current

12.31.

Fig.

gas-turbine

is a

be performed
for deburring

often

can

and

a cathode

where

deburring,

workpiece, is placedoppositeit. The

smoothed. ECM deburring

particularly

is

application

milling,

Chapter 12

408

Burredsurface

Insulation

FIGURE

a time,
the

but

holes

ECM deburring of

12.31

to the
converting
at the same time,

cross-drilledhole.

use of ECMmakes
substantially

reducing

Also, ECMeliminated

it possible

machining

all
and cost.

to manufacture
time

on the
the need for subsequent deburring
operations
plate.
is not restricted to round
holes.
Since the shape of the workDrilling
by ECM
is determined by that of the tool-electrode, a cathode \"drill\"
with
any
piece
cross section will produce
a corresponding
This is
shape on the workpiece.
in die-sinking
utilized
as well as in trepanning.
extensively
bottom

of

FIGURE

the burner

12.32

Deep-hole

drilling

by ECM

[SO].

Nontraditional

409

Processes

Manufacturing

Design of

12.33

FIGURE

Full-form
Full-form
turbine

is

shaping

blade [45].

of turbine

profile

and a
gap across the entire workpiece
the type of shape illustrated in Fig. 12.33.
well known for the production of compressorand

order

in

to obtain

shape

a constant

utilizes

shaping

constant feed-rate

tool

cathode

to produce

blades.

LAYER

12.3

The processesmentioned
members of

the

TECHNOLOGY

MANUFACTURING

12.2 are

in Section

of nontraditional

family

some of the

manufacturing

most

used

commonly

processes,

characterized
of geometrical
by their
flexibility
capability of combining a high
degree
of intractable
materials. The processes
with a capacity for economicalmachining
describedcan all be classified as belonging to the material removal processes
of bulk material
since basically
and remove all
start from a larger amount
they

material.

excess

Today

new

of manufacturing

group
technology

manufacturing

(LMT),

the

principle

or deforming
to
material, is beginning
low melting points can be used,rendering
the
models
without
purposes as producing
prototype
removing

with

moldsor dies,or perhaps

design

on the

displayed

components are generally

larger

assemblies,

promising

processes

even

not

but bearing

sufficient
in

tend to be

mind

shapes of

three-dimensional

complicated

designers CAD

generally denoted layer

of adding, rather than
So far, only
materials
appear.
new processes useful for such
need to develop specialtools,

techniques,

based on

station. The
to enable
how

overcome,it

mechanical
their

swiftly
seems

use

properties
as functional

shortcomings
reasonable

in

the

of the

parts
otherwise

to assume

that

in

410

12

Chapter

esoteric
case here. The rather
commented
on next
processes
well
be
the
the
future.
of
important
production processes
may
among
very
in
the
future
success
of
One
believe
the
reason
to
based
on
major
processes
of material increase is to be found in their basic CIM nature.
All the
principle
discussion are developed for and fully
processes mentioned in the following
with
and CIM. This contrasts drastically
CIM as applied to
on CAD
dependent
These
were developed
material removal and forming
techniques.
techniques
the manufacturing
entered
environment and it has been a
long beforecomputers
hard
to adapt them to CIM, CAD, and CAM.
business
where
needed
and without any tooling
The fact that material is deposited only
the LMT very well suited for CIM and eliminatesmost
makes
of the problems
The result is a considerablereduction
in lead
encountered with other methods.
time from product development to delivery and improved
competitiveness.
the new techniques:
Several names are used to describe

this

be the

also

will

thus

Rapid

prototyping

CAD-oriented

manufacturing

3D printing

Desktop
Instant

manufacturing

manufacturing

Layer manufacturing

Laminated object manufacturing

freeform

Solid

fabrication

Material deposit

manufacturing

addition

Material

manufacturing

Material increase
But

which name is preferred,

they
application of a kind of selective
solid particles through
welding,
glueing,
no matter

all function

by the

solidification

way:

or

manufacturing

reaction

to

build

A few

12.3.1

the part

successive

in

layers

typical and commercially

polymerization,
or points created

availableprocesseswill

in basically

or

the

same

of

liquid

binding

or chemical
on top of each other.
be

described.

Stereolithography

is an

of a

based
layer-by-layer manufacturing
process
is
the
still
available
and
system commercially
of 1991.
most popular one with more than 250 machines sold by the beginning
in a vessel
The part to be produced
is built on a horizontal
platform
placed
a liquid
about
by photocontaining
plastic monomer. Solidification is brought
the
of
from
on
a
laser
the
from
impact
polymerization resulting
light
upper
limits the polymerization to
surface of the liquid.
Light absorption in the monomer
to the
a few tenths of a millimeter below the surface,
roughly
corresponding

Stereolithography

on polymerization.

It

example

was

the first

Nontraditional

411

Processes

Manufacturing

CAD/SLICE

MASK GENERATOR

COMPUTER

(Photoplotter,

Ionographic

charger)

LAMPS

DRIVES

Mirror

LASER

XY directed
beam

laser

Part

FIGURE

12.34

by-layer

scanning

corresponds
solidified,
whole

the

cycle

Most

(a)

scanning,

point-by-point

(b) layer-

of the liquid surface is restrictedto a pattern

that
section of the part (see Fig. 12.34). Once a layer is
the part is flooded with a new thin layer of liquid
monomer
by
elevator
platform, and a new cross section of the part is solidified.The

layer thickness.

lowering

of stereolithography:

Principle
[56].

Illumination

to the cross

is repeated

until

stereolithography

12.34a).

laser

the

part

machines

scans the

beam

liquid

is totally formed.
apply a point-by-point
surface

in order

to

solidification (Fig.
solidify

a series

of

with
0.1-1
connection
mm\342\200\224to ensure
voxels, each large enough\342\200\224typically
voxels
and
with
the
from
0.5neighboring
layer. Scanning speeds
underlaying
2.5 m/sec are used. The sizeof voxel
is controlled by adjusting
the
overlap
between
the
distance
the
the
laser
and
voxels,
layer thickness,
power,
scanning
is important
for the accuracy of the
speed. Close control of these parameters
finished
which may be expected to be within
\302\2610.5% for
part,
workpiece
mm
dimensions
to
500
cubed.
up
To save time, the workpiece's cross sections are often only partially scanned
and solidified, i.e., the laser only scans the outer and inner contour of the cross

section together

the part
a sufficient
cross-hatching
pattern giving
in Fig. 12.35. Solidificationof the liquid polymer still
contained within
the cross-hatching
been
pattern is done after all layers have
This
further
the
to
generated.
happens by
light.
\"green part\"
exposing
initial

stiffness

with

some

as shown

12

Chapter

412

Skin-fill

inside contour

hatching

layer fully solidified

skin-fill
hatching

b) Bottom
through

12.35

FIGURE

c)

Stereolithography:

Some more recent equipment

using

in

a toner

Intermediate

(2 directions)

layer

contour and inside

scanning

hatch

pattern

layers [56].

layer at once instead of

is often
of a whole layer

a whole

solidifies

Illumination

a photoplotter

by

as done

machine.

the

workpiece

a glass

electrostatically

charging

by

a photocopy

in

at

solidified

representing the cross section of

translucent
These masks are made from

12.34b.

Fig.

foils

photosensitive
plastic

pattern

a mask

through

as shown

and

slicing

solidification.

point-by-point

accomplished

with

Hatch

(close hatching)

This allows the

must be made

plate

glass plate

to

and
for successive masks since a new mask
deposited
describe
innovations
systems
different layer to be solidified. Recent
by using
that eliminate the need for creating large numbers of foil masks
the
be put in direct contact with
can
or lighting arrays that
masks
programmable

be reused
for each

monomer.

liquid

Solid Foil

12.3.2
This

used

process
in

foils

solid-to-solid

applies

Raw

stereolithography.

stacked

progressively
which causes
locally,

the foil underneath.

parts not

Polymerization
polymerization rather
consists of

material

on top of each other.

Each

than

the liquid-to-solid

semipolymerizedplastic

separate

foil is

further
to polymerize
the illuminated
parts
Illuminated parts also becomeindissoluble,

exposed to be dissolvedafterward,

leaving

the desired

and

illuminated

adhere

allowing

product.

to
the

Nontraditlonal

413

Processes

Manufacturing

SLS part

FIGURE 12.36

of a

layout
to

and

solidifies

below
sintering
powder

selective laser

of the

that

similar

polymer

laser sintering

[56].

Selective Laser Sintering

12.3.3
The

of selective

Principle

is replaced

by

that

Selective solidificationoccursby

by means

is not

(see Fig. 12.36) is

a laser beam scans

layers of the product. But in SLS processing,

bulk
material, preheated to a temperature
powder

its melting point.

temperature

(SLS)

machine:

stereolithography

point-by-point

successive

machine

sintering

scanned

by

of
the

the

laser

XY

controlled,

further

pulsed

is unaffected and

the

liquid

slightly

heating

to the

laser beam.

remains

in

place

The
to

and possible overhangs of the product.

is required except for
No binder material is neededand no postcuring
of which requires polymer-coatedceramics and
ceramics, the
application
postin an oven. Today's industrial
involve
and
sintering
applications
thermoplastics
investment
tests
have been carried out
wax, and successful laboratory
casting
with
coated
ceramics.
brass,
copper, steel, and phosphate
Overall accuracy of about
of 0.1 mm,
and
1%,
layer thickness
scanning
for the SLS process, which
is used for a
values
speeds up to 1 m/s are typical
of up to 350 mm
cubed.
envelope
working
support

12.3.4

the

next

layer

of powder

Particle

Ballistic

Manufacturing

(BPM)

of molten
droplets
parts by shooting
The
other
(see Fig. 12.37).
dropletsare produced
by
piezoelectric
diameter.
nozzles generating droplets of about
ink-jet
printing
S0-^m
The technique is primarily
for creating wax models for investment
applied
without
need
be extended to other materials with
for
dies
but
could
casting
easily
low melting
machine
able to deposit up to
and solidification points. A prototype
I kg of aluminum droplets per hour
built.
has been
Ballistic

particle

manufacturing

material on top of each

produces

Chapter 12

414

Ballistic

12.37

FIGURE

A layer of material
time a layer

Each

layer
parallel

certain

the droplet gun

by moving

in a

values

they

are

downward

Printing

heads

and

directions.

(Z)

a new

and

up to 32

with

rates,
high deposition
of individual
drops so

about
control

the

in X

moves

exactly

deposited

within the

that

wanted

object.
of BPM

advantage

major

or colors

and curing,

fusing,

of the

geometry

exist in regard to

problems

collision,

is created

[56].

(BMP)

Manufacturing

is completed, the elevator

one.
is deposited on top of the previous
at
10
nozzles
kHz
each
operating
bring

although

after

Particle

is that

single part. Working

materials
application of different
and
so
on,
accuracy,
correspondto

it permits

speed,

the

given for stereo!ithography.

12.3.5

traditional

the

Compared

with

deforming

of material,

possess a

number

and Disadvantages

Advantages

Summary:

of

or

nontraditional

processes

the processes based on the layer

and disadvantages.
advantages

on removal

based

or

technique

manufacturing

Advantages

GeometricalPossibilities. There are almost no limitations to

no need for cores, and
parts: no problems of accessibility,
are well suited to tiny
demolding cores and dies. The processes
walled products, or sculptured surfaces.
of the

Multi-Material

material
different
Fast

and

Anisotropic

Parts

complexity

no

of

problem

thin-

details,

Most processes allow

and thus permit

during the building
process
materials,
colors, and mechanical or thermal

Prototyping

the

creation of parts

change

of

combining

properties.

There is no need to developspecialtools,

molds,

or dies.

Nontraditional
Small

Series of

breakeven

components. Series
economicallyby

layer

simultaneously,

formation time

Parts
in

This

mainly

the

order

manufacturing,
especially
since
it is then possible

over several

to plastic

applies

still requires
of tens or hundreds

a mold

justifying

point

415

Processes

Manufacturing

series of

to divide

of

thousands

be produced

can

different

when

products where the

several

parts
the

are produced
long
layer

relatively

products.

Disadvantages

Accuracy
an

Since the object is formed

by
of the real object is obtained.

approximation
at the slices, not

approximation
Materials

joining
The

between them. Obviously, the thinner

to the real
Only

cross-sectional
the

object.

materials

with low melting

points

are

slices,

only

is correct only
the closer the
layers,

description

applicable.

13

Systems

Manufacturing

on capabilities
of manufacturing
book we have focused
the
individual
as
methods
to
processes
optimize
Normally,
processes.
in the fabrication
of products. The
many manufacturing processes are involved
of the manufacturing
productivity
process seen from a holistic point of view is
then
much
determined
how
the production
system is designedand how
very
by
we plan and control the production activities.
some of the fundamental
in
This chapter
and technologies
presents
concepts
modern manufacturing
the mechanical industry,
within
including
systems
Up

to

this

point in the

as well

discussion
production

13.1

of state-of-the-art

and

planning

THE

production equipment
management
philosophies.

As

an

SYSTEMS

value-adding

system.
manufacturing

forms and

and
subsequent discussions of production
systems
it is useful
to present
a definition of the term

technologies

manufacturing

manufacturing

useful

to the

introduction

in

OF

FUNDAMENTALS

MANUFACTURING

advanced

as well as developments

eventually

A manufacturing
processes
finished

as a series of
system can be defined
the raw materials into more

converting
products.

417

Chapter 13

418
factors

Controlling

sales

Orders,

fluctuations

Input

Raw materials and

semi-manufactured

Consumed

artlc,8i

Production

Social requirements/

philosophy

pressures

Products

Produce

Output

products

Production

system,

equipment and

Employees

technology

& mechanisms

Tools

FIGURE 13.1

and

materials
value

(output).

transformation

are:

higher

basic meansof

semimanufacturing
The basic mechanisms

The production systems and

2.

physical flow and transformation

The employees, directly involved
of

management

manufacturing

factors

in

1.

Figure

in

either

controlled

is mainly

and

production

fluctuations

the

of

fluctuations

production plans. Frequent

changes

impose

manufacturing

in the

involved

operations or

by

factors

three

(controlling

the

desired
market

output from the

require adjustment

often

of production

an increased

need for

of

plans to respond to
flexibility

in

the

system.

The applied production

principlesthat
3.

materials

this

out

13.1):

productionsystem,

2.

equipment

of

transforms
goods of a

in carrying

used

tools

manufacturing

The production orders determine

market

process
finished

activities

production

process

to

(input)

and

process.

The

manufacturing.

articles

1.

The

systems as a value-adding

of manufacturing

model

13.1 illustrates

Figure
raw

guide

philosophy

contains

and management
is carried out.

the control

the way in which production

and pressures and conditions in the surrounding

and
need
to be considered when
establishing
society are factors that
environmental
At
facilities.
protection
present,
production
managing
that have a
are considerations
conditions
and improvement of working
of production systems and
on the development
major impact

Social

requirements

manufacturingtechnology.

419

Systems

Manufacturing

ooooooog^

00

00

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00

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CELLULAR

LAYOUT

FUNCTIONAL

O^OOOOabaa
o
o

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type A

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type B

Process type

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Process

Process

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LAYOUT

type D

Process
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aoaocdb

PRODUCT LAYOUT

FIGURE 13.2 The basicproduction

In the rest of this chapter
mechanisms as well as the
In the mechanical industry,
that is,
Figure

13.2

the three

shows

Functional

will examine

we

controlling

basic

the

aspects
systems

production

the manufacturing

how

by

layouts.

basic

in

in

their

Figure

are categorized

equipment is organizedon
layouts

tools and
13.1.

manufacturing

illustrated

conceptual

the

by

shop

the

layout,

floor.

form:

layout

Product

layout

Cellular

layout

layout production equipment is located in functional

one sees a milling
manufacturing process. Typically,
and so on. In production systems organized
department,
turning
department,
from
to
according
by this principle, parts (orders) are transported
department
is normally
department depending on the actual process plan. The result
a large
amount
of work
in progress and long production lead times. The advantage
of
and original reason for applying
the functional
and
layout are that knowledge
where employees become specialists
capacity are concentrated in a department
in carrying
out a specific manufacturing
the functional layout
is
Often,
process.
called the job-shop layout
and production
are
systems using the functional
layout
called job shops.
In
the product
line
layout (or flow-line production) a dedicated
production
is constructed to manufacture
a specific
product. This is the layout
principle
In

the functional

departments

according

to the

420

Chapter

developedby

Ford

Henry

in the automotive industry,

which
basic principle is that production

13

revolutionized

into the
machines
and
workers
are
in
and
lines,
operations,
possible
positioned
the products move from
to
minor
where
a
is
workplace
workplace
operation
done on the product. The advantage
of the product
line is the high productivity
achieved with a small level of work in progress. The drawbacks of the product
line include limited flexibility
to other types of products
concerning
changing
and
the
of
the
to
breakdowns
and other
vulnerability
production system
line.
in
the
Breakdowns
will
the
whole
line
because only
stoppages
production
stop
industrial

The

manufacturing.

is divided

smallest

buffers

minor

cellular

The
functional

are placed between the workplaces.

layout was developed to combine some of
and

layout

the product layout,

the cellular layout

that

is,

the

of the

advantages

and

flexibility

productivity.

the group
technology
concept is used.
is the concept of gathering
into a number of
parts
of the parts. Figure 13.3 showsa conceptual
groups basedon similarities
illustration of GT. The criteria applied for classifyingparts
into part families are
of shape, materials, and manufacturing
For such a
usually similarities
processes.
a manufacturing cell can be establishedcontaining
all the
of parts
family
When

implementing

processes

(GT)

technology

Group

to finish

needed

technology cells can

parts and materials
1.

2.

be

production of parts in the specific

family.
divided
into two categories dependingon
cell

the

within

GT manufacturing

The group
the

flow

of

[64]:

are stand-alone
machines of dissimilar functional
and
dedicated
to
In
of parts.
types
together
producing a family
grouped
cell there is no fixed flow
of materials;
in essence,
the GT manufacturing
cells

each cell is a small dedicated

job shop.
GT flow-linecellsare configurated
as small flow lines dedicatedto
of
flow
of parts within the GT
continuous
a
The
family
producing
parts.
the
of product lines in a low- or
flow-line cells provides
efficiency
medium-volume
to the

Compared

environment.

manufacturing

functional

layout,

cellular

manufacturing

typically

has major

advantages:

1.

70-90%

reduction

2.

75-90%

reduction

reduction

3.

A 65-80%

4.

parts in a family.
A 50-80% reduction

Furthermore,
limitations

in

in

setup

times

of cellular

employees
manufacturing

time

and

because

of

work

the

in progress.

similarities

of the

problems.

quality-related

the shop-floor control task

raises job satisfactionamong

and

in production lead
in material handling.

is simplified
on the
are:

and

decentralized,

shop floor. The disadvantages

which

FIGURE

421

Systems

Manufacturing

The concept

13.3

1.

Machine

2.

Flexibility

The

is not

education,

essential

group

technology.

utilization decreases.
as great

to be standardized
is possible.

3.

of

and

as

in

the

motivation,

for achieving the

manufacturing

has been one of

of just-in-time

(JIT) manufacturing.

manufacturing

the

to Japanese production
can improve

production

and all parts have

is not always

layout,

which

family,

of shop-flooremployees

are

benefits.

philosophy

be devoted

GT

and engagement
outlined

Cellular

will

functional

into a

designed

the Japanese
further attention
as to how
cellular

in
key technologies
In a later
section
as

philosophy

planning

and

well

control.

of the
between
Figure 13.4 shows the relationship
part volume and flexibility
Besides
the discussed
production system for these basic layout
configurations.
it also illustrates
how FMS (flexible manufacturing
can
basic layouts,
systems)
of product
combine the strengths
than
better
lines and job-shop manufacturing
the cellular layout.
FMSs
are highly automated computer-controlled
which
because of automation
can produce
small batches with
manufacturingfacilities,

422

13

Chapter

High

Part

volume

Low

Part variety

Flexibility/

FIGURE 13.4

and flexibility

volume

Part

relationship

for

different

the

types of

layout

configurations.

in a later

be discussed

will

chapter.

PRODUCTION

ADVANCED

13.2

The

production.FMStechnology

of mass

the efficiency

section of this

EQUIPMENT

has in the last decades totally

microcomputers
the
to manufacturing
However,
changed
shop
application of computers
has been somewhat slow, comparedto other application
areas. This section will
the facilities and capabilities of modern
The
discuss
equipment.
production
will
it
discussion
focus on two areas, machine tools and industrial
because
robots,
of

introduction

is

in these

low-cost

floor.

the

areas

the

that

opportunities

manufacturing

and accurate

parts. This started

tools.

machine
developed

1952 the

By

machines reached
productive.These

first

first

stage

next

controlled)

which

NC

machine,

in

they

became
was

were introduced

with

(numerical controlled)
three controlled axes, was

the

the

1960s

NC

reasonably reliable and

the CNC
in

complex

manufacturing

of NC

development

used electronichardware,

improvement

new

industry.

Institute of Technology(MIT).In

where

NC systems

technology. The
systems,

the

Massachusetts

at the

made and

mechanical

have problems

tools

machine

manual

Conventional

have been

Tools

Machine

Advanced

13.2.1

major developments
are opening up for the

early

based

upon

(computer

digital circuit

numerical

1970s. CNC

systems em-

423

Systems

Manufacturing

ploy a microcomputer and eliminate, as far as possible,

circuits in the machine controller. This development from
and
software-based CNC increasedflexibility
provided
Some
new
in the machine control unit.
features
introducing

hardware
NC to

the possibility of
of the advantages

and

are:

features

new

additional
hardware-based

Ease of

the

updating

controller

which securing

software,

the

in

investment

CNC machines

Correction of the

directly on the CNC

for
of pockets
machining cycles,
example, for milling
of
the
tool
on
the
CNC
simulation
path
display
Graphical
of the machine tool; generation of alarm
Sophisticatedmonitoring
messages to the operator
part

programs

Built-in

equipment such as manipulators

of
tool
data and tool life
Management

Control

of auxiliary

and

pallet

status

and

exchangers

a tool
most
modern
CNC machining centers have
To improve productivity,
tools which
typically containing from 20 to more than a hundred
tool manipulator
can
time for unmanned operation. A built-in
prolong the
the greatest
the tool during production. To gain
advantage from
automaticallychange
advanced facilities are required
in the CNC
tool magazines,
having
large
related
to each tool. Modern CNCs can
controller
to manage
all the information

magazine

a lot

handle

therefore

of tool

such

information,

as:

Tool offset

Tool nose radius

Tool

placement

and tool groups

Tool life
Remaining

tool

life

The management of tool data is

for there
to be more tools than
machine
tool requires a specificsetup

a comprehensive

task

because

it is

not

shop floor and each job on a

parts
of tools.
Often, the tool data has to be put
in manually
at the CNC controllerand is stored in the memory of the CNC
system. The
of this is that tool data has to be loaded into the CNC
disadvantage
each time the tooling
is changed.
A much nicer solution
is to integrate
a
into
the
tool
which
can
the
store
tool
information.
all
base,
microchip
specific
Then
the microchip
can be programmed
with
all the tool information
when
the
tool is assembled and measured, activities
a
which
in
tool
take
typically
place
room isolated from the shop floor. When the tool is placed in the
preparation
tool holder the CNC can read the tool data directly from the microchip
as well
as updating
the microchip
with information such as the remaining
lifetime
of the
tool. Thus all relevant
tool
and
information
follows
the
tool
tool,
always
on the

unusual

management

is made

less complicated.

Many

controllers

can

operate

with \"sister\"

Chapter 13

424

controller

the

continue

exchanges

automatically

the

replace each other.

that can

tools

identical

tools,

the tool

has expired,

the lifetime

When
with

a \"sister\"

tool, which

can

process.

of the loading and unloading

is another feature often
of parts
the
of
machine
tools.
Most
of machining
vendors
improve
productivity
as an extension
centers offer a pallet magazine
to the machine.
The operator can
the fixturing
of raw parts on an empty pallet outside the machine
then
prepare
Automation

used to

another part. These pallet

consist of
manufacturing
magazines
typically
ten pallets that contain work for several hours of unmanned
centers can be enhanced with
a loading
robot taking out
turning
manufacturing. CNC
the finished
with new raw parts. The CNC
parts and loading the machine
machine tools can be programmed
controller of such
to operate
according to a cyclic
while

to

two

schedule,loading

programs,

executing

parts,

a small

shows

13.5

two-pallet changersystem

unloading parts, and so on. Figure

workpiece
setup during
allowing

machining.
of machine
tools is most often done off-line
using
CAD (computer aided design)systems
are computer-based
drawing systems for product modeling. CAM (computeraided manufacturing)
the part programs
for CNC
are computer-based
systems
systems on which
model
of the part to be
machine
tools
can be generated on the basis of a CAD
of CAD/CAM for off-line programming
of CNCs
The application
has
manufactured.
two important
advantages:

Today the

CAD/CAM

1.

programming

systems.

It improves
machine

2.

It

enables

operations
machine

the

while

productivity

developing
development
were
that

of the machine
the part programs.
of programs for

\"impossible\"

tool by

not

taking

up the

complex three-dimensional

to program directly on

the

controller.

of NC programs can either

be done on tapes, read by a punch
reader
or
a
DNC
numerical
transferred
CNC,
(direct
electronically through
link between a computer and the CNC.
It is convenient to
control) communication
two
of
DNC
communications'.
between
distinguish
categories
transfer

The

at

the

\"Simple\" DNC
\"Full\"

DNC

A \"simple\"

protocol

DNC is a

interface available

on

communication

almost

all CNC

interface

based

controllers. Using

on the
this

type

punch-reader
of interface

and
a computer
between
possible to upload and downloadNC programs
as used
The \"simple\"
DNC normally uses serial communication,
the
CNC.
to a computer.
This itself, has some
when connecting a plotter or a printer
it is

disadvantages:

425

Systems

Manufacturing

\342\200\242>\302\273ii*

wm.#0-an

FIGURE

13.5

Typical

high-level CNC control.

1.

noise in a
protocol

computer
remote
enables

center

(Courtesy,

SINDAL

speed

has

not
control
performance

two-pallet

changer,

and

is limited;

transmission of large

programs

can

has

a problem

shop-floor environment.
very

limited

coping

Furthermore

error-correcting

the
electromagnetic
the communication

with

facilities.

is an advanced
communication
protocol enabling the
also
and
download
but
to perform full
to
programs
upload
only
of the CNC controller.Normally,
this type of DNC protocol
that
are available on the controller itself
of all the functions

DNC

\"full\"

magazine,

Machiine Tools A/S.)

minutes.

communication

The

with tool

machining

communication

The

take several

2.

#a**\"vi

protocol

Chapter13

426

an option card providing

a \"full\"
DNC protocol
Normally,
an extension
for the controller.
These
DNC protocols either
can be basedon a serial communication link as the \"simple\"
DNC or can apply
network providing a higher
communication
a communication
At the
speed.
moment the
of \"full\"
DNC
is limited to highly
automated
application
protocols
a computer.

from

can be purchased

as

systems

manufacturing

At present most
This

communication
protocol.

where remote control

vendorsof
causes

machine tools into more

the early 1980sinitiated
(manufacturing

automation

a set of

machine

protocol),

of manufacturing.
satisfying the needs
available on various types of

to be

instructions

PLCs (programmable logical controllers), robots, etc.

of the equipment directly \302\273<>
a local
area network [62].
onal Standardization
adapted as an ISO (Intern
and is available from most of the major
vendors
of

coupling
has been

Today,MAP

standard

Organization)

many problems for companies that want to integrate

General
Motors in
systems. For that reason,
of a communication protocol MAP
the development

tools,

enables

MAP

CNC
is necessary.
have a proprietary

integrated

MAP specifies
equipment;

of the

controllers

CNC

manufacturingequipment.

Robots

Industrial

13.2.2

The technologyof

industry. Robots are particularly

the

revolutionize

has matured,

robots

industrial

and robots

are beginning

in applications

useful

to

such as:

Material handling
painting

Spray

Spot welding

Arc welding

Inspection
Assembly

It is

presented

in

industrial

to define

difficult
robot

the

literature.

as a

move materials,

what

is a

robot and

The Robot

\"re-programmable

parts, tools, or other

what

Institute

of

is not.

America

multi-functional

specialized

Many definitions
(RIA) defines an

manipulator

devices

through

designed

are
to

variable

of tasks.\"
The technology of
performance of a variety
but differs somewhat, since robots
to NC technology
include
robots is related
more
in
axes.
needs
six
axes
and
movement
the
robot
velocities
Basically,
higher
reacha
in
to
with
a
orientation
of motion
of
freedom)
(or degrees
point
specific
classified
into
three
The
be
firstIndustrial
robots
can
generations.
space.
control strategies and are often
simple
relatively
generation robots follow
robots
are
robots. The feedbackdevicesof these
referred
to as \"pick-and-place\"
for
each
axes
of
motion.
The
secondof
switches
and
limit
stoppers
simply pairs
devices
controlled in closed loops
computerized
generation robots are generally
programmed

motions

for the

427

Systems

Manufacturing

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 13.6
The Cartesian

by

basic robot manipulators,

of the

Two

manipulator.

robots have a

These

servo-drivers.

flexibility.

The

of making

decisions

third-generation
and

captured

as

transducers,

and

and

referred

to as

by sensors such
so on. It is second-

system

motion.

the

industrial

\"intelligent\"

based

motions
force

cameras,

capable
upon

and pressure
that are usually

robots

third-generation

13.6

robot can

differ

much

very

classified according to
has
manipulator or arm), which

can be

robots

frame

main

Figure

an

of

Structurally
the

vision

devices

industrial robots.

The appearance
of

are more

unprogrammed

generating

and control

of programming

level

high

robots

information

robot.

articulated manipulator, (b)

(a) The

(the

two of the

illustrates

four

coordinate

basic

from robot to
the

coordinate

axes of
systems in
three

robots:

industrial

\342\200\242
The

\342\200\242
The

consists
manipulator
in Figure 13.6.

cartesian

as shown

cylindrical

axis.

Typically
in turn,

which

annular

the

of three orthogonal linear sliding

consists
manipulator
a horizontal column
is mounted on a rotary

of two
is mounted
base.

axes

linear

Thus

on

axes,

and one

a vertical

the working

rotary

column,

volume is

of a cylinder.
coordinate robot consists

space

of one linear and two rotary axes.

consists of three rotary
as in the human
axes,
arm
of robot
has a relatively low resolution and
(see Fig. 13.6). This type
On the other hand,
it has excellent
and
mechanical flexibility
accuracy.
make it the most popular mediummoves
with high speed, which
help
sized
robot on the market.

\342\200\242
The
\342\200\242
The

Most
spray

spherical
articulated

robots

industrial

painting,

manipulator

spot

are

welding,

used for

automating

deburring, and so

repetitive

on, and

processes
robots
many

such as
are never

Chapter 13

428

flexibility of

least

utilize
the
only a few robot applications fully
The programming of robots
can be done in several ways; at
methods
are commonly used in robotics:

Therefore,

reprogrammed.

the robots.

four

programming

Manual

teaching

Lead-through teaching
languages

Programming

off-line

Computer-aided

programming

Manual teaching is the

robotics

systems.

most frequently used in point-to-point

each axis of the robot manually
to
moving
is
the
stores
reached,
operator
position

and

simplest

Teaching is done by

position. When the desired

on the point in the robot memory.
is manually guided through
In lead-through teaching the end-effector
(tool)
at
the
while
the desired
speed,
simultaneously recording the
path
required
used
in spray painting of auto
position
of the axes. This teaching method is widely
the desired

coordinates

the

or other

parts

products.

Programming languages are

to describe the

task. These languages

are

descriptive
languages enabling one
end-effector in order to perform a specific
in the
similar to the languages known
NC

high-level

of the

movement

very

programming.
is the generation
of robot programs by
Computer-aided off-line programming
based on a geometric model
of the part and the environment
in
which
the specific task is going to be carried out. These off-line
programming
to the CAM systems for machine
similar
(e.g., ROBCAD) are very
packages
and
tool programming
the CAD
they can also be integrated with
systems, in
which products and facility
are modeled.
layouts
is heavily focused on creating a \"smart\"
robot
that
Development in robotics
and consequently
make decisions based on the artificial
can hear, see, and touch
a computer,

sense

In principle

organs.

the

achieve

is to

goal

human's

the

to sense and

ability

In
much research and development
sense impressions.
arc
welding
have beencarried out to develop efficient sensor systems for searching/tracking
the
a high-quality
many
securing
welding
types of joints as well as continuously
seam. These systems can apply techniques
for
as different as vision
systems
and measurement or dedicated laser-basedtracking
localization
for
systems

to react to

arc welding.
case

industrial

An

found

roboticsis

at Odense

cargo carriers and

weldingby

This

industrial

has

research
complicate

in

oil

story showing

Steel

been an

positioned the shipyard

the use of industrial
the

use

a world

as
robots

of robotics for

Steel Shipyard

important

arc

for
welding

automation

of arc

given considerable

goal

leader

in

application

arc welding.
in

of

applications

The company produces

in Denmark.

Ltd.

At Odense

tankers.

robots has

state-of-the-art

many

Shipyard

the

attention.

as well

as

Several circumstances

shipbuilding

industry:

429

Systems

Manufacturing

The
relative

* The

part cannot
to the ship

be moved during
the process;
section being manufactured.

the robot must

move

sensor
provides a need for advanced
process adjustments.
* Because
few welding
of robot
seams are identical, the number
very
becomes
and
is
enormous
off-line
programming necessaryif
programs
utilization
of
be
the
robots
is
to
achieved.
satisfactory

variancein

quality

of joints

on-line

for

systems

on a three-dimensional
an
CAD
HICADEC,
system,
on
which
three-dimensional
system
complete
models can be generatedand checked
an
for design errors. From the CADmodel
IGES processor
an
IGES
(Initial
generates
Graphics Exchange Specifications)
and robot
file of the section to be welded. Using the off-lineprogramming
simulation
is
whether
or
a
can
be welded
it
tested
not
ROBCAD,
software,
joint
The

are modeled

ships

for shipbuilding

CAD

advanced

in production. If it is possible,
the programs are
or
the
simulation
the
software,
using
design of the ship
section can
be changed to enable robot welding.
used in daily
robots
Odense
Steel Shipyard has about 30 arc welding
Today,
a
or
robots
are
on
two
three
of
mounted
the
production. Typically,
gantry from
cavities
be welded.
be
and
to
which
can
lowered
into
the
different
sections
they
robots
shows
such
an
in
with
two
Hirobo
mounted
13.7
installation
action
Figure
on a gantry\342\200\224both
robots
are welding on large ship sections and
are operated
of the Hirobo welding
of one
robots
by one worker. Figure 13.8 showsa close-up
available

robots

the

using

verified

and

generated

in action.

FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURINGSYSTEMS

13.3

13.3.1 TheElementsof Flexible

Systems

Manufacturing

The

of flexible

purpose
of mass

efficiency

A FMS

production

Process

Material

equipment
handling

guided

e.g., machine
equipment

A communication

A computer control

in

e.g.,

tools, assembly
robots,

and

stations,

conveyors,

and

robots

AGVs

system
system

not
automated
directly
say that the system should be fully
controlled since there are a number
of other
means for being
But over the years FMS has become the acronym
for the
manufacturing.

name

FMS does

and computer
flexible

13.4).

vehicles)

The

the

encompasses:

typically

(automated

is to achieve
(FMS)
systems
for
batch
lines)
(product
production (see Figure

manufacturing

Chapter 13

430

Picture

of robots

Steel Shipyard.

(Courtesy,

13.7

FIGURE

at Odense

automated

fully

mounted

future.

is not

FMS

a gantry, welding on a
Steel Shipyard.)

as well,
really new. An

system

manufacturing

factory of the

on

Odense

as it

large

a vision

represents

installation

ship

established

section

of the
in

1968 is regarded as the first

FMS
and was developed by D. T. N.
who
was
for
the
Molins
Machine
Tool Company.But
Williamson,
working
and
in
advanced
machine
tools
have
the FMS
vitalized
computer
developments
and
it
is
to
find
of
reliable
FMS
in
\"true\"
today
industry.
easy
examples
concept
In Fig. 13.9 the layout
and components
of a typical
FMS
are illustrated.
At the
mounted
area
are
on
fixtures
and
introduced
to
the
loading
parts
system. The

England

use of

during

enables

fixtures

different

the transportation
the

parts
of materials
within

Transport

production.

In

most

equipment to handle a large

number

of

system.

and palettesis essential

systems

it is

carried

out

to
by

an unmanned

an AGV,

which is

and flexible

a computer

following predefined paths on the shop floor. The most

common AGV
controlled by the magnetic
is wire-guided,
field from electrical wires
concreted
into the shop floor. Some systemsuse conveyors
for transporting
palettes in the FMS.
are
less
flexible
than
the
AGV
but, on the other
Conveyors
more
reliable
than
the
are
are
more
hand,
AGVs, which
they
sophisticated
sensitive
to chips and oil on the floor.
Robots
are normally not used as trans-

controlled

vehicle

431

Systems

Manufacturing

\\
/.'
1

'*'\342\226\240!

\\

ii

,e

f
t
ff, %

#*?**

FIGURE 13.8

in FMS

porters

welding. (Courtesy,

OdenseSteelShipyard.)

because of the limited

and radius of action. But
lifting
capacity
FMSs for feeding machine tools, assembly,
or
painting,

operations.

The

machining

CNC machines.
and

robot

are used in

robots
similar

Hirobo

*0:

drilling)

The

because

area may contain from two to an \"unlimited\"

number of
of
in
FMS
CNCs
are
centers
(milling
majority
machining
it is easy to load/unload the machineswith palettes
directly

432

Chapter
r~Fixture
\342\226\240

Symbols

elements

I Loading

13

area

/VDNC

/\"^Terminal
7(3)

Operator

Storage for:
-parts
palettes

IPLCJ

A^
\342\200\224
\342\200\224

13.9

FIGURE

The

components

the transporter.
Here palettes of turning
from

Turning

parts

in a

typical Flexible

are

in some

can

centers

moved

Manufacturing

System.

cases also appear in

to a fixed position
take the parts one by

near

the

a FMS.

machine

one and feed them

can
robot
where a loading and unloading
such
as coordinate
center. Other types of equipment
into
the turning
measuring
tool
On the machine
and so on, can alsobe found.
machines,
machines, washing
tools.
this
to
100
When
40
tool
there is a primary
magazine
normally containing
a
is
installed
with
tool
is not sufficient, a secondarytool
transporter
magazine
and substitution
tool exchange
automatic
and changerenabling
during
production(see

Figure

An automated
in

the

13.9).

storage and retrieval

This enables the

In the day
workforce.

FMS.

system

system to

run

is very often
(AS/RS)
or two unmanned

one

integrated
shifts

with

loaded into
on palettes
parts are fixtured
the system and stored in the AS/RS waiting for available capacity on the
can move the part
When the process is finished,the transporter
machines
required.
back to the AS/RSwhere it waits for the next process or to be unloaded from the
next morning.
The fully unmanned
FMS when the workforce reports for work
will always
most
cases
or
more
in
one
FMSs
is
of
rare;
operators
very
operation
situations
be present, not so much to intervene in critical
(this is normally done
control system) but to correct minor faults and
automatically
by the computer
with
the
possible utilization.
highest
system running
keep
reduced

shift

raw

433

Systems

Manufacturing

HOSTUNK

FMS

Control Software

Scheduler

FMS

Database

Transport

Reports

Monitor

Dispatcher

DNC

Load/

Storage

Tool

Unload

control

management

AS/RS

AGV&

Load

Robots

terminal

Tool pre-setting

Machine

machine

tools

&

Tool transporter
FIGURE

The
center

Diagram of

13.10

area with the

which all activities

control
from

FMS control software

is

different
carry out many
that has been carried out

computer

rather

FMS control

in advanced

functions

in the

the

running

and

sophisticated

task
in

simultaneously.
Despite
this area, there is no general

the

system is

control

controlledand

FMS are

complicated

FMS

software.

since

considerable

the

The

monitored.
it

has

to

research

answer to designing the

of FMS software.
Sometypical functions
of a FMS control system are illustrated
in Fig.
13.10.
how
The scheduler function
involves
to
current
the
volume
of
planning
produce
orders in the FMS, considering
status
of machine
the current
work-intools,
and so on. The scheduling can be done automatically
fixtures,
progress,tooling,
or can be assisted by an operator.
Most FMS control systems combineautomatic
and manual
the
scheduling;
system generatesan initial schedule that then can be
the
involves
out
changed
manually
by
operator. The dispatcherfunction
carrying
the schedule and coordinating the activities
on the shop floor, that
is, deciding
when and where to transport
when to start
on a machining
a pallet,
a process
and so on. The monitor
is concerned
with monitoring work
function
center,
alarm messages,
and so on, and providing
status,
progress, machine
input to the
functions

and

architecture

scheduler and dispatcheras well

alarm

messages.

and palettes

within

the

as

generating

various

control module managesthe

system.
Having an AGV system

A transport

production reports and

transportation
with

multiple

of parts
vehicles,

434

Chapter

13

control
a critical
logic can become rather sophisticatedand become
routing
at the
part of the FMS control software. A load/unload module with a terminal
which parts to introduce to the system
and
loading area showsthe operators
enables
or her to update the status
of the control system when
him
are ready
parts
for collection at the loading area. A storage control module
an account of
keeps
which
are stored in the AS/RS as well
as their
exact location. The tool
parts
module
an account of all relevant
data and the actual
tool
management
keeps
the

location of tools in the FMS. Tool management can be rather

comprehensive
exceeds
since the number of tools normally
the number of parts in the system,
and furthermore the module must
the preparation
and flow of tools. The
control
DNC function
interfaces
the
FMS
control
and
between
provides
program
machine
tools
and devices on the shop
floor.
The DNC capabilities of the shopDNC
communication
are essential to a FMS;a \"full\"
floor equipment
protocol
of
is
on DNC
remote
control
the
machines
enabling
required (see the discussion
in the previous section).
The
fact that most vendors of machine tools have
proprietary
developed
is complicating
the development and integration
of FMSs
communication
protocols
multivendor
the
Furthermore,
equipment.
physical
integration of mulincluding
for
is
the
differences
in
tivendor
difficult;
pallet load/unload
example,
equipment
mechanisms complicatethe use of machine tools from different
vendors.
for
a
FMSis
advisable
to
a
Therefore, the
only
approach
purchase
implementing
from
one
of
the
main
machine
tool
manufacturers.
These
turn-key system
and well tested and should the system
not function
systems are
reliable
of malfunctions. Fig.
a
vendor
will
facilitate
satisfactorily single
remedy
responsibility
of a turn-key
Mazak FMS, which
is built on a modular
13.11showsa picture
of machines
the
to
number
be
with
the
system
configured
concept, enabling
the

by

required

FMS at

13.3.2
Most

their

and
highly

companies

Fanuc

large FMS

the

of

manufacturers,
involved

customer.

installations

undoubtedly because
need the installations as
sophisticated

automation

in manufacturing

in

industry

they

are

working

are found at
mastering

all the

products. Fanuc Ltd.

as

machine

tool

technologies

of the

showrooms

of machine tools as well

of Japan is also one of

the

capabilities of

is one of

the

leading

automation
factory
automation
success

the
company
products. The Fanuc
FMS
stories of our time. They have several highly automated factories applying
their own products.
to manufacture
To illustrate the state-of-the-art in FMS,
Fig. 13.12 shows one of the Fanuc
in
This factory has a
the
Factory.
plants
Japan,
Machining
manufacturing
such
for
some
as robots and wireof
1100
Fanuc
products,
parts
machining
capacity
was started in 1980 as the first
cut EDMs, each month. The Machining
Factory
unmanned
in Japan to adopt a FMS, which
enabled
facility
operation during the

435

Systems

Manufacturing

FIGURE 13.11
and

transportation

Mazak

FMS

turn-key

system. (Courtesy,

storage

with

with
night. The system later on was enhanced
which has enabled continuous

controllers,

even through

factory is another

(see Fig. 13.13). It

floor,

assembly
an automatic

with

together

\"Fanuc

for

Cell

60\"

72 hours,

floors. Materialsstored in
by AGVs,

cell,

manufacturing

facility

motors for some 500 models per

On the lower floor is the
cells
with over 50 robots. On the

operations are carried out. The two floors are linked

warehouse system that is used to store raw materials

components, as well as transporting

and machined

machining

the latest
operation

automated

highly

of 25,000

within a two-floor building.

about 60 machining
comprising

area,

second

a capacity

has

is located

and

machining

five of
unmanned

integrated

weekends.

motor

Fanuc's

month

and an
management
Machine
tools A/S.)

tool

SINDAL

the

and

automatic

unmanned

machining

between
the two
are supplied to each
carried out at night
using

components

warehouse
is

robots.

handling

is taken at the Fanuc Injection ModelingMachine

Factory
This
100 plastic injection
13.14).
(Fig.
factory is capable of manufacturing
This
is also capable of carrying
out
molding machines each month.
factory
but it is interesting
unmanned
because
the machining
operation,
mainly
the latest facilities with
department features
as the communication protocol on
MAP,
the

the

output

To

1972

and NC
controllers.

machine

ISO MAP
in

Machine

floor.

shop

machining

look

Finally,

information

on

MAP interfaces at
to the international

standard.

illustrate

was $51

period the

operation monitoring, as well as

data, and so on, are available
through
This proves Fanuc's commitment

number

of Fanuc Ltd.
in automation, the operating
revenue
it had
risen to $1378 million in 1990.
For the same
615 to 1810. This is an outstandof employees only rose from

the potential

million, and

436

Chapter

13

L*
\342\204\242*A-*^.t^.
.\302\243
(

IV

>4

ft1*-

\"?/,#v

fr

.*&

*&&\302\273\342\226\240

Inside Fanuc
13.12
products each month.
(Courtesy,
FIGURE

Factory producing
GE Fanuc Automation Europe

Machining

parts

for

some

1100 Fanuc

S.A.)

\342\226\240!\302\273
\342\200\224r*r
*

\302\273
*.!*\342\226\240\302\253

\342\226\240

?**

i.

.1

ij

h~

-'VA--.
*

'*.

B3**;

\342\226\240^-v-'v;
'
\342\226\240*\342\226\240;\342\226\240\342\200\242
f
,\\
f #*\"
\342\226\240''
\302\253

.'\342\226\240**:
--- i

,^;:

-''*\\ii

'-jy,
\302\273^'

\"-&T--/' '/'-'ft
/

'*^

'
/\342\226\240\342\226\240

:^-.'
FIGURE

S.A.)

13.13

Inside Fanuc's

motor

factory.

(Courtesy,

GE

Fanuc

Automation

Europe

Manufacturing

and

achievement

ing

technology

437

Systems

within

is largely

production

The Hierarchical

13.3.3

due to

and

the

successful

of advanced

application

products.

Nature of ProductionControl

in
automation
and discussing
production control and factory
and CIM (computer integrated
FMS
manufacturing systems applying
it is convenient to put the many planning and
manufacturing)
technologies
control activities
in a hierarchical perspective, with
the overall
strategic planning at
the
at the bottom.
top and the operational control of manufacturing
processes
The
There are several
for such a hierarchical model(seeFig.13.15).
candidates
two most important
Bureau of Standards) now
are formulated by NBS (National
NIST
in the United
called
Institute of Standards and Technology)
(National
States (the NBS-model)
and by ISO (International
Standardizations
which
of control
an international standards for the definition
Organization),
proposed
When

describing

advanced

levels

in

advanced

recognizes

manufacturing
systems
five levels, namely, facility,

(the ISO-model)[59].The
shop,

NBS-model

and equipment.
model, namely,

workstation,

cell,

in their
and includes six levels
cell, workstation, equipment. These
in planning and
of references
hierarchical
models
have mainly been used as frames
but they are also
of computer integrated manufacturing
systems,
implementation
applicablefor discussing
planning and control activities in general.
production
It is relevant to discuss the definition
of manufacturing
control levels because
these include
of the terms often used in the literature
some
and in descriptions
has
The ISO-model

enterprise,

facility

of commercialproducts
the hierarchical

a layer

added

/plant,

section/area,

for

factory

In Fig.

automation.

13.15 an

illustration

of

It illustrates
according to the ISO-model.
the fundamental
that each control function
characteristics,
(at level n)
namely,
controls a minor
set of functions
at the lower level (level n \342\200\224
1). The typical
tasks and responsibilities
at the different levels are as follows:
\342\200\242

structure

control

Enterprise

is presented

includes

the overall

strategic planning

for

the

of
portfolio planning,
strategy,
in the enterprise. The manufacturing
control
carried out
at the enterprise level is responsible
for
achievement
of the
mission of the enterprise;
its planning
horizon
is measured in years and should
not
be changed
too often.
\342\200\242
control
is
It
Facility
responsible for implementing the enterprise
strategy.
includes such functions
as manufacturing
and product engineering,
information management,
and other long-term
production
management,
is product
divisions
between

enterprise. This
work

activities
\342\200\242
Area

and running
controlling
control
is responsible for

in

coordination
operates

of

within

production
a horizon

and division

market

manufacturing

the allocation

facility.

of resourcesand

shop floor. This control

of several days or weeks.This

on the

level
level

the

typically
is also often

Chapter 13

438

the

Inside

13.14

FIGURE

(Courtesy, GE

Factory.

titled \"shop

Automation

level\" and

called \"production

the

below.

the levels

and

control

of Fanuc

department

machining

Fanuc

activity

term
In

control\" covers the area

shop-floor control is often
In flexible manufacturing
systems
out the area control.
literature

control.\"

FMS control software will carry

\342\200\242
is responsible for the
Cell
control
the manufacturing

within

Machine

Molding

\"shop-floor

U.S.

the

workstations

Injection

S.A.)

Europe

direction of jobs through the

includesresourceassignment,

cell. This

on job routings,
dispatching
jobs to individual
and
of
the
condition
of workstations.
monitoring
jobs
working
\342\200\242
is responsible for the coordination of tasks to be
control
Workstation
carried out
on a workstation to perform a job assigned
to the workstation.
within
a
time
horizon
This function
of
milliseconds
to hours.
operates
\342\200\242
level realizes the physical execution of taskson a machine.
In
Equipment
making

decisions

workstations,and

relation to a machine

controllercontrolling
COMPUTER

13.4
The

concept

parallel

with

product

tool, this

level

will

typically

or a

integrated manufacturing
concept, and often the two

system

so on.

INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

of computer
the FMS

be the local machine

spindle speed, coolant, and

of axes,

movement

that

can

be

was developed

(CIM)
concepts

purchased,

and

are mixed
it

is

in

up. CIM

therefore

less

is not
well

439

Systems

Manufacturing

Enterprise

Facility

Area

Cell

Workstation

EQUIPMENT

Equipment

FIGURE 13.15

defined than

hierarchical

CONTROL

of the

perspective

model.

control

manufacturing

FMS. Here, CIMis

defined
as a strategy of using
information
to
and improve
manner
integrate
manufacturing
functions
strategic
technology
been
one
of
the
discussed
the flow
CIM has
most
topics in
of information.
is
less
attention
CIM
the
1980s.
Today,
attracting
manufacturing
spheres
during
it has become
and information
because
a matter of course to apply computers
functions. CIM has to a wide extent been
technology in almost all manufacturing
which
succeeded
such
concurrent
as
engineering,
basically
by concepts
the same
and
the
addresses
to
flow of information
problems:
improve
speed up
But concurrent engineering focuses
within
the
manufacturing
organization.
more
on the organizational
than the
and product design aspects of integration
in a

application

and

of

implementation
with

different

CIM,

a company-specific

the mechanical
areas

in CIM

of computer

interfacing

There are many

and

management,
technology.

of

systems.

of views on

a computer integrated
system. Looking at

electromechanical

implementation.

to be integrated
with
each
The business information
activities',

points

there are

system

the

ends

some

main

typical

areas which
CIM.

main

obtain

the

covers

all factory-level

designation

and

planning

have

control

financial
production planning,
purchasing,
first
and so on. These activities were the
to utilize information
Because
business
area tends to be conservative,many
administration

the systems

inventory

implemented were

control,

a direct computerization

of

old

up

within

enterprises

manufacturing

industry,

practice,

system,

manufacturing

Figure 13.16 illustrates

other to

is. In

CIM

what

paper-based

Chapter 13

440

The Business
Information

System

Computer
Computer

Computer

Integrated

Aided

Aided

Manufacturing

Design

Manufacturing

floor

Shop

Control

System
The main

areas

management systems. A

major

13.16

FIGURE

(see

Computer-aided designhas been in

last

IS years and

the

with

[63].

came with the development of

new
(MRP systems) introducing

enhancement

systems
planning
for planning and controlling large
the next section).

possibilities

during the

CIM concept

the

materials

computer-based

enterprises

within

a period

appearance

complex manufacturing

of tremendous development
of low-cost workstations and

has been made available

all sizes of
for
has stimulated the developmentof
which today has reached a very
software
stage, offering advanced
powerful
finite element and kinematic
modules for,
for example,
analysis.
has developed
in close
The area of Computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM)
connection with CAD and today offers good modulesfor off-line NC and robot
time for new products in production,
the running-in
as
programming, shortening
well as it has made it possible to generate part programs for geometries(e.g.,
that could not have been programmed
The
three-dimensional
surfaces)
manually.
area of CAM also embraces computer-aided
process
planning
the process planner in selecting
the sequence of
systems
supporting
(CAPP)\342\200\224computer
processes
and
a product.
needed to manufacture
process
parameters
The area of shop-floor control
embraces
a wide range of systems
systems
from
FMSs to manual
information
systems
varying
fully automated
shop-floor
and
to integrate the shop floor
bar-code
using computer terminals
technology
personal

CAD

computers,

technology

companies. The big market

with

the

overall

The most
activities
Communication

production

important

into a

systems

management system.
for
technologies

computer

CIM system
networks

CAD

for

are

enable

computer

us to

integrating

networks

distribute

the

manufacturing

and database

applications

and

technology.

exchange

in-

441

Systems

Manufacturing

EDI to

customers
and

Mainframe/Mid-range

\\

Product

development

suppliers

Administration

tioT]
Bridge

CI-

CW^\342\200\224

Scheduling

Bridge

Tool management

FMS&

Cell

control

QQOoaua
DOQQQQQ

floor

Shop

FIGURE

The computer

13.17

PLC's

terminals

CNC's

architecture of a CIM enterprise.

a typical
Figure 13.17 illustrates
computer
most
of the manufacturing activities are
carried out using various computer support tools. As illustrated,
the enterprise
is fully network
distributed
integrated,
enabling the different
systems
computer
to exchange data and accessthe common
database.
Interface problems and lack
of communication
have represented
standards
the main difficulties in realizing
formation

throughout

the enterprise.

architecture for a CIM enterprisewhere

the CIM enterprise. The development of international

ISO
for open
standards
systems interconnections(OSI)will make it easier to integrate
computer
systems in the future.
is to ensure
The aim of these standards
an unproblematic

and software from different

vendors
by
network interfaces and protocols.
The
database
is important, because databasesstore information
in
technology
a structured and secure manner.
Common
databases
make information available
wherever it is needed and ensure that decisions
are made on the newest
available
information.
The design and implementation
of the common
database is a key
issue
in the realization of CIM.
activities is not just a question of integrating
the
of manufacturing
Integration
activities
within the enterprise itself. All enterprises
have extensive
of

integration
specifying

standards

communicationwith

hardware
computer
for communication

external

organizations

(e.g., customer,

vendors, forwarding

agen-

442

13

Chapter

cies,

taxation

and

This communication

authorities).

with

external

organizations

a considerabledelay in business transactions as well as be a potential

data
source
of errors. Many companies see EDI(electronic
as a
interchange)
solution
to these
communication
with
problems and a means of improving
and vendors.
customers
EDI contains standards for electronic exchangeof most
between business partners (e.g.,
the forms and information
exchanged
can entail

requisitions,

orders,

quotations,

inviting

agencies take care of

invoices).
and

telecommunication

the receiver. EDI is a natural

extension
EDI standards will provide
new
international
free from language and legal barriers.

distributedto

In

most

countries

EDI

that messages are

of CIM, and the development
for international
possibilities

of

service

ensure

of
trade

13.5 EFFICIENTMANUFACTURING
Until

this chapter has

now,

focused on the
layout,

facility

systems:

manufacturing

and CIM. The remaining

and control and
planning

sections
how

these

mechanisms
(from Fig. 13.1) in
advanced CNC equipment,
robotics,
FMS,
will discuss
the principles in production
influence
the overall efficiency of

production
systems.

First,

one can

ask

be given

answer can

the

question:

What

is efficient

manufacturing?

No

single

on the enterprise in
question. Efficiency will depend
be
defined
the
can
as
ratio between the
Generally
question.
speaking, efficiency
the value of the
and
of the produced output
resources
value
organizational
an efficient manufacturer
is not
activities.
needed in the manufacturing
Being
can
in
a
is
time.
It
a
of
how
just
many
produce
given
just as
question
parts you
to this

of the products
to the customer
and
of how to enhance the value
The value qualities of a product
will differ
from
needs of the customer.
will be related to properties of the physical
they
product to product. Normally,
well
the
as
as
services
before, during, and after the sale. Some
product
provided
of the value qualities are:
much

a question

meet the

Product

price

Product

reliability

Manufacturing
Product

design

Product

lifetime

quality

Maintenance cost
Product

customization

Speed

of delivery

Delivery
Volume

reliability

flexibility

443

Systems

Manufacturing

Looking only

the

at

activities

production

value-added products, the efficiency

can be defined as:
productivity, which

The

value

process

materials

into

be labeled

of input

can
productivity
or workstation

of

definition

manufacturing

raw

transforming

activities can

of output
value
\342\200\224- \342\200\224

Productivity

of these

be applied on different
(e.g., a machining

levels:
center),

a single
a department

the production system, or the whole production

system. In Western
been
attitude
toward productivity has throughout
this century
The
father
dominated by the management
philosophy called scientificmanagement.
of scientific management was FrederickW. Taylor
who was an
(1856-1915),
was to increase
at the Bethlehem Steel Company. His goal
the
engineer
to
the \"one best way\"
by analyzing the work and finding
productivityof workers
method lies in a
The best illustration
of
scientific
perform
a task.
Taylor's
whose sole responsibility
of how he analyzed the jobs of employees
description
within

the

industry

was shoveling materialsat

workers'

the

men,
needed was reduced from 600
These principles of scientific

Steel Company [58]. He increasedthe

shovel size with such factors as materials,
In three years the total number of shovelers

Bethlehem

productivity
by matching
and distance
to throw.
height,

to 140.
management

and

of
by Henry Ford by the introduction
innovation
was the breakthrough for industrialism,

developed further
This

division of labor were

the automobile assemblyline.
compared

to traditional

production. New standards for production volume,

uniform
of thinking
product quality were established. The way
Frederick W. Taylor and Henry
Ford
has throughout
the century

tradesman-oriented
productivity,

and

founded

by

been\342\200\224and
philosophy

in

changed.The

in

dominating
production
places still is\342\200\224a
management
world. Today, the market
as well as society have
Western
basic
needs for material goods are fulfilled
in the industrial
world,

many

the

new product variants, customized products,quick

zero defects, and so on. This requires
a high level of
traditional
mass production
has
flexibility in the manufacturing
system which
difficulties
in matching.
The work force is now well educated
and is not satisfied
with the high decomposition and
scientific
of work tasks. They
specification
need
and substance in the work.
satisfaction
job
The Japanese production philosophy,
which
also is dominant in other
Asian
demands
countries, has been successfulin fulfilling
many of these new
by
and

customers

and

on-time

implementing

activities.
and

1980s,

are demanding

delivery,

new

ways

Most of the
and

of managing, organizing, and controlling

manufacturing
Western
in the 1970s
enterprises were taken by surprise

old

they have had

substantial

difficulty

in changing

and becoming

Chapter13

444
newer Asian

the

with

competitive

within

section

will discuss

13.6

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

the

of the

principles

MRP

by

there are

Because

and

assistance

and complex

different

products,

the

of

planning

becomes a huge task that no human can handle

production
from production
planning and control (PPC) systems. Take,

of

It consists

automobile.

an

instance,

so many

succeeding

Japanese production philosophy.

13.6.1 ProductionPlanning
purchasing

is most

This

enterprises.

manufacturing

and consumer electronicindustries.A

the automotive

significant

without

for

of components\342\200\224some

thousands

from suppliers. Since the early

1970s
the
of
material requirements planning
(MRP)
type
large-scale production planning
used.
The definitive
and control
textbook on
system has been the most widely
the MRP technique is undoubtedly
1975
Joseph
Orlicky's
publication [60]. Orother

manufacturedin-house,

MRP

The

technique

the

product

(level 0) we
successively

and/or

materials

raw

of the

needed
produce

end

one

product,
at level 1. Each of

shown

lower

and

end

the

have

are

subassemblies

effectivemanagement

at a detailed level.
is built around a bill of materials
in a
as seen
structure of a lamp

of

inventories

manufacturing
illustrates

technique (MRP) for

a computer-based

realized

licky

purchased

levels, ending at
purchased parts.
as

fundamental

product.

well

these

BOM

the

At

components

level

divided

into

which

components,

must

top

and/or

is similarly

levels

fundamental

the

also include

the

are

quantities

intermediate components to
are typed at each branch
quantities

as the

13.18the

In Fig.

immediate

its

Figure 13.18

(BOM).

BOM.

in

BOM.

the

The MRP
requirements

calculationtakes the
finished

for

products

master

in the

LevelO
Level

Level

production

coming period

schedule
of

time

giving
(e.g.,

the

a total

pe-

Lamp

Base

Shade

assernbm

(Socket

assembly

Socket

Wiring

1
Shaft

1
Plate

Hub

Screws

Holder

3m

1.4 m

Level 3

Tubing

FIGURE

13.18

Wire

Simplified

assembly

Bill

of Materials

structure of a lamp.

Terminals

445

Systems

Manufacturing

calculates
the gross requirements for subassembliesand
is carried out on all products
BOM. When this calculation
in the company,
are added
the gross requirements
manufactured
up, providing
each week (or
for all subassemblies
and components
the
total
gross requirements
in stock and the scheduled
into account the amount
materials
each
day).
Taking
the net requirements can be calculated.
deliveries of materials from
suppliers,
These net requirements
give the amount of materials and componentsto
as well as the production orders to be produced
purchase
in-house.
The
follows
the \"push-principle.\"
The MRP type of production planning
These
orders
and/or forecasts tell the need for finished
incoming
products.
requirements for
finished
down,
products are then broken
by the MRP calculation,to
down to the
orders and purchase needs, which
are \"pushed\"
production
of
departments and
handling the various production phases.The coordination
suppliers
activities is centralized in the production
shop-floor
planning department and
often
the periodic MRP calculation.This is in direct contrast to the principle
applied in JIT (just-in-time) production.

riod of

and

months)

in the

components

13.6.2 Production Planningin JIT

and
manufacturing companies were applying
on
Motor
its
MRP,
implementing
push
systems
Toyota
Corporationdeveloped
own production
The
so-called
management system\342\200\224a pull system.
Toyota
in the years following
production
was developed
World
War II by Taiichi
system
Ohne, then machining
department
manager at the Honsha
Figure 13.20
plant.
and a push system illustrated
in
the difference
between a pull system
illustrates
In
no
a
detailed
is
done
of
the
13.19.
at
Figure
pull
system
scheduling
any
intermediate
The assembly line receives a production
manufacturing
stages.
schedule
that corresponds
to actual customer demands.The final assembly
line
While

almost

all large

modeled

MRP

planning

Production processes
FIGURE

13.19

The push

principle.

Chapter 13

446

Production

orders

Productionprocesses
then

A pull

13.20

FIGURE

on actual

was a two-card
basic

of

principle

a minor

buffer

are divided

into

of components

from the intermediate

and subassemblies

parts

pulls

based

system.

needs. The pull

manufacturing

stages

Motor Corporation
is
Kanban
the
word
for card). The
(Kanban
system
Japanese
Kanban is that each manufacturing
the
at
stage
assembly line has
in
the
of
the
used
storage
components
assembly
process. These
batches,
by a container, and each batch
typically
represented
is attached
are consumed
at the
to a Kanban. When
components
developed

system

at Toyota

is sent back to the manufacturing

cell or the supplier
assembly line, the Kanban
cell or the
producing the components. The employeesin the manufacturing
of components
then produce and deliver the quantity
supplier must
represented
by
is applied
the
Kanbans.
When this principle
at all manufacturing
incoming
no detailed centralized requirements planning,
as MRP,
is needed. The
stages,
system

manufacturing

The
cells

an

itself through

controls
is very

the

as well be used

for

of Kanbans.

flow

much related to the

controlling

concept of
the

supply

manufacturing

of components

the
basic configuration
Figure 13.21 illustrates
suppliers.
dedicated
to
cells
pulling components from manufacturing
The major advantages of the Kanban
specific part families.

from

line

assembly

production of
system

system

but can just

materials

and

of

Kanban

are:

autonomous system; very little centralized

planning is needed.
of inventory
It
and work-ineasy to control the inventories.Reduction
of
be
done
some
the
can
Kanbans.
progress
by withdrawing
It is an

\342\200\242
is

Many

have

JIT and a

investigated
Kanban

the size

of the logisticsadvantages

control

production

system.

90% reduction of inventories

90% reduction

of

production

10-30% reduction of the work

75% reduction of setup times

50% reduction

of

plant

floor

lead time
force

needed

Some

typical

gained
figures

by applying
are [61]:

447

Systems

Manufacturing

\342\200\224\\

Manufacturing

cells

L-A
\302\245

\302\245

\302\245

Assembly

line

C3-t\302\273

Cellular

13.21

FIGURE

reduction

50-60%

are some

in a JIT

layout

system

production

system.

manufacturing

of indirect costs

75-90% improvement
There

\302\245

of

quality

preconditionsfor

a Kanban

applying

system:

pull system requires a mass or repetitive

as in the automobile industry.
of inventories
can only
volume: The high
reduction
production
if production volume is high
and
does not vary more than
achieved

Repetitive production:
Steady
be

Kanban

environment,

manufacturing

10%.

around

times: If the cells must be able to operate with small batches and
react quickly to need at the assemblylines, setup times have to be small.
in process
and delivery times: Componentswith,
for example,
a
Uniformity
Such
delivery time of half a year cannot be controlled with Kanban.
to be purchased using
have
forecasts
that may reduce the
components
of Kanban.
possibility of successful
application

Small setup

These preconditionsreduce the

THE JAPANESE

13.7

The previous
manufacturing
and
have

many

of JIT

realization
seen.

Kanban

Lack

cases of

has been

production

of awareness

JIT

implementation

but

systems

that

system. Therefore, there will

such as

systems

planning

can
continue

base
to

MRP.

PHILOSOPHY

PRODUCTION

section discussedhow

system.

of manufacturing

number

on a Kanban
their production planning
be a need for push-orientedproduction

a Kanban

pull system

a key

element

other

factors

of these factors
in Western

operates

has

in

a JIT

industrial success
have facilitated the success we
of
been a reason for the failure
in Japanese

enterprises.

Chapter 13

448

is JIT. Basically,
JIT is a
production philosophy
that we must eliminate all waste in all
focus on production this can be put down to a set of

of Japanese

foundation

The

saying

philosophy

manufacturing

With

activities.

manufacturing

goals:

operational
\342\200\242

defects

\342\200\242
Zero
\342\200\242
Zero

setup time
inventories

\342\200\242
Zero

material

\342\200\242
Zero

machine

\342\200\242
Zero

lead

Zero

\342\200\242
Batch

sizes

Of cause, many
each other.

But

transportation
breakdown

time
of one
these

of

objectives

is one

this

are

productionphilosophy\342\200\224we

are unreachable and

of the

important

never

good

characteristics

enough,

in

direct
opposition
of Japanese

improvements can

always

to
be

for
made.
The seven listed items all represent important
areas
improvement
for
In Japan some tools and techniques
systems.
eliminating waste in production
discussion
reducing waste in these areas have been developed. In the following
we will stress a few of the areas where Japanese enterprises have applied
different

Western

than

approaches

enterprises.

The Kanban
and cellular manufacturing
are important
tools used
system
pull
to reduce the inventories (and especiallywork-in-progress),material
But in purchasing
and supplier
transportation, lead
time, and batch sizes to a minimum.
have
also
broken
the
with
management,
enterprises
Japanese
paradigms
in Western
which prefer to have a number of suppliers
prevailing
enterprises,
in getting
an order. In general,
in big ordering
this has been shown
to result
competing
The
so
on.
is
to reduce the
and
Japanese philosophy
quantities, pure quality,
number of suppliersto one or a few, which
are regarded
as partners and linked
to the company
agreements. Furthermore, suppliers are chosen
by long-term
deliver
small
batches
from
them
to
just in time for the assembly
nearby,
enabling
is
in
used
line. Close cooperation
with
also
suppliers
product
development.
a new car, the suppliers are
When Toyota Motor Company is developing
at a very early stage; for example, when
are finished for
involved
specifications
is
of
the
over
to the
brake
the
detailed
handed
the
system,
design
system
the
best
its
and
which
has
supplier,
knowledge regarding
production
capabilities
under the conditions
of
therefore can design the subsystem
for manufacturing
at
the
production
specific supplier plant.
is another area where new
have been applied.
control
Quality
approaches
Quality
manufacturing,

of

raw
with

for inspection

line. Their

quality

materials

of

incoming

is a

and

processes

manufacturing

and inventories

buffers

goods;

is essential

reduced to a minimum.

they

responsibility of the

in JIT

is no time
are supplied directly to the assembly
and based on the relationship
supplier
There

449

Systems

Manufacturing

of trust

gained

the

through

The production
to the lowest

supplier.

control

quality

between

collaboration

long-term

responsibility

and

manufacturer

is delegated

the

down

the
of huge
production
possible level to eliminate
with
bad quality. The operators are responsiblefor the
batches of components
of parts produced at their
and they are educated and
workstation,
quality
provided
the
tools
for
the
right
produced,
planning the actions
controlling
parts
organization

and implementing

needed,

supervisor.
Furthermore,

these correctionswithout
are a deeplyrooted

circles

quality

enterprises.
manufacturing
who
meet on a regular basis

Japanese

discussinghow
educate
the
Japanese companies
participants

employees

quality.
systematic

for problem

techniques
Western

Many

solving

have tried to

enterprises

are

that

of the

part

circle

quality

from

assistance

is a

group

improve
of quality

copy someof

to their
the

in

5 to

of

to

essential

culture

many

10

manufacturing

circles

in

achievements.

Japanese

the results have not lived up to the expectations. As

manufacturingtechniques
a result
of this many
to
have
concluded
that the techniques cannot be transferred
Western
because
of
differences
between
Western
and
companies
Japanese
culture. This,
and
is no more than a poor excuse for bad implementation
however,
of the substance of Japanesemanufacturing
lack of a full understanding
of employees
have especially been
roles of involvement and education
philosophy. The
or
It
for
underestimated.
took
decades
the
to develop and
neglected
Japanese
we
their
cannot
therefore,
manufacturing
implement
philosophy;
copy and
in
a
rush.
of
culture
and
it
Alteration
old
of thinking
implement
company
ways
take time.
and often

CONCLUSIONS

13.8
This

equipment

discussed

has

chapter

efficiency

many of

the

technologies

and

systems. Examples of advanced

have been presented,
application

of manufacturing

and

manufacturing
the job shop

their

system,

and

the

which

productivity

combine

characteristics

the

of mass

aspects
modern
including

of

high

affecting

the

production
the
flexible
flexibility

of

production.

been drawn to the fact

that
the quality
of production
has a major impact
on the efficiency
of the manufacturing
in general.
The fundamental production planning
enterprise
approaches
push and
control techniques MRP and Kanban)
have
pull (illustrated by the production
been described.
Attention

planning

and

has

control

also

14

Cleaner

14.1

Manufacturing

INTRODUCTION

the past few years, the issuesof environmental

safe working
During
protection,
and energy) have caused changes
conditions, and resourceutilization
(materials
in
the
demand
for industrial products. The implication
is that manufacturing
now
have
to cope with these concerns as well
as those of cost,
companies
schedule
that have already been establishedby global
A
quality, and
competition.
new approach called life cycle design can help companies meet these two set of

demands

at

the

time.

same

one step further

by
engineering
and
distribution,
disposal and recycling
incorporating
usage,
issues
at an early stage of product design and
The term life cycle
development.
thus
means
that
the
life
a
are
all
of
considered at the
design
cycle phases
product
and
the
the
for
environment, working
conceptual
design
stage,
consequences
and resource utilization are assessedin all phases.
This means that
conditions,
a product
is systematically designed for the life cycle phases so that damage
to
is minimized
is
the environment and workers health
and resource utilization
Life cycle

design

takes

actually

concurrent

the production,

In the

production phase,

optimized

[65].

must be

appliedso that

requirements

are

all

environmental,

materials,processes,systems,
occupational

health,

and

and

so on,

resource

fulfilled.

451

Chapter 14

452

question

now

sections,

some

discussed;

do we make

is, \"How

The
following

guidelines that can

on the life cycle
details

further

In the
will be
in

cleaner?\"

manufacturing
cleaner

stimulate

design

technologies
approachcan be found

[65].

Ailing

MANUFACTURING

CLEANER

14.2

The

term

with

minimal

cleaner

and occupational

create cleaner technologies

necessitates

of creating production

an attitude

implies

manufacturing

environmental

health

application

decision

The

damages.

of some

of the

to

following

guidelines.

process uses

A manufacturing
materials

Raw

materials

Secondary

(chemicals,

etc.)

water,

Energy

Information

to produce

Useful products
of

Waste

Waste of

materials

raw

secondarymaterials

of energy

Waste

Emissions to

water,

air,

The products are

the

and

(pollution)

ground

leads to the other

which

goal

primary

secondary

\"products.\"

of raw

Waste

materials means

that

raw material

all incoming

not

is utilized

and
gates
and so on, are undesired
much energy, pollution
Since production
of raw materials
requires
byproducts.
of air, water, and ground
is the result.
Therefore it is very important to utilize
in

the

product

on

since\342\200\224depending

runners, sheet and plate cutoffs,

materials

raw

create

which

products,

unacceptable

use some secondary

degreasing agents,cooling
dangerous

working

more

fluids,

or less

such

materials

cooling
pollution

Most processesproduce
on. To

establish

lubricants,

(plating), and so
as well as

conditions.

Many processes have a low energy

efficiency,
the process equipment has severalsupport
and
here also much energy is wasted.
energy
chemicals,

as chemicals,

water, process water

(to air, water, ground)
leading
functions

Often

various

cutoffs,

processes\342\200\224chips,

efficiently.

Most processes

on,

the

various

emissions:

heavy metals in waste

cleaner
manufacturing,

water,

it is

oil and
noise,

oil

to energy loss as heat.

that also require
mist,

vibrations,

vapor

from

radiation

necessary to focus on

the

and so
sources

Cleaner

environmental

producing

to

necessary
In
creating

453

Manufacturing

the

focus

a few
will be

manufacturing

internal

company

PROCESSES

MATERIALS

AND

many decisions are made that determine

Materialsare
selected,and most often
production phase.

At

the

It is

outlined.

SELECTIONOF MANUFACTURING

14.3

also
and
(materials
energy).
programs
aiming at

conditions.

working

the resources

of

utilization

discussion

following

cleaner

and unsafe

pollution

on efficient

stage

design

what happens
all the main

in the

too. This means that the manufacturing

engineers are not given
of
freedom
to
materials
or
It is absolutely
processes.
change
many degrees
the
that
and
the
work together and
manufacturing
engineers
designers
necessary
For example, if the designer
evaluate
the consequences
of the design decisions.
chooses an epoxy that is dangerous to work with, he has to be aware that
safe working
under
investment.
If he
extra
conditions will require
operating
chooses a processwith poor material utilization, he has to be aware of the costs
and the problems
in handling waste.
Therefore the manufacturing
must take part in material
and process
engineer
selection so that minimal
are
environmental
and no occupational health
damages
and
the
is
obtained.
utilization
of
resources
high
produced
As
mentioned
the life cycle approach at the design
stage is of vital
previously,
When
it
is
to
consult
databases
a
material,
importance.
selecting
necessary
RTEC
National
Institute
for
the
material
for
(U.S.
example,
describing
properties,
Toxic
Effects
of
Chemical
and
Health
of
Occupational
Registry
Safety
ELDRIN
Chemical Data Information
Substances),
Network).
(Environmental
When selecting
a process it is important
to look at:
processes
manufacturing

Material

utilization

efficiency

Energy

and setup

Equipment

Chemicals,
Emissions

etc.,

lubricants,

to be

used

Exposureof

the

operator

and

vapor,

(substances\342\200\224solid/liquid,

in setup,

their

waste

operation,

properties

water, aerosols,

etc.)

repair/maintenance

Ergonomy

Risk

of accidents

Environmental

pollution

If a specific

material or

environmental

responsibility

of

violated.

the

it is

up

occupational
to

the

to protect the operator

manufacturing
engineer to

measures

necessary

processinvolves

potentials,

pollution

health

manufacturing

and the environment.

see that no laws

risks and
engineer to take
It is

the

the

and directives

are

454

Chapter14

In

waste is produced
will show that
analysis

much

manufacturing,

paid to it.

careful

waste

systematic

not

often

and

much

money

enough attention
can be saved by

is

management.

Waste from
Cutoffs,

PROGRAM

REDUCTION

WASTE

14.4

include

may

manufacturing

products or

unacceptable

components

Chips
Worn-out

Used

toolings

lubricants, coolants,

chemicals,

etc.

water

Waste

water

Cooling

Packaging
In
It

most
can

waste adds
companies
that a waste management

manufacturing
be recommended

records of

Makes detailed
Sets up

programs jointly

Use raw

volume of

material.

be formed

organization

that

waste

any

personnel to:

involved

the

with

a large

to

up

better

materials

etc.
Save expensive chemicals, lubricants,
waste by recycling,
use of water and minimize
Reduce
polluted
of pollutants by filtration,
reverse
osmosis, electrolysis,

Reduce cooling

the

(utilize

heat)

or recirculate

extraction

etc.

cooling

water

(heat

exchanger)

Keep waste
reworking
A systematically
and

pollution,

clean\342\200\224do

of

the

not

program
applied waste management
creates
better working conditions.

14.5

ENERGY SAVING PROGRAM

Energy

saving

The

must

process

Support
Heating

wastes since

chemical

mix

this

later

prevents

chemicals

be aimed

at

all

levels

saves

where energy

money,

is used, such

prevents

as:

equipment

functions

(hydraulics,

compressed

air)

Lighting

Often
these
in

the process equipment

to be analyzed and

has

hydraulic

compressed

air,

systems
pumps

several
has built-in
evaluated. Idle energy

is often spent
for lubricants,

in

pressure

functions
may

reduction

coolants, and so on.

Each of
Idle
energy
high.

using energy.
be too

valves,

excess

CleanerManufacturing

455

functions

Support

heating systems,

may

so on.

thereby reducing cold air circulation,using

not needed.
but it is often on when
necessary
The main message here is that an energy
reduction

in

14.6

POLLUTION

analysis

rarely

doors,

improving

by

and so

heat,

are only

on.

is

Light

often leads to

30-40%

consumption.

MINIMIZATION
prevention is of major
and described. And

on pollution
focusing
must be investigated

program
source

pollution

waste

reduced

systems,

cooling

cranes,

air,

Energy analyses

can often be

in buildings

Heating

performed.

involve compressed

degreasingsystems,and

importance.

of reduction
measures must be performed.The best
reduction is carried out at the source.
Pollution includes emissionssent to air, water, and

Every

source, an
and most cost-effective

for

analysis

each

as

ground

well

as

to investigate all activities in the

produced. It is necessary
are related to or
manufacturing
facility to account for emissions.The emissions
producedby the raw materials, the processes, the equipment,
transportations,
selection
of
storage, and so on. Pollution
may be reduced or prevented by proper
materials, processes, or procedures.
emissions

the waste

from

14.7

CONDITIONS

WORKING

BETTER

is of great importance. Good

conditions
conditions
the
include
efficiency. Working
the psychological
climate as well as the physical
social and
environment.
The
to various
physical environment must be investigated to identify
exposures
emissions (noise,
vibrations,
radiation, heat, vapors, aerosols,liquids,dust, material
contact,
etc.) and the physical loads (ergonomy).
In most
laws require a company
countries
to form a department responsible
is a tendency to form an organization
for working
There
conditions.
that has
and occupational
health issues, since they
responsibility for both environmental

A program aiming at

are

CONCLUSION

The manufacturing

engineer

occupational

and

part

working

to higher

related.

closely

14.8

better

lead

conditions

working

of

health,

company

development.

It

will

must
resource

be aware

of the

issues. In the

importance

future

policy as customers, agencies, and

become
a competitive necessity.

these

of environmental,
issues

authorities

must become
enforce
this

15

on Industrial

Notes

15.1

Safety

INTRODUCTION

In earlier

the manufacturing
point of view. But when

chapters

a technical

processes

it comes

to

have

been considered

industrial

applications,

only

from

a number

of factors, such as economy,

and material utilization and safety,
must be
energy,
carefully analyzed before a selectioncan be made. Energy and material
which of course
utilizationare closely
related to economy, whereasthe safety aspects,
a
economic
areof
different
nature.
have
consequences,
aspects ought to
Safety
the
the
be taken into consideration
from
that
so
establishment of
right
beginning

a safe
In

chapter

subject of

the

is integrated
the term industrial

place

working
this

book

and as

be well acquainted.We will

the safety area is of utmost

can be found
15.2

elsewhere

few years

and design phases.

planning
will be used in connection
with

the

a discipline in itself with which all engineers should

here to emphasize
that
only give a brief introduction
in
manufacturing; details and solutions
importance

SAFETY

of industrial

becauseof

the
safety

[39,40].

INDUSTRIAL

The concept

in

rapid

in the last
become more and more important
where
enwithin
industrial
societies,
developments

safety has

457

Chapter15

458
plays a major
two reasons

technology

gineering

developments.There

role

all

in

for

are

of production and material

of industrial
importance

types
increased

the

safety:

1. Society is dependent
Society

developments.

Society

reacts,

industrial

and

directed

mainly

The safety

and

be considered

can
(2)

certain

safety, and so
to

uncertainty,

on.

consequences

of

The fear and uncertainty

are
and
the
environment.
people
by
two

asking

by

meet

enterprise

questions:

(1) safety for

what?

against

safety

this

resources,

developments.
technological
the risks faced by
toward

concept

whom (what),

requires
of fear and

because

and on technological

enterprise

that

environment,

concerning

requirements

2.

industrial

on

now

It should
be realized that complete safety will never
exist but that safety must
be consideredby a degree of probability or frequency of events
that
may cause
in terms of
be measured
undesirable consequences. The consequences
can

Death
Accidents

lost,

(workdays

disability)

Sickness and long-term disability

to the environment
Damage

Loss of production
Damage

(money)

to equipment

(money)

For technical purposeswe

consequence,

15.3

can

RISKS IN INDUSTRY

Most often,
risk for the

when

people

talking

risk as

define

that safety

means

which

is

high

AND

when

RISK

expected loss or expected

risk

is low.

ANALYSES

risk in an industrial
in the industrial
enterprise.

about

involved

context,
This

is meant
is
risk or safety is
and the
objectives
what

technological system itself and the

These two factors determine to
working
operation of the system.
on
human
the understanding
of safety
is
what
extent
errors,
safety
dependent
and
other
factors.
A
reliable
and
safe
technical
system may
requirements,
and operation.
as a result of poor management
unsafe
become
include:
systems
Typical risk factors in industrial
mainly

influenced
routines

by the

for the

rates)
Overloading of the system (too-highproduction
due to long-term loading (designerrors)
Damages
Poor

reliability

(design

errors)

Poor maintenance
Human-machine

errors

(the

person makes errors)

machine

is

not

satisfactory

economically

or a

Noteson Industrial Safety

Insufficient

Poor

personnel

459

training

management

environment

Unsatisfactory

How can a

safe industrial

design

production

and

situation

engineer

methods exist, but only

production systems.

Twotypes

of risk

during

analysis

To obtain the best result, the

be established?
must carry out risk analyses.
Many risk analysis
recent years have they been applied to industrial

are important:

analysis. Qualitative analysis determinesthe

of failures leading to

combinations

the

the probability or frequency

losses and to optimize safety

determines
expected

qualitative

kinds

analysis

of failures

and quantitative
that can occur, and

larger accidents.Quantitative
and can be used to
failures

of

analysis
estimate

systems.

is a

necessary first step before quantitative analysis.

attention
a
on
Often,
analysis is required to focus the analyst's
rough quantitative
the
of
the most important
part
production system.
Therefore,it is strongly recommended that risk analysis methods be studied
and applied
to industrial production
This is the only
to cope with
systems.
way
these problems systematically.
Qualitative

15.4

analysis

GOVERNMENTAL

LAWS

AND

REGULATIONS

to have a fundamental knowledge of

in
so that he or she can take proper action
a
he or she must
have
planning,
design, and management. In manufacturing
in welding, casting, cutting
fluids),
problems
knowledge of the safety
(cutting
and all similar processes. Consequently,it is strongly
recommended
that
take courses,
education,
engineers, as a part of their
study laws, and so on, so that
they can operate on a safe basis.

It is the responsibility of the engineer

and
state laws and regulations

federal

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Processing

D. Van

Princeton,

Nostrand,

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2. M. I. Begeman
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10010,

10110, 10230,

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62.
63.

New

McGraw-Hill,

Andersen

(Arthur

Gattermeyer

JIT/CIM.Proceedings
from

The New

Planning:

Requirements

Management.

P Desruelle:

and

Steudel

hold, New York,

65. L. Alting,

Practice,

Life
Vol.

Manufacturing

in the

Nineties.

Van

Nostrand

Rein-

1992.

Cycle
1, No.

design, Concurrent
6 (1991).

Engineering:

Issues,

Technology

and

Problems

CHAPTER1

1.1

the basic

are

What

a.
b.

Rolling

c.

Powder

d.

Casting

e.

Turning

f.

g.

Forging

(hot

processes,

primary

and

secondary,

in:

and cold)

compaction

Electrochemical

machining

Electrical discharge

Flame cutting
Describe the energy

machining

h.
1.2

in Problem
1.1. The
for the processes listed
systems
to the basic processfrom the
between (1) energy
delivered
from the process
delivered
to the tool/die system
system, and (2) energy

should

answer

tool/die

flow

distinguish

equipment.

1.3 Discussthe energy

a. Electromagnetic

for.

1.12a)
1.13)
Describethe information
impressing
systems for the processes
1.1 and discuss how the information (impressing) and energy

b.
1.4

flow systems

Ultrasonic

integrated

(Table

forming

machining

(Fig.

(Fig.

listed
supplies

in Problem
are

1.10).

465

466

Problems

1.5 Discuss,in
a.

Materials

b.

Tolerances

c.

Geometries

and limitations

the possibilities

general,

processes

reducing

(Fig.

1.26)

with

dome is to be produced
is solid. Discussand
supply systems (Table 1.4).

A sheet metal

1.6

The die material

energy

of

the

four

of mass-

types

to:

respect

in a total forming process (see Fig.

in a systematic manner the

describe

PI.6).
possible

Sheet (blank)

PI.6

FIGURE

1.7

Produce illustrations showing

into heat shown in Table 1.5.

1.8

Classify the following

two-dimensional forming,
a. Drop forging
Rolling

c.

Powder compaction
Sand

e.

Turning

f.
g.
h.

i.
1.9

Flame cutting

Based

c.
d.

e.

discharge machining
machining

the possibilities of using the morphological

process model
or the building industry.
such as the glass industry
areas,

on

Fig.

2.4:

Define the engineering

Define

the

engineering

What

happens

Label

the stresses

physically
and

stress.
strain.
at points

A,

at points
start?
straining

strains

When does permanent

In which
area is Hooke's

law

valid?

B,

K, C,

A, G,

F, G,

and

H.

and

HI

in

energy

forming,

Electrochemical

CHAPTER

b.

one-dimensional

forming,

Drilling

Discuss

a.

electrical

casting

Electrical

manufacturing

2.1

principles of converting

processes as either total

or free forming.

b.

d.

of the

each

other

467

Problems

2.2

In

test of

a tensile

stainless

data

the following

steel,

7,200

11,250

0.508

13,500

2.03

5.08

16,200

10.16

18,900

15.24

20,200

21.80

(max)

20,700

24.90

13,200 (fracture)

initial area

= 50.8 mm and
cylindrical specimen were initial length /,
The area at fracture was Amin = 10.0 mm2. Draw the

of the

A, = 35.8mm2.

engineering
2.3

obtained:

Elongation (mm)

Load (N)

Thedimensions

were

stress-strain

diagram.

Describe the difference between

Vickers
hardness, Brinell hardness, and Rockwell
C hardness. Can you expect the same hardness values
from these three methods for
a given material?

CHAPTER

3.1

the

Discuss

basic

material requirements when

forming

takes place from the

liquid

state.

3.2

Discuss the basic

state for:

a.

Mass-conserving

b.

Mass-reducing

c.

Joining

3.3

Discuss

3.4

How

3.5
3.6
3.7
3.9

can

material

Why
Why

are

Discuss

forming takes

place from

the

solid

processes

processes

processes

the processes

how

briefly

change

may

properties be changed

the material

conserving
forming?
Write
a brief essay on
are

when

requirements

the

the material

before

mechanisms

strength-increasing

properties.
process in

or during the

mass-

for metals.

steels

alloyed?
nickel and chromium
the

briefly

difference

often

used

together

in properties of

as

amorphous

elements?

alloying

and

crystalline

plastic

materials.

3.10
3.11

a brief essay on
particular reference to

Write

Describe in
account

3.12

Describe

briefly

their

application

of ceramic

materials as cutting

tools,

with

properties.

terms those properties of nonferrous

metals
and alloys which
extensive use.
some typical applications for aluminum/aluminum
alloys, copper/
magnesium/magnesium
alloys, and zinc/zinc alloys.

general

for their

copper alloys,

the

468

Problems

CHAPTER

4.1

Figure

P4.1

inclined

at the

a cylindrical tensile specimen. Considera cross

to the longitudinal
axis:

shows

section

angle 0

EE5
P4.1

FIGURE

a.

b.

4.2

the

figure
the

Determine

0 =

c.

Draw

d.

What

the directions

of

the

normal

the

shear

force

and the
P\342\200\236

shear force

and
60\302\260,

normal stress oe
P = 15,000 N.

and

stress te

when

10 mm,

< 0 < 90\302\260).

a diagram
showing oe and te as a function of 6 (0\302\260
are the maxima for oe and te, and what are their directions?
The component shown
in Fig. P4.2 has the main dimensions
height h, top width
to a force P that is uniformly
b2, and thickness /. It is subjected
bx, bottom width
distributed over the end surfaces. Determine the stresses at section A and section
B when P = 28,000 N, h = 50 mm, bx = 10 mm, b2 = 30 mm, / = 10mm,
= 10 mm, and
= 30 mm.
h2
hx

P4.2

FIGURE

4.3

Show on

rr

A plane stress

a.

is given

situation

= 70 N/mm2.
t^

The magnitudes

b. The magnitudes

=
by ax

-210 N/mm2,

=
ay

-70

Determine:

stresses

and

directions

of the principal

and

directions

of the maximum shear

stresses

N/mm2,

and

469

Problems

4.4

tube (outer diameter D and wall thickness

torque T and an axial force P. Determine

thin-walled
to a

subjected

a.

The circumferential

b.

The

c.

axial

stress

4.5

How are

4.6

Onom and \302\260How are the nominal

4.11

xra

^
stresses defined?

natural

and

Derive

(true) strains defined?

the expression
Derive

that

relates

the expression

that

e.

the results from a tensile test were given.

Based
on these data,
stress-natural strain diagram (o, e) and compare
this to the nominal
stress-strain
2.2.
diagram found in Problem
It is assumed that the o-\342\202\254
curve
in Problem 4.7 can be describedby the analytical
\342\200\224
cen. Determine
c and n.
expression a
A SO-mm
cube is subjected to the following
loads on the three pairs
of faces:
has a yield stress
P, = -375 kN, P2 = 250 kN, and P3 = x kN. The material
of 250 N/mm2.
the load P3 for yielding.
Determine
For the cube in Problem
force necessary
4.9, determine the uniaxial
compression
to start yielding.
the force necessary to cause yielding when the two
Determine
other
to compressive
stresses of 150and 200 N/mm2.
pairs of faces are subjected
A plane stress system is defined by ax = 780 N/mm2, ay = 160 Nmm2, and
= 160
Xxy
N/mm2. Determine the yield stress based on the yield criteria (a)
Tresca, and (b) von Mises, using the assumption that the stress system can initiate
In

Problem

draw

4.10

and true

nominal

the

e and

relates

4.9

and

P4.4

FIGURE

4.8

stress oe

-tf&

^f()

4.7

and

oa

The radial stress or

The shear stressesToe,ter,
The principal stresses

e.

P4.4) is

magnitudes

of:

directions

d.

t) (see Fig.
the

2.2,

a true

yielding.

4.12

A thin-walled
closed-end
internal pressure p and

to an

is o0.

to both Tresca and von Mises, the expression for the

to cause yielding
for P = 0 and P * 0.
Estimate
the plastic work necessary to stretch
a tensile specimen (initial
area A =
35.8 mm2 and initial length /, = 50.8 mm) to instability when it is assumed that
35
= 12006\302\260
the material can be described
by o
N/mm2.
Determine,
pressure p

4.13

cylinder of thickness t and diameter D is subjected

axial force P. The yield
stress
of the material

an

according

required

Problems

470

4.14

thin-walled

(D, =

sphere

to a diameter of D2
4.15

h2

The true

The nominal stress

stress

c. Theplastic

6.2

6.3

essay on

a short

Write

1200e\302\260

N/mm2.
20 mm is plastically
25
o = 160e\302\260
N/mm2.

deformed

to

Determine:

deformation

the

end of the

deformation

of hot and

characteristics

the
not

as good

be carried

main parameters
the nature of this
Discuss the principles in
the

List

can be used to

6.6

The

in hot
out

to

cold

working.

cold working?

as in

working

large compressive

very

deformations

fracture?

without

briefly
6.5

pressure

necessary.

necessary

Why are the tolerances

can hot working
Why
(strains)

6.4

35

by internal

CHAPTER

6.1

work

the

at

1 mm) is expanded
the plastic work

a =

expression

can
at the end of

a.

mm, h,
be describedby

D,

b.

Determine

= 30

material

The

\\hx.

the

by

specimen

cylindrical

750 mm,
mm.

850

be described

can

material

influence

that

partial

deformations
forces.

and total

the necessary

reduce

the deformation

process

describe

and

influence.
and

how these

illustrate

the thickness of an 1800-mm-wide

the rolling force necessary to reduce
o = 150i\302\26023
follows
sheet from 2.5 mm to 2.0 mm. The material
=
mm.
and
the
250
of
rolls
is
R
radius
the
N/mm2
What is the change in rolling forces if the reduction is increased from 0.5 mm
a.
to 0.75 mm?
b. What is the power necessary per roll (both are driven) when the rotational
Determine

aluminum

6.7

speed is n
The component
process.
by

the extrusion

Determine

50 rpm?
in Fig.

shown

650i\302\26022

P6.7 is produced
force necessary

in a

direct or back-extrusion
steel material described

a mild

for

N/mm2.

I 020mm

20mm

10mm

070mm
FIGURE

6.8

P6.7

A tube

an outside

with

is reduced

to

an

outside

diameter of D, = 60
diameter of D7 =

mm
50

of

10 mm

in a simple drawing

process

and a thickness

mm

r,

471

Problems

6.9

die

a cylindrical

(through

an internal

with

a.

What

b.

Determine

440c03 N/mm2.
the drawing force when

is

15

mm,

L3 =

the

final wall

possible reduction
P6.9 is produced in

maximum

the

The component shown in Fig.

the
L3 from a tube with
length

Lj =

mandrel; Fig. 6.3). The

material

is

o =

copper with

in

thickness is

t2

7 mm?

thickness.

steel by expansion over

stainless
diameter D, = 50 mm. L, = 40 mm,
2 mm. In a tensile test with a cylindrical spec-

an outside

80 mm, t

P6.9

FIGURE

= 56.8 mm and
A, = 37.0
having initial dimensions/]
=
N
and
to
be
the
force
was
found
mm2,
21,400
Pm>x
was A/ = 24.4 mm.
elongation
corresponding
a.
to a diameter of D2 = 75 mm
Can the tube be expanded
without
instability
the
axial
when
strain is zero?

imen of the

b.

The

material

same

maximum

the

made

determine
for

be carried out by explosive forming. For D2 =

work necessary.An approximation
must be
can be described by o =
length L2. The material

can for example

the plastic

expansion

60 mm

transition

the

1200T N/mm2.
6.10

The component
(Ab = 0) from
process

shown
a sheet

is instability.

h a
FIGURE

P6.10

>

in Fig. P6.10 is produced

having the dimensions 2a

Determine

300

mm

600

mm

the

instability

in

a stretch-forming

x b x tx.
strain

The

forming

necessary for

the

process

limit of the
material.

472

Problems

6.11 The component

rod

in Fig. P6.ll is produced

from a cylindrical
by extrusion
of D = 60 mm. The material has the stress-strain curve
150e\302\260
Make a sketch of the required
die and determine the
N/mm2.
force
and the plastic work.

a =
extrusion

shown

a diameter
22

with

<\302\243-

\302\253

ii

..

in

Dimensions
P6.ll

FIGURE

CHAPTER

7.1

Define:cutting
rate

7.2

7.3

7.4
7.5

for

the tool

chip

width,

area of cut, and

removal

corner
edge, minor cutting
edge,
define the angles: major cutting
Also,
major
normal rake,
inclination,
edge angle, minor cutting edge angle, cutting-edge
and included
normal wedge
angle.
angle, normal clearance angle,
in metal cutting?
are the three main
What
factors
the
thickness
is
deformed
always
greater than the undeformed chip
Why
chip
thickness
(h2 > A,)?
Discuss the problems
Describethe three types of chips and their characteristics.
Define

tool

with

a built-up

7.7

Define

the

the

and

edge on
most

term

major

terminology:

face, and

radius,

What are

7.9

feed, chip thickness,

drilling, and milling.

speed,

turning,

7.6
7.8

mm

the

important

tool

life

and

minor

tool

cutting
flanks.

face.

cutting tool materials?

discuss the parameters affecting

Discuss how cutting data can be selected.

a brief essay on the parameters
Write
affecting

the

machinability

it.

of

the work

material.

7.10

a cylindrical shaft of steel (0.5%C)the diameter

is to be reduced from
to 88 mm in one pass. Sintered carbide is used as the tool material with
= + 6\302\260
at a number of revolutions
and the lathe is running
of n = 255 rpm. The
Y
of the lathe is 10 kW and the efficiency in r\\ = 0.75. Determine the feed
power
so that the power is fully utilized.
In

turning
100 mm

473

Problems

7.11

with

\342\200\224
30\302\260
is

35 m/min, and

a.
b.

0.70.

A HSS twist
v =

kW, the efficiency

= 0.12 mm.

6.5

per

tooth/,

For

a plain

with a HSS
(a,) in milling
and number of teeth z = 26).
= 1200
N/mm2), the power of the milling
the cutting speed v = 45 m/min, and the feed

possibleworking

(diameter 320
is carbon steel (o*uu

mm,

cutter

0.75,

engagement

22 mm,

width

data are available: diameter D = 80 mm,

milling cutter the following
=
=
z
L
50
of
number
teeth
mm,
14,and material HSS. In the milling of
length
force per tooth is
=
a certain material it is found that the average tangential
P,ly
v = 35
data were ae = 12mm,/z = 0.1mm/tooth,
4600 N. The cutting
m/min,
= 0.80. Determine the
rate (V,) for the material.
and
specific removal
Tj
In an orthogonal
planing process for mild steel (0.15%C) at a speed of v =
20 m/min, a power of N = 7 kW is used. The cutting
tool has a width of b =

12.5mm,

and the wedge angle is 75\302\260.

The thickness
angle is 5\302\260,
mm. Determine the shear angle 0 and discuss what

the clearance

the undeformed chip

is 2.2

of
this

regarding the process efficiency.

indicates
7.15

(0.5%C).

= 0.3 mm/rev,

necessary

Determine the largest

machine

7.14

be drilled in a steel material

The cutting conditions are/
Determine:

the drill
The torque
The feed force

side milling
The material

7.13

r\\

used.

on

c. The power
7.12

diameter is to

of 25-mm

hole

drill

In a turning

process a

clearance angle a

carbide

sintered

+6\302\260,
edge

angle

k' =

tool

is used.

P =

84\302\260,
major

The following

data

apply:

angle k

cutting-edge

r = 0.25 mm.

b.

and corner radius

15\302\260,
cutting-edge
angle
the assumption that the feed is larger than the corner radius (/ > r),
=
an analytical
find
F(f, r, k, k').
height /?m>x
expression for the roughness
In the turning
of a steel with k,\342\200\224
2150 N/mm2
(at/= 0.4 mm /rev, y = -6\302\260)
the following
interrelation between v and T is found: v = 120 m/min at T =
30min and v = 165 m/min at T = 10 min. Determine the rotational
speed
n (rpm) for which T = 45 min for turning a shaft with a diameter of D = 90

c.

What final diameter can

minor
60\302\260,
a.

Using

mm.

machine of

10 kW

height

is 40

CHAPTER

8.1
8.2

8.3
8.4

Rmux

be obtained

is fully

for this

utilized (T) =

material

0.80)and

when

the

the

power

resulting

of the

roughness

u,m?

the three basic principles of joining.

are the basic requirements
a satisfactory permanent joint
to produce
using
cohesion and/or adhesion?
of fusion welding, pressure
Discussthe characteristics
and brazing,
welding
and
adhesive
soldering,
bonding.
a brief essay on the process
characteristics
of metal-electrode arc welding,
Write
Describe

What

shielded

(MIG),

metal-arc
and

gas

welding,

tungsten-arc

submerged-arc
welding (TIG).

welding,

gas

metal-arc

welding

Problems

474

8.5

Discuss

8.6

Describe

8.7

What

the

application

the

advantages

characteristics of the welding

in Problem 8.4.
processes
and limitations of electron beam welding
laser
and

welding.

characteristics of resistance welding?

the applicational
Discuss
seam welding, and projection welding.
What are the typical
8.8
of friction welding?
applications
and
8.9 Define brazing
and discuss the joint requirements
for these
soldering,
processes.
and limitations of soldering
8.10 Write a brief essay on the applicational
advantages
are

the basic

aspects of

and

8.11

brazing.
by adhesive

is joining

Why

powder
What

9.3

Give

9.4

Discuss the four

the

What

9.7

Why has the

9.8

The component

is meant

iron

main

main

9.6

use of

powder

and

production of parts

by

P9.8 is

increased
to

be

so

rapidly

produced

in recent

by powder

years?

metallurgy

powder).

How can

the

geometry

be changed

in

y
\342\226\240/.

o
in

i
050-0.05

060-0.05

Dimensions
P9.8

infiltration?

metallurgy

in Fig.

shown

03O\302\261O,O5

FIGURE

in the

of sintering.

parameters

by impregnation

process?

involved

normally

of reduced and atomized

powders?
component.
determining the strength of a sintered
in die design.
principles

factors

main

9.5 Discussthe

common?

increasingly

metallurgy.
are the characteristics

9.2

(reduced

the four steps

describe

and

Define

a.

bonding becoming

CHAPTER

9.1

welding,

spot

in

mm

o
i
\342\231\246

o
SO

in

minor

ways so

that

it is

more suited

to

the

475

Problems

b. Towhich

c.

finished

the

of the

die system

to ejection

of

component.

What number of

d.

green compact be subjected?

and sketch the steps from
filling

must the

treatments

a sketch

Make

be produced

must

components

to make

the

process

economical?

10

CHAPTER

10.1

Describe

10.2

What

10.3

description of their characteristics.

methods.
Describe the three basic mold production
Write a brief essay on patterns (categories, types,

10.4

arc

allowances

10.5

Make a

10.6

Based on

10.8
10.9

10.10

main

stages

the most

in a casting

frequently

used

process.

types

of furnaces

and

for

Give

melting?

materials).

Describe

a brief

Define the

necessary.
few

sketches

showing typical gating systems for sand casting.

a brief essay on the application
10.1 and 10.5, write

Tables

the various

casting processes.
chamber die casting.
in recent years?
is the industrial application of casting
increasing
Why
Discusshow the pattern in casting differs from the part to be cast.
clutch
The
by sand casting in
part shown in Fig. P10.10 is to be made
characteristics
of

10.7

the

hot

and cold

a batch

of 100.

a.
b.

Givea description
mold. A cross

sketches
of the

of the

mold

and

manufacture

the

pattern

of the necessary sand

must be shown.
main dimensions and the

without
Suggest design changes which,
changing
make the mold production
functional
requirements of the product,
Describe the new mold production
and the pattern.
procedure

Dimensions
FIGURE

using

section

P10.10

in

mm

simpler.

476

Problems

10.11 The part shown in

a. Givea description

Fig. PIO.11 is to be made by sand casting in a limited number.

of how the mold can be produced,
sketches.
using

Describe the gating system and

parting line and allowances.

b.

c.

Which
the

are necessary

operations

the pattern

discuss

after casting

to

necessary,

fulfill

the

including

on

the specifications

drawing?

.060

o
1

0130

Dimensions

in

mm

11

CHAPTER

a brief

Write

thermosetting

11.2

\342\200\224+\342\200\242

P10.ll

FIGURE

H.i

'

1
*\342\200\224

<7v

\\

Discuss

11.3 Describe
and

what

11.4 Discuss

applications.

essay on

the

manufacturing

properties

of thermoplastics

and

plastics.

the differences

and
similarities
in the casting of metals and plastics.
Which materials can be used,
typical applications of rotational
molding.
are the characteristics of the process?
the principles of the closed-mold
forming of plastics and list typical
Which
materials
can be used for reinforcement?

Problems

477

11.5 Make a sketch

11.6 Describethe

11.7

showing
characteristics

the principles of tube and sheet extrusion.

of injection molding. What
is the injection

pressure?

make

features

for mass production?

injection molding suitable
11.8 What is transfer molding? List a few typical applications.
11.9 Describe typical
of thermoforming. What
are the mold materials,
applications
for which plastic materials can the process
be used?
Which

PROBLEMS

ADDITIONAL

1.

and

in numbers
of 50,000 per year for 5 years.
Fig. 1 is to be produced
,8
be an aluminum
or a thermoplastic. The
(o = 150 e\302\260N/mm2)
be mass conserving or mass reducing.

shown

The

part

The

material

is to

processescan

050-0.5

Dimensions
FIGURE

in

mm

Make a systematic survey

of the relevant production methods
for the two
For the actual processes, sketches of tools, dies,
materials.
and so on,
patterns,
should be shown.
If design changes are necessary,discuss the
advantages
obtained.
(See Chapter
1.)
b. Which process would you select, and why?
The part shown in Fig. 2 is made of steel(d = 650 I022
N/mm2).
a.
Make a systematic survey
of the relevant production methods
1).
(Chapter
b.
Which process will you select for the following production rates:
a.

(1)
(2)

c.

1000

per

year?

50,000 per year?

(3) 500,000per

year?

Determine the

maximum

forces

when the

(1) Extruded
(2)

d.

Make

Cold

forged (headed)
of both the extrusion

a sketch

and

part is:

the

forging

dies.

Problems

478

\302\260V

o
CSi

a
<

i,

JSU

40

^\342\200\224

\342\200\224\342\200\242-

in

Dimensions
2

Figure

3.

nun

The coffeepot
is made from

shown

numbers of

for

components.
the components

is madefrom stainless steel except for the handle, which

various
material. The pot may be produced by joining
of the relevant production methods
Make a systematic survey
and the joining methods.
Fig. 3

a plastic

085

-0.5

.
,

\\\\c

\\\\+l \302\260

\\

\342\226\240

V]
^

//

CM
\302\273\342\226\240\302\253
Cfi

^
\302\253a

0l2O\302\261O.5

in

Dimensions

Figure

r
mm

The

connecting

systematic

The
number
design

'

i
\\

part

survey
shown
is 5000
changes

rod

shown

Fig. 4 is

of the relevant

to

be produced

from
5 is produced
per year. Discuss the relevant
are necessary, describe the

in Fig.

in large

numbers.

Make

production methods.
steel or

gray

production
advantages

cast iron. The production

methods, using sketches.If

obtained.

479

Problems

40.03
\342\200\24260-0
\342\231\2460.02

o
\342\231\246I

T2
ll

T^M/MS/M/ZZZii

Vh

Dimensions in
Figure

4//////////////A

/////////////
L^
55

Dimensions

Figure

in

mm

(A
mm

are

Answers

4.1

oe =

143N/mm2,

oe =

te

only for

given

for

max

42

onomM/,

4.3

o, =

= 200

<Waa =
-41

xe

0 =

for 0 =

= max

108

1200

4.9

P3 =

4.10

^yieid.i

2.5

45\302\260
(and

^yieid.2

N/mm2,
N/mm2,
105 N

05

N/mm2
min for 0

0tmax =
0.36

n =

N/mm2

5ir/8

(compression)

106 N (compression)

4.11 Tresca:o0 = 820 N/mm2

von Mises: o0 = 770 N/mm2
4.13

4.14
4.15

392J

JV\342\200\236

= 240kJ
W,
o = -164 N/mm2 (compression)
=

\302\260nom

=
Wp

492 N/mm2

2040 J

min for 0 =

= -239

o2

= 6-25 104N
=

= 83

90\302\260
(and

numerical

having

N/mm2

N/mm2,

99
*\342\200\236,.*

problems

N/mm2

0 = 3ir/8, 7ir/8

4.8 c =

Problems

Selected

to

Answers

(compression)

results.

0\302\260)
0\302\260
and

90\302\260)

Answers to

6.6 P =

Selected Problems

kN

2340

P = 3200 kN
N = 69 kW

6.7
6.8

P = 6300 kN
P = 140kN
= 4.7 mm

(without

^>

reduction

= \302\253
= 0-36;
\302\260-9 \342\202\254in\302\253

e =

t2

friction)
r =

ratio

0.47 >

57%
means

(which
eln\342\200\236

be accomplished)
=* 3400 J

cannot
Wp

6.10

^0.17
\342\202\254jn\342\200\236

6.11

P =

7-10
7.11

3800 kN
=

Wp

17 kJ

/max

0.50

A/v

mm/rev

40Nm

= 5.6 kN
kW

PA

N = 2.7

7.12 ae =
7.13

V,

7.14

<J>

=
~

7.15
RaM

A2

20.8

mm.

20cm3/kWmin
35\302\260

/
cot k

+ cot k'

n = 375 rpm
D = 83 mm
P = 250
Extruded,

ry

kN. Cold forged,

k'

sin

+ sin

Sin (K'

= 220

k\\

k)

kN.

that the desired

expansion

Conversions

Unit

Appendix:

SI units

ISO-accepted units

Surface

m, mm
m2, mm2

Volume

m3

dm3

Velocity

m/s

km/h,

Length

Mass

kg, g

Density

kg/m3

Force

Moment

of force

Power
Pressure, stress
Energy,
\"Within

m =
mm
kg

material
meter

g =
N =

Of the

kilogram
gram
newton

units

m/s

2)

Nm

W(l

N/m2

J/s)

= Pa,
N/mm2

= MPa

bar

kWh

cutting, m/min is acceptedby ISO because of the common

W = watt

= millimeter
=

mentioned,

Multiples usedare:M
and m = milli = 10\"3.

(1)

m/min\"

g/cm3

(1 kg

J(l Nm)

work

= liter

Pa = pascal (N/m2)
J = joule
I = liter
h = hour
s = second
m, kg, and s are basic SI units.
=
mega = I06,k = kilo = 103,d =

use of this

deca = 10\"',c= centi

unit.

10~2,

483

484

Appendix:
American

To convert

units

units or

to SI

Conversions

ISO-acceptedunits:

Multiply by:

Multiply

by:

Force

Length

25.4 x HT3

in. to m

25.4
0.3048
304.8

in. to mm
ft

Unit

to m

ft to mm

Surface
in.2 to m2
in.2 to mm2

0.645 X

lbf to

4.448

Moment

of force
Ifb-in. to Nm
to Nm
lfbft

KT3

645.16

ft2

to m2

92.9 x

KT3

ft2

to mm2

92.9 x

103

0.113

1.356

Power

fflbf/s

to

hptoW

to W

Btu/h

kcal/h

to

1.356
745.7

0.2931

1.163

Volume

in.3 to

m3

16.387

x 10~6

Pressure,

in.3 to

16.387 x HT3

lbf/in.2

28.317x

m3

ft3 to

28.317

to 1

ft3

10~3

stress
to

N/m2

(Pa)

lbf/in.2
atm

to m/s

in./s

ft/s

to

m/s

25.4

x 10~3

to m/min

25.4 X

in./min

to

25.4

(Pa)

10\"3

ft-lbf to

Mass
lb

ft-lbf

453.59

slug to
slug

14.594

kg

14.5939x

to g

short ton to

kg

103

907.185

Density

lb/in.3

to kg/m3

lb/in.3

to

g/cm3

lb /ft3

to kg/m3

lb/ft3

to g/cm3

27.6799

x 103

27.68

16.0185
16.02x KT3

to J
to kWh

Btu to

0.4536

kg

to g

101.3 x 103

work

Energy,

Btu

lb to

to N/m2

0.3048

in./min

mm/min

103

x 10\"3

6.895

(MPa)

Velocity

6.895x

to N/mm2

kWh

kcal

to J

kcal

to

kWh

1.356

1.055x
376.6

103

x HT9

0.293 x HT3

4.1868x
1.163

103

x KT3

Appendix:

Unit

SI

To convert

485

Conversions

units

units to American

or ISO-accepted

by:

Multiply

m to

39.3701

in.

3.2808

m toft

Surface
m2 to

in.2

1.55

to in.2

mm2

m2 to

ft2

10\"3

103

1.55 x

10~3

10.76
10.76X

ft2

to

mm2

Moment

3.281x

ft

to

0.2248

39.37 x 1(T3

to in.

mm

by:

Multiply

Force
N to lbf

Length
mm

units:

10~6

of force

Nm

to lbf

Nm

to lbtft

in

Power
W to fflbf/s

8.851

0.7376

0.7376

Wtohp

1.341x

W to

Btu/h

3.4118

W to

kcal/h

0.8598

KT3

Volume

m3 to in.3
to in.3

m3 to
1

x 103

61.0237

61.02

35.3147
35.31X 10~3

ft3

to ft3

Pressure, stress

to

in./s

39.3701

m/s

to ft/s

3.2808

m/min

to

in./min

to in./min

mm/min

to

39.3701

39.37 X

to lb

2.2046

2.2 x

35.274

kg to oz
g

to oz

kg to

J to

ftlbf

J to

Btu

35.274

68.25 x

slug

Desity

KT3

KT3

kg/m3

to lb/in.3

36.13x 10-6

kg/m3

to

62.43

10\"3

g/cm3

to lb/in.3

36.13

KT3

g/cm3

to

62.428

lb/ft3

lb/ft3

9.868

x KT6

work

0.7376

0.9479x
ftlbf

to Btu
kWh to kcal
kWh

10-3

145

atm

kWh to

gtolb

10\"3

(Pa)

Energy,
10~3

Mass
kg

lbf/in.2

N/m*

m/s

0.145 x

N/mm2 (MPa)
to

Velocity

(Pa)

N/m2

to lbf/in.2

2.655

3.4130 x

859.8

10~3

x 106

KT3