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Manufacturing
title
Engineering
ProcessesManufactunng
Engineering
Materials Processing; 40
author
Alting,
Leo.
publisher
isbnlO
print
asin
isbnl3
ebook isbnl3
language
subject
publicationdate
lcc
ddc
subject
0824791290
9780824791292
9780585249346
and
The
Processes
Engineering
Manufacturing
Technical
and Expanded
Alting
University
of Denmark
Lyngby,Denmark
English
Version
Edited
by
Geoffrey Boothroyd
of Massachusetts
University
Massachusetts
Amherst,
Marcel
Dekker> Inc.
page_i
New York
\342\226\240
IVsel
\342\226\240
Honc
ko\\c
Page ii
of Congress
Library
Data
Cataloging-in-Publication
Leo
Alting,
mekanisk
[Grundlaeggende
teknologi.
English]
version
edited
Manufacturing engineeringprocesses/ LeoAlting;
English
\342\200\224
2nd
rev.
and
ed.,
by Geoffrey Boothroyd.
expanded,
and materials processing; 40)
p. cm. \342\200\224
(Manufacturing
engineering
of:
Translation
mekanisk
Grundlaeggende
teknologi.
1. Manufacturing
index.
I. Boothroyd,
processes.
III. Series.
G. (Geoffrey).
II. Title.
TS183.A4713
1994
93-33384
670.42-dc20
CIP
second edition
This
by Akademisk
published
Alting
Mekanisk
Grundlaggende
new figures
and
\302\251
1974
Teknologi
by Leo
3, 8,
Chapters
The publisher
on this
discounts
offers
is printed
Copyright
reproduced
\302\251
1994
on
acid-free
the
at
permission
Madison
Avenue,
Current printing
10
(last
New
any
York,
New York
10016
digit):
98765432
PRINTED IN THE
UNITED
more
information,
below.
Reserved.
Marcel Dekker,Inc.
270
For
paper.
address
quantities.
STATES
OF AMERICA
page_ii
electronic
information
Neither
this book
or mechanical,
storage
nor any
part
may
including
and retrieval
system,
be
Pageiii
Foreword
classification
so on,
powder
The enhancements
None
life
cycle
or chemical
types of
chapterson nontraditional
the
metallurgical
of these
approach
processes,
manufacturing
the
systems
to man-
page_iii
textbook
book.
right
(including
up-to-date.
the Japanese
The new
philosophy), and
Page
ufacturing
are valuable
approach, emphasizing
recycling
manufacturing organizations throughout
the
GEOFFREY
is
the
a well-known
a subject
of products,
world.
BOOTHROYD
page_iv
world
which is rapidly
authority
becoming
on
the
a top
iv
life cycle
priority
for
Pagev
Preface
to
Second
the
Edition
This editionincludesenhancementsand
chapters
of several
extensions
of great
on topics
importance
to
the
as
12 to 14 present
nontraditional
manufacturing
cycle approach
on the
in
life cycle
manufacturing
fundamentals
includes
systems,
equipment,flexiblemanufacturing
manufacturing, productionplanning,
14,
machining,
and
laser
layer
(rapid prototyping).
Chapter
processes,
manufacturing
as electricaldischarge
electron
beam
machining,
abrasive
u
ltrasonic
electrochemical
processing,
jet machining,
machining,
machining,
discusses
systems,
and
scheduling
control,
approach in manufacturing,
with
emphasis
integrated
CIM-computer
provides
on envi-
page_v
a basic
understanding
of the life
Page
ronmental,
health, and
occupational
developinga sustainable
This
new edition
thus
resource consequences.This
life
cycle
perspective
is a
necessity in
industry.
manufacturing
an expanded
provides
in
and places the processes
life cycle perspective.Thebookis now
and manufacturing
and industrial engineers.
designers
processes
The development
of
the
of
Technical
experiences
and
contributed the
the
new edition
University
needs
chapter
have
has
been
carried
out by
for about
on manufacturing
mainly
to Professor
his
knowledge
new
material.
Dr. K.
Siggaard has
systems.
and
Dissing for his valuable
on manufacturing systems.
LEO ALTING
page_vi
significant
vi
contributions
and
Page vii
Preface
to the
is an
engineering
Manufacturing
in order to
introduced
fully
to the
due
generallybeentaught
student or the
of the
fact
that
in
practicing
At
years
methods
colleges
descriptive
is
of society.
and scientific
engineering
traditional
the
thus
and
industry
engineering
in the manufacturing
stature
demands
the
fulfill
important
has not
manufacturing
necessary
First Edition
been
considered
the purview
very
challenging
of
has
for either the
engineer.
in computer
technical developments in the last decade,for example,
technology and its
and
applications in design(computer-aideddesign,CAD)
manufacturing
(computer-aided
CAM), have stressedthe need for a more systematic engineering approachin
manufacturing,
Rapid
oriented
manufacturing
This books
manufacturing
The book
toward
representsthe
engineering.
gives a systematic
first
practical
fundamental
problem-solving.
step in the
coherent
picture
the
of the manufacturing
page_vii
following
field.
main
approach
features:
in
viii
Page
for
process
systematic
and
is basedon a scientific
imagination
a general
utilizes
process
model
built
the
processing
die
design,
and
systems.
production
and
engineering
development,
systematic
approach
background.
Chapter
for
of
it has
up
gives a processmorphology
and limitations
of specific
and
of the possibilities
components.
be made
The
Chapters
model presented in
plastics
to do
this
In order to
material
give the
(plasticity
necessary
background
3, engineering
Chapter
properties,
metalworking
the
reader
theory).
of this
version
years
and the
hours
with 80
discussed
is
training
It is
my
duration
at The
many
engineering
editorial
introductory
comments
Dell K. Allen,
Brigham Young
improvements
for
which
I am
improve
drastically
and suggested
University,
has
technical
hours of homework.Along
with
the course,
classes. The resultsof the course
that
hope
from
of the course
in special problem
in parallel.
given
For valuable
a textbook
The
solely
class
are
when workshop
the
book
as their
is thanked.
Professor
improvements Dr. G. Boothroyd
and
stimulated
several
manuscript
very grateful.
LEOALTING
page_viii
Page
Contents
iii
Foreword
Preface
First Edition
vii
Process Model
A Morphological
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Structure of
Basic
Manufacturing
Processes
1.3
Material Flow
System
10
1.4
of
Examples
Manufacturing
Processes
16
1.5
1.6
33
Flow
Information
System
47
1.7
Summary
49
2
of
Properties
Engineering
Materials
49
2.1
Introduction
50
2.2
Material
Properties
50
2.3
Mechanical
Properties of Materials
Engineering Materials
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Important Material Properties in Manufacturing
Effect of the Processes on the Material Properties
3.4
Classification of Materials
Metallic Materials
Nonferrous Metals
Plastics (High Polymers)
3.11
Composite Materials
Basic Theory of Metalworking
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Two- and Three- Dimensional Systems of Stress
True Stress-Natural Strain Curves and Instability
4.4
Yield Criteria
Effective Stress and Effective Strain
Work of Deformation
Classification of the Manufacturing Processes
page
8
Solid Materials: Joining Processes
239
8.1
239
8.2
Characteristics of the Joining Processes
241
8.3
Fusion Welding
242
8.4
Pressure Welding
255
8.5
Joining Processes Based on Filler Materials with Tf < Tw
Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding
261
8.6
Survey of the Joining Methods
267
8.7
Examples of Typical Joining Processes
269
281
9
Granular Materials: Powder Metallurgy
9.1
281
Introduction
9.2
Characteristics of the Powder Metallurgical Processes
282
9.3
Properties and Applications
294
10
Liquid Materials: Casting Processes
301
10.1
301
Introduction
10.2
Characteristics of Casting Processes
302
10.3
Melting (and Control of Composition)
305
10.4
Mold Production, Pouring, and Solidification
310
10.5
Casting Processes
322
10.6
Geometrical Possibilities
331
10.7
Examples of Typical Casting Processes
336
11
343
11.1
343
Introduction
11.2
343
11.3
347
11.4
357
363
12.1
363
Introduction
12.2
Processes
364
12.3
409
417
Manufacturing Systems
13.1
417
page_xi
422
Page xii
13.3
429
Flexible
Manufacturing Systems
438
13.4
Integrated
Computer
Manufacturing
13.5
442
Efficient
Manufacturing
13.6
444
Production
Planning
and
Control
13.7
447
Philosophy
13.8
449
Conclusions
14
Cleaner
451
Manufacturing
451
14.1
Introduction
452
14.2
Cleaner
Manufacturing
453
14.3
Selectionof Manufacturing
Processes
and
Materials
454
14.4
Waste Reduction
Program
454
14.5
Saving
Energy
Program
455
14.6
Pollution
Minimization
455
14.7
Better
Conditions
Working
14.8
455
Conclusion
457
15
Notes on
Industrial
Safety
15.1
457
Introduction
15.2
Industrial
457
Safety
15.3
Risks in Industry
458
15.4
Governmental
Laws
and Regulations
461
References
Problems
Answers
465
to Selected Problems
481
483
487
Index
page_xu
1.1
Model
INTRODUCTION
In industrial
used. To
processes,
select
the
including
tolerances
are
technically
a given product,
of the
methods
processes or manufacturing
and economically best manufacturing
to have a broad, fundamental
necessary
many different
production,
be able to
for
sequence
knowledge
and
Process
Morphological
it
is
of the various
possibilities and limitations
manufacturing
the work materials used and the geometries,surface
finishes,
required.
in detail, but
processes are not considered
are based is
structure on which
all processes
and
this
a
the
elements
in
structure,
defining
considering
of
systematic
materials processing is obtained, which
is based
on a
understanding
and
allows
evaluation
of
the
an
general engineering background
possibilitiesand
of the different processes. This approach
has a broad, general
limitations
in the
application since
it reflects invariant relations, methods,or principles,
but
context of this
book it will be related only to those processescharacteristic
of the
In
this
first
a coherentpicture
introduced. By
manufacturing
chapter
of
the individual
the common
industry.
Chapter1
1.2
OF
STRUCTURE
BASIC
PROCESSES
MANUFACTURING
The term
object,
available:
To produce
(1) material,
purpose of the
any
in
change
(2) energy,
it is
process,
in the properties
of an
information
content (form data),
state,
be
property, three essential agents must
(3) information.
Depending on the main
hardness,
geometry,
including
on.
so
and
be defined as a change
in general
can
process
and
either a
material
process, or an
will be
processes
an energy
process,
In the
information
material
or changes
a limitation
changes
imply
in
of the
general principles.
a material
that
material
flow,
1.
flow, and
energy
flow,
Through
of the
of the final
mass
The
mass
to
= 0)
(dM
work
0)
as
follows:
the
can
be
as follows:
characterized
can be
a shape
circumscribed by
change is brought
the
initial
about
(i)
1.1
1.2:
Fig.
processes
processes
assembly or joining processes
can be characterized
component
that
means
Material (i)
FIGURE
in
shown
materials
work
Information
as
material,
Energy
types,
initial
that
geometricalchanges,
flow.
corresponding
processes
Mass-conserving
to mass-conserving
to mass-reducing
corresponding
flow,
Converging
the
by
main
three
corresponding
flow,
Diverging
shown
as
information
be divided into
flow can
Material
2.
3.
can be illustrated
process can be described
model
process
general
shows
(i)
The general
Process
Energy
4- waste)
(o)
Information (o)
inputs
and o
outputs.
by
Model
Process
Morphological
M
Mi
(^J
Process
(a)
M1
oo
M,
H2
o
Process
(waste)
(b)
Mi
M2
Process
(M ^-M^+M.2)
(O
flow: (a) mass-conserving
processes
or mass-increasing
(dM < 0); (c) assembly
0); (b) mass-reducing
processes
The numbers
> 0). Here M means massof material,
i input, and o output.
processes (dM
and 2 refer to the number of material elements.
three
The
1.2
FIGURE
main
of material
types
(dM =
Assembly or joining
\342\200\242
The
that
the
(sometimes
expressed
as dM
> 0) can
be
follows:
as
characterized
processes
geometry is obtained
of the final
geometry
final
of the
masses
components
methods.
the previous
on the
process,
lubricants,
cooling
fluids,
in material
by
mass
the
properties
processes.
flow
have
flow
auxiliary
and filler
without
which
assembling
components so
equal to the sum of
of
by one or both
or joining
is approximately
are manufactured
material but,
necessary, such as
may be
at a change
material. Mostprocesses
aiming
in geometry are mass-conserving
change
as energy
associated with the process can be characterized
or
of
loss
removal
and
to
the
transmission
energy.
workpiece,
supply, energy
what might be termed shape and property
flow
includes
Information
as the
be characterized
can
A certain
information.
geometry for a certain material
The
energy
flow
Chapter 1
change
the material. In
on the
impressed
for
information
shape
is
information
to the
sum of the
process, shapeshape
geometry-changing
material so that
final
the
information
initial
by the process.
information
information
is
flow
impressed.
a change
Impressing
in
A/,, +
on a
geometry
material can
be carried out
or
in one
that
means
AIp2
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
(1.1)
*im
of the
material,
of
number
economical
for
reasons.
and
changes
in
The
proper
interaction
includes
knowledge
and so
on. This
is governed by the
component,
of the forces, power, friction
which is
control
information,
manufacturing
process
flow,
flow
described,
systems
in Fig.
1.3.
In
this
and
the
control
and
partly
flow
systems,
information,
lubrication,
analytical
which
data,
cutting
and
partly
a complete model of a
the various kinds of material
information
flow associated with
context,
flow,
energy
strength,
material
later.
is discussed
empirical,
hardness,
produced
properties
desired
yieldingthe
for example,
of the initial
flow,
properties
processes
manufacturing
1.2.2
it appears that
can all be
processes
they
manufacturing
model
built
a
few
a
from
fundamental
up
by
general morphological
related
to the three flow
these elements, a
systems.
By combining
which
all
from
obtained
can be
is
manufacturing
processes
morphology
When
analyzing
described
elements
process
deduced.
The
elements
fundamental
flow
Material
State
in this
of material
Basic process
Type
of
flow
(process
type)
morphological
model are:
Process
Morphological
Model
Energy
flow
Control
Shape
Shape
information
(Si)
Information
information^^
(S0
>
Shape
information
flow
FIGURE 1.3
Energy
Model of a
material
process.
flow
Tool/die
supply
Energy
Transfer
medium
Equipment
characteristics
Energy
Type
of energy
flow
Information
Surface
creation
Pattern
of
(principles)
movement
for
Material
Tool/die
Chapter 1
field,
model
1.4,
in Fig.
shown
which the
geometry
to create
type of
flow
various
single elements
must
are
their elements
and
systems
the
properties
desired
change
the process.
characterizing
system
State of Material
1.3.1
states
different
can
solid or incoherent
differencesin the
material,
in
its
The
the
of the
process structures. In
is also important. Here a
composition
materials
to
be
may
helpful,
the forming
evaluate
into
division
usual
states
different
different
quite
and heterogeneous
materials and partly
gaseous.
sequences,
processing
is maintained.
materials
later, result
and
granular,
a subdivision
consideredas
in which the
states
various
granular
the
flow
material
the
and/or
be used
The
of the
flow
SYSTEM
FLOW
MATERIAL
1.3
can
the three
consequently,
next.
discussed
As
the possibilities
model, a knowledge
to use the
obtained;
of
survey
to establish
a process.
coherent picture of the process
and limitations of the various
necessary
ingredients
a systematic and
gives
be used to
also
can
able
be
To
be
a quick
enabling
processes;it
basic
all the
contains
model
the
This morphological
materials
into
division
to
properties
in
obtain
shown
as
will,
state of the
to the
addition
partly
solid and
homogeneous
for
ideas
new
to the
relation
basic
processes.
Homogeneousmaterials
the
form
include
of chemical
Heterogeneousmaterials
Materials can
further
include
be
homogeneous
mixtures
mechanical
mixtures.
by their
characterized
thermal, chemical,
manufacturing
1.3.2
Basic Processes
Basicprocessesare defined
by
the
properties,
as
the properties
of the
of their interaction
nature
geometryand/or
in
those
processes
with
the
that create
changes
The
materials.
in
to
the
characterized
process
Infonnation
flow
Material
flow
Energy
Energy characteristics
in equipment
in
supply
tool/die systems
state of
basic
type
material
process
process
solid
mechanical
thermal
granular
1
chemical
liquid
of
material
massconserving
none
forming
|
1-D
translation
2-D forming
rotation
gaseous
free
forming
energy supply
through
energy
type of
characteristic
energy
active
work
movements
restricted
elastic
pressure
motion
differences
restricted
plastic
mass
rigid
translation
if
combination
of
both
pressure
forces
restricted
conduction
heat
systems
(torches, etc)
open
radiation
general
combinations
of these
to the
the
1.4
The morphological
/,
infonnation
flow/impression
from tool/die to material
/,
structure
of material
bath systems
unspecified
flow,
chemical
tool/die
FIGURE
systems
3r
tool/die
from the
the
electrical
processes.
thermal
f
closed systems
(ovens, etc)
heat
granular
flow
\302\243t
energy supply
to
equipment
5\"
jz:
combination
of both
energy supply
\302\243,
material
from
a*
|
rotation
bquid
Morphological
process model
o
\342\226\2403
mechanical
joining
none
forming
transfer
media
total
massreducing
pattern of movement
tool/die
surface
creation
>
flow,
electrochemical
1
basic processes
1\342\200\224mechanical
basic
2\342\200\224thermal
processes
basic
3\342\200\224chemical
processes
chemical
Chapter
Phase 1
Phase
Phase
Basic
Basic
Basic
process
process
process
1
1
basic
(secondary
change)}
primary
pre-processes)
processes,
(property
\342\226\240
Shaping
Preparation,
'
1.5
Division of a
of a
consists
normally
typical
\342\200\242
basic processes,which
of basic
series
processes can
phases.
constitute
be divided
the
into
structure
three
phases:
Phase
cropping,
etc.)\342\200\224for
Phase 2, which
geometry and/or
consists
change
processes.
designing
The
Table
interaction
described
manufacturing
shown
with
in
Fig.
the component
bring
deburring,
into
etc.)
basic processesassociatedwith
processes(according
phases
into
the desired
create
that
cooling,
in Fig.
material
melting, sawing,
in geometry and/or properties
processes that
(solidification,
the
(heating,
change
primary
of the basic processes
2 are
that bring
processes
properties
in properties
of the basic
basic
and/or
the
in
into three
process
manufacturing
series of
Any
| cesses,post-processes)
basic
processes)
FIGURE
treatment
After
1 and
3 are
1.5 is very
useful
to
the primary
called secondary
when
analyzing
goal).
basic
and
processes.
into
three
main categories, as shown
processes can be divided
1.1. Each of these categoriesis characterized
by the nature of the
are
with
the work material. The various single basic processes
basic
later.
relevant series of
objective for a processhas been established,
be
Here
the
actual type of
basic
can
found.
secondary
processes
primary
when
has
a significant
material
influence, since the materials react differently
actions.
If
or
chemical
to
thermal,
mechanical,
aiming
processes
only
subjected
of possible
at geometrical changes are considered,the number
primary basic
in
to
those
shown
Table
1.2.
in
is
reduced
2
l.S)
Fig.
processes(phase
When
the main
and
A Morphological
Categories of BasicProcesses
1.1
TABLE
Process Model
Mechanical
Chemical
Thermal
Elastic
deformation
Plastic
deformation
Brittle
fracture
Ductile fracture
Heating
Solution/dissolution
Cooling
Combustion
Melting
Hardening
Solidification
Precipitation
Phase transformation
Flow
Evaporation
Mixing
Condensation
etc.
etc.
Diffusion
Separation
Placing
Transport etc.
TABLE
1.2
Change
Geometry
of basic
Category
Processes
Basic
Primary
Used
in
that
Processes
Material
Basic processes
process
Plastic deformation
Mechanical
Fracture
and ductile)
(brittle
Elastic deformation
Flow
Thermal
(filling,
placing, etc.)
Melting
Evaporation
Solution-dissolution
Chemical
(electrolytical
Deposition
Combustion
It
is the
the
coupling
with
and number
types
the
information
material
flow
system
distinguish
The
flow
the
way
established
it is
in which
of secondarybasicprocesses
flow exists here.
that
A close
required.
1.3.3
The
primary
determines
between
as
give
graphically
more
detailed
shown
in Table
metallic materials.
1.3. Examples
in various
illustrated
examples
processes
manufacturing
system
column for
the
can be
in
it
would
Fig.
ways. Figure
be necessary
1.2.
according to
the
of processesare listed in
material
the
last
10
Chapter
Phase 2
I
\342\226\240
E
Phase
State
State
Phase
I
IE
IE
State
L_
Basic
Basic
Basic
process
process
process
(state)
material
energy
patte
rn of
move
(E)
information
(I)
auxiliary
material
To
phase
1, 2,or
Basic
process
1
State
Schematic
1.6
FIGURE
illustrations
be drawn
can
of the
illustration
main
the
within
it is possible to distinguish
As mentioned in Section
1.2.1,
of flow: mass-conservingprocesses,mass-reducing
processes,
Selection
of flow or processtype depends
joining
processes.
of material, geometry,
EXAMPLESOF MANUFACTURING
1.4
In this
1.3
section a short
is given,
described
to
partly
chapters
(1,2,4).
1.4.1
Forging
will
individual
be characterized
(metal), mechanical
sections.
primary
be
the
and
three types
assembly or
on the
requirements
price, and other factors.
examples
process
as: mass
are
mentioned
in
Table
to give
discussion and partly
a
and joining processes are not
Assembly
in
described
processes
basic
among
PROCESSES
the foregoing
illustrate
following
can
descriptionof
The examples
of Table
Forging
number,
tolerance,
surface,
More detailed
discussed
conserving,solidstate
process\342\200\224plastic
deformation.
of
work
material
A wide
vari-
Morphological
of Technological
Classification
1.3
TABLE
Material ProcessesUsedin
Category of
Process or
flow
11
Model
Process
State of
type
Mass-conserving
material
Solid
Mechanical
Plastic
Materials\"
Process
Primary
examples
Forging
and
rolling
deformation
processes
(dM =
Shaping
0)
Granular
Mechanical
Flow and
deformation
Mass-reducing
Fluid
Mechanical
Flow
Solid
Mechanical
Ductile
processes
WM<0)
Thermal
Casting
fracture
and brittle
fracture
Melting
and
evaporation
Turning,
and
Electrical
discharge
machining (EDM)
and
Chemical
milling,
drilling
cutting
Dissolution
Electrochemical
Combustion
Cutting
Plastic
Friction
machining (ECM)
Joining processes
Atomic
bonding
Solid
Mechanical
welding
deformation
Fluid
(vicinity
of the
Adhesion
Solid
Mechanical
Flow
Mechanical
Flow
Welding (fusion)
joint)
(fluid
Brazing
filler
material)
\"Only typical process
examples are
mentioned.
processes are used, and Fig. 1.7a shows the most common of
is heated
to a suitable working
and
drop forging. The rnetal
temperature
in
die
die
then
the
lower
The
is
lowered
that
the
so
metal
is
placed
cavity.
upper
is squeezed
forced
to fill the cavity. Excess material
out between the die faces at
in a later trimming
the periphery
as flash, which
is removed
When the
process.
term forging is used, it usually
means hot forging. Cold forging
has several
The material
names.
loss in forging
specialized
is usually quite
small.
processes
of forging
ety
these:
since
the
forged components require some subsequent machining,
and surfaces obtainable are not usually satisfactory
for a finished
machines
with
include
product.Forging
presses
drop hammers and forging
or
mechanical
drives.
machines
These
involve
hydraulic
simple
translatory
Normally,
tolerances
motions.
'
(a)
k^^V\\VkV^VV^V^V^'W\\^^W
%/
N/
T~
W.1
J\342\200\236
TWVI
^
v
*\342\200\242
1
')}}>/
5
^c
-\\ u
21
(c)
\\\\
\"XT
*?\342\226\240\"\342\226\240\342\226\240'
H\\gjj/TJ
7*Y- -jrr
(d)
FIGURE 1.7
forging;
state of
12
(b)
rolling,
work
processes
Mass-conserving
material;
casting.
in the
material;
solid
state
of
(c) powder
material: (a)
compaction and fluid
the work
A Morphological
13
Process Model
1.4.2 Rolling
as: mass
be characterized
can
Rolling
mechanical
basic
primary
conserving,solidstate
process\342\200\224plastic
of
material,
is extensively
Rolling
and so on. Figure
beams,
deformation.
can
compaction
material, mechanical
with a
500
measured volume
N/mm2.
During
of the solid
material.
\"welded\"together,
the
powder
pressing
around
and
deformed.
plastically
compaction,
of
this
giving
components
sufficient
are
strength
to
withstand
After
handling.
heat-treated\342\200\224sintered\342\200\224normally
at
70-80%
of
Compaction
rates
production
compaction
1.4.4
is
components
9.
Chapter
and
hydraulic
per minute.
presses. The
Powder
Casting
mechanical
100
basic
process\342\200\224filling
mass
as:
of
the
conserving,
die cavity.
Chapter1
14
The
or steps
stages
of the
melting
the solidification.
furnaces,
1.4.5
the
or
filling
Dependingon
the
are obtained.
accuracies
dimensional
in a
material,
machinery,
mold-making
of a
making
of the
pouring
mold material,
material
into
cavity,
and
Turning
can
Turning
reducing, solidstate
as: mass
be characterized
The
process\342\200\224fracture.
turning
of
work
process,
material,
which is the
to
widely used mass-reducing process, is employed
material
in
the
form
of
of
by
removing
cylindrical shapes
chips
types
tool
from
the work
material with a cutting
material
(see Fig. 1.8a). The work
rotates
and the cutting
tool
is fed longitudinally. The cutting
tool
is much harder
of types of lathes are
than
the work material. A variety
and more wear resistant
best known
manufacture
and
most
all
some
employed,
are automatic
of which
by electric
powered
motors
which,
through
in
The
operation.
various
gears,
1.4.6
Electrical
solid
discharge
state of work
evaporation
numerous
(see
machining
(EDM)
material, thermal
1.8d). In EDM,
Fig.
small electrical
can be
primary
material
characterizedas: mass
basic
process\342\200\224melting
is removed
by the
work
reducing,
and
erosive action of
material
and the
the
tool (electrode), the latter
desired
geometry.
difference between the work material
Each discharge occurs when
the potential
and the tool is large enough to cause a breakdown in the fluid medium, fed into
a conductive
the tool and workpieceunder
the gap between
pressure,
producing
is
fluid
which
mineral
oil
or kerosene,
channel.
The
medium,
normally
spark
has several functions. It serves as a dielectric fluid and coolant, maintains a
The
material.
to the flow of current, and removesthe eroded
uniform resistance
at rate of thousands
of times
occurs
per second, always occurs
sparking, which
and
at the point where the gap between the tool and workpieceis smallest
of
material
is
and
so
that
a
amount
much
heat
small
dispersed
evaporated
develops
of
into
the fluid.
The material surface has a characteristic
appearance
composed
numerous small craters.
Process
Morphological
FIGURE
turning; (b)
1.8
drilling;
electrochemical
machining
processes
Mass-reducing
(c)
milling;
(ECM);
(f)
15
Model
(d) electrical
torch
cutting.
in
the
solid state
discharge
of the
machining
work
(EDM);
material:
(e)
(a)
16
Chapter
Electrochemical
1.4.7
Electrochemical
be characterized
can
(ECM)
machining
material, chemicalprimary
of work
state
solid
Machining
basic
process\342\200\224electrolytic
dissolution
Electrolytic
chloride
(sodium
is in
usually
giving
material.
work
the
1.8e).
(Fig.
Flame
1.4.8
Flame cutting
Cutting
be characterized
can
chemical
material,
basic
primary
as: mass
reducing, solidstate
work
of
In flame
1.8f).
(Fig.
process\342\200\224combustion
where combustion
metal) is heated to a temperature
can
start.
the
heat
liberated
should be
oxygen
supply
Theoretically,
by
to maintain
the reaction once started, but because
of heat losses to the
sufficient
a certain amount
of heat must be supplied
atmosphere and the material,
to
A
is
heat
for starting
torch
both
and maintaining the
continuously.
designed
provide
is the oxyacetylene cutting
reaction. Most widely
used
where heat is
torch,
of acetylene and oxygen. The oxygen
created by the combustion
for cutting is
center
a
hole
in
the
of
the
torch.
through
normally
supplied
tip
(a ferrous
material
the
cutting,
the
The flame
For other
cutting
can only
process
materials, cutting
been
melting\342\200\224have
the reason
cutting
be used for
on the thermal
(arc cutting,
processes
developed
is listed
in
Table 1.3
under
both
materials.
combustible
easily
based
thermal
basic
process\342\200\224
etc.).
This
and chemical
is
basic
processes.
1.5
FLOW
ENERGY
SYSTEM
next.
discussed
The
energy
flow system
and
the
is supplied to
equipment system describesthe
how
the energy
be
divided
system. The
material
and the
equipment
the
characteristics
of the
into two
subsystems:
tool/die system
transfer
media
describes
used.
energy supplied
from
The
the
17
Process Model
A Morphological
and
equipment
1.5.1
The
supply
or ductile
brittle
basic process
fracture,
be
and
Pressuredifferences
Mass forces generated
across
in
and
to carry
Energy
out
elastic
a mechanical
through-.
material
the work
and
medium
work material
the work material
the
flow.
provided
betweena transfer
Relative motions
basic processes
mechanical
primary
deformation,
MechanicalBasicProcesses
active
motions,
the state
process, be rigid,granular,
the energy, the state of the
of the
medium
transfer
or fluid.
When pressure
can be
medium
and
generator
material is
unimportant
as
long
as it does
not
interfere
with
transmission.
How relative motions, pressuredifferences,
and
mass forces are generated
and
and which energy sources are available
established
will
now be discussed.
and it can be seen that the
Figure 1.10 showsthe energy
supply
schematically,
can be generated:
necessary mechanicalenergy
the energy
As mass
forcesdirectly
in the
motions
and pressure
relative
As
(indirectly)
and
transmitted
(contour 1 on Fig.
differences outside the work material
through a suitable medium (contour 2 on
work material itself
1.10)
Fig.
1.10)
Further,
energy
energy
material.
The energy
pressure
differences,
sources
that
or the
processesare mechanical,
chemical(see
chemical
Table
electrical
1.4). (The
primary basic
use of the
relative
motions,
the
mechanical basic
and
thermal
or
(including
magnetic),
same
sources
to
out
thermal
or
energy
carry
processesis discussed
later.)
out the
18
FIGURE
mechanical
established
forces.
Chapter
1.9
basic
Examples
processes
by pressure
basic
of the establishment of mechanical
processes:
established by relative
motions; (b) mechanical basic
established
basic
differences; (c) mechanical
processes
(a)
processes
by
mass
19
Process Model
A Morphological
~1
Energy process
Direct energy
)^
\342\200\224
contour
-1
M
'
supply,
basic
Mechanical
Indirect
energy
process
L
\342\200\224V
FIGURE
process,work
C
electrical,
material,
Mechanical
Energy
basic
stands
basic
Sources
The availablemechanical
energy
sources
are:
Kinetic energy
Translation
Rotation
Combinations
Potential
energy
Gravitational
Elastic
Pressurein
a medium
(kinetic
energy
the
molecules)
relative
motions,
in
Vacuum
or mass forces
to
selected
are usedto
the
through
fulfill
create
tool/die
the requirements
system. The
media of
pressure differences,
transfer
must
be
involved.
forces.
to
energy
be
delivered
can
mass
Chapter 1
20
1.4
TABLE
Diagram for
Morphological
(Supply)
Electrical
Mechanical
Energy
Kinetic
Principles
energy
(generating
Potential
energy
mechanical
Pressure
in
Systems
in
Primary
Combustion
Electromagnetic
Explosion
elastic
Thermal
expansion
(detonation)
Magnetostriction
Vacuum
Gravitation
Thermal
Chemical
Discharge
fields
medium
energy)
Transfer
Flow
Energy
Basic Processes
Mechanical
Other reactions
Piezoelectric
effects
and
energy
media
Rigid
(state)
Plastic
Elastic
Granular
Gaseous
Liquid
Vacuum
Unspecified
Transmission
Relative
(principles of
Pressure differences
in
utilization
(active)
motions
Mass forces
mechanical
basic
processes)
Two Electrodes.
A discharge of electricalenergy
stored
between two electrodes
in a fluid medium (usually
will,
water)
because of the sudden evaporation of the fluid in the discharge channel, create
a shock wave, which can be applied directly to the work material through
or indirectly
a suitable
in the form of kinetic
pressure differences
energy
through
DischargeBetween
in condensers
Electromagnetic
can create
indirect
transient
sufficiently
of the
utilization
or translations
in
which
discharge
magnetic
fields
a solid
mechanical energy
The
create
rotations
This produces
for exgears,
A Morphological
21
Process Model
condenser
(to
Electrodes
battery)
active
Medium in
Medium
movement
(kinetic energy)
1111,11,1111 i.jcq
in
Workplace
,lwUT\302\273
(a)
lb)
1.11
FIGURE
differences);
utilized
(b)
utilized
(a)
directly (pressure
electric
c). The most common example here is the
As shown in Fig. 1.12c, in specifying the energy system, the
then the different principles
requirements for the basic process are first
determined,
are investigated and specified.
these
fulfill
requirements
motor.
whereas
contracts,
subjected
to
can
a field
and
ferrous
aluminum
fluctuating
ultrasonic machining
shaping the solid material
be used in
suitably
Piezoelectric
Effect.
The
frequency,
is obtained.
connected
The amplitude
to the
interaction
can be varied
oscillator (see
effect is exhibited
piezoelectric
there is a reversible
in which
crystalline
materials
alloys
at a high
ferromagnetic
particularly
dimensions
change
to
between
by
by
Fig. 1.13).
some
an elastic
strain
is strained by the
of a stress, it becomes
application
dielectrically
polarized (i.e., a certain
potentialdifference
when the crystal is subjected to a potential
arises).
Conversely,
it will change dimensions correspondingto the elastic
strain. This
difference,
principle is used in various pressure or force transducers.
and
an electric
that
when
such
a material
Chemical Energy
Chemical
energy
on
depending
in an increase
the
can
energy
source
in pressure
be converted to
form
in
the
medium.
The resulting
high
relative
pressure
work
medium
can
material
and
be
or
the
Chapter 1
\342\200\224
Workpiece
Expansion
Shrinking
Insulator
(a)
Electric
-
Iron core
\"\342\226\241=
Gear
motor
Ceil
Tf
Punch
IV\342\226\240
^ .v.\")
Blanking
TTT^
\342\200\242
Drill
Drilling
(b)
Mechanical
Mechanical
Electrical
Basic
Electric
Principles
of
motor
process
(energy
transfer
requirements)
(c)
FIGURE
1.12
magnetic
field
designing
are
the
shown.
Indirect
energy
utilization
be utilized
system based
can again
of
electrical
or (b) indirectly,
(a) directly
(c) Typical steps in
on
utilization
indirect
of electrical (magnetic) energy
A Morphological
23
Process Model
A granular
material
suspended in
(abrasive
Mechanical
slurry).
basic process
established through
motions
(the
is
fluid
relative
between a medium
and the workpiece.
grains),
Tool
medium
Transfer
Utilization
1.13
FIGURE
of magnetostriction
in
ultrasonic
machining.
Thermal Energy
Thermal
utilizing
generate
thermal
pressures
The
preceding
can be summarized
is used
diagram
1.5.2
Here
only
must
possible energy
Flow for
flow
(supply)
systems.
the primary
discussed
are
be
or heat
to generate
Energy
evaporation)
energy
the
available.
electrical,
chemical,
reservoir.
Figure
heat
can
be generated
inside the
work
ma-
24
Chapter
\342\231\246
\342\231\246
chamber
Combustion
SI
\\\\
ii.-nKflSrmnftitSHi
jiff
Kl
Workpiece
\\
Active
J
motions
Workpiece
(a)
Explosive
Workpiece
(b)
of chemical
Utilization
1.14
FIGURE
energy
in (a)
combustion
and (b)
detonation.
Heat
Heat
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\V
Expansion
Heat.
medium
Work-
Active
\302\273
_^
Workpiece
\342\204\242\302\260tions
1
Workpiece
FIGURE
1.15
Thermal
(1 and
2 directly
and 3
itself
terial
heat
supply)
establishing
important
a thermal
role
energy (heat
and,
reservoir)utilized
in mechanical
basic processes
indirectly).
supply,
contour
1) or
through a
basic process, heat transfer
these will be
consequently,
then
\\\\\\\\V\\W
^wwww^
(direct heat
and
piece
transferred
further.
25
Process Model
A Morphological
1'
Heat
reservoir
\342\200\224
\342\200\224i
r
1\342\200\224
Direct
process
Energy
\342\200\224 \342\200\224
\\t\342\200\224 ir-
heat
\342\200\224\342\200\224 contour
supply,
(Heat source)
|
.
'
I:
'
''
!:.
1
basic
process
'
\342\200\242
L1
contour
1
1
Thermal
heat
indirect
supply,
FIGURE 1.16
basic
Relations
among
work material
(contour),
heat
source,
and thermal
process.
Heat
Transfer
be transferred
radiation, convection, and
(thermal),
by conduction
can take place in a rigid,
Conduction
mass transportation.
granular, fluid, or
which
consists
of
medium.
waves, requires
Radiation,
electromagnetic
gaseous
Heat can
a medium
convection
transportationcan
that is transparent
can normally
be used as a link
for
the
electromagnetic
take place in
in heat
or gaseous
fluid
transfer.
A medium with
where the
heat
by
amount
a certain
is transferred
of
through
to
Sources
generate
conduction
Electrical
(resistance)
Induction
Dielectric loss
Arcing
(discharge
Sparking
Electron beams
Lasers
between
electrodes)
The
principles
that
can be
used
Chapter1
26
Generation
by conduction
heat
resistance of the
which
a high frequency (5 kHz
passes
is generated directly in the object by means
through
Heat
it. In the
have
we
In all
heat
a direct
forms
element,
Dielectric
frequency
by
of heat
by
secondary
in it;
heating
of the
the
materials,
ferromagnetic
voltage
is induced
made the
conduction.
is basically
heating
current
in
as the
coil is
current.
induced
fields.
magnetic
alternating
the
If
supply.
generation
material. However, in
plywood,
to 5 MHz) alternating
of the eddy currents
coil,
secondary
this
material.
is
dielectric losseswithin
capacitor, and hence
of nonmetals,
field of a
applied. Heat is generateddirectly
the
material
when
it is
such as plasticsand
to which
capacitor
in the object by
placed betweenthe
high-
virtue of
plates
of a
established,and
subjectedto
sparking
an
alternating
electric
results.
Direct heat
27
Model
Process
Morphological
Indirect
supply
heat
Electrode
supply
II
IX
/IN
Work-
Medium
Vlediv
W<
Workpiece
piece
fi)
(a)
x:
/IN
155
^^
<b)
FIGURE
1.17
Heating
discharge
arcing:
(a) local/partial
1500 to 3000\302\260C.
or fluid
by
Both
arcing
heat supply;
(b) total
heat
supply.
a gaseous
medium.
(Fig. 1.18)the local discharge areas are very small and achieve
the order of 25,000\302\260C. If the discharge time f, (Fig. 1.18) is
on
temperatures
the anode
will reach the highest
small,
and if /, is large, the
temperature,
cathode will
reach the highest temperature. During
of the sparks, cooling
disruption
can occur, so that both the anode and the cathode can be kept at a low average
This
is utilized in electrodischarge
temperature.
principle
(EDM),
machining
In sparking
small
craters.
28
Chapter
Electrode
Voltage
r\342\200\224^\302\260KSpa
1^
\"
\"\"^W
Workpiece
1.18
FIGURE
Time
-A\342\200\224mi
0,
Heating
beam
by
sparking
utilized
in electrical
machining
discharge
(EDM).
an electron
beam is created in a triode,
an anode.
and
The grid and the anode
a
negative grid,
tungsten cathode,
the electrons
emitted from the cathode
are
have shapes which ensure that
chamber. The energy
to the work material, placed in a vacuum
transferred directly
can be focused by magnetic
in the electron beam, which
(~107
W/cm2)
density
material.
to melt and vaporize the work
lenses, is sufficiently
high
is the laser beam. Laseris an
Another heat source based on electrical
energy
In electron
machining,
of a
consisting
of radiation.\"
amission
for \"/ight amplification by stimulated
for the light
fluid, or gaseous) can be used as the medium
(solid,
laser
beams with different properties. When
the
in laser
emission, resulting
some of the energy is reflected, and the rest is
beam reaches the work
material,
converted into heat in the material. The heat generated can melt or vaporize
- 108 W/
in the laser beam is high
most materials. The energy
(~102
density
abbreviation
materials
Different
Tables
generation
from
beam
1.5 and
electrical
is focused
energy.
or
from solid,
other
exothermic
granular,
fluid,
Chemical
in
Table 1.7 shows the various possibilities.The elements
will
a
so
that
a
combination
the diagram can be described
number,
by
given
number.
appear as a four-digit
and Al
the exothermic reaction between
to combustion,
In
addition
Fe304
should be mentioned as well as the association and dissociation of argon,
in special
torches.
which is utilized
or helium
arc-plasma
hydrogen,
material
by
is indirect.
heat
can be generated
by friction is
utilized
A Morphological
TABLE
1.5
Principles
29
Model
Process
Generation
of Heat
from
Electrical
Energy
Material
Heat generated
from:
1.
requirement
Illustration
Electrical current
Electrical
Electrical
conductor
conduction
H^al
Freeelectrical
2.
_T_
Stopping
of free
in
particles
movement
electrical
particles
1
Heal
Electrical field
\342\200\224\\-
3.
Dielectric
Placing
in
material
an
field
electrical
__4-
Heat
Magnetic
-r
4.
field
Electric conductor
Placing
in a
material
magnetic field
I Ilectrical
Ferromagnetic
Heat
current
Electromagnetic
__r\342\200\236
S.
Placing
material
in
electromagnetic
beams
(light waves)
.4Heal
beam
30
TABLE 1.6
Between
Relation
Conduction
Electrical conductor
Arcing
Electrical
conductor
Sparking
Electrical
conductor
Electron beam
\342\200\224
Dielectricheating
Dielectric
4
5
Induction
Electrical
Laser
\342\200\224
Heat supply
State of
(1)
Total
requirement
Morphological
Local
Material
Example
1.7
TABLE
Heating
1.5)
(Table
Principle
(2)
Relationships
for
Transfer
fuel
the
conductor
Heat Generated
Combustion
by
Medium of
mechanism
Solid
(1)
Conduction
(1)
Granular
(2)
Radiation
(2)
Fluid
(3)
Convection
(3)
Fluid
Gaseous
(4)
Mass
(4)
Gaseous
transportation
transfer
(1)
Rigid
Granular
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Vacuum
1.8
TABLE
Morphological
When a Thermal
State of
heat
Heat
reservoir
Reservoir
medium
Relationships Showing
Is Available
the
Transfer
Possible
Transfer mechanism
State
Granular
Conduction
Radiation
Fluid
Convection
Fluid
Gaseous
Mass transportation
Gaseous
Combinations
Vacuum
Rigid (solid)
in friction welding,
ultrasonic
can
Chapter
welding
(which
locally
or throughout
Principles
of transfer
medium
Rigid (solid)
Granular
loss is
by
utilized
in
friction).
reservoir is available,
The heat can be provided
it
that
diagram for all the possible ways
morphological
row
this
can
be
The
last
of
for
thermal
basic
generated.
processes
energy
which
heat
is
and
to
1.4.
the
in
Table
shows
provided
diagram
way
corresponds
Some of the combinations in Table
1.9 are not valid, but the diagram
presents a
which
the
to
all
the
relevant
efforts
find
supports
systematic approach,
thermal
possibilities.
the
1.9
TABLE
the
Principles
Chemical
Combustion
Friction
Dissociation/
Internal
(generating
thermal
Dielectric
energy
Arcing
from)
Sparking
for
Thermal (reservoir)
Mechanical
Conduction
Induction
Heat
of Generating
Possibilities
Processes
Electrical
Energy
Showing the
Relationships
Morphological
Thermal Basic
Primary
31
Model
Process
Morphological
in solid,
(Heat
loss
granular, fluid,
or gaseousmedia)
association
Exothermic
reactions (others)
beam
Electron
Laser beam
media
Transfer
(solid)
Rigid
Granular
(state)
Fluid
Gaseous
Vacuum
Transmission
Indirectly
Heat conduction
of
(principles
in
utilization
radiation
Heat
thermal basic
Convection
Mass transportation
processes)
Directly
Heat generated
1.5.3
The
the
of
ChemicalBasicProcesses
are described
Chemicalsolution
polishing.
process
etching
is attracting
increasing attention,
in recent
years. Electrolytic solution
is utilized
of
and
transformation
metals.
specialized
furnaces
section,
These
diffusion
in
in
widely
been
electrochemical
for
developed
protection.
important
role
(or
this
in
etching
and
cooling),
purpose.
in the
many
of
which is
plating processes,
surface
heating
for
machining,
The
reverse.
play an
processes require
have
respectively.
of metals
(dissolution)
materials
conductive
and electrochemistry,
thermodynamics
new applications
phase
they require
In this
reactions.
chemical
in
diffusion,
because
here
principles
Generally, chemicalreactions
either thermal (heating/cooling) or electrical
which
energy,
by
The
deposition,
fully
are presented.
chemical
by
conditions
energy
general
be influenced
electrically
material
work
processes (solution/dissolution,
etc.; Table 1.2) will not be treated
a close study
therefore,only
and
the
basic
chemical
transformation,
can
in
both
heat
and a number
of
32
Chapter
of shape)
(creation
*_
Basic process
from:
transmission
Energy
thermal
(mechanical,
Energy
types
(principles
requirements
Energy
chemical
of
impressing -
(takes
shaping
kinematic
medium of
place
by
patterns,
mechanical,
the
to
Requirements
and
loadings)
Information
utilization)
medium
the
to
Requirements
of transfer
flow
Information
chemical
thermal,and
loadings)
transfer
Energy
ments
flow/require-\342\200\242
to element
Information
i
which
characterizedby
tent G.
element
to
is
flow/requirements
contour
and
con
pattern
of movements
General
model
Schematic
1.19
FIGURE
of the
illustration
requirements
for
the
media
of transfer.
electrical
1.5.4
The
or thermal
energy,
Transfer
media
of
energy.
Media
transfer
through
the
which
(Fig. 1.19)
the
energy
transmission
their
energy
states.
this would
of the
and the
transfer
information
is transmitted have, in
In a more detailed study
be insufficient.
medium
impressing
It
the
of
is
by considering
(shaping).
A Morphological
33
Process Model
flow (structure of
of the basic process and the information
The
determination
of both the total energy requirements
an evaluation
geometry generation)allows
~
and the energy to be distributed
within
elements (\302\243,
G,
single
geometrical
of external
one
in Fig. 1.19). The supply
energy normally takes place through
it is now possible to determine the
or two elements. For each element
energy
which
transmission
and the geometry creation requirements,
requirements
of the media of transfer.
on the
the requirements
together
specify
Depending
actual process,
the external energy transmission and the geometry generationcan
be integrated
and casting).
(as in forging) or separated(as in hydraulic
forming
Analyses of the type described above lead to detailed specificationsfor the
and geometry-creating media.
transmission
INFORMATIONFLOW
1.6
SYSTEM
the impressing
term information flow covers, as described
earlier,
on the work material. The principleson which
information
The
of shape
information
be based
and
requirements
contain
02
02's
shape-impressing
necessitate
the desired
requirements
a determination
geometry.
in surface creation. Here the medium
Figure 1.2Id showsthe basic principles
is used as a reference,
but it should be understood as the sum
of the 0,'s and
contents. The four possibilities
that arise are:
contour
Chapter 1
34
\342\200\242
Transfer
and/or
creating
Shape
(basic
B :
The basic
o :
Contour
Transfer
Free
contents
Rotation
Combinations
Combinations
The elements of
information
Here
the
medium
desired geometry,
not contain
does
is created
by
of transfer
which
or
that
one
Total forming.
whole
the
the desired
fields).
contains a point or a
that two relative
means
required
One-dimensional
line
stress
/c
impressing.
of transfer
surface/geometry
Two-dimensional
forming.
surface element of the
motions
Translation
the
of motion
motion
No
Rotation
(i.e.,
the
medium
Translation
forming.
of
G.
\302\260<
motion
geometry
by;
motion
Workpiece
1.20
determined
process
geometry
Pattern
FIGURE
mechanism
creation is
desired
No
process)
The shape
Possible pattern of
(E
contains
Here the medium of transfer
surface
of the desired geometry, which
contains a producer(a
which means
surface,
surface.
(in one
means
or more parts)
no relative
that
motion is necessary.
These four
or
total
basic
principles
geometry-creating
of surface
mechanism
a partial
is total
A Morphological
Process Model
O.
35
medium for
: Transfer
energy
and/or
information
: Shape creating
: Workpiece
: Transfer
energy
mechanism
for
medium
and/or
information
(a)
Transfermedium
Energy
transmission
Shape
(basic
process)
creation
Extension
(surface)
media
in
of
the
comparison
to
the workpiece
(x)
Total/partial
(x)
Total/partial
(b)
\302\2601_^
(c)
\302\2602
(dl
FIGURE 1.21
elements;
Information
(c) The
36
Chapter
is one-dimensional
forming,
rolling
forming, and
torsion
is free
Table 1.10shows,
turning is two-dimensional
forming,
forming.
Information
1.6.1
general
the combination
to
Processes
(jdM
0)
Material
Solid
of transfer
are
plastic
on the work
is impressed
information
it is
(tools/dies),
sometimes
to
helpful
distinguish
open and
between
closed dies.
Examples of
above
are
processing
shown
in
Fig.
to the
corresponding
1.22, but
they
are
four
described
mentioned
possibilities
in more detail
in
Chapter6.
Material
Granular
in information
series of basicprocesses
involved
materials
to
phase 2 in Fig.
forming
(corresponding
granular
of
sand
molds
for
includes
and
green
casting
filling
production
of
sand
the
In
the
molds,
production
(compaction).
dry
shape is
The
deformation
stabilized
of cores.
stabilizing
or
out
process
when
impressing
further
and
process.
Figure
l.S).
followed by a stabilization.
Stabilization
can, depending
placing.
as a plastic deformation
a
and/or
a flow
by hardening
The surfacecreation
(baking);
is usually
the case
with a partial
is also
this
total,
in
the
or
total
production
supply
of
energy.
of metal
rough
powders can
geometries
be isostatic
which
normally
TABLE 1.10
Principlesof
Information
Impressing
Corresponding
Energy
to Fig.
>
1.21
S
o
based on:
transmission
\342\200\2423
No motions
Principles
Total
of surface creation
forming
(TF)
0-
Rigid
Not
Not rigid
CA
forming (ODF)
O,:
\342\231\246
O,:
E
O,:
\342\231\246
0~
O,:
\342\231\246
Free
forming
6A
O,:
Rigid
O,:
supply)
Rigid
ovvvl
02
Rigid
Not
rigid
Not rigid
Rigid
Not rigid
O,:
\302\2433
Rigid
Not rigid
rigid
Rigid
Rigid
KM
Not rigid
(TDF)
O,:
Not rigid
Rigid
Not
(total energy
motion
rigid
Rigid
V?.
Two-dimensionalforming
>-
O,:
\342\231\246
One-dimensional
Onerelative
I*
O,:
Not
rigid
Rigid
Not
rigid
Rigid
Not
rigid
(FF)
Oj: Not rigid
\342\226\241
Oz- Not
rigid
Oj:
\342\226\241
Not rigid
Not rigid
\342\200\236
I
\342\226\241
1
OlS
Not rigid
Oj:
Not
rigid
*4
(a)
(b>
<c)
(d)
FIGURE
solid
1.22
materials:
Examples of information
(a) total forming; (b)
impressing
one-dimensional
39
Process Model
A Morphological
Information impressing
1*
1
1
Shaping
fcl
1
1
Flow
Plastic
deformation
1
1
Solid
\302\253
Granular
material
r
^
Filling
Placing
1.23
FIGURE
1
1
Compaction
pl
The series
1.5)
involved
in shaping
materials.
granular
finishing
require
powders,
materi al
Stabilizing
geometries
which
complicates
In axial
operations can be produced.
with several levels in height
usually
the total pattern of motions
(see
of metal
compaction
require
Chapter
several plungers,
9).
Liquid Materials
other
Chapter 1
40
\"l ii
Liquid
.4
Shaping
Stabilizing
\302\273\302\273.*
\302\273\302\273
Information
impressing
The series of
1.24
liquid materials.
FIGURE
shaping
be
the
basic processes(phases
_ __
^_
2 and
3, Fig. 1.5)
in
involved
for mass-conserving
processes can thus
Summarizing, the shape impressing
creation
the
of
surface
characterized
(Table
1.10), and (2)
by (1)
principles
work
material.
media
of
transfer
and
of
motions
of
pattern
Information
1.6.2
(dM
<0)
For mass-reducing processes that deal only with solid materials, the information
is based on mechanical, thermal,
or chemical
basic processes. These
impressing
material-removal
basic processescan be applied in four fundamental
methods
mechanisms or
(see Fig.
1.26). Consideringremoval
methods
I, II,
mass reducing,but
as
considered
In
described.
the
mass
following
since
the applications
and III,
here
02
of
creation
medium
processes,
not in
can
itself
be
reducing.
sections,
these
fundamental
briefly
41
Process Model
A Morphological
Shaping
1
(filling)
Liquid
Liquid
Centrifugal
Sand casting
Flow
Stabilizing
Liquid
casting
*
1
Solid
Shaping
im
nsb
(Cooling,
1^\\\\\\\\\\\\^
TF
Dip-casting
ODF
p\"\342\204\242-*\302\253
Continuous
casting
ODF
Rolling-casting
(b)
FIGURE
processes
shapingand
1.25
where
Chapter 1
42
FIGURE
1.26
Fundamental
The fundamental
removal
Removal Method
I,
methods
in mass-reducing
Cutting
processes.
Processes
method
Single-pointtools (well-defined
edge
geometry)
43
Process Model
A Morphological
Granular
Transfer
Fluid
medium
The fundamental
1.27
FIGURE
removal method
(see
(milling,
broaching,
Fig.
Gaseous
1.26).
Multipoint tools
etc.)
etc.)
(grinding,
By analyzing
The
of
structure
the tool
Single-point tools
tools
Multipoint
of the
(inclusive
geometrical
arrangement
of
the
cutting
edges)
The
pattern
of
motions
The pattern
of
motions
a large
for the
for the
of possibilities
number
for
Generally speaking,sincethe
pattern
In
of
motions
this
field,
motions (for
using
the
tools and
principles
be obtained. This
Fundamental
The basic
materials)
of surface
is discussed
Removal
tool
material
forming
contour
are obtained.
geometries
of the tools are small, the
of the desired surface.
creation
different
contents
role in the
of production machines with different
of
patterns
betweenthese
and
are available.
By choosing
creation, an
Method
economic
in Chapter
further
application
situation
can
7.
II
or chemical.
The necessary
thermal,
of
is
transmitted
information)
impressing
through
energy
granular,
liquid,
or gaseous media. The energy
covers a certain surfacearea, which
may
supply
be the whole surface, a producer,
or a point (see Fig. 1.27).
the energy source and the material, all different
in the
By
moving
patterns
material can be described.A principal
factor here is the geometry of the cross
section
created by the energy source dependingon the process parameters
(see
(and
the
Fig. 1.28).
Chapter1
44
(a)
1.28
FIGURE
(b)
semiopen
(b)
The semiopencrosssections,which
are rarely used. The patterns
etching,
by
the surface
coating
process (energy
widely
used
in
a given
source) from
in chemical
Examples of manufacturing
are abrasivecutting,
and
laser
with
pattern
the
attacking
be created by chemical
combined or substituted
a medium that prevents
the basic
work material. This principle is
for example,
can,
of motions
can be
etching.
Fig. 1.26)
cutting,
cross sections.
processes
based
fluid-jet
cutting,
on this fundamental
electron-beam
method
(see
cutting, thermal
cutting.
Fundamental
The
basic
thermal,
or
chemical,
and the
the geometry of
Fig. 1.29b).The
rigid
of
impressing
1.29).
The
information
surface
the
basic
medium
sincea fluid
process,
of transfer
medium
is placed
betweenthe
in direct
contact with
solid particles), necessary to
tool and the work material
rigid
45
Model
Process
Morphological
Tool
n^r^
(rigid)
medium
Transfer
(fluid or fluid
granular
with
material
suspended)
Workpiece
(a)
r^l^3
^^s
<b)
1.29
FIGURE
(principle);
(b)
The
motions
medium
fluid
for
normally
III
method
fills
only
the
small
gap between
material.
Examples of manufacturing
1.26) are ultrasonic
based
processes
machining,
on this
electrodischarge
fundamental
machining,
method
(see
and
machining.
Fundamental
By varying
Method
Removal
of
of pattern
Fig.
electrochemical
method
removal
fundamental
examples
the
is mechanical
geometry
of the
IV
is
(fracture) and the medium of transfer
medium of transfer
and the
(the tools/dies)
Chapter 1
46
FIGURE
shearing;(b)
1.30
Fundamental
blanking
(D, die;
removal method
P,
punch;
1.6.3
include
blanking,
of different
punching,
IV
(see
1.26), examples:
(a)
processes
are obtained
and shearing.
Fig.
W, workpiece).
and
Processes
The
information
impressing.
Assembly and joining processesare not themselves
and
obtained
is
components
produced
together
locking
by positioning
geometry
methods. The assembly processcan be based on atomic bonding,
former
by the
(with or without separate locking elements).
adhesion, or mechanical
locking
is arranged and the chosen assembly
the
on
how
assembly
Depending
and/or the assembly
work
material
the
motions
of
the
(for
mechanism,
pattern
motions.
contain
none, one, or two relative
mechanism) will
in Chapter 8.
are described
processes
Assembly and joining
Morphological
1.7
the
manufacturing
their
Model
47
SUMMARY
Basedon
and
Process
information
realization
general,
morphological
This approachwill,
based
on a
of
Properties
2.1
For
Materials
Engineering
INTRODUCTION
to be
engineers
material
fulfilling
requirements
The
a component
importantproperties
The effects
The
Only
would
satisfactorily
to process.
when
the
if the
in properties
material properties
it is
perform
functions
the
processes
manufacturing
brought
processes
The functional
the properties.
are generally
change
these
expensive
change
various
of the
economics
processing)
on the
affecting
of the
considering
by
be made.
including:
possibilities,
The suitability
of:
materials available
of the
properties
Hie manufacturing
the functional
and economical
Certain mechanical,
about;
desired,
some
physical,
beneficial
functional requirements
because
it may be very
can be evaluated
only
properties of a material
have been selected, as the processes
normally
alone were
and metallurgical
changes
and others detrimental. This
choice of a cheapermaterial
than
considered.
49
Chapter 2
50
2.2
The
PROPERTIES
MATERIAL
of materials
properties
1.
Physical properties
2.
Chemical
3.
Mechanical
4.
Manufacturing
be
into the
divided
groups:
properties
properties
freezing
point,
melting
heat
heat,
four
following
properties
Physical
specific
may
thermal
expansion,
point,
electrical
To
determine
testing
methods
laboratory tests
the
various
standardized
the mechanical properties of materials,
been developed. The materialsare subjectedto these
conditions so that their reactions
to changes
under
controlled
conditions
have
may be
the engineermust
testing
on.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL
2.3
so
conditions.
be
determined.
When
using
careful
With
obtained
data
to
conditions
general
in
knowledge
of ma-
51
of Engineering Materials
Properties
-\342\226\240
--v
x:\342\200\224:
1
o>
\302\256
V
cr
\342\226\240
Tensile test
2.1
FIGURE
terials, it
is sometimes
as a
approximation.
first
specimens:(a) cylindrical
possible
In the
V),
\\
fatigue
and
(b) flat
hardness
test,
are described[3,4].
other
conditions
2.3.1 TensileTest(Stress-Strain
Diagrams)
From
tensile
the
material can
between
fracture
about
the properties
of a
test, considerable information
A specimen with a standardized
geometry is gripped
of jaws and pulled in tension
until fracture occurs. To avoid
in the central
tension
gripped sections and to produce uniaxial
be obtained.
two
in
sets
the
possibilities,
device, which
measurement
of
and
they
the elongation
values of loading
are
often equipped
be attached
may
with
some
to the specimen,
type
permitting
during
of strain-measuring
accurate
loading.
Corresponding
Thus
and
elongation
are recorded
52
Chapter 2
12 (-VAD
Tensile loading
2.2
FIGURE
\302\273
of a bar.
/\302\273
(2.1)
-\"(-H
force
The
in
the
given
e is
strain
Nominal
nominal
distributed
P,
or engineering
stress, which
will
cross section,results
be designated
by onom and is
by
\302\243L
(2.2)
conventions.
of Engineering
Properties
2.3
FIGURE
Typical
53
Materials
tensile test
diagrams
obtained
at room
temperature
and
slow
speed.
Figure
and
temperature
typical
elongation
speed (static
conditions)
is necessary
to specify both temperature
and speed,
the shape of the diagrams
effects
influence
drastically,
The
\"static\"
the
role
in
the
choice
diagrams play
major
materials.It
can
later.
can be considered
to
shown in Fig. 2.3 illustrate
with
the material.
The
obtained
diagrams
force-elongation
for
at room
different
as these conditions
that are described
of materials, since
be static.
how
the relation between load
curve for mild steel is unusual for
in that
after departure
from elastic behavior at a load of Pu
a nonuniform yielding
a relation
occurs
at a lower load P,. Most metals
exhibit
in load occurs at yield. For plastic
similar to aluminum,
where
no reduction
the relation
shown in Fig. 2.3 is typical. The force-elongation
materials,
diagram
will now be analyzed further
with
the aid of Fig. 2.4.
In accordance
with Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), the force-elongationdiagram
can be
transformed
into a stress-straindiagram
units
axis
the
on
the
to
by changing
~
=
and
e
in
2.4
can
be
used
the
\302\260nom f^i
A///,. Consequently,
diagram
Fig.
four
The
examples
and elongationvaries
a metallic material,
as
both
a P
\342\200\224
A/
and
a o\",^
- e diagram.
When
which
to
its
the material
which
can
be expressed
Chapter 2
54
The force-elongation/stress-strain
2.4
FIGURE
diagram
front
test.
a tensile
= Ee
(2.3)
known as
characteristic
E is
where
modulus
the
or
of elasticity
is a
number for
Young's
modulus.
Young's
material group.
If the deformation
is continued
from A to B, the deformation is still elastic,
described by Eq. (2.3) is no longer valid. Point A is
but the proportionality
called the proportional limit and B the elastic limit. For most materials the
than
the proportional
limit.
elastic limit
is only slightly higher
will not return to its original
For deformation beyond B, the specimen
length
has been increased
because it has now been deformed plastically (i.e., the length
modulus
the
permanently).
0.03% of the
If the
deformation
gage
in practice
standardized
value,
normally
the
between
permanent
0.001 and
length.
deformation
after
is defined
has reached
or the
material
unloading
is continued to point
will be OD. If the
C,
the
specimen
permanent
is loaded
or plastic
again, the curve
Properties of
55
Materials
Engineering
DF is followed, and after F the curve that would have been described by
will be followed. The line DF has the same slope as CM. On
uninterrupted
loading
E. Normally,
a
a stress-straindiagram,
this slope
modulus
is equal to Young's
and reloading cycle as indicated
small amount
is lost in the unloading
of energy
hysteresis loop betweenD and C. As shown in the figure, the
by the exaggerated
means that the
first starts to deform plastically again at point
F, which
specimen
and less ductile than in the original
condition. This
material has becomeharder
that
load increaseis due to what is called work hardening;
is, as the load
deformation
is increased, a greater load will be required to
producing
plastic
deformation is continued
it achieves a maximum
If the
G,
deformation.
further
produce
where
where
beyond
value,
occurs.
fracture
been
it has
metals
For
shown
experimentally
in cross
necking\342\200\224reduction
The
section\342\200\224occurs.
takes place
necking
in
specimen,
subsequent
elongation of the gaging
in
the
local
neck
length
elongation
(Fig. 2.4).
Consideringthe stress in the specimen it is clear that the actual or true stress
o will be given by the load P divided by the current
cross-sectional
area Ac. Thus
the
part of the
is entirely due to
and
weakest
=
\302\260
(24)
/Cc
Hence,
the
true
o is
stress
greater
the
than
stress o^,,,,
nominal
Ac<At.
For
no longer
correction. This
For materials
plastically,
deformations
necking,
a diagram
typical (i.e.,
plastic materials
deformed
Referring
fracture
that
cannot,
corresponding
occurs
instability
until
uniaxially
again
or can
before
to
only to a
that
for
necking
to Fig.
2.4, a few
definitions
be
necking
should
of the
without
be deformed
steel shown
instability
used
4.
degree,
slight
alloyed
or
is, because
stress
in Chapter
further
is discussed
situation
the
G,
Eq. (2.4)cannot
arises).
(i.e.,
in
Fig.
2.3
For many
the specimen
be given.
is
is
Chapter 2
56
1.
G is called the
at point
occurring
is given by
stress
The
ultimate
(or tensile
strength
and
strength)
(2.5)
'nom.uts
where
2.
stress
The
Pf is the
where
(before
strain
/-
occurs.
fracture
or engineering)
(nominal
is called the
is given
and
starts)
necking
strain)
eu
(2.6)
Jj\"
The axial
3.
to
corresponding
distributed
uniformly
point
strain
(or uniform
by
- /.
(2-7)
\342\200\2247^-
The total
4.
ef
permanent
(after
fracture)
is called strain
or percent
by
(2.8)
^\342\200\224
of area at fracture
The reduction
5.
strain
and given
at fracture
elongation
(or
P/
-_
OnomJ
strength
fracture
RA =
Ay
is defined
as
Af
(2.9)
\342\200\224f^2
last two
The
An
stress
The
important
property
value, above
yield
Onom.O
stress
The
in
the
which
is given
the
describe
quantities
ductility of
of area
reduction
the
material:
RA
is normally
the
higher the
preferred as
materials
which
is a
(Fig. 2.4).
by
Pk
J~{
(2-10)
57
Materials
of Engineering
Properties
onom Increasing e
nom
A
temperature
Increasing
!_*
(b
(\342\200\242:
The
2.5
FIGURE
of (a)
influence
strain rate
and
(b)
on the shape of
temperature
the
curve.
stress-strain
Onom,0.2
*>*( =
Po.l)
(2.11)
special
of mild
case
a lower
x(l2
/t)
de
dt
where
v is
is the
rate
the
test
velocity.
This means
2.5a shows
the same
to obtain
that
stressis required.Many
temperatures.
Figure 2.5b shows how
At
curve.
(2.12)
dt
room
(i.e.,
the
many
convenient
temperature
influences
temperature
manufacturing
to determine
length of
processes
of
of the
the
sensitivity
decreases
increasing
at elevated
is generally
and
At a
rate).
small.
stress-strain
the ductility
certain temperature
compressive loads, it
material
strain
Figure
specimen.
the strain.
occur under
the properties
or engineering
strain rate, an
rate
a higher strain
the strain rate sensitivity
nominal
increasing
At increasing
increases
often
original
for
strain
the
that
have
materials
the
the
in a
is
compression test
Chapter 2
58
fracture
ductile
With
to friction between
to determine the
Thus,
plates.
friction
must
described
in
test
the
produces
true
of the
ends
material
be minimized
of
not be
will
detail.
Tests
Hardness
2.3.2
the cylindrical
materials,
due
shape,
compression
tensile
low strains.
very
barrel
situation.
actual
the
than
to be
material
tests are
hardness
standard
tested. In the
described.
following
sections
the most
In the
a smooth
into
the
resulting
a suitable
by the
where P
millimeters,
number
is
a diameter D is pressed
P, and the mean diameterd of
ball with
a load
microscope
impression is measured with a low-powered
HB is defined as the
scale. The Brinell hardnessnumber
surface area of
HB =
steel
(*D/2)[D is the
and
applied
d the
indentation.
the
mean
(D2
load
(213)
in newtons, D the ball diameterin
in millimeters.
The hardness
it
in
has the units
reality
although
diameter
Hence,
measured
indentation
to include
with
divided
d2)\"2]
always
pressure.
it is necessary
fitted
load
factor
numbers
0.102
from
in Eq.
the previous
system of
of
units,
(2.13).
and correspond
to masses of 500, 1000,
on
a 3000-kg
mass
material
the
tested.
Usually,
being
kg, depending
is used and applied for a time of 10-15 s for steel and cast iron.
are given in the
the test conditions for the various
metals
Recommendations
concerning
be indicated as
not
it
should
If
standard
conditions
are
standards.
used,
appropriate
and
3000
Properties of
Engineering
HB D/P/t.
practice
In
between
or heavily
P is
test a
the load
in
0.189
ultimate
of the
a square
with
136\302\260)
(angle
pyramid
divided
load
by the
(2.15)
4
\302\243
newtons
in millimeters.
mass
diamond
and the
indenter,
\342\200\236Q102/Lo
^/2sin68\302\260
indentation
The
worked
cold
(2.14)
hardness
Vickers
base is used as an
contact area:
where
of the
materials:
number
Brinell
the
Test
Hardness
Vickers
HV
The
the compression
=* 3.3 HB N/mm2
<Wuts
the
with
roughly
exists
for non-strain-hardening
In
tables
for
number
relationship
strength
Brinell
the
approximate
59
Materials
diagonals of the
given without
120 kg
2 and
between
vary
of the
length
is again
(in
units.
standardized
angle
used and
the
a diamond
is either
indenter
a steel
120\302\260
or
is usually
cone
test the
Rockwell
the
In
included
Rockwell
hardness
cone
with
{\342\202\254)
of 1/16 in.
a diameter
is then identified
an
The diamond
by
the
letters
HRC.
HRC = 100and
rapid
A
the
0.002 mm.
The
Rockwell
test is suited to
reliable
summary
test is
(2.16)
measured in multiples of
routine inspection.
e is
where
most
of the
Table
2.1.
The Vickers
determine
the hardness
the durometer
is used
as a
test is
of
very
soft
suitable. In
hardness
number.
materials,
this
test
and
TABLE 2.1
of the
Summary
Brinell, Vickers,
and
Shape of
Testing
Indenter
method
10-mm
Brinell
ball
From
side
Rockwell
C Hardness
Tests
indentation
Load:mass (kg)
From above
500,
1000,
3000
Hardness
(P
(jtf>/2)[\302\243>
measured
in
D and d
A
2-120
Diamond
Vickers
0.102P
HB =
pyramid
in
(D1
mm)
HV =
- d2)1*]
N,
0.189 ^\\d
\302\243
in N,
(P measured
d\\
d in
di
2^
mm)
k\302\243L^
Rockwell
150 =10+140
Diamond
HRC
100
(e measured
cone
f^Ze
of 0.002
- e
in multiples
mm)
of
Properties
61
Materials
Engineering
deformation,
to being
scratched. Herethe
arrangement
of
10 minerals
fluorite
4,
any material
hardened
5.5;
hardness
Mohs
on one
based
or another
scale, which is
form
as
of
resistance
based on an
2, calcite 3,
9, and diamond
material should be able to scratch
example,
glass has a hardnessof
of ascendinghardness
orthoclase 6, quartz
7, topaz
in order
5,
apatite
is used.
10)
are
earlier, hardness
as mentioned
(talc
1, gypsum
8, corundum
Dynamic Tests
2.3.3
loads
are subjected to dynamic
with a wide
very rapid loading, repeatedvariations
in loads
from
to compression, and so
and stresses, sometimes changing
tension
on. Most dynamic tests do not give results
that can be used in design
but
work,
in the classification
of materials relative to each other in
they are very useful
when subjected to certain loads.In the following
terms of their behavior
sections
some of the most commonly
used dynamic tests are described
briefly.
In
components
applications,
many
spectrum of characteristics,
Test
Impact
The most
for
V-Notch)
(Charpy
commonly
example,
impact test
used
is the Charpy
V-notch
test,
wherein
the
in
length
used to
determine
avoid failure
it is
material.
the transition
and
brittle)
be used at
important
to
low
know
temperatures
transition
the
the
material
ductile
exhibits
behavior.
Fatigue Test
known phenomenon that metals,
in general, cannot withstand
cyclic
of stress at high
of failure
stress
levels
for a long time. The type
under these circumstancesis called
The stress
occurring
fatigue
failure.
situation can
be characterized
the
of
stress
the
R,
variations, and the
by
amplitude
mean stressM.If M is zero, it is found that the value of/? that will cause failure
It
is a
variation
Chapter 2
62
if
smaller
is much
applied
repeatedly
than
to cause
stress
the
in
failure
pull.
single
From fatigue
place after a
Dynamic
greatest
number
Tensile
and Compression
(106-108)
Tests
the loading
and compression tests describedearlier,
rate is so
in
a
continuous
series of
the stress-strain
reality,
diagram represents,
the
of
the
stress-strain
If the loading rate is increased,
states.
shape
tensile
the
In
the
tests,
certain
slow that
equilibrium
sensitivity
significant.
Creep Test
2.3.4
If
become
a material
period
of
time,
is subjected to a
the material
will
metals creep
below 40% of the
All
consequently,
creep
load
under
the
permanently
at sufficiently
high temperatures.
absolute
melting
of
is generally
point, creep is
concern
with
a minimum
constant
in
elevated
the
rate,
the
the
secondary
stage the
creep is often
For metals
tertiary
temperatures.
in
strain
subjected
stress,
increases
stage the
rate
(i.e.,
At
a problemat
creep usually
room
a long
creeps).
temperatures
to elevated
three different
rapidly
continues
strain
increases
it
a problem;
not
normally
materials
effect.
temperatures and is a long-term
In the creep of a tensile test specimenunder
constant
stages exist (seeFig.2.6).In the primary state, the strain
toward
is applied for
load
with time
deform
at a
until fracture.
or at
temperature
becomes
a problem
at
Properties of Engineering
63
Materials
Strain
Fracture
<\302\2602>
Secondary
Primary
creep
Tertiary
/''creep
creep
\342\200\2247*
Temperature
Va2<a3
strain
Original
Time
FIGURE 2.6
Typical
creep
curves
for a tensile
test illustrating
the three
stages
in
creep.
creep-resistant
high-temperature,
high service temperatures. Many
for uses in steam and gas turbines, high-temperature
been developed
and so on.
in general,
plants
pressure vessels, power
determination
of the material properties and their
Moredetailed
descriptions
standards.
and in the appropriate
in the literature
methods) can be found
(testing
relatively
alloys
have
Materials
Engineering
3.1
INTRODUCTION
last few
the
In
taken
place,
with
a wide
to
introduction
the
materials,
described
decades,
rapid
very
resulting
spectrum of properties.Therefore,
engineering
dependence
in detail but
materials is given
of the properties
are mentioned
where
materials has
of engineering
development
in a huge number
of commerciallyavailable
a general,
only
in
this
chapter.
on the
simplified
The structure
of
so on,
are
and
structure,
for a
necessary
materials
basic
not
understanding
[5,6,7].
mentioned
As
only
on
In this
groups.
a material
chapter a short
is given
discussion
of the important material
as an introduction to the description of the
The effects
properties
knowledge
also
but
of
is based
material
not
on the
for a particular
[8-12].
process
manufacturing
properties,
technological
manufacturing
in Chapter
the physical,
of the
processes
briefly,
as a
of processes
on the
materials to
which
requires
propertiesin
different
they
material
are applied
a greater
65
Chapter3
66
3.2
PROPERTIES
MATERIAL
IMPORTANT
IN MANUFACTURING
As mentioned
or, more
in
given process
dominating
properties
processed
properties,
in one
way
group of
is very
to
difficult
process or
state
exactly
properties a material
possible to identify
of
combination
But it is often
must
possess.
which any
or characteristics
which
a given
by
2, it
Chapter
correctly,
material
process group. To
must
evaluate
which properties
for a
intended
certain
have for
these
it
to
be
technological
many
or
another
3.2.1
Forming
from the
Material
of a
state
liquid
Liquid
A description
or
a
of
State
following
phases
(Chapter1):
1: melting
Phase
Phase 2: forming
of
(creation
Phase 3: solidification(stabilization
In practice,
phases 2 and
melted, and
that
absorptions,
gas
is
chemical
the
the
3 can
of
be more
shape)
or less integrated.
from
Forming
shape)
in
availability
a complete
producing
composition
and other
of a
of the material,
factors. If the
suitable
mold
melt
or
solidification.
The
melting
3.1a.
The alloyed
have
a melting
sotidus
metals,
point
temperature,
for some
temperatures
which
but,
below
rather,
which
have
the
the greatest
material
liquidus
which
67
Engineering Materials
3.1
TABLE
and
of Mel ting-Point
Examples
a. Pure metals
(\302\260C)
(\302\260C)
Iron
1535
Lead
327
Copper
1083
Tin
232
660
Aluminum
b.
Temperatures
Ranges
Melting-Temperature
1455
Zinc
419
1850
Chromium
(\302\260C)
Alloys
Brass
Cr, 9%
Zn, 65% Cu)
Cu, 10% Sn)
steel (18%
Stainless
(35%
Bronze
(90%
1400-1420
Ni)
905-930
1020-1040
1050-1060
Aluminum-bronze
(1% Si,
Aluminum
als, except
means that
solidification
bismuth,
risers
and silicon,
antimony,
material
be
will
risers
placing
of the
(reservoirs
arranged so that
must be
contract
in the central
missing
establishedby
These
643-657
0.2% Cu)
12.
Ref.
From
Source:
650
Magnesium
Nickel
which
solidification,
during
region of the
for this
Compensation
component.
as
component,
is
Chapter10).
The
2%,
for
iron
for cast
example,
alloys
room
by
The
on the
influence
magnitude
about
3.5-8.5%.
about
temperature,
the
difference
by
multiplied
the
be
or mold
so that the cooled
longer pattern
the right dimensions (see Chapter 10).
As
the magnitude
of the melting-temperature range plays an
mentioned,
in the solidification of the material. Increasing
role
solidification
important
range
increases the risks of internal
and segregations. Internal
hot tearing,
porosity,
compensated for by
component will have
having
material
from the
molten
material
partly
solidified
material
stops adequate
prevented
of the
high
feeding of
temperatures
in the
tensile strains.
material constituents, is generally
resulting
in large
of the remaining
range, where the composition
as the temperature reduces.
changes
freezing
gradually
must
shrinkage
a slightly
Segregation,nonuniform
producedby a large
or
Chapter3
68
Other
in forming from
of importance
properties
the
liquid
include
state
development
into
is being
processes
casting
carried
out
to
increase
the
alloys
and
the range
of
applicable
materials.
3.2.2
processes,
solid
the
In the
of
forming
deformation
1). The
Chapter
is determined
intended
material decides
the
the
mass-conserving
the
shape
surface
by its
amount
depends
in
suitability
primarily
test). The
ductility
of plastic
plastic
to undergo plastic
(measured
by the reduction of
deformation
necessary to produce
a material
on the
information.
creation
suitability
instability,
by
fracture.
without
Stress-strain
the primary
metals,
(see
deformation
material state
Processes
Mass-Conserving
evaluating
Material State
from
Forming
obtainable
the Solid
from
Forming
when
The
the
strain
at
most
between
characteristics.
the reduction
69
Materials
Engineering
rate
are carried out at room temperature; consequently,the strain
for those
create problems.However,
processes that are carried out at
rate must be taken into
the effects of strain
consideration
elevated
temperatures,
result
can
in a material with
a constant
flow
(see Fig. 2.S). High
temperatures
is independent
of the strain. In this state the material
stress (yield stress)which
as the temperature is above
the reis able to undergo very large deformations,
trial
processes
does not
crystallization
continuouslyand
above the
temperature,
almost
temperature.
recrystallization
Processes
Mass-Reducing
the mass-reducing
type are mechanical, fracture
dissolution and combustion; or thermal,
melting.
are the most
Industrially,
mass-reducing
processes based on fracture
The suitability
include all the cutting
of a material
for
important, as they
processes.
which depends
cutting
processes is often called its machinability.
Machinability,
on many different
is a measureof how well the interaction
material
properties,
covered
between the cutting tool and the material takes place. The parameters
by
a machinability index can be tool wear, surface quality, cutting forces, or chip
and standardized
shape.Tool wear is often considered to be the main criterion,
7).
(see
testing procedures have been developed
Chapter
on:
Machinability depends primarily
(ductile or
brittle);
chemical,
1.
The mechanical
2.
Its chemical
3.
Its
heat
properties of a material
(ductility
and
hardness)
composition
treatment
(structure)
low
Concerning mechanical properties, it can be stated that low ductility,
hardening, and low hardness
machinability.
Correspondingly,
give good
this means that materials with
are
and high strain
hardening
high
ductility
difficult
to machine.
is a reasonably
For many materials (e.g., cast iron)
hardness
of the ease with which the material can be machined.
good indication
Hie
of a material has a great
influence
on its machinability. By
composition
small
amounts
of lead, manganese, sulfur,
or tellurium,
selenium,
adding
be increased
the mechanical
can
machinability
considerably without
changing
properties.
As to the structure
as possible
of a material,
it must be as homogeneous
without abrasive
and hard inclusions, as theseincreasetool wear and result
particles
strain
in poor
surfaces.
Chapter3
70
those
For
mechanical
electrochemical
properties
as
is
material
easy
electrochemical
Combustion,
in the
example,
is
removal rate
material
the
For
material.
nonhardened
process,
machining
determined
laws.
in torch
is utilized
which
to burn the
possible
as a
to process
by Faraday's
solely
mass-conserving
properties
material
using
for
cutting,
a supply
example,
of oxygen.
requires that it is
to cut steel
is possible
It
this
by
process.
and
(cutting
can be
melted
the material
must be removed
energy source. After
melting,
zone. These processes are largely
influenced
by the thermal
its thermal conductivity,
heat
(i.e.,
properties of the material
capacity,
specific
as well as low heat capacity decreasesthe
heat, etc.). Low thermal
conductivity
by
an
appropriate
the
from
machining
requirements
energy
heat-affected zone.
Joining Processes
fusion welding,
is discussed here. The
process,
type of joining
material is, like the other technological
difficult
to
properties,
define. Many
such as those mentioned under
from the liquid
factors,
forming
material state, influence
the welding
of a material. Chemical
properties
and
to
the
the
constituent's
have a great influence,
affinity
surroundings
composition
as contaminations,
so
and
on, depend on these
gas absorptions, structure,
factors. In addition,
conditions
influence
the
internal
stresses and
cooling
resulting
of the material.
the final hardness
the
Only
main
of a
wettability
3.2.3
Granular
State
Material
determine
process area,
the suitability
EFFECT OF
3.3
THE
The
under
properties.
vary
the
which
difficult
is rather
of
the granular
THE PROCESSESON
PROPERTIES
MATERIAL
properties
original
conditions
it
of the
it is
carried
out
the
determine
parameters of the
within
rather
process, and
final complex
wide
process,
limits.
it is
the
of
material
possible to
(corrosion
one
within
fall
In the
detrimental.
some
and
affected
the
be rememberedthat
It must
\"weldability\.")
are beneficial
of
propertiesthat
affected
are
properties
physical
resistance,
ductility);
hardness,
the
on
Depending
will
71
Materials
Engineering
are important
properties
of the
some
actual
changes
for
normally
of
performance
the
take
that
situation,
place
only a few
the desired
functions.
material and
distribution
may influence
and character
In
of these defects
must
be carefully analyzed.
the liquid material state, the final material
properties depend
the
the composition
on
(including solidification temperature
range),
or die material, and the
and mechanical properties of the molding
from
forming
mainly
thermal
conditions
solidification
material
processing,
During
nonuniform
state
by plastic
decreases
the
final
ductility
properties.
Cold
of the
material. Hot
reasonably
good mechanical
(mass-reducing processes)primarily
the surface properties (roughness, hardness, internal
stresses,
etc.).
examples mentioned only serve to illustrate the complexity of the
These
of the final material properties of a component.
are
problems
in more
detail in some of the later chapters.
Solid-state
influences
The
evaluation
discussed
As
the solid
the temperature,
from
forming
the
determine
primarily
the strength and
forming
CLASSIFICATION
3.4
In
of deformation,
amount
the
deformation
increases
deformation
rate, etc.).
(direction,
deformation,
mentioned
previously,
and
quality
by machining
OF MATERIALS
it is very
difficult
to
provide
broad
information
regarding
Consequently,
important engineering materials in this context.
a
will be given to allow a rough
evaluation
of the suitability
only generalsurvey
of the different
material
this survey
and the
groups for various processes.From
a
in
the
later
for
the
reasonable
process descriptions
chapters,
background
of the materials will be available.
evaluation of the final properties
materials can be divided
into groups
Engineering
showing important
In
this
context
the
traditional
classification
shown
in Fig. 3.1 will be
relationships.
all
the
followed.
so that
subdivided
subdivided
new
into
into
Composite
and special
materials
are
built
up
and
materials,
from
two or
more materials,
materials
materials
covers
are
are
many other
I*
MATERIALS
i
i
l
METALLIC
MATERIALS
COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
\"I
NONMETALLIC
MATERIALS
POLYMERS
W
\302\273
cn
n z
i-3 \"1
> w
f 50
THE
73
as
cn ?3
>-3
>
cn
\342\200\2420
CO
>
cn
H
O
cn
FIGURE 3.1
THE
T3
> O
cn cn
>-9 W
O \302\253-3
cn h
50
cd cn
03 \302\253-3
M O
5\302\260
3
cn w
?
a:
cn
cn
>
cn
cn
M
cn
cn
\\
I
engineering
materials.
CO
73
Materials
Engineering
materials (wood,
concrete, bricks,etc.)that
are
not
important
discussion.
3.5
MATERIALS
METALLIC
3.5.1
Bonding
and
Structure
by the metallic
bonding, where the metal ionsare held
has a high mobility of the
cloud.\"
This
type of bonding
together
the
the
in
for
and
accounts
free
electrons
level,
(valence)
high strength
general
and
the
be
deformed
without
to
fracture),
relatively high
ductility (ability
of metals. These general tendenciescan be influenced
by many
meltingtemperature
factors; consequently, exceptionsare common.
with
cubic,
have a crystalline structure
Metals
body-centered
predominantly
Metalsare characterized
by an \"electron
face-centered cubic, or
materials
normally
consist
hexagonal
close-packed
of thousands
lattice
of small
individual
structures.
Crystalline
or grains,
individual
many
crystals
solidification,
depending on the production method. During
within
the
melt. As solidification
lattices begin to form at various
points
random
or
which
have
orientation,
these
proceeds
grow, meet, and
grains,
crystals
of
disorder in the
where
a
boundaries
form
the grain
3.2),
high
degree
(Fig.
atomic
exists
arrangement
[1,5,6].
yield stress:
Oo =
(3-1)
*i+4=
GRAIN
(a|
FIGURE
3.2
The formation of
<cj
(b|
grain
boundaries
[1].
BOUNDARIES
Chapter 3
74
where o0 is the
This means
characteristic
has a
also
which
structure,
of the
can be changed
The individual
and heat
will
on the
influence
significant
deformation
by
or patterns
structures
grain
material
and D is the
constants,
stress.
grain size gives a high
yield
and the solidification conditions,
metal
are
k2
a small
that
on the composition
Depending
different
kt and
stress,
yield
size.
grain
average
be formed.
The grain
properties of the metal,
treatment.
have various
or defects
faults
in their lattice
can influence the material
properties
strongly. The size
of defects
are dependent on the history
and number
of the material,
including
and deformation,
as, for example, in
cooling conditionsafter solidification
or extrusion.
rolling, forging,
grains
faults
these
structure;
or crystals
can also be
noncrystalline materials the grain boundaries
in the lattice structure. The type,
and distribution
size,
number,
of all the defects
determine
the mechanical properties of the material.
largely
and
deformation
can influence the defects
Also, as mentioned, heat treatment
and thus the properties.
The most important
affected
stress,
by the defects are yield
properties
and electrical conductivity.
such as
hardness,
stress,
ductility, ultimate
Properties
heat
thermal expansion, and elastic constantsare not
melting point,
capacity,
In normal
consideredas
defects
by the
influenced
3.5.2
of metals
properties
engineer; consequently,great
strength of metals leadingto
of
Mechanisms
Strength-Increasing
mechanical
The
defects.
metallic
materials
can,
in
more
are generally
has
effort
been
favorable
b.
Precipitation
Strain
3.
Dispersion
most
strength/weight
be increased
by:
general,
1. Phase transformations
in the solid state,
a. Martensitic (diffusionless)transformations
2.
the
directed
that
is,
for the
important
toward
ratios. The
hardening
the
increasing
strength
from:
hardening
Hardening
by
hardening (see
Solid-State
Section 3.11.1)
Phase
Transformations
is to produce a componentwith
The main purpose of a manufacturing
process
a desired
and
desired
the material
geometry
properties.During
processing
be changed in a beneficial way,
but very often it is necessary to
properties may
increase
the strength
functional
properties of the component to obtain the intended
Most
metallic
materials
in
the solid
allow
transformations
performance.
phase
the
state after the shaping
without
process
changing
general geometry, which
makes
it possible to control the structure
and
thus the properties within
rather
wide
limits.
75
Materials
Engineering
Phase transformations
and
at
holding
are
elevated
an
achieved in several
for such time that
usually
temperature
to
is
equilibrium
phase
(i.e.,
heat
treatment.
on the
Depending
type of
a few
Martensitic
important
can be
categories
and (2)
transformations
are closelyassociatedwith
transformations
diffusion
but only
exist,
applications
metallic materials.For
can
transformation
in the
the temperature
steel
most
as the
steel,
with
are
occur in other
also
diffusion-based
different
Many
main
two
transformations
martensitic
or
discussed.
be
will
phase transformation,
first
stage
structure
cubic equilibrium
at 800-900\302\260C until the face-centered
(ausis
structure
a body-centered
tenite) has been obtained.By quenching,
tetragonal
cubic structure (of ferrites)
formed
due to the fact that the body-centered
is a deformed
and stressed
with carbon atoms; the result
becomes
supersaturated
is
hard
and
The
martensitic
structure
martensite.
structure
called
tetragonal
of hardness and brittleness depend on the carbon content. For
brittle; the
degrees
= 400
HV
hardness is about
the martensitic
example, for a steel with 0.2%C
=
is HV
while the original
hardness
100; for steel with 0.4%C the figures are
=* 830
* 650
HV
the figures are HV
against HV =* 130; for steel with 0.6%C
=*
160.This shows that the hardenability increases strongly
the
with
against HV
carbon content, owing
to the fact that it is the carbon
which creates the
is kept
tetragonal structure.
For most
diffusion
elements
can
can
modify
the
temperature
is
temperature
the
relieving) must
transformations
descriptions
solid
structure.
solubility
brittle
allowing
out. Various
the
changing
be
must
structures
200-500\302\260C,
carried
be
without
either
consequently,
alloying
fundamental
of the
in the literature.
decreased.
precipitation takes
(heating to
martensite
brittle;
less
of the material.
detailed
be found
the
of
and
hard and
less
giving
some stress
to create
characteristics
More
applications,
has
place
are
of
methods
strength-increasing
one element in
this supersaturated
another as
is heated at first to
to
rapidly
the
structure,
retain
of
the
for which
If this
element
matrix.
aging or
based on
the
age
hardening',
if it
Chapter 3
76
takes place at
an
elevated
temperature,
it
is called
aging or
artificial
precipitation
hardening.
be mentioned
It should
many
which can
after
and so
machining,
forming,
after
that
quenching,
quenching
be suppressedby
before
and
general,
state, so that
precipitation,
at low temperatures.
holding
rivets
used in aircraft. After
This can be illustrated by most aluminum
are kept in a refrigerator,
which uteans that they are soft and can
the rivets
quenching,
be driven
and hardness
at room temperature.
easily.
They attain full strength
coalesce into particles which
atoms
act as obstacles
The
toward
precipitated
deformation. As these particles grow in size, the hardness of the material
is
increased.
If a certain
critical particle size is exceeded,hardness
starts
to
this is known as overaging. The precipitated
are hard and brittle
decrease;
particles
and
lie in a soft matrix.
is that of aluminum
An
with
4% copper (Duralumin). At
important
example
Cu is soluble in aluminum;
at 20\302\260C,only 0.5% Cu is soluble. The
550\302\260C, 5.7%
is carried
out at about
490\302\260C. Aging
at
solution
treatment
(or precipitation)
takes
can be obtained by
room temperature
about 4 days, but higher
strength
artificial
aging at about 200\302\260C.
For
some alloys, deformation can increase the rate
of precipitation.
Many
the
material
strength
mentioned
and hardness
the
from
normally
further.
many applications
only
the
or
For steel,
solution
the
copper
the
of a
surface
hardening.
of
component needs to
methods
different
may
be
based
have
high
have been
on martensitic
hardening.
carbon
content
determines
be added to
the hardness
obtainable. In
low-
the
surface
Materials
Engineering
BRASS
Gu-Zn:
'
15
<CT
Cu-Sn:
\342\200\242
10
40
copper with
%)
various
alloying
elements [5].
is called niprocess
gas, allowing nitrides to be formed. This
be
obtained
with
other
methods. In
a
than
can
harder
surface
gives
and
are
to
the
surface but
both
carbon
added
process,
nitrogen
ammonia
an
and
triding
the carbonitriding
at
Solution hardening of
3.3
FIGURE
(atomic
element
Alloying
in
BRONZE
lower
More
than those
temperatures
detailed descriptions of
used for
these and
carburizing.
other
methods
can be
found
in
the
literature.
Strain Hardening
in Chapter
described
As
hardening
occurs
in metals
2 where
when
they
the
stress-strain
are cold-worked.
curve
with
yield stress, ultimate stress, and percent elongation
change
cold working,
which
could be brought about, for example, by forging
between
two parallel plates.
After
the grains become elongated in certain
directions
and
deformation,
contracted in others,
results in anisotropy, that is, the material has
which
different
in different directions. By heat treatment\342\200\224recrystallization\342\200\224
properties
into
it is possible
to change the distortedgrains
new stress-free
grains (see Fig.
in grain
size. Small
3.5), a procedure
eventually
accompanied
by a growth
general
how
the
increasing
deformations,
grain
growth.
high
temperatures,
or long
favor
Chapter 3
78
Cold
FIGURE
The
3.4
by increasing
(%)
work
of yield
change
amounts of
stress (o0),
ultimate
stress
and
(ou\342\200\236),
elongation
(eb)
cold working.
the
deformations
out
carried
Some
metals
means
that
at temperatures
at room
temperature
recrystallize
hot-worked.
these metals are normally
in the surface
layers of the componentwill often
well as its hardness.
Strength/
Grain
hardness
growth
(lead,
Strain
increase
tin,
3.5
The change
in
properties
by recrystallization
which
hardening induced
its fatigue strength
Temperature
FIGURE
and zinc),
[1].
only
as
79
Engineering Materials
Lowest
3.2
TABLE
and Upper
Point,
Limit
Melting
Lowest
recrystallization
limit
Upper
temperature
for hot
point
Melting
working
Metal
(\302\260Q
(\302\260Q
(\302\260C)
Mild steel
600
1520
1350
Copper
Brass (60/40)
150
1083
1000
300
900
850
Aluminum
100
660
600
FERROUS METALS
3.6
characteristics
can be chosen as
primary
and
areas will
context,
parameters.
structuring
application
composition
as they represent useful
and
be chosen as principal
characteristics,
practical
selection.
It must be emphasized
guides for the engineer engaged in material
because
of limited space, the description here will consist
that,
only of the more
In
of metals,
a description
different
In this
generalguidelines.
In
more detailed
situations,
practical
be studied
catalogs must
carefully
when
Composition and
3.6.1
considering
material
and
literature
functional
only constructional
suppliers'
and manufacturing
cast
Possibilities
Alloying
With
ferrous
brittle.
Pure carbon
of the steels
obtain:
steels (alloysof
used
Fe
and
C) represent
are alloyed
with
Greaterstrength
Better
hardenability
Improved
Better
corrosion
resistance
Better technological
(manufacturing)
properties
a very
a variety
only
small fraction
of elements to
80
Chapter
The
can generally
in steels
elements
alloying
be used in
different
two
ways,
1.
In
2.
In larger
small
amounts,
in
3.3 a
elements
four
into
1.
2.
3.
Low-alloy steels
but
TABLE 3.3
Main
more
with
the stainless
contains
Effects
of Some
Amount
>1
0.08-0.15
Sulfur
2-5
Nickel
12-20
0.5-2
Chromium
4-18
0.2-5
Molybdenum
0.15
Vanadium
and less
1-2%
than
and
Important
the
0.2-0.7
Silicon
>2
0.1-0.4
Copper
Small
Aluminum
Processesin
permission
Manufacturing,
alloying
steels.
elements (5-30%).
5% alloying
steels
(microalloyed).
5%
than
carbon
as
matrix
in Steel
Elements
Alloying
This
steels.
high-temperature
Main effect
Prevent brittleness
Increase
Increase
machinability
Increase
ductility
hardenability
(inhibits
resistance
corrosion
Increase/give
Increase
with sulfur
resistance
corrosion
Increase/give
Increase
combined
when
hardenability
grain
Form stable
growth)
carbides, give
hardness
Improve
magnetic
small
at retained
grain
size,
ductility
considerably
hardness at
Increase/give
Increase strength
Increase
stable carbides
form
and
hardenability
0.001-0.003
Boron
lUngsten
Reprinted
base
increase strength
Increase hardenability
with
roughly
steels.
carbon
plain
(%)
0.25-0.40
Manganese
used
than
more
alloying elements
1-2%
than
the same
having
element
Alloying
alloying
important
elements, be
of alloying
amount
the widely
with
High-alloy steels
group
the
less
contains
group
elements,
the
groups:
effects of some of
[4].
can, depending on
Steels
classified
of the
is given
survey
steel
in
the
corrosion
high
example,
In Table
increase strength
and
hardenability
to produce specialproperties:
for
range 5-30%,
resistance or high-temperature
properties
amounts,
and
high
strength
temperature
(spring steels)
properties
Increasehardenability
by nitriding
of Macmillan Publishing
from Materials and
Co., Inc., as adapted
3rd ed., by E. Paul DeGarmo. Copyright
\302\251
by E. Paul DeGarmo.
4.
81
Materials
Engineering
such
with
Alloys
large
amounts of
Nichrome
The development
and
of the
available
many
strength,
properties as well
following
as
which
description,
to obtain
their
manufacturing
refers to both
stated that
if the engineer
requires only
no special corrosion resistanceand
the best and cheapest solution.With
with
steels normally
steels has
methods.
manufacturing
It can generally be
mechanical
alloys, such as
the special
Superalloys.
group
the parent
that
elements
alloying
contains
represent
\"common\"
so
the carbon
more
slightly
on,
the
better
and
expensive low-alloy steels, better hardenability
strength at higher
are
rather
The
are
obtained.
steels\342\200\224which
temperatures
expensive\342\200\224
high-alloy
heat resistability,
are
used only where their
(stainlessness,
special
properties
4
materials in group
for the special
can be utilized. The same is true
etc.)
above.
The
section
following
presents
a classification
cast iron
is described.
3.6.2
Classification of Steels
by
guidance
parentheses
refer
subdivided
in
Metals Handbook).
to the previous four-group
ASM
(e.g.,
in two
below. It should
mentioned
be found
can
handbooks
later,
Steels
Constructional
will
applications;
Applications
The
few
of steelsby
In
the
steel-alloy
the
following,
classification.
numbers
in
for bridges,
structural steels (1 and 2) are mainly
used
buildings,
machine structures, vessels, trucks, trains,
machine
loaded
moderately
components, and so on. These steels are cheap, weldable,and have
and manufacturing properties. Someof the most
average good
strength
importantgroups
are the plain low-carbon steels (<0.35%C)and the low-alloy
structural steels, which
an increasing role in
are
high-strength
playing
General
industry.
General
components
that
the most
require
important
high strength
are
the
and
medium
plain medium-carbon
(I
and
2),
sometimes
variety of machine
to high hardness. Among
steels (0.35-0.55%C),
Chapter3
82
the
and
are
strength
to machine.
difficult
industries
the
used where
are generally
(3)
For applications
amounts
the
in
appearance is also
of Cr and Ni.
clean
good
contain large
steels
(either
applicationshigh
tempered
steels,
nitriding
Corrosion-resistant(or stainless)
corrosive media
steels
engineering
low-alloy
steels,carburizing
These
important.
steels
and dairy
steels normally
chemical
Heat-resistant steels (1, 2, 3, and 4) are especially used where high creep
at elevated temperatures, often
with good strength
resistance
combined
characteristics and corrosion resistance, is required.
steels
the machining
(1 and 2) are used where
Free-machining
properties play
an important role. These steelsare mostly
low-carbon
and mediumplain
carbon steels modified
either
with small amounts of sulfur
and
(0.1-0.3%)
or with sulfur (0.25-0.35%)
and lead (0.15(0.5-1.5%)
manganese
0.35%) with small amounts of tellurium, selenium, or bismuth.
carbon
and low-alloy steels (7 and 2) are sometimes
more or less
Plain
or modified
for fabrication of specialsheets,tubes,
refined
and so on.
wires,
a low
(silicon steels with
Examples are steels for electrical
machinery
steels
wire
carbon content and 2-4% Si), deep drawing
(~0.1%C),
(~0.1%C) for nails, screws, and so on.
Many other
for
alloys developedfor
valves,
springs,
mentioned (steel
could be
applications
special
etc.),
literature
and
the
standards
must
be studied.
The
preceding
that
emphasize
consideration
to
the
functional
requirements
the
and
of steels
carefully,
and
available
giving
due
possibilities.
manufacturing
Tool Steels
The
requirements
increasing
processes,
metal-forming
loads
Tool
for
which
to
the
rapid
of
important
all
of
in
information
[8].
Tool
term
tool
steels
can be
includes
Cold-working
examples:
cutting
roughly
into
classified
the following
dies):
and
press tools,
3)
forging
with
0.5-2.0%C.
dies,
blanking
Application
tools.
Ni.
and
steels
tool
Hot-working
V,
83
Materials
Engineering
examples:
Application
casting
dies,
of W,
amounts
various
and
forging
Cr,
extrusion
dies,
dies.
High-speedtool
Co, Mo,and
steels
V.
Cementedcarbides(4) consist
matrix.
a softer
in
forming
dies,
materials
are discussed
excellent
and
2-3.8%C
having
etc.)
dies.
Cast Iron
iron
Cr,
increasing
matrix
blanking
3.6.3
other special
an
hard
of
softer
the
these tool
has
For
Mo are
Some of
Cast
of W,
amounts
examples:
Application
various
and
press tools.
various
rate,
with 0.7-1.3%C
(3)
castability,
a very
chapters.
of Si,
amounts
varying
elements is technically
in later
important
machinability,
low
price.
As mentioned
depending
on
cooling
conditions
has a major
influenceon
classifiedin
accordance
and
distribution,
their
the
previously,
the
with
is present
carbon
and Si content. The
mechanical
the shape
size. Depending on
be grouped into
nodular
or spheroidal
can
gray
cast
iron
the
most
in
graphite
properties;
of the
shape
with flake
graphite
of the
graphite
as graphite,
(its shape)
structure
and
are
their
graphite particles,
nodular
with
cast irons
cast iron
flake
with
graphite,
surface,
appearance of a fractured
low ultimate tensile strength,
It has
a good
a relatively
its machinability
is very good.
(brittle);
compression
strength, and low ductility
The ultimate
tensile
of gray cast iron, which
varies
between
strength
normally
100 and 500 N/mm2, depends on the size of the graphite
their
flakes,
the structure
of the material, the composition,and the cooling
conditions.
distribution,
For SG iron (nodular
cast iron) strength varies between350 and 750 N/mm2,
and elongation lies between2 and 15%. This type of cast iron is being applied
in
industry
Depending
at a
on
cast iron
cases
after
the gray
Si content,
the
carbon
can be
a hard
form Fe3C (cementite), giving
and brittle
precipitated in the combined
material called white cast iron, named after the appearance
of a fractured
surface. It cannot
be machined and has a very
It is mainly
wear resistance.
high
in combination
used
with gray cast iron as a surface layer on a componentwhere
and as components
extremely
high wear resistance is required, as in car wheels
in
The necessary rapid cooling is produced
the
machines.
crushing
by chilling
surfaces.
Chapter 3
84
is an
iron
cast
White
and
cast
The
slowly.
nearly pure
matrix
iron
high
ductility
and
(~350N/mm2),
the
industries.
agricultural
metals are
nonferrous
groups of the most important
and it must be emphasized that only general
sections,
a few
Only
following
in a
METALS
NONFERROUS
3.7
800-900\302\260C
nodules
graphite
has
(ferrite),
railroad, automobile,pipe-fitting,
strength
very fine
has
material
resulting
of malleable
discussed in
guidelines
are given.
The
and
industrial
nonferrous
of the
importance
several
provide
they
important properties
that
in steels,
be obtained
for example:
High
resistance
corrosion
Ease of fabrication
High
and
electrical
thermal
conductivity
Low density
High
ratio
strength/weight
Attractive color
all
Not
combination
of
metals
nonferrous
without
two
several
attractive.
strength
of the
because
The following
aluminum/aluminum
alloys,
3.7.1
Pure
widely
Copper/Copper
copper,
utilized
on, due to
good
vessels,
are
groups
described:
its
Alloys
of 8.96
having a density
in the electrical industry
high
manufacturing
and
so on,
electrical
properties.
where
its
copper/copper alloys,
and zinc/zinc alloys.
alloys,
magnesium/magnesium
g/cm3 and
for
conductivity,
It is also
high
thermal
its
corrosion
high
used in
point
melting
wires, coils,
cables,
coolers,
conductivity
of
1083\302\260C,
resistance,
heat
can be
is
contacts, and so
exchangers,
utilized.
and
its
alloys have
Copper
is
which
with
a wide applicational
a wide
and
spectrum,
are
alloys
85
Materials
Engineering
tin,
and nickel
bronze,
Brassis
of
variety
are brass,
alloys
is copper
alloyed
aluminum
bronze,
bronze.
content
of
of all the copper alloys. A copper
and
this
an
with
(\342\200\22440%
zinc)
gives
alloy
good strength
and
If the copper content is increased to 65-70%
hot-working
properties.
and excellent cold-working
(zinc ~ 30-35%), alloys with
high
ductility
propertiesare
obtained.
Besides the normal brasses, many
brasses
are
special
for
or
those
which
with
are
available,
iron,
aluminum,
alloyed
example,
manganese.
Some of these alloys are used for screws, nuts, and so on.
a nickel
If 10-20% nickel is added to brass (60-70%
Cu and 10-30% Zn),
for
its
color.
This
is
used
for
silver alloy is obtained,which
named
is
alloy
most
the
important
about 60%
electrical
is typical,
contacts,
etc.
springs,
utilization
to
important
resistance.
high strength and high corrosion
as
well
as
for
it is
most
other
metals,
alloys
copper
and
that different alloys are used for casting,
forming,
have
bronzes
Aluminum
In the
remember
machining.
Aluminum/Aluminum
3.7.2
Pure
aluminum,
become
has
having
one of the
is due to
This
its
high
Alloys
a melting
in the last
materials
high corrosion
ratio,
strength/weight
electrical
and
be mentioned
that
few
years.
resistance,and
good
cost of aluminum
the relative
conductivity.
this situation. Applications include high-voltage cables; equipment
for the chemical,
and kitchen appliances.
industries;
dairy, and building
Aluminumis often
and
zinc
alloyed with silicon, magnesium, copper,manganese,
has
favored
varying amounts
beryllium
in
small
and
sometimes
with
silicon
is used
aluminum
treatment,
When using
iron, chromium,
in
and
titanium,
amounts.
heat
nickel,
is
alloyed
extensively
and
industry,
heat treatment.
high
strength
be
carried
the
in
so on.
casting
Alloys
can
of machine
with
silicon
be obtained
by
poor.
between
functional
the commercially
and
manufacturing
Chapter 3
86
cold and
good
3.7.3
formability.
Alloys
Magnesium/Magnesium
Magnesium,
of 1.7
a density
having
utilized
general,
an
in
Magnesium alloysare
the general
produced
coatings,
for
sheets
by
heat
the
in the
in
is,
can
ratios
proportion
primarily
Alloys
of 7.13
a density
but
material.
Forty
percent
25% is used
as an
alloying
the building
industry.
of the zinc
of
420\302\260C,
produced is used
large
amounts
alloys
with
is
fraction is used
in copper, and
element
Rather
point
but increasing
a small
only
of zinc
for
as a
surface
are used in
the
battery
As construction
and cadmium,
lead,
used
amounts,
huge
construction
with
alloyed
650\302\260C,
mechanicalindustry.
Zinc/Zinc
3.7.4
and
alloys
air-
the
element is aluminum
in the proportion
alloying
further
of
point
strength/weight
high
and thorium.
zirconium,
zinc,
containing
where
be obtained
can
values
condition,
alloyed
for forming
used
alloys
hot
The major
materials, fine
to obtain
high
zinc
corrosion
resistance,
elements
are aluminum (4-6%) and copper
(1-2%).
and
and they are
properties,
alloys have good strength
ductility
shaped
mainly by casting. Applications include automobile accessories,
in kitchen
office machinery, tools, and toys. Casting dies
appliances,
components
of zinc alloys. The
have
a long production
life because of the low melting
point
are usually
so good that machining
and other processing are
tolerancesobtained
alloying
Fine zinc
unnecessary.
3.8 PLASTICS(HIGHPOLYMERS)
Of
the
the nonmetallic
polymer
Many
cellulose,
natural
and wool.
In
the
only
are
polymers
thermosetting
covers a
plastics
and
known
general,
of synthetic polymers,
variety
some of the most important
become
enormous
have
materials.
asphalt,
example,
will
thermoplastics
which
industrial
the term
in
widely
plastics
special
used:
group
and
of
for
\"plastics\" covers
the
the
3.8.1
representation
and manufacturing
applicational
material group,
87
Materials
Engineering
as their
of (a) chain
structures and
(b) cross-linked
a relatively
(net)
new
1940.
Plastics
Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
in applicational
matrix.
It should
be mentioned
that plastics are never completely
of the chains is obtained,
crystalline regions a closer packing
so that the secondary bonds act more strongly.
can be machined in the solid state (at room temperature)
and
Thermoplastics
at increased/elevated
temperatures, they can be formed either in a rubber-elastic
an amorphous
crystalline.
In the
Chapter 3
88
or liquid
the
temperature is too
If the
state.
are characterized
Thermosetting plastics
net
(see
structure)
or
high
maintained
a time,
be destroyed.
will
material
Fig.
by
where
3.6b),
structure (or
between
cross-linked
their
exist
bonds
primary
strong
is created
after or during
the forming
the chains. The cross-linked
structure
of
the desired component,as it is an irreversible chemical process (hardening).The
structure
its
cross-linked
gives a hard and strong material, which maintains
hardness at elevated
Furthermore, thermosetting materials are
temperatures.
resistant to chemical
cannot
be softened and
attacks and creep. Once hardened,
they
can only be shaped by machining.
a major
The density
and
character
of the cross-links have
influence on the
3.8.2
An
of thermosetting
properties
Materials
of Plastic
Design
specific material.
available
and, within each
range of plastics are commercially
in different
can be modified
ways, so that the same type of
It is thus possible to \"tailor\"
with a wide spectrumof properties.
wide
extremely
type, properties
available
plasticis
material
the
the
In
molecular
on,
production
has
which
a major
influence on
(plastics) it
and
mechanical
the
physical
employed
Stabilizers (e.g., to
actions,
ultraviolet
provide protection
light,
to vary the
is possible
against
thermal
(dyes,
colored
improve
mechanical
are generally
The fillers
strength.
the
volume.
total
General
3.8.3
The main
that
the
reason
properties
and atmospheric
thermal
stability
materials,
in
general,
cloth
fibers,
and electrical
properties.
considerable
a considerable
percentage
of
of plastics
is
giving
Properties
rapidly increasing
or combinations
flour,
and facilitate
pigments, etc.)
comprise,
Applicational
for the
The most
properties.
wood
cost, e.g.,
used as reinforcing
fillers
Fibrous
But
etc.)
so
and
at low temperatures)
Softeners (to increaseductility,
e.g.,
Lubricants (e.g., wax, stearates, etc., to improve
moldability
Coloring
chains,
properties.
industrial
importance
of propertiesobtainable
are
difficult
or im-
Engineering Materials
89
Increasing
or time
Schematic
3.7
FIGURE
stress-strain
curve for a
to obtain
possible
with
other
to mass
themselves
lending
representation
thermoplastic
of the
influence
temperature
of temperature
and time
on
the
material.
materials,
combined
with manufacturing
methods
production.
a plastic
When selecting
conditions
must
be carefully
and
Increasing temperature causes decreasingstrength
ductility). Mechanical loads applied for long
durations cause
is accelerated
creep in the material, which
by increased temperature.
The strength
of plastics
in
is,
general, about one-tenth that of metals, but
since the density
is relatively
low (0.9-2 g/cm3), the strength/weight
ratio is
with
reasonably
good.
glass fiber-reinforced plastics, a high strength/
Especially
ratio can be obtainedwhich
is comparable
to that of metals.
weight
Plasticshave good electrical resistance, giving them extensive applicationsas
materials.
their low thermal conductivity
makes
insulating
Correspondingly,
them excellent heat insulators.
Resistance to chemicalagents
varies
from plastic to plastic, but,
in general,
it will always
be possible
to find a material
that can resist a given
chemical
stress-strain
decreasing
curve.
rigidity
(increasing
90
Chapter
chemical
the
in
and
industry
this
number
enormous
[10,11]
CERAMICS
3.9
are
Ceramics
of metallic
compounds
oxides, borides,carbides,
and
nitrides,
such as metal
elements,
Ceramics have long been used
electrical
resistance but have also
nonmetallic
or silicides.
the
electrical
industry
assumed importance
carbides and
oxides.
have crystal
Ceramics
materials,
in
various
containing
is generally
between
oppositely
resulting
TABLE
3.4
of
elements
different
Mechanical
Properties of
(g/cm3)
ultimate
strength
(N/mm2)
much
Some Oxidesand
Compressive
Density
Material
sizes.
atoms
bonds,
are among
that
structures
(primary
stronger
from
those
the
bonding
metallic
for metals. The
than
Carbides\"
Softening or
melting temperature
CO
Oxides
A1203
3.76
BeO
3.00
MgO
\342\200\224
Zr02
5.78
Th02
11.08
2940
770
2040
2100
2730
1000
2800
500
2030
2500
1150
1470
2760
1000
Carbides
2450
2750
SiC
\342\200\224
2060
2200
2500
TiC
\342\200\224
3500
3100
2450
ZrC
\342\200\224
WC
\342\200\224
B4C
'Approximate.
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
3500
\342\200\224
2800
2100
1900
91
Engineering Materials
electrons
free
of
absence
are available
conductors.Ceramics
form, consistingof
many
Generally,
ceramics
and
In this
Types of
engineering,high-tech,
fine ceramics.
or
of engineering
applications
ceramics
used for pottery and
and
traditional
Ceramics
ceramics
for
materials
Raw
the
traditional
two categories:
not
will
3.9.1
into
characteristics
whereas
presented,
be discussed.
are
ceramics
bricks
poor electrical
in polycrystalline
often,
(a group
found
of
nature
in
materials
are
flint
clay,
of
consisting
fine
(very
aluminum
grained
silicates,
contain impurities
or sodium). These raw
materials
generally
into useful
further
removed before the materials are processed
to achieve satisfactorily, and many
difficult
products. This removal is often
are now produced
almost exclusively from synthetic
so that
ceramics
components
to very strict
their quality
be controlled
may
specifications.
Alumina
or emery,
is the most widely
used
(A1203), also called corundum
oxide ceramic, and is an example
of a synthetic material. It is obtained
by fusion
it is crushed and graded
iron filings, and coke. After
of molten
fusion,
bauxite,
calcium,
potassium,
by
to be
have
which
the particles
are cold
passing
oxide
aluminum
of other
additions
through
pressed
and
and
screens
standard
sintered.
of application
Typical fields
by precipitation. Parts of
are improved by minor
titanium carbide.
Properties
and
oxide
insulation,
cutting
tools,
and abrasives.
Another
(Zr02), which
liners
much
of
oxide
ceramics
is zirconia
good
valve bushings.
of oxide
feature
and
characteristic
expansion,
as
family
has
derivatives are
cylinder
of the
thermal
low
corrosion,
member
important
ceramics is
their
anisotropy
of thermal
in a variation in thermal
in different directions by
resulting
expansion
as 50% for quartz. This behavior causes thermal
stresses
that can lead
to cracking
of the
component.
are tungsten
carbide (WC) and
typical examples of which
are extensively used as cutting
tools
and die materials.
Table 3.S gives the melting point and room temperature hardnessof some of the
carbides. All the values are very high compared
with those of steel. The
no major structural changes up to their melting points, and their
compounds
undergo
stable and unaltered by induction
of heat. These carare therefore
properties
Carbide
titanium
ceramics,
carbide
(TiC),
Chapter3
92
3.5
Table
Melting
Some Important
Melting
Hardness
(\302\260C)
point
(HV)
TiC
3200
3200
v4c3
2800
2500
2400
NbC
3500
TaC
3900
1800
WC
2750 (decomposes)
2100
bides are
in character,
metallic
strongly
of
Hardness
Temperature
Carbides
shows the
They
appearance.
at room
fracture
without
have only
temperature.
of the more
of four
hardness
and thermal
electrical
good
having
slight
important
ability
to deform
carbides
at
measured
of carbides
use
cemented
In
80%
by
volume
to
15\302\260C
in cutting tools.
alloys, the
of the structure.
carbide
1200\302\260C.
It is
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
200
400
600
Temperature
FIGURE
3.8
Hot hardness
800
1000 1200
\302\260C
of some important
carbides
[42].
constitute
at least
93
Materials
Engineering
Cementedcarbidesareproduced
in the
as
by
the powder
and
WC\342\200\224carbon
carbide.
tungsten
Another class
of ceramics is the
titanium
(CBN),
those used in
synthetic
making
diamonds.
used to coat
Titanium
is widely
nitride
a process
are
gas
formation
2TiCl4 +
N2 ->
4H2
thickness,
Coating
concentration,
coating
It
has
2TiN +
resulting
in
the
following
reaction
for
the
8HC1
normally
temperature
Siliconnitride
aluminum.
introduced
of TiN:
is
high
and
resistance to creep at
elevated temperatures,
low
as
thermal
high
resistance
to
94
Chapter
as
characteristics
Individual
ceramic materials
important
Sect. 3.9.1.
been
have
given
in
and physical
general
to cracks, impurities, and
properties of ceramics.
These materials are very sensitive
in a strength
in tension that is approximately
one order of
porosities, resulting
than the strength in compression,
lower
since the defects lead to the
magnitude
initiation
and propagation
of cracks under
stress. This deficiency may in
tensile
mechanical
be overcome
concrete,
by prestressing the components, as in prestressed
by
used
heat treatment
include
subjecting them to compressive stresses. Methods
and chemical tempering, laser treatment
of surfaces,
coating with ceramics
or surface-finishing operations, in which
thermal
expansion,
having different
stresses
are induced on the surface.
risidual
compressive
of their
because
Generally
speaking, ceramics also lack impact
toughness
inherent
lack
of ductility,
so that a crack, once initiated, propagates rapidly.
In
to undergoing fatigue
failure
a
addition
under cyclic loading, ceramics exhibit
called static fatigue, so that they may suddenly fail after being
phenomenon
to a static tensile load overa period of time.
Static fatigue, which occurs
subjected
in environments
where water vapor is present, but not in vacuum or dry air, has
to stress
corrosion in metals.
been attributed to a mechanism similar
part
Hardness, wearresistance,and
and
attractive
properties,
cm3)dimensional
reliability
is
still
at elevated
strength
light
corrosion
stability,
side,
negative
as are
rather
weight
(specific
shape processes.
3.10 GLASSES
are
Glasses
generally
commercially
available
to types
optical
with
glasses,
special
former. By
properties,
adding
with
the
from
ranging
electrical,
mechanical,
window
glass,
alter the
high-temperature,
structure
of
types
and cookware
bottles,
chemical, or
characteristics.
based on
or reduce
as
and
a glass
so on,
95
Materials
Engineering
regarded
The
55-90
influenced
is greatly
Strength
equipment.
conductivity,
high electrical
resistivity
expansion coefficient is lower than those
approach zero. Optical properties,such as
thermal
Their
dielectricstrength.
and plastics
and
absorption,
treatment
the
of
even
may
components
better
possesses
those of the
composites is not
them.
One
bricks.
the
with
materials.
composite
are
new,
components,
and bulletproof
There
materials
together. Each of
but the composite
than
or weight,
stiffness, strength,
them
helmets
golf clubs, prosthetic devices,military
and
so
all
utilize
sailboats,
vests,
aircraft, automobiles,
on,
electrical
advanced
properties of separate
parts.
in a
tools,
such as
properties,
constituent
idea of
The
the desirable
in which
by mechanically or metallurgically
binding
its structure and characteristics,
retains
are combined
generally
MATERIALS
Compositesare materials
the
varying
for metals
reflection,
glass.
COMPOSITE
3.11
by
and
many
types
such method is
of
composites
based on
the
built
up:
1.
2.
3.
filled
with up to
materials, consisting of a matrix
15% particles (size<0.1 (im) of different materials.
Particle-reinforced materials, consisting
filled with
of a matrix
more
than 20% particles (size > 1 (im)
of different
materials.
Fiber-reinforced materials,consisting
of a matrix with up to 70% fibers
Dispersion-hardening
of
different
materials.
Chapter 3
96
3.11.1
Materials
Dispersion-Hardened
are normally
materials
a small
produced by dispersing
of hard, brittle, fine particles in a softer, more ductile matrix.
and creep resistance can be induced,which
Pronounced
decrease
strengthening
only
include
sintered
aluminum or
gradually as temperature is increased.Examples
or copper matrix
of an aluminum
copper powder,consisting
strengthened
by
of aluminum
oxide. Applications include gas turbines
particles
and
electrical
Dispersion-hardened
quantity
components.
This
the
large amounts of rather coarse particles and covers
of metals including
and ceramics,
which
alloys
and good strength
at elevated
hardness,
reasonablygood ductility,
high
group
previously
give
Materials
Particle-Reinforced
3.11.2
contains
combination
mentioned
processing
via
metallurgy.
powder
some possiblecombinations
of ceramics
and metals, suitable
for grinding and cutting
which
are often formed
wheels,
from
silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron
alumina
or
nitride
(BN),
(A1203),
diamond
bonded
in a matrix of glass or polymeric
material.
As the hard particles
and are pulled out of the matrix, exposing new cutting
wear, they fracture
edges.
for
cutting
tools
and
rate
TABLE 3.6
of Ceramics
as great
as
that
alumina
with
tools,
carbide
achieved
Some PossibleCombinations
and Metals
Ceramics
Metal
Cr
SiC
Ag, Co,
TiC
WC
Co
A1203
Si02
Al,
Cr
Co,
Co
Fe, Cr
97
Engineering Materials
bides. Foundry
(matrix)
Becausethe
combination
The
used types of
as the reinforcing
widely
of fibers
which carry
fibers,
binder
matrix, the
materials may be
in the
uniformly
and particle-reinforced
in all directions.
uniform
Materials
Fiber-Reinforced
most
The
are distributed
particles
reinforcing
particle-reinforced materials.
cores
and
molds
are
based on a
binder
as matrix.
compatible
the material and may be oriented
compositematerials
most of the
those
are
and a
material
on
force
directions
corresponding
are embedded
and
example,
the strength
whereas
mm2,
are oriented
molecules
the
their cross
in the
it is
can
of glass in
unlikely
that
any
and
direction,
longitudinal
that
exist in the
high as 4.6 kN/
defects
as
are
than steel.
stronger
or polyesters.
Matrix materials are usually
resist
Pblyamides, which
epoxies
in
excess
of
300\302\260C
are
with
for
use
fibers.
being developed
graphite
temperatures
matrices
be considered. Some
Above this temperature, metal
should
also being considered as possiblematrix
materials
since they have a
thermoplastics are
According to
metals,
to
kind
the
main groups,
be described
next.
two
into
divided
the thermosetting
of constituents
than
toughness
higher
Plastics
Fiber-Reinforced
were
resins
Glass-fiber-reinforced
and erosionresistance,lightness,
molten
drawing
of
variety
between
fibers,
30
the
and
glass
through
polymers,
small
the first of
II to fulfill
the
by
were made
glass,
chemical
to
U.S.
impact
strength. The
in a platinum
openings
development
the
high
is
strength
improve
of improved
vapor deposition
which
principal
tungsten
die,
of
were
bonded
fibers
vary
most
common,
has
higher
strength
and modulus of
core
consist
fibers.
in
of glass
types
the
fiber composites
need
government's
resistance, corrosion
glass fibers, made by
The content
are two
E-type,
Further efforts
modern
the
transparency,
epoxy resins.
generally
a magnesia-alumina-silicate
stiffness\342\200\224and
is more
expensive.
deposited
War
and
S-type,
through
types.
and
and
the
elasticity
of
boron
These
fibers
Chapter 3
98
have
They
high
and stiffness
strength
high
and
tension
in
compression
(tensile
strengths
excess
in
matrix.
more
than glass,
expensive
have a
desirable
very
of low
yarn,
becomes
which
carbonizing range
3000\302\260C.
a loose,
filaments,
40,000
and black
carbon
up to
is easily
with
many
The
basic
in
tow
about
containing
fibers of continuous
of parallel
bundle
for
temperatures
form is a
product
untwisted
The
color.
plastics
including matched metal
technology,
11.
other methods described in Chapter
bag, hand
vacuum
die,
layup,
can
and
of
which is the trade name of an aramid
fiber, has a tensile strength
of
fiber.
Kevlar
can
some
it
the
strongest
organic
making
any
undergo
fracture
and thus have a higher
than other
before
plastic deformation
toughness
is
of
it
is
retarof
about
half
that
and
flame
fibers.
Its
aluminum,
types
density
a
dant
and
to
radio
it
attractive
for
number
of
transparant
signals, making
However, aramids absorb moisture.
military and
applications.
aerospace
Other
fibers used in fiber-reinforced plastic materials are nylon,
silicon
silicon
and so on.
aluminum oxide, boron carbide, molybdenum,
carbide,
nitride,
fibers.
Whiskers are also used as reinforcing
They are tiny, needlelike single
ratios
crystals that grow to 1-10 fim in diameter and have length-to-diameter
from 100 to 15,000.Becauseof their small size they are virtually
free
from
so their strength approaches the theoretical
of the material.
imperfections,
strength
Kevlar,
3kN/mm2,
Fiber Orientation
when combining
the fiber
a fiber is essentially
mentioned,
This means that if the fibers are all laid in the same
in properties.
to that direction will be only that of the matrix.
the strength
transverse
In addition,
fiber length can also
fiber placement is important.
must
variables
Many
direction,
Therefore,
influence
the
temperature.
Long
of a
performance
be taken
into
a composite.As
their
properties
transmit
in critical
consideration
has
been
the load
influenced
strongly
through
the
matrix
at
less
by
time
better and
elevated
effective
than
and
are
thus
applications, particularly
temperatures.
of the problems associated with
unidirectionsome
One means to circumvent
in
which
the
fibers
are
a pattern.
is
to
use
a
fabric
woven
into
ally laid fibers
commonly
used
Such cloths
application
commercially
materials,
fibers.
The
allowing them to be
graphite
high-modulus
filaments,
natural
as graphite
fabrics
yarns
can be
designedfor
woven
prepregged
specific
have
mats can
be used as reinforcements
coefficientof
friction.
Therefore,
factor
critical
available
mechanically
lubricity and a low
fibers
Graphite
for example,
requirements.
Some
fiber
available,
fiberglass, or other
matrix
various
with
of
are
with kevlar,
together
99
Materials
Engineering
the
for
between the
matrix,
the
Applications
Compositeswith
in the
and
fatigue
and
corrosion
Fiber-Reinforced
resistance.
Metals
extreme
thermal
matrix
strength
conductivity.
composites
is desired.
100
Chapter
composites:
Metal-Matrix
3.7
TABLE
Fiber
Composite Materials
Applications
Aluminum
1.
2. Magnesium
2.
1.
3. Lead
4. Copper
1.
Boron
3.
Aluminum/titanium
tungsten
From
Ref.
Helicopter
1.
Molybdenum,
44.
1.
Superalloy
plates
and
bearings
and
structural
fan
supports
blades
in
Magnesium
Superalloy
Jet-engine
structures
1.Superconductor restraints
power reactors
2.Storage-battery plates
3.
structures
1.Aluminum
2.Lead
3.
2.
3. Storage battery
4. Electrical contacts
blades
2. Antenna structures
3.Titanium
carbide
1. Compressor
Aluminum
2. Magnesium
Alumina
Source:
Applications
Matrix
Graphite
Silicon
and
(Co-base)
fusion
transmission
1.High-temperature
structures
2.
High-temperature
engine
components
1.
High-temperature
engine
components
Basic
4.1
The
INTRODUCTION
of metalworking theory
may be made
purpose
and
fracture,
the equipment
design
and
and
and
externalloads
are
homogeneous,
small
a background from
which
which
without
obtainable
in turn determine
for both the
is important
theory
engineer.
fundamental
or
discussed.
continuous,
provide
Thus, the
required.
tooling
production
is to
of the deformations
the forces and work necessary,
evaluations
reasonable
instability
of Metalworking
Theory
For
and
grains as described
in
this
of solid
purpose,
isotropic
Chapter
and laws
rules,
principles,
deformation
materials
the
media,
when
materials
not
3. However,
as
built
that
can
be used
subjected
are considered
up from thousands
this assumption
to
to
will
as
not
of
lead
at this level.
two- and three-dimensional
of stress is
systems
followed
of the stress-strain curve, true stress,
or
by discussions
logarithmic
which
natural strain,
volume
and
the
criteria,
instability.
yield
constancy,
Finally,
the stresses necessary to initiate
determine
and
maintain
plastic flow and the
work necessary
to carry out the deformation,
are analyzed.
to
any
A
serious
short
discrepancies
introduction
to
101
102
Chapter4
AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL
TWO-
4.2
SYSTEMS
OF STRESS
that
forces
The
forces
forces, are
When
processes
per unit
forces,
planning
area
as a
by
the
forces.
as either volume
or mass
which include acceleration
are usually
negligible
acting on the surface of
interaction
of the surrounding
situations
design
analyzing
or design
for
either
transmitted
element,
or by external
material
mass
discussion becausethey
forces
processes. Surfaceforcesinclude
volume
every
be classified
may
or
in this
considered
not
in metalworking
the
a solid body
forces. Volume
act on
or surface
measure of
force
over
area.
The force
per unit
usually designated
Considering
area
the
by
tensile
the
(1) perpendicular
2) is called the
stress
and
shown in Fig.
axis is
longitudinal
4.1,
the
on a
stress
cross section
definedby
P
A
M0
sine
Yt
P\\n\\
1
I
FIGURE 4.1
load P.
tensile
specimen
is
o (sigma):
symbol
specimen
the
to
in Chapter
(described
subjected
to the
Basic Theory
o =
of
103
Metalworking
(4.2)
\302\243
where
and A
force
the
If a crosssection
(2)
A~Q
where Ae is
(4.2)] lies in
cross section
direction
the
axis
2.
of the
be resolved
or decomposed into two components
P\342\200\236
perpendicular
section (2) and P, parallel or tangential to cross section (2), so that the
stress can be describedby:
the normal
The
stress normal to cross section (2), called
stress (a):
can
Pn
\302\260e
T8
^=
ATsln-9 =2lsin29
oe and
te
(P/A)
both
for
state
with
vary
9 =
of
(4'4)
shear
the
stress
(x):
IP
P cos9
and maximum
to cross
P,
stresses
The
A7sln-9=Asin
stress parallel to
The
sin 9
is
axis
longitudinal
(43)
area of
cross-sectional
of the longitudinal
the
the
sin 9
\302\260m
that
(45)
9. The normal
jt/2. The
stress oe is zero
shear stressTe
is zero
for
for 9
9 =
= ji/2 and
defined
(P/2A)
as
positive
two
state of
mutually
perpendicular
Fig.
directions.
the
sign
of the
shear
4.2).
load
It
situation,
is now
that is,
a sheet stressed
describe the
our intention to
P
of o and x on every plane passing through
point
an
and
is
chosen
so
that
(x,
y)
system
appropriate
is obtained,
and based on the stresses in these directions,
the
simple description
stresses o and x on every plane through
P can be calculated as shown
in Fig.
4.2b and c.
From
4.2b it can be seen that
the normal
stress acting in the direction
of
Fig.
the jc-axisis calledax (acting on a plane parallel to the y-axis and in the direction
of the jc-axis) and that oy is acting on a plane parallel
to the jc-axis and in the
direction
of the y-axis. The subscript
the normal to the plane on
thus
designates
which
the stress is acting (i.e., it identifies
both plane and direction). To identify
the shear
the plane
the
first
stresses, two subscripts are necessary,
identifying
stress
(Fig. 4.2a).
in terms
coordinate
Chapter 4
104
its
(by
normal)
Thus
direction.
axis and
in
On Fig. 4.2cthe
point
normal
P is
in
by
the
direction
an
of the jc-axis.
element
if it
equilibrium
infinitesimal
on this element
must be in
ABCD. The system of stressacting
or rotate).
From moment equilibrium
is not to change its position (i.e., translate
be complementary
it is found that the
shear
stresses
and
must
and equal
xyx
x^
in
which
to distinguish
means that it is not necessary
between
It
them.
size,
ABCD is so small that
the
stresses
do not vary
is assumed that the element
it (i.e., it is in reality only a point). If the element
is too large, the stress
across
will have different
points
system will vary within the element (i.e., different
states of stress).
acting
a two-dimensional
on a right-angled
to x
normal
shows
4.3
Figure
and
are
prism.
known,
FIGURE
system
4.2
of stress).
The state
It is assumed
that
the
of stress in
a biaxially
the
on the
stresses
stresses
planes
is inclined
Since
in any
a two-dimensional
at
the system
direction.
of
Basic Theory
FIGURE
4.3
arbitrary
plane
perpendicular to AC (in
Force equilibrium
=
Ox>[AC)
105
Metalworktng
Ox{AB) cos
xxy{AC)
sin 9
-ax{AB)
0 +
cos
ay{BC)
gives
x^AB) cos
sin
x^BC)
(4.6)
plane AC (directiony')
to the
parallel
sin
x^AB)
an
x') gives
+ Txy(BC)cos
Force
0 +
8 + oy(BC) sin
direction
the
acting on
of stresses
(4.7)
Since
AB =
AC
(4.6)
Equations
<V
xxy
If the
and
ox cos2
=
BC =
and
cos
(4.7)
0 +
ax sin 0
double angle
ay
can
sin2
be modified to
0 +
cos 0 +
20 is
sin
AC
oy
sin
the
introduced,
following
modified
obtained:
oy =
=
Txy
For
l/z(ax
{Moy
the direction
correspondingly
be
ay)
+ V2[ox
ax) sin 20
ay)
cos
+ x^ sin
sin2
0)
equations
20
following
are
(4.8)
+ x^ cos20
found:
20
(4.9)
equation
for oy.
can
Chapter 4
106
oy =
Vz
(ax
oy)
V2
(ax
29
ay) cos
t^
20
sin
(4.10)
Since TyV is equal to xx.y,, these three equations constitute the complete
at the angle 6 to the y-axis(i.e., the
the state of stress on a plane
inclined
is rotated through
the angle
6 counterclockwise relative to the x,
jt\\ /-system
of
description
y-system).
fourth
the
tan
29
be seen
in
the
two planes at
that
means
for
o, >
on
planes
o2. Thus
angles 9
the
It can
are the
be shown
differentiating
and minimum
these
by
maximum
as
of the principal
o,
normal
and o2
and
(maximum)
ov
\342\231\246
(^)2
(4.12)
the
stresses are used to describe
calculations.
in
the
simplifications
resulting
that
By
differentiating
Eq. (4.9) it can be shown
Often,
state of
the principal
occurs on
Tmax =
The normal
(l/2)(o,
magnitude
0\\
shear stress
maximum
the
the
principal
\342\200\224
O2
*4'13*
2
stress
planes of
on the
maximum
can
shear
be shown to
be equal to
+ o2).
EXAMPLE 1.
Determine
stress becauseof
mutual
two
planes. The
stresses
Thus
1/2
2 o\\
*}
o2-
of the principal
magnitudes
substituted.
the
shear
directions
stress
the
which
The
planes.
stresses.
and 2 (minimum).
the
Equations (4.8) and (4.10) determine
when
the condition
given by Eq. (4.11) is
1
quadrant.
shear stressexists
+ nil,
and
two-dimensional
any
system.
so that
chosen
first
(4>11)
that
(4.8)
is, no
that
avoid
Oy)
perpendicular
mutually
stresses
in the
is situated
vanishes;
xx>y>
second
in the
to
that
when 6 is situated
recommended that
6 is chosen so that
defines
(4.11)
stressis zero.This
two
it is
\342\200\224-^
Vl{Ox
Equation
occurs
sign
consequently
be chosen so that
x', y'
system
From
on
and
quadrants,
the
mistakes
that a changein
be noted
must
It
and
state
the principal
of stress
stresses.
is described
by
ax
ay
= 0 and
t^
5*
0.
Basic Theory
of
gives
Equation (4.12)
02J
L-T^
t*v
This
fjry
26
sin
principal stresses
of the
directions
The
107
Metalworklng
28
sin
1 ^>
can be found
from
Eq.
(4.8),
since
:\302\243>
1]
direction
(for
implies
a tensile
acting
on
Fig. 4.4).
In
To describea two-dimensional
stresses
were
used, only
necessary:
are
three
ax, ay,
oz,
1 \342\200\224
2: Ti-2
FIGURE
4.4
(biaxial stress
xyt,
x^,
oy
at
The
45\302\260
to
If the
x\342\200\236.
system,
principal
corresponding
the
system),three
principal
stresses are
maximum
shear
planes, are:
\342\200\224
Oj
^=
T3*
(~
T2>
\342\200\2242\342\200\224
1-3: t,-3 =
2-3:x2-3
0\\
of stress
For
discussed.
more complicated.
To describea three-dimensional
o,, o2,
necessary:
stress were
is a little
analysis
system
are necessary:
six stresses
systems of
two-dimensional
1 only
Example
three-dimensional
0\\
- 03
2\342\200\224
02
A state
~~
03
of
pure
(= x,]
shear.
Tn>ax
(absolute)
(4.14)
108
Chapter
The
numbers
are arranged
stresses
and 3
so that
O)
stressesact.
4.3
CURVES
STRAIN
STRESS-NATURAL
TRUE
AND INSTABILITY
4.3.1
2 the stress-strain
In Chapter
were
stresses
Nominal
nOikmh
Strain
curves obtained
tensile
from
tests were
discussed.
as
defined
P
A
\342\226\240
. .
\"original
experiences,
plastically.
since
To
deformation of materials,
that
the
The
material
true
area.
stress
nominal
stress
it is
necessary
to
know
true
the
the
stress
experiences).
is defined as
o =
(4.15)
\302\243
where Ac is the
thus obtained by
current
dividing
or
instantaneous
the instantaneous
cross-sectional
force
by
the
area. The
instantaneous
true
stress
is
area (i.e.,
Basic
of Metalworking
Theory
109
(o.e)
ft
anom
\302\260
-\"\"
\342\200\242
^*
''\"'
M
(twe>
^<\302\243-\342\200\224\342\200\242\342\200\224v
*\302\273
^^^^
^v
\302\253V-\302\253^^
X
'\"
^_-
f\\^jT
^\\.
\\*r^
(Mild steel)
(o,e)
(Other
metals)
(o nom'
__\302\273\342\200\242)
'
'
^
curves plotted
stress-nominal strain curves
Stress-strain
FIGURE
4.5
e)
(Onom\302\273
and ^ue
smallest
stress-nominal
nominal
as
strain curves
(o, e).
area an average
the real \"true\"
is obtained;
stress
\"true\"
only be
three-dimensional stress
system. In metalworking
calculations,
only deformations up to the beginning of
occurs
are of interest; consequently, the correction
necking where instability
of
the \"true\" stress will not be discussed in this context.
The nominal
or engineering
strain was defined in Chapter
2 as
determined
by
correcting
e =
where
is the
/,
involving
natural,
been
j*
can
stress
for the
stress
\"true\"
original
and
length
l2 the
stresses\342\200\224are
final
length.
generally
true,
given a
defined
the average
A tensile
now
necking
x 100%
I,
same
the
of
elongation
dl and
nominal strains\342\200\224in
for calculations
occur.
the
Therefore,
the incremental
strain\342\200\224has
The
unsuitable
elongated
this incremental
to
the length
increaseof
strain
/.
It
is
is
by
- dl
d*-j
If
the
is deformed
specimen
obtained
/, to
total
strain
is
by integration:
rh
\342\200\242l-2
J/j
dl
l2
ln/;
(4.16)
no
Chapter
\"In\" denotes the logarithm to the base e. This strain (4.16) is the natural
and is designated by e, whereas
the nominal strain
was
by e.
designated
Some of the advantages
to the nominal strain
of the natural strain
compared
where
strain
are:
1.
additive. A
strains are
Natural
specimen
deformed from
is first
/,
to
l2
nominal
strain
are not
they
(i.e.,
Case
additive).
e
'3
l2-*l3
]%
, h
7- +
In
Adding
.h-k
/.
lnr2
>
-*i
II
/.
ii-
<.-+<2
/.
/.
'i-'s
\302\273i
natural
The
in
deformed
from
hx
strain
which
tension,
to
from
to l2 =
/,
= (M2)hx
h2
in compression
A specimen
values
strain.
a
and
is
is compressed
specimen
are shown in the
table.
following
Case
I
/,
- 2/,
II
In
2/| =
~r
2/,
In 2
-In 2
e =
h ~
~V~
Tx~l
(1/2)/.,
hx
hi
hi
follows:
\"
/.
\\n-r~-1
- /,
the
maximum
load,
as
BasicTheory
of
HI
Metalworklng
that is,
h
r = 1+ e
or
lnr
In
(1
-I-
e)
alternatively,
or,
(1 +
In
\342\202\254
e)
\342\202\254
give
and
(4.17)
instability)
(until
approximately
(i.e.,
=
\342\202\254
e).
Volume Constancy
4.3.2
on
Based
but
deformations,
compared
evidence
experimental
material is constant
the
to
plastic
deformation.
plastic
during
the elastic
since
is found
it
deformation is,
deformation,
it
in
be neglected
can
volume
very
general,
without
of the
for elastic
any
small
measurable
error.
constancy can
Volume
(4.18)
\302\260
V is the volume
natural strain.
where
the
be expressed
by
of the
material
undergoing
*^-~~+
^**^
\302\260nom
^^
pother
Mild steel
deformation and
plastic
e)
<\302\260
metals
(cj,.e)
E
FIGURE
4.6
True and
nominal
stress-strain
curves.
is
\342\202\254
Chapter 4
112
Considera parallelepipedwith
to
deformed
/|
(/, +
A/,)(/2
the
dimensions
/3 +
and
A/2,
are
which
gives
= hhh
+ A/3)
A/2)(/3
as
be written
can
This
+ A/|, /2
or
e,)(l +
(1 +
is the
where e
In
In
(1
e3)
strain.
nominal
ex) +
(1
e2)(\\
logarithms gives
Taking
e2) +
In
(1
e3) =
becomes
+ \342\202\2543
0
\342\202\2542
(4.19)
as Al = A,/, =
can alsobe expressed
cross-sectional area and / the length. This, combined with
Volume constancy
\342\202\2541-2
Inr r
\342\202\254l.2
,In Ay
-r
7-
ln-
A is
the
results
in
(4.20)
with a
specimens
(4.16),
A2
f,
For
where
A2/2,
Eq.
h =
Ax
ln- =
Di2
ln5?
gives
D,
= 21n-
is the
0 -~ -
where
A is
Since
1 +
o=
-\" L^l
_\"
TX~A
Al
0nomX
_\"
0wmTx
(1
o\342\204\242
This relation is
+
valid
suffix
can be
1 denotes
the
original
state.
expressed as
(4.21)
e)
only
until
necking
starts.
Basic Theory of
4.3.3
113
Metalworklng
Instability
As mentioned
area
in
in
to local deformation
from being uniformly
distributed
along the gage length
the necking region.
The
the slope of the load-straincurve
of the onset of instability
is where
point
in load).
becomes
zero (i.e., a strain
increase
takes place without any increase
This can be expressed
as
=0
ovt, Eq.
do
dA =
Since
(4.22)
Volume
d{Al)
Since rfe
%
dill,
the condition
of
above to give
becomes
instability
many
without
failure
by
predict
that
means
work
the
of instability,
beyond the point
stress-strain
curve at this point.
true
how
the
point
slope
of instability is
of the
stress-strain
stress. Strain
and hence there is no sudden
of the
hardening)
applied
determined
graphically
on
curve.
stresses,the
the
4.7 shows
Figure
parameters
_ n
(4.23)
the
in
stress-strain
withstand
gives
, ,dA
Adl
continues
hardening
change
In
= 0
= o
This equation
curve (rate of
to
is combined
which
dVldz
constancy
dV
as
(4.22) can be expressed
metal working
processes taking
place
maximum
of deformation that
amount
failure
to
avoid
instability
failure can
could
be
a ductile
is determined
by
the
strain
point of
under
be located
on
the
It
is therefore
true
stress-natural
strain curve
Chapter 4
114
0 1i
M
ii
f
jj
\302\260(inst)
e(1nst)
1
\342\200\242\342\200\224
FIGURE 4.7
curve
Graphic
location
of the point
of
on
instability
strain
true stress-natural
(uniaxial).
obtained
strain
of
estimation
both
models
analytical
be far more
analytically,
are discussed.
analytical
the
convenient
in
actual
most
calculations.
MODEL 1 (Fig.
o=
This
4.8a).
cc\"
(4.24)
model
o =
o0
2 (Fig.
accuracy
n
represent
a cubic
and
4.8b).
(4.25)
is
Basic
115
of Metalworklng
Theory
o.o0
o=cen
PERFECT-PLASTIC
*'
A,
(a)
models for true
Approximate
materials;
(b) non-strain-hardening
4.8
FIGURE
hardening
or slight,
strain
stress-natural
strain
curve: (a)
strain-
materials.
a perfect
represents
with no,
materials
for
(b)
hardening
(n
=*
0).
reasonable
This
simple model
The
is often used in approximate
calculations
of average stresses and forces.
stress o0 is often defined as the mean yield stress o^ = (o0l +o02)/2,where
the deformation.
and after
1 and 2 indicate the yield stress before
the suffixes
Since the
are very
strains
elastic
Model 1 may
=
+
\342\202\254
\302\260ut
niodel
\342\202\254eiastic\342\202\254piastic
2 cannot
law o
Hooke's
include
elastic
the
plastic
strains if e is
strains,
they
considered as
- E \342\200\242
e, so that
is described.
material
so that
chosen
analytical models are usually
and the experimental curvesis obtained.
1 (i.e.,
o = ce\,") the
that can be representedby model
Considering
point
small comparedto
of instability
do _
=
5-
in the
the
models
can be determined
_ _
_
\342\200\236\342\200\236n-l
=
o
nc\342\202\254im
from
Eq.
(4.23):
\342\200\236n
c\342\202\254iMt
n
\342\202\254inst
(4.26)
This
the
strain
that n is
at instability is
a measureof
the
116
Chapter
4.1
TABLE
Values of
Typical
c and
n in
Model
(4.24)]
[Eq.
c(N/mm2)
Metal
steel
640
0.22
Stainless steel
1560
0.50
156
0.25
Mild
soft
Aluminum,
soft
Copper,
Brass
525
0.38
745
0.48
In
stressesthan
uniaxial
strain of
the
and
stress-natural
dl~a
From
such
curves,
which
expresses
not
fracture.
instability occurs
strain
does
as necking
For a given
the true stress/nominal
material
Determine the condition of instability.
(4.23)
Equation
available.
<fo
instability.
2.
EXAMPLE
true
a uniaxial
compressive
systems of stress, instability
here the limits of deformation are set by
Under
occur,
processes,
metal-forming
system of
strain
curve
when
r,
(4.17),
Eq.
the
relation
between
nominal
and
natural
strain,
= In
\342\202\254
it
(1 +
e)
that
is found
de
=
d\342\202\254
1 +
This is substituted
condition
e
in
the
o, e-instability
condition,
giving
the
is
o,
e-instability
Basic Theory of
117
Metalworking
EXAMPLE
3. The stress-strain
cc\". Determine the ultimate strength
curve
defined
was
for
is described
material
ultimate tensile strength
by
The
Onon,,,,^
(2.5)].
by [Eq.
inst
Omm,uts
where
is the original
At
Mnst
*\"a*
0inst^inst\302\273
ahmA
The
cross-sectional area.
true
stress,
inst
equation (4.23)
instability
Expressedin
,S\302\273
can be combined
with
o = ec\"
and Eq.
(4.26),
giving
_ _x ,
-_ O
^ Cingt -_
do
\302\260inst
Volume
= constant
A\\l\\
instability
this
becomes
=
It
\"inst
A-lxax can
this,
A,Mt
In^-
-i
\302\253n
\302\253inst
be determined:
\"
exp
<Wuts>
oinst
and
AifM
are now
substituted
in
the
equation
for
giving
On
'nom.un
that
Thus,
\342\202\254=
From
ajnst.
C\342\202\254instcn
ln/
At
calculationof
constancy gives
Al
n\342\200\236
Ojns^inst
Aj
CrrA
\342\200\224
A{ exp
is,
Otwm,
uw
cnn
exD _
(4.28)
Chapter 4
118
4.4
CRITERIA
YIELD
As discussed
both in Chapter
2 and in this
a material subjected to tensile stressalong
stress-strain
the
its
exceeds
stress
the
chapter, plasticdeformation
yield
in
occurs
axis
at 0.2%
stress
yield
the
from
point\342\200\224or
permanent strain.
as
In
of stress.
states
as the yield condition for uniaxial
following,
00
deformation
takes
or
In most forming and cutting
occurs
processes,
place
to be able to
under more
states of stress, and it is therefore
complex
necessary
is initiated
and maintained. This
the state of stress at which
yielding
predict
of
that
a yield criterion, enabling consideration of all the combinations
means
the
stresses
a yield
will
that
plastic
provide
criterion is basedon
the
of
flow, must be established.The establishment
or empirical observations:
assumptions
following
continuous,
are homogeneous,
metals
The
used
be
will
and isotropic
(i.e.,
have
same
the
in all directions).
properties
and tension.
The metals have the same yield stressin compression
A superimposed hydrostatic
does
not influence the initiation
pressure
of
yielding.
In
Tresca
1864,
maximum
the
Yield Criterion
Tresca's
4.4.1
*max
^\302\260'
half
stress, Tresca's
principal
=
to
\302\2603^
constant
that
saying
value.
k =
xcri,
when
shear
the difference
criterion may
flow occurs
plastic
Since
the maximum
be
expressed
the
as
(4.29)
be reduced.
SinceEq. (4.29)isapplicable
critical
value)
uniaxial
=
\302\2602
\302\2603
0. Equation
Qi
lmax
03
(4.29
then
gives)
Oq
lcnw
Basic
Theory
which
means
tension
119
of Metalworfcfng
the critical
that
to the
yield stress
in
simple
by
is very
This
o,
In
- o2)2 +
(01
(02
C is the
determine C. Uniaxial
a,2 +
The von
a,2 =
2o02
(o2
~ 0|)2 21constant
for all
same
can
systems of stress, simple tension
=
=
= 0
ax
o0, o2
03
gives
von Mises:
means
This
then
o3)2 +
(o3
as
be expressed
-
o,)2 >
that
ductile metals
best
cases,
it
agreement,
particularly
von
that
is,
to
initiate
been
criteria
= k,
o2
give
=
different
0, o3
results.
= -k:
(4.32)
\\ y
shear stress at
the critical
has
* =
2oo2 =>
= 1.15;
previously by 2/>/3
critical shear
stress
value
(4.31)
2o02
= -z-
Oo^>k
=
6k2
be
Tresca:k +
where
tension
(03
the
For
Pure
the
O3)2 +
the constant
used to
(o,
(4.30)
03)
as
mathematically
Since
property.
that yielding
occurs when
proposed a yield criterion, stating
unit
volume
of deformation
provided
by the system of stress
per
value for the particular
which can be expressed
critical
material,
work
the
material
von Mises
1913,
exceeds
o2 >
easily obtained
as
expressed
Yield Criterion
Mises'
von
4.4.2
be
thus
(o, >
2= a0
o3
the most
o0 is
since
important,
criterion can
Tresca's
Mises'
yielding
as mentioned
differs
yielding
criterion requires a 15%higher
than does Tresca's criterion. For
shown experimentally
but due to
its
by design
engineers.
simplicity,
that
Tresca's
von
Mises'
criterion
criterion
is applied in
gives
many
120
Chapter
Principal
stresses
von Mises
0,
o2
<J|
\302\260i
PS o,
o2
PS
03
o,
\302\260i
\302\2603
o2
o2
criteria
Yield
= o0
o,2 + o22
+ o32 = o0
PS o22 +
\302\2602 o3
CS 0|
\302\2603 \302\2603
o32
\342\200\224
=
o3
0|02 =
0, =
o0
- o0
0,
0O2
- \302\260\302\260
\342\200\236
\302\260'
\302\253*-\302\243?
PS o^
PS -0
Tresca
0^3 =
o2o3
o0
0,
o02
o0
o0
= O0
-O3
0|
o3 =
\302\253
-o2
- o02
\342\200\224
=
O0
O3
metal
of
5. Many
a state
EXAMPLE
working
processes take place under
that
direction
deformation called plane strain;
is, the strain in one principal
that
the flow everywhere is parallel to the plane
is zero. This means
(1,3)
the
normal
and independent of the position along
(2) to this
(see
plane
under
place
plane strain
Fig. 4.9). Determine for deformationstaking
- 0, \342\202\2543),
the
of yielding by Tresca's
conditions
initiation
and von Mises*
(et,
e2
yield criteria.
When
a material
directions,
either
prevented
for
by the
tooling or
by
the
has a tendency
geometry
of
to
flow
in all
direction is
the component (sheetrolling,
flow
the
in one
example).
A plain
It
plane
can
strain
condition
be shown
o2 = lMoi
FIGURE
4.9
0,
(\342\202\254,,
\342\202\2542
from the
flow
rules
that
the stress
o2 is zero.
(4.33)
o3)
Examples of plane
imply
strain
conditions.
of
Basic Theory
criterion
Tresca's
03 =
Oi
for
then,
^=
implies [Eq.
(4.34)
Go
1-direction
to
modified
(4.30)]
(4.31)] that
If the
a plane
Go
03 =
Oi
implies
criterion
Mises'
Von
121
Metalworklng
external
no
stresses are
provided in
compression,
become
= -TrOo
-03
the
Eq. (4.34) is
for example),
(4.35)
combinations
these
types.
4.5
The
purpose
more
the
expressing
done by
complex
are
systems
advantage here
curve,
is that
giving,
for
The definition
yield criterion
o =
and
M(<>i -
it
is
now
is given
a2)2
1/2
+
[|(\342\202\254,2
A major
situations.
or equivalent stress
o is based
stress-strain
on
von
Mises*
by
(o2
is chosen
be explained
occurs
when
c22 +
uniaxial
example,
of the effective
Correspondingly,the
i =
to equivalent
transformed
is
o3)2 +
(03
effective
\342\202\25432fT
or equivalent
(4.36)
o,)2]}\"2
strain
(o,, 0, 0).
von Mises* yield
tension
\342\202\254
is defined
by
(4.37)
122
Chapter
\302\273
w
r.
11
Y=r-=tan0
t=1
(c)
Pure
4.10
FIGURE
shear
+ rotation \302\243
simple
1 \302\253-
The basic
types
of deformation:
(a) stretching;
(b) compression;(c)
shear.
(d) pure
simple shear;
shear
is chosen so that
=
\342\202\254
e,
(e,, -e,/2,
-e,/2).
the intention
of obtaining a simplemethod
and
strain.
The stress-strain
curve
of
stress
describing
complex
systems
a
s
a
be
considered
case
of
an
obtained
a
test
can
from
tensile
(o, e)
special
under
effective
curve (o, e). Testing results (o, e) obtained
stress-strain
complex
to
the
in
tension
results
obtained
situations can thus be directly
compared
simple
is true in normal situations; that
or compression tests. The reverse
is, the
situations
when they
can be used directly in complex
uniaxial stress-strain
curves
are expressed in terms of a and e.
Equations
(4.36)
and (4.37)
6.
As exercises,
fulfill
of
EXAMPLE
for
the
different
stress-strain
systems
strains
are calculated
Basic Theory
4.2
TABLE
of
123
Metalworklng
Effective Stresses
and
Strains
for Different
Process
Strain
o2
Rolling
lnP\302\2530
>*
>*
7r,=
~7T3
03
V3
\342\200\2245-03
(cylindrical
Forging
workpiece)
1
hi
r~\342\200\224I\342\200\224
In
D2
,no;
CO
,no;
[= 2e2 =
2e3)
z
-o,
Extrusion
>*
lno;
In
(=
-(o,
o3
-2\342\202\2542
-2e3)
o3)
Bulging
In
In
D2
'2
~\302\2533
(=
-M
2e2 =
2e,]
Spherical segment
Tube
expansion
In 22
'2
-a
*2 = *i
(D2
D,),uniform deformation
>/0|2+ 022-0|02
124
WORK
4.6
the
Determination of work
4.11
FIGURE
OF DEFORMATION
of work, depending on
amount
material requires a certain
work
which the deformation takes place.The deformation
of the energy necessary to
determination
a
it
allows
as
quantity,
of the forces involved.
and allows a determination
deformation
under
conditions
is an
of deformation.
of a
deformation
The
Chapter
important
the
of machinery
selection
or the design of
machinery.
dw
The
work
W =
If
every
(homogeneous
the strain
from
e, to the
strain
e2,
the work
per
becomes
volume
w =
of
a dt
work
(4.38)
dl
to
to deform the
necessary
J jwdV
element
in the
deformation),
whole
volume
V then
becomes
(4.39)
jJVadldV
volume V
Eq.
is supplied
(4.39)
can be
with the
written
same amount
as
of work
Basic
125
of Metahvorklng
Theory
fl
f\342\200\224
\342\226\240V-TN
\\\342\200\224\\-\\\342\200\2241\342\200\224I\342\200\2241
4\342\200\224XJ
v-J.\342\200\224V,\342\200\2241
h^ Redundant
Friction
Homogeneous
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4.12
of deformation:
Work
(a) original workpiece; (b) homogeneous
work of deformation); (c) nonhomogeneous
workpiece (i.e., homogeneous
of the workpiece (i.e., the work of deformation is equal
to homogeneous
deformation
+ frictional
work + redundant
work of deformation
work).
of the
deformation
work
The
per
yield stress
by
mean
the
Om(\342\202\2542\342\202\254,)
with Eq.
combined
fa
(4.38) gives
\342\200\224
Jei
\342\202\254i
\342\202\254?
</e
(4.40)
stress-strain
If the
expressed approximately
strain of deformation, giving
W =
which
by the
multiplied
om
also be
can
volume
unit
material
can
be represented
by
the
o =
model
If the
volume
work
To find
len+l
fn+
e, is zero and
are supplied with
strain
initial
elements
The
dV
the
(4.41)
deformation
of
:n+i
(4.42)
n + 1
the
between
the work necessary to
is the
In
overall
redundant
this
be
geometry.
work.
context
considered, and
it
will
constitutes
predominantly
the lower
be
limit
126
Chapter
consideration,
from
redundant
When
EXAMPLE 7. Determinethe
= 0 to
e2 = \302\253.
\342\202\254,
material
The
dimensions
e2 =
the
e = 2
work
the
the
into
necessary
to deform
curve o =
dimensions
are D2
stress-strain
final
a tensile specimen
1ngl
of homogeneous
assumption
by
taken
gives
(4.20)
With
can be described
are D, and /,, and
be
will
be included.
not
will
work
the friction
possible,
work
deformation, the
work
necessary
can
be
(4.42):
fD'2''rtr(21n5!r'
<\302\253\342\226\240\302\253>
of
Classification
the
5.1
Manufacturing
Processes
INTRODUCTION
was
morphological model of the manufacturing
processes
was built up from a few fundamental elements arranged as
a material
an energy flow, and an information
flow. The description of the
flow,
within
the framework of the morphologicalmodel
that the
showed
processes
in groups
with certain common
processes could appropriately be gathered
The
features.
features
that distinguish these groups might
be the state of the
the process
material,
type, the basic process, and so on.
in the following
The more detailed descriptionspresented
chapters are based
on
a classification
of the processes into a few major groups with one or more
basic common feature(s).
The
aim of this text, in general,
is to enable the engineer
to distinguish
among
the
various
and to characterize them
of their possibilities
by means
processes
and
limitations
material, geometry, tolerances, and surface finish.
concerning
For the application
of the processes, both in design and in production, it is
that
the
of the processes rely on the basic principles covered
important
description
the
and imaginative
model, since this enables
ingenious
by
morphological
utilizations
of the existing processes and production equipment. This approach
has
fruitful
been found to be much
and
than
traditional
more
the
challenging
which has the major disadvantage that
those processes
descriptive
approach,
only
In
Chapter
presented.
This
1 a
model
127
128
Chapter 5
here
employed
approach
classification
The
model
morphological
state of
material,
parameters,
giving
of the
classification
different
many
technological
criteria,
depending
mentioned, be basedon
the
as characteristic
the
grouping
chapters.
following
PROCESSES
its
may be based on
classification
will, as
processes
manufacturing
on
purpose.
This
model discussed
morphological
toward generation
oriented
a structure
obtain
used
are
OF THE
CLASSIFICATION
5.2
A
known
or
remembered
in
1 to
Chapter
of possiblemanufacturing
methods
to
specific components.
produce
The structure
the classification
of
is
thus:
flow
Material
T^pe of
material
State of
material
of process
Type
Basic process
flow
Energy
of energy
Type
Medium of transfer
flow
Information
creation principle
Surface
of
Pattern
motion
This structure is
In
this
specific
(obtaining
the
context,
geometrical
properties(mainly
selecting
dependent
strain
and a
in
properties)
by deformation.
many
previously,
without
properties
very
important
3. Further
processes
changing the
one, constitutes
aiming
primarily at changes
the
elements
in the
classification
structure
are
discussed
in
group,
major
discussed
found
the literature.
Next
2,
in
hardening
Chapter
5.1.
As discussed
material
in Fig.
schematically
at geometrical
only processes aiming primarily
changes
in Chapter
will be discussed, but, as described
geometries)
are normally accompanied by changes
in other
changes
changes
dependent
to
shown
briefly.
in
FIGURE 5.1
Classification
of the
technological
manufacturing
processes
into groups
having
common
features.
Chapter 5
130
of
Type
nonmetallic,
Material.
State of
granular,
or
can be shapedin
of material
type
given
state of the
state. The
liquid
describes
material
the
solid,
the situation
in
the
shaping phase.
Type
the
in
solid
state,
shaping can
be
by:
Mass-conserving
(or
Considering materials
of Process.
carriedout
closely
of the
component is equal to
The basic process
material.
is plastic deformation.
(dM < 0): the final
processes
the
by
shape of the original
shape can be
and
the excess is
material,
or
chemical
basic
removed
thermal,
by mechanical,
processes.
the final geometry is obtained by joining
the subgeomeJoining
processes:
both
of the abovetries. The subgeometries are produced
or
one
by
Mass-reducing
circumscribed
mentioned
component
of processes.
types
with
types of
specific
Basic Processes.
chemical.
and
basic
material,
It can
may be
chemical,
and
Type of
for
utilized
for
that,
mechanical,
electrical,
each
chaptersdealing
are noted.
mechanical,thermal,
in Fig.
specified
combination
material
solid
materials,
processes
in
the
mechanical
within
granular
processes
joining
and
liquid
states,
the
mass-
are thermal or
are
predominantly
the
basic processes
mechanical.
main
of energy that can be utilized
types
necessary to carry out a given basic process
and chemical. The type
of energy
is not
thermal,
Energy.
type
processes exist:
of basic
mechanical. For
are predominantly
specific
types
materials
metallic
general
process.
be mentioned
mass-conserving
reducing
Three
These basic
processes
and actual
processesfor
is in
of energy
The
to
create
the
are
specified
in
of the
Classification
Fig.5.1,asmore
one type
than
previous parameters,depending
131
Processes
Manufacturing
the
for
each
of the
combination
conditions.
surface
Total
seen in
Chapter
1 that
of
(TF)
forming
One-dimensional
forming
(ODF)
Two-dimensional
forming
(TDF)
Free
It was
of Motion.
(FF)
forming
of these, the
of motions
for the work
and the medium
material
pattern
is obtained.
be selected, so that the desired component
creation
and the pattern of motions
information
The surface
(the
system)
describe
of the processes. It is especially
the geometrical
possibilities
important
that at this point,
utilized.
of the
the systems are imaginatively
The specification
carried
as
an
iteration
the
information
must
be
out
system
by detailing
information
and the energy system.
system
For each
of
It
be mentioned
should
not themselves
Based on
following
important
geometrical
now
must
transfer
the
chapters,
in the
possibilities,
structure
morphological
the engineer
will
be
production,
and
processes
are exceptions,
as
they
do
in the
(or model) and the description
to judge the material properties
able
the
processes,
surfaces obtainable.
the
Materials:
Solid
Processes
Mass-Conserving
6.1
INTRODUCTION
this
In
group of
major
desired
processes\342\200\224the
manufacturing
called
processes\342\200\224often
is produced
geometry
plastic deformation.
the
by
metal-forming
basic process,
mechanical
Within
last
in an
The mass-conservingprocesses
to
can\342\200\224according
necessary to producea component\342\200\224be
processes and (2) secondary
processes.
of processes
The
initial
order to
properties)and
etc.)
include
of
purposes
that
improve the
primary
processes
primary
materials
material
the
in
are twofold:
of ingots
form
(in particular
properties
location
first,
to
processes.
such
and so
extrusion,
forging,
semifinal
The
as forging,
or
final
secondary
sheet metal
on.
The
components
processes
forming
break
series
the
primary
down the
produced by casting
the mechanical
rods,
rolling,
in
as (1)
classified
the production of
processes,
the
of the
structure
their
secondary
sheets,
in
tubes,
processes
processes
aim at
(including
bending,
deep drawing,
133
Chapter6
134
and electrochemical
classification
suitable
completely
may
mass-reducing
etc.);
spinning,
stretching,
charge,
be regarded
allowing
limitations.
Thus
are based on
their
and
possibilities,
heated
metals can
processes
primary
that
processes
working
these
is
materials
the
conditions,
deformations
large
in compression.
without fracture
Hot-working processes
small
with
structure
and
up
following
advantages:
casting is broken
equiaxial grains.
from the
structure
crystal
broken
are
Impurities
the
have
normally
and
more
distributed
down
the
throughout
evenly
to
material.
Poresor voids
closed
are
up.
properties are
Mechanical
considerably
(especially
ductility and
refined
structure.
impact strength),
Forces and energy necessary
to carry out the processes
are relatively small,
due to the lower yield strength of the material
at elevated
temperatures
3
(note, however, that strain rate has the opposite influence;see Chapter
and Fig. 2.5).
(i.e., large deformations are
drastically
Shape can be changed
quite
improved
of the
because
obtainablein
compression).
disadvantages associatedwith
of scales,
Rapid oxidation (i.e., formation
Some of the
Relatively
the
Basically,
made in
cold
of
working
the
working
In
general,
Better
Better
(2-5%),
Since
metals.
no
are mentioned
surfaces).
surfaces.
these
two categories
cold
working,
working
of metals
will
give:
and tolerances
properties
(strength)
reproducibility
Anisotropy
advantage
(i.e.,
when
directional
it is
properties
possible to
utilize
of the
the
material\342\200\224this
effect)
is
disadvantagesfor
first.
to hot
compared
between
distinction
description,
following
surfaces
rough
in rough
requiresconsiderablemaintenance.
in both the hot and
principles of processingare utilized
same
Better mechanical
resulting
due to the
are:
working
is expensive and
machinery
Hot-working
cold
tolerances
wide
hot
is
only
an
Someof
the
Less
of cold
disadvantages
Increased force
and
energy
and more
heavier
is
working
due to
requirements,
strain
(i.e.,
hardening
is required).
equipment
powerful
working are:
to hot
compared
work material.
the
in
ductility
Anisotropy
135
Matt-Conserving Processes
Materials:
Solid
in the
produced
workpiece (an
advantage
in
many
sheet-
forming processes).
Clean and
surfaces
scale-free
are required on
describedin
primary
and
original
workpiece.
not
secondary processes
secondary basic
processes
of mass-conserving
processes
and
must
1.
Chapter
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
6.2
primary
into
the
MASS-CONSERVING PROCESSES
In
some of
section
this
are
the
As mentioned previously,
characteristics
general
discussed.
material
a close relationship
system
among
[i.e.,
exists
between
the information
basic process,
be selected
6.1)]. These systems cannot
Here
is
the
mass
the
and
material
is in the solid state.
conserving
independently.
process
The
conditions
under which the process is carried out (i.e.,
the pressure,
an
since
can
the
influence
role,
etc.)
they
velocity,
play
important
temperature,
possibilities
and
of the process to a high degree.
limitations
material
the
and
(see Fig.
Possibilities
Geometrical
6.2.1
of surface
system was described by principles
and tooling (media of
of motions for work material
will not be related
transfer). In
description the information
system
of energy, and media of transfer,
as only the
directly to specificmaterials,
types
details
are given in later
overriding characteristics are considered.More
In
1 the
Chapter
creation
and
information
the pattern
the following
sections.
The principlesof
surface
1.
Total
2.
One-dimensional
3.
Two-dimensional
4.
Free
forming
forming
creation
are:
(TF)
forming (ODF)
forming
(TDF)
(FF)
rotations
be one of the following: translations
(T),
pattern of motions must
rotations
and
(R), combinations of translations
(T/R), and no motion. In
the more shape information that
is built into the media
general, it can be stated that
The
Chapter6
136
The relationship
6.1
FIGURE
among
geometry,
process,
and material.
of
transfer
Section
(the
tooling),
6.2.3.
Process
6.2.2
Conditions
deformation
and state
Solid Materials:
TABLE
6.1
Pattern
of motions
137
Mass-ConservingProcesses
of Total Forming
Examples
(TF)
of
Examples
Tool
Workpiece
Total
processes
forming
i
Forging
^
Bending
Impact
forging
\342\226\240:\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242:
l\\ibe expansion
Upsetting
^^h)
needed
is
information
determination
of
the
size or
must
total
deformation,
surface
(i.e.,
the
be made
design of the
yield strength
maximum
or machinery.
zone is determined
of transfer
medium
between
the contact
deformation
total
zone is
simultaneously
the components
whole
by
primarily
for the
that can
extended
deformation. In
of the desired
the whole
through
partial
or most
be
area
the contact
deformation
area coversthe
and
equipment
of
TABLE
Pattern
6.2
Examptes
of One-Dimensional
Forming
(ODF)
of motions
Examples
Workpiece
Tool
One-dimensional
of
processes
forming
Direct extrusion
Wire
drawing
Indirect extrusion
Deep drawing
Sheet
R
and tube
bending
Rolling
Bar forging
Ring
forging
Roll bending
138
139
Processes
Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving
TABLE
Pattern
6.3
Examples
of Two-Dimensional
Forming (TDF)
of motions
Examples
Workpiece
Tool
Two-dimensional
[^\"MWjgf^.
processes
forming
> ft>\342\200\224
|\302\243
\\ \\
t
*'
x&>Xaje>'
f^s^^2r\302\243^
T/R
I
V
\\^\\
\\
V
v^-^^^i
\\zc
(C^^J
\\
l^rl
\302\273
^^\"M
Bar forging
J
Swaging
R/T
Tube
rolling
Spinning
&t
v^
of
Chapter 6
140
6.4
TABLE
of Free-Forming
Examples
Processes
of motions
Pattern
Examples of
Tool
Workpiece
Free
processes
forming
J.
1
<?%W&
Upsetting
M^{
ill
'ifJ
WNf'.
Torsion
or component, result
in
in Fig.
different
forging does.
The
obtain
to
total
based
the same
for
centuries,
mass-reducing
(including
Processes
of the contact
reduction
to
method
on this
processes.
final
area,
deformation
and
thus
deformation
zone, as a
smaller forces and energies
the
with
and is the
philosophy
processes
such as
behind
turning,
many
grinding,
processes,
processes
etc.).
as opposed
Materials:
Solid
Mass-Conserving
141
Processes
SIZE OF
DEFORMATION ZONE
TOTAL
PARTIAL
(c)
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 6.2
&
&
&>
Total
and
partial
deformation.
shows how
an incremental
process can be developed [1]. The
the
reduce
wall
the
thickness
of
a tube without
changing
purpose
or
In
the
basic
tube
is
diameter.
internal
pulled through
process, the
pushed
a conical
is maintained by an
diameter
die, and the constancy of the internal
internal
mandrel. The die is subjectedto high radial forces, and large forces
to pull or push the tube
are required
the die. The deformation zone is
through
from
the
contact
the
die and the tube, through
area
between
circular,
extending
the die
the tube,
to the mandrel. The contact
area
can be reduced by replacing
an
outer
which
rollers
with a number of balls or conical
by
ring,
supported
or
the
of
forces
to
rotates
deformation.
A
reduction
the
push
pull
during
radial
forces.
the tube is accomplished, but the ring is still subjected to high
both these processesrequire
a special
die system for each tube
Furthermore,
and the smaller forces
diameter.
If the number of rollers is reduced
to one,
the
a
are
machine
structure,
process (Fig. 6.3c)
necessary supplied by
spinning
is the result. This is a much more versatileprocess,since different
wall
can be obtained by simply
tube diameters
the
thicknesses and
changing
position of
Figure 6.3
is to
the
roller.
The
principles
reducing
process)
can,
of reducing
the
contact
area
of
processes [1]. For example,the punching
the
contact
be
transformed
area,
by reducing
into
an
in
(a
mass-
total
incremental
Chapter 6
142
SSSSSSSS^
Mandrel
(a)
W/////////////777777?
Mandrel
(b)
WfflM/MA
Mandrel
(c)
FIGURE
deformation
6.3
zone:
area/
by
process
torch
of rollers
a pair
or die elements
be considered
can
cutting
143
Mass-ConservingProcesses
Solid Materials:
by a
or
an incremental
saw blade.
In
same
the
way,
(thermal) process.
size
The
is: What
can be approximately
according to the
four groups,
into
classified
dominant
of stress:
state
1.
2.
3.
Shearing
4.
Bending (nonhomogeneous)
Often, two
the
of these
or more
process
deep-drawing
(p. 1SS),
in the
of stress
state
the
Temperature
The
in the
temperature
the recrystallization
be obtained
Below
the
temperature
fracture.
without
very
up
important
occurs
instability
strain
and
an
deformations
large
In tension
temperature
to instability,
recrystallization
deformation zone is
in
hardening
compression
Above
parameter.
in compression can
at very low strains.
in
tension
it reduces
increases
the
strains
Velocity
The velocity
deformation
material
evaluated.
In general,
significant influence
with
which
quite
it
is found
on the
at room
but
elevated
temperature has no
temperatures
normally
Chapter 6
144
6.5
TABLE
Deformation
typical
Velocities
Tool/die velocity
Process
(deformation
2 x l0~2-3 x
press
Hydraulic
Tube drawing
Sheet
5 x
rolling
drawing
From
increase
necessary
10~'-25
Ref. 1.
strain
the
to
10\"'
x 10\"'
20-50
30-200
forging
High-velocity
Explosive forming
Source:
10\"2-5
2-10
5-40
Forging
Wire
(m/s)
KT6-KT2
test
Tension
velocity)
analyze
Table6.5 shows
for
different processes.
zone (sizeand
the
and
geometry
the
determine
stress
properties
surface
final
surface
of stress),
state
of the
temperature,
Material Properties
The
amount
that a material can sustain
of deformation
without
or
instability
fracture depends, as describedearlier,on the state of stress, the temperature,
6.2.3
Important
the
relation 9
rate.
In Chapter
strain-hardening
\342\200\224
ce\".
If the
it
was
exponent
a strain
that instability occurs when
was reached in a material
following the
found
compressive
stresses,
Solid Materials:
where
locations
deformations
higher
considerably
tensile
high
In a drawing
operation,
be elongated400%.A
it can
the
often so
high
is the
type
cold-working
hardening.
145
Matt-Conserving Processes
major
advantage
improvement
strength
of mass-conserving
of the material,
strength
improvement is
of the
properties
with
reasonable
and the
strains
6.4.
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF
6.3
PROCESSES
MASS-CONSERVING
In
rolling
processes of
due to strain
selected.
The
at
the following
conservingprocesses.
The
processes
are classified
given
of
a number
according to
the
of mass-
fundamental
Basic process
M,
mechanical
T, thermal
C, chemical
Energy
Me,
mechanical
El, electrical
Th, thermal
magnetic)
(including
Ch, chemical
Mediaof
Ri,
transfer
rigid
Ea, elastic
PI, plastic
Ga, gaseous
Gr,
granular
Fl, fluid
Principles of surface
TF,
creation
total forming
ODF, one-dimensionalforming
TDF,
two-dimensional
FF, free
forming
forming
146
Chapter
stress
State of
Te,
Co,
tension
compression
Sh, shearing
Be,
The
bending
of the
description
code
classification
Name,
General
processes covers:
description
Applications/geometry (possibilities)
Material
requirements
Tolerances/surfaces
Machinery/energy
(possibilities)
(in general)
the
figures,
the deformation
continuously
with
time
and position
during
sheets are to be
more details may be found
The information
processes;
of
an evaluation
the
process.
only as an
in the literature.
considered
introduction
to
materials.
the
SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 1:
Description.
characterized
state of
(~/i2),
thickness
stress. The
Co)
beam, etc.)
structural
plate,
(sheet,
one-dimensionalforming,
by a solid material,
is
process
rolling
and
a compressive
rolls
(R) with a gap
material (/i,). Since the
the reduction in
the deformation,
the material is nearly constant during
of the constancy
because
in a corresponding increasein length
results
is
which
of
width
The
Ri, ODF,
Me,
(M,
Rolling
147
Procettet
Matt-Conserving
(W)
workpiece
than the
less
between
passes
two
of the
thickness
initial
of volume.
Deformation
between the
zone:
rolls
the
material
State of deformation:
steady
When
Applications.
important
beams,
and so
varying
have
smooth
like
sheets,
reductions,
MaterialRequirements.
The
sufficient
at the
possess
production
considering
most common products
on. Productsthat
strengths,
high
The
process.
ductility
materials
forming
(ferrous
tolerances
in the
Machinery!Energy.
designedespecially
for
Very
either
specialized
hot or
on,
are cold-rolled
with
temperature.
Tolerances/Surfaces.
in the range
tolerances
so
and
slightly
very
massive
cold rolling.
rough
smooth
surfaces
and
surfaces and
equipment is
necessary,
148
Chapter 6
PROCESS2:
extrusion
Forward
Description. The
extrusion
forward
a solid material,one-dimensional
(W)
workpiece
material
is placed
die
the
through
Me, Ri,
(M,
and a
die/container
the
in the
orifice
characterized
is, in general,
by
compressive state of stress.The
the
(L), and the punch
(P) squeezes
process
forming,
in
ODF, Co)
direction of the
State
d~^h
force.
applied
of stress
fs
s
ft
if
si
b3
zone:
Deformation
material
near
the
the orifice
State of deformation:
steady
Applications.
of a
the production
must
In hot
Requirements.
possess
sufficient
ductility
room temperature.
Hot
Tolerances/Surfaces.
is best
for nonferrous
extrusion
gives good
gives
excellent
tolerances
(0.1-1%)
and surfaces.
Machinery/Energy.
cold extrusion
presses.
is
carried
For
hot
extrusion,
out on
special
hydraulic
presses are
used;
hydraulic
Materials:
Solid
PROCESS3:
Hot
Description. The
solid
die,
a single
with
characterized by a
of stress. The
(P) pushes the metal
through several dies
is, in general,
one-dimensional forming,
on a die (L), and
is placed
forming a cup. The cup can
material,
the
process
hot-drawing
ODF, Te)
a
tension
be
punch
drawn
and
workpiece (W)
through
Me, Ri,
(M,
drawing
149
Processes
Mats-Conserving
the
state
punch.
State
stress
of
f*\"\",,C3
ia\\VP
ess
Deformation
(1)
relatively
thick-walled
Stateof
the
zone:
in the die
deformation:
process is generally
such as oxygen tanks,
The hot-drawing
parts,
cylindrical
Applications.
material
(2)
\\K.J^IM|^7
used
entrance
steady
to produce
shells,
artillery
tank
MaterialRequirements.
Both
temperature.
High
ferrous
Reasonably
Tolerances/Surfaces.
(often
below 0.5%
draws
available.
Hydraulic
(low yield
presses
surface
(draw
at elevated
strength)
drawn.
good tolerances
of the diameter).The
Machinery/Energy.
are
ductility
and nonferrous
quality
benches)
are
generally
obtained
is good.
Chapter 6
150
PROCESS4:
forging
Drop
(M,
Me, Ri,
TF, Co)
Description. The
is, in
Applications.
process/die
forces.The
by the
be controlled
in
Material Requirements.
(various
temperatures
in
but
obtain
the
connectingrods,gear blanks,
of about
final
actual
metals, etc.).
mass give thickness
quality is reasonably good,
milling,
is necessary
etc.)
to
surfaces.
Machinery/Energy.
are available
presses,
the
at
ductility
1 kg
The
surface
range +0.6 to +0.2 mm.
further
some
processing (turning,
general,
in the
differentmachines
mechanical
and the
geometry
with a high
metals
All
steel alloys, nonferrous
Components
Tolerances/Surfaces.
tolerances
process,
handles.
and
elevated
part
ribs,
line,
a favorable
levers,
workpiece
original
of
etc.).
production volume
and
the
actual
process.
and
many
hydraulic
be
based
and
on the
Solid Materials:
5:
PROCESS
total
forming,
placed into
die. The
a stationary
tool
heading
(Upsetting) (M,
forging
Upset
of stress
State
pin
* \342\200\242''
EF^a
- \342\200\224 ,-\\
(grip)
die
w-4\342\200\224
Deformation
zone:
unsupported
material
State
TThZm'^)?77#//A\\\\
the
of deformation:
nonsteady
as a hot-working
is used to produce heads
process
and shoulders on shafts, and so on. As a cold-working
is used to produce nails, rivets, small
upsetting (called cold heading)
Upsetting
Applications.
process,
Co)
cavity.
Split
bolts,
TF,
Knockout
on
Me, Ri,
Upset
Description.
material,
151
Matt-Conserving Processes
bolts, and
valves,
so
flanges
on.
at room
Tolerances/Surfaces. In
determined
gives
good
hot
upsetting,
of
mm)
A
wide
Machinery/Energy.
are available,
horizontal,
often
per
minute.
lubricants,
and surfaces.
scale,
variety
allowing
of mechanical
production
surface quality
are
rates
upsetting
of about
machines,
400 parts
152
Chapter
Cold forging
PROCESS 6:
Ri, TF,
Me,
(M,
Co)
The
is, in general, characterized by a
cold-forging
process
a
and
total
solid material,
forming,
compressivestate of stress. The workpiece
die
and
in
the
the
is
(P) moves down and squeezes the
(L),
(W) placed
punch
to fill the die cavity.
material
Description.
State of stress
rfFi
N
o
(Hollow
preform)
zone:
Deformation
whole
the
State of
Cold
Applications.
various types of
using
different
pattern,
The
extrusion,
etc.).
material
properties.
the components
Material
without
Sufficient
Requirements.
metals
available.
wide
ductility
extrusion,
impact
and gives
sustain
excellent
The
of
mass
quality
of mechanical
deformations
the
range ~ \302\2610.05 mm
The surface
range
to
and low-alloy
in the
Tolerances
are common.
nearly eliminated.
on lengths
Machinery/Energy.
are
used (i.e.,
utilization
material
deformation
the applied
of applications is increasingrapidly.
a few grams and several kilograms.
~\302\2610.2 mm
be
high
parts,
complex
relatively
on
between
vary
Tolerances/Surfaces.
can
depending
may be
names
specialized
process has
The number
may
allows production of
forging
deformation:
nonsteady
Knockout pin
die
Split
body
on diameters
is high,
and
and
hydraulic
and
machining
presses
Back
7:
PROCESS
153
Matt-Conserving Processes
Solid Materials:
(cold) (M,
extrusion
Me, Ri,
Co)
TF,
is a variant
cold
The back extrusion
which
within
process,
characterized
and a
is, in general,
forming,
by a solid material, total
(W) is placed in the die (L), and the
compressive state of stress.The workpiece
down to extrude the material
around
or into the punch.
(P) moves
punch
Description.
forging
State of
stress
the
zone:
Deformation
zone
near
State
of
the
punch
deformation:
steady
Applications.
produce
on.
regular
A
special
or irregular
is
variant
Most
metals
Tolerances/Surfaces.
can be
Machinery/Energy.
available.
extrusion
as the
production,
Sufficient
Requirements.
nonferrous
\302\2610.2mm)
are
can
and
low-alloy
As a
acquired,
(see
rather
to
ductility
steel can
and
so
lends itself to
expensive.
sustain
be backward
used to
components,
The process
later).
tooling is
can be
the deformations.
extruded.
(\302\2610.05
cold-working process,good tolerances
the surface
is
quality
correspondingly high.
to
and
A wide
variety
of
mechanical
and hydraulic
presses
154
Chapter 6
PROCESS8:
extrusion
Can
extrusion)
(impact
ODF,Co)
be regarded as a variant
(sometimes even a metal
one-dimensional
of stress.
The workpowder),
forming, and a compressivestate
piece (W) is placed in the die (L), and as the punch (P) moves down, the
material
is squeezed
or extruded up around
it. The die may be provided with
a
conical
bottom face and punch
as for example in toothpaste
tubes.
nose,
cold
can extrusion
The
Description.
of
is characterized
forging,
process,
by
can
which
material
a solid
Of
State
stress
r^L
X
>
~~jf_
/
>
XTL
\\>l
between
State
the
zone:
Deformation
^^^^^^K\\^^
steady
material
punch
which is a specialback-extrusion
with
extrusion,
process
ratio as low as 0.005, is used to produce collapsibletubes
and so on; cans for food and beverages; and shielding
cosmetics,
Can
Applications.
a thickness/diameter
for
in
toothpaste,
electrical
apparatus,
batteries,
Material Requirements.
materials are aluminum
and
Tolerances/Surfaces.
obtainable,
accompanied
Machinery/Energy.
are available.
developed.
Because
etc.
very
A wide
Extensively used
alloys.
Tolerances in
by a
low strength.
and
ductility
High
zinc
high
variety
of production
the
range
surface
of
of
\302\2610.05
to
\302\2610.1mm
are
quality.
mechanical
and hydraulic
volumes, specialized
machinery
presses
is usually
9:
PROCESS
The
Description.
ODF,Te)
process is,
deep-drawing
in
characterized
general,
the
by
the
by
by
stress. The
state of
a tension
and
W) is
wrinkling,
prevent
one-dimensionalforming,
(blank,
workpiece
drawing
Deep
a solid material,
(C) to
155
Matt-Conserving Processes
Solid Materials:
pressure plate
(P) to form
punch
a deepcup.
State of stress
The
Applications.
extensively
to
of
variety
flange
of deformation:
deep-drawing
a wide
produce
the
zone:
Deformation
State
nonsteady
it are
of
Examples
Material Requirements.
ductility
sustain
to
instability
strains).
and
Nonferrous
ferrous
used
shells,
intermediate
so
covers
process.
sufficient
anisotropy and high
metals
with
appliance
with
annealing
may
be necessary.
are in general obtainable (\302\2610.2 mm
Tolerances/Surfaces. Good tolerances
diameters and increasing for increasingdiameters).The surface quality
for small
corresponds
but
closely to the
Machinery/Energy.
other
types
purpose.
original
sheet.
Double-acting
(mechanical
and
hydraulic presses
hydraulic)
are
available,
156
Chapter6
Rubber
10:
PROCESS
forming
(M, Me,
Ea, TF,
Be/Co)
to the shape
of the
male
die.
of stress
State
Bending
and
uniaxial
compression
in the original
of
State
the material
zone:
Deformation
flange
deformation:
nonsteady
in thin
geometries
is used
process
sheets (aluminum
up
to
3 mm,
to produce relatively
stainless steel and
mild
steel
mm thickness).The
and
a relatively
low yield
Requirements.
High ductility
mild steel, and stainless steels are typical
materials.
Material
Nonferrous
Tolerances/Surfaces.
are
not
The
surfaces
of deformation
even painted
ruined.
Machinery/Energy.
be used.
strength.
metals,
(elastic recovery).
surfaces
can be
same
Most types of
mechanical
or
hydraulic
presses
can
SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 11:
Description.
material,
total
a die
forming,
(L), and
Tube
expansion
and a tension
a high
in
explosives
high
a solid
by
of
State
is placed
(W)
M (Fl,
a medium
pressure
to the workpiece. The high pressure
in water) or a pressram (P).
(detonated
introducing
TF, Te)
(bulging)
expansion
is transmitted
mechanical
energy
from
by
1\\ibe
157
Processes
Matt-Conserving
in
Ea),
may
be obtained
stress
L(split)
(water)
(rubber,
oii
or
undergoing
deformation
water)
of deformation:
State
nonsteady
The
Applications.
wide range
or shells
of
sectional
for the
tube expansion
expanded or
aircraft
industry,
the
or bulging
is used to produce a
process
shaped (irregular) tubular
components
chemical
industry,
and
the
mechanical
industry.
high
instability
strain to
withstand
the
deformation
Tolerance/Surfaces.
dimensions (\302\2610.05% of
by the
original
Very
fine
tolerances
the diameter).
material.
Machinery/Energy.
Mechanical
so on.
and
hydraulic
presses,
high
explosives,
158
Chapter
12:
PROCESS
Spinning (M,
Me, Ri,
TF,
Sh)
The spinning
is, in general, characterized by a solid
Description.
process
The workpiece
material, total forming, and shear state of stress.
(W) is placed
on
a rotating
die or mandrel (L), and the movable
roller (R) progressively forces
blank
the
against
the die.
of
State
stress
pure
(b)
zone:
Deformation
spinning (a)
Applications.
and shear
thickness)
the roller
State of
Shear
Conventional
spinning
(b)
Both conventional
(no
spinning
spinning (reduction in
are extensively used
thickness
the
mandrel)
and
diameters),
shafts
(gas turbines,
Material Requirements.
without
depending
geometries
Sufficient
The
ductility to
of
quality depends on
the rollers, etc.).
surface
Machinery/Energy.
merically
changing
(including
etc.).
withstand
the
actual
strains
fracture.
Tolerances/Surfaces.
diameter.
reduction in
on the enclosed angle
in industry
to produce
significant
alone or combined
bowls, lamps, reflectors, cooking utensils, bells,tubes
of
deformation
nonsteady
controlled)
wide
variety
are available.
the
process
example
parameters
of spinning
0.1 -0.2%
(feed,
machines
(manual
of the
speed,
or
nu*-
Materials:
Solid
PROCESS13:
by
workpiece
bends
and
Me, Ri,
TF, Be)
Description.
characterized
(M,
(braking)
Bending
159
Processes
Mast-Conserving
The
carried
process,
bending
a solid
and
total
of stress
State
Bending
Deformation zone:
radius
bending
State
of deformation:
nonsteady
brake
Press
Applications.
structural
(i.e.,
angles,
MaterialRequirements.
outside
of the
The
The tolerances
Tolerances/Surfaces.
bending
geometry.
qualitycorresponds
MachinerylEnergy.
mechanical
and
at
strain
fracture
must not
be exceededon
the
bend.
hydraulic
tolerances
Angular
to the
of
sheet.
Press
brakes
are available.
of different
and
The surface
both
the
160
Chapter 6
PROCESS14:
Stretch
Description. The
(M,
forming
TF, Te)
is, in general,
process
and a tension state of
stretch-forming
Me, Ri,
characterized
stress.The
forming,
(G) and
stretched and
bent
over
State
Deformation
whole
State
by
workpiece
the male
die (L) to
of stress
zone:
the
component
of deformation:
nonsteady
Stretch
Applications.
utilized
extensively
panelswith
window
and
forming
aircraft
the
curvatures,
varying
frames,
in
so on.
(i.e.,
geometry,
but the
and
the
tolerances
are
vary
with
to the
quality corresponds roughly
the stress level (elastic recovery),the
material.
Machinery/Energy.
capacities)
surface
The
Tolerances/Surfaces.
originalsheet,
available.
wide
variety
of stretch-forming
machines (types
and
Solid Materials:
Roll
15:
PROCESS
161
Matt-Conserving Processes
bending
ODF,Be)
Description.
roll-bending
one-dimensional
State
of stress
Bending
between
zone
the
zone:
Deformation
the rolls
State of deformation:
steady
The
Applications.
roll-bending
the
position
easy
Material
not exceeded
can be
formed
The
by
this
surface
controlled
(NC),
of
plates
the plate
allowing
shapes.
is
fracture
metals
process.
Machinery!Energy.
(e.g., bending
numerically
of
Sufficient ductility,
so that the strain at
Requirements.
at the outside of the bent plate. Both ferrous and nonferrous
Tolerances/Surfaces.
diameter.
be
vessels,
rings,
available
thickness).
in
0.1-0.2%
original
a wide
of the
plates/sheets.
range of
sizes
162
Chapter
DETERMINATION OF FORCESAND
6.4
ENERGIES
1, material flow,
processes involve, as discussedin Chapter
and
flow.
In
the
sections,
(shape
impressing),
previous
energy
in
material
elements
the
flow
have
been
and
information
elucidated.
major
Based
on this and the elementary plasticity
the main elements in the
theory,
The
can
be
determined.
forces
energy system
energy system suppliesthe necessary
as determined by the planned
and energies to carry out the desired deformations
information
and material flow.
be remembered
It should
that the final specifications
for each of the three
The
manufacturing
information
flow
systems are
generally
brought
Basic Principles In
6.4.1
context
In this
iterative
process.
Forceand
More
accurate
require an advanced
normally
methods
approximate
only
necessaryarediscussed.
theoretical knowledge
of
plasticity
theory
mechanics.
and solid
The
an
by
Determination
Energy
they
about
possible
simplest
yield in homogeneous
load or force is acting
piece. For
example,
workpiece
in the
yield
at
strength
maximum
strain
and
AttMX
the
cross-sectional
maximum
area.
determination
is given
latter.
4 it was
In Chapter
shown
that
W necessary to
work
carry
out
a deformation
by
*
where
and
Jv Jit
is the
ode
work of
e2 the effective
(6.1)
clV
deformation,
the
volume
of the
deforming region, e(
deformation,and
o*
the
effective
as a function
of e).
stress (which can be expressed
volume (the deforming region) are supplied
If all elements in the workpiece
as
amount of work, Eq. (6.1)can be written
the same
with
W =
todl
(6.2)
If
curve for
stress-strain
the
is given by
material
the
9 =
163
Mass-ConservingProcesses
Solid Materials:
-\302\253f
Vj^Tji*Vl
(6-3)
,l
work
is
as the internal work W(. The external
This work can be characterized
(pe),which are acting over a certain
by external forces (Pe)or pressures
as
can be written
that
travel
distance
is, the externally supplied work
(/\302\253);
supplied
We
PJe
e refers to
where
(6.4)
p\342\202\254AJ\342\202\254
Ae is
and
\"external\"
the cross-sectional
area over
the
which
forces/pressures act.
external
By equating
= PeAJe
PJe
and (6.4),
(6.1)
S de
can
the external forcesor pressures
be estimated:
(IV
(6.5)
the velocity
(ve) with which the force
power necessary is to be determined,
the work or the time
(te) during which it is supplied
supplying
the power required is given by
must be known.
Consequently,
If the
or pressureis
=
Ptve =
\342\200\224
(6.6)
moment
power. If an external
Me is acting with angular
velocity
is correspondingly given by Ne \342\200\224
These
methods for
Me(Oe.
forces
and energies are only
as they are based on the
estimating
approximate,
of
deformation.
A
is the
homogeneous
assumption
homogeneous deformation
most efficient way to carry out a deformation and requiresthe smallest
possible
load or force, since frictional
work
work (caused by friction
and redundant
and
N is the
where
the power
ct)\342\200\236
geometrical
means
This
producing
geometries,
constraints
provide
processes,
appropriate
6.4.2
minimum
redundant
and consequently,
to
to introduce
empirical
Sheet
Rolling:
Moment,and
The
sheet-rolling
forging
process
actions
succeeding
internal
deformation).
obtain
distortion
This is,
reasonably
however,
accurate
correction factors,
Determination
results,
many
it is often
as discussedlater.
of Rolling Force,
Power
as a barconsidered
process (Fig. 6.4) can be approximately
6.2), where a bar (the sheet) is produced
by forging
other along the bar. The main
here is that the
problem
(Table
each
Chapter 6
164
4
2
\\
'^\"\"frrm^.
contact
of
iArc
<
^r
Ah
hl\"h2 \342\226\240
\342\226\240
T\"
\342\200\224^\"^
\342\226\240
^7\\
\342\226\240--M
Sheet rolling.
6.4
FIGURE
yield
of
strength
(thickness h2)
the
of the
(thickness
where
the
suffix
-o3#w/4 =
the
m refers to
-OymwL(P defined
projection
during
state of
external
stress is
longitudinal
Mises'
(2/x/3)o0,
this
rolling
3 of the principal
chord
of contact).
width
of the
the
the
load or
state
stresses,
longitudinal
of strain
0).
The
von
the
stress
(6.7)
of the
(Aw = 0),
the deformation
the
yield
refers to
positive)
in direction
o3</n
area
to the exit
h,)
to use a mean
the suffix 3
given
by
(see
forces); o2 =
yield
criterion
where
o0 is
(Oi
Chapter
+
o3)/2
uniaxial
yield
strain
gives
ox
\342\200\224=
o$
If mean values
strength.
\342\200\224o3
are used,
becomes
where the
o0
m can
suffix
be found
0,m
yield
the
strength.
material:
The value
of
From
from
simply,
6.4
the
Fig.
L2 =
R2
more
or,
o0m =
chord of
from
Consequently,
P=
P* =
by
and
thickness
in
in
R is the radius
Eq.
(6.7),
of the rolls.
force becomes
the rolling
contribution
be an
to
estimated
be given
o<>\342\200\236w(RAh)m
frictional
The
to
(6.9)
substituting
j=
0.5(o0, + o02).
contactL is found
\302\253/?A*
^)2
(R
Ah is the reduction
where
165
Mast-Conserving Processes
Materials:
Solid
and
is
becomes
X.2P
1.2-^ob^(/?A/i),/2
The rolling
width
is, consequently,
(6.10)
l.35ot>JRAh)m
\302\243\302\253
This expression
P
hi =
= Mto
u) is
where
the
the
size
is given
that
by
/>*! to
(6.12)
process,
of the
on a
rolls.
of the
velocity
angular
Pressureor
an extrusion
determines
by assuming
(6.11)
Extrusion:
6.4.3
approximated
/\"*\302\247
necessary
N
In
in
is acting
The
to drive
moment
The
the
necessary
extrusion
press
is very important,
as it
pressure
or the maximum cross-sectional area that
It
6.S illustrates the extrusion
process.
Figure
is not possible here to use the simple method to determine the pressure/force
as
in rolling, since the externalforce
does
not act directly on the deforming crosscan
be extruded
area.
sectional
The
work
per
given
Consequently,
unit volume
press.
the work
w is given
by
method or work
formula
must
be used.
166
Chapter
FIGURE 6.5
of bars.
Extrusion
de
J*.
The state
is given
in the extrusion
strain
of
by
-0.5\342\202\254,)
\342\202\2543
(\342\202\254,,\342\202\2542
The
effective
corresponding
I = [\\
and
\342\202\254,,
U,2
+
\342\202\25422
\342\202\25432)],/2
e, is
consequently
e =
C| =
In
strain, Eq.
C,
determined
In -r1
= 2 In
(4.37), becomes
by
(Fig.
6.5):
-pr1
the
that
assuming
material
follows
the
of
production
volume
(volume
the
original
bars], the
We
work
= Ph
curve
stress-strain
<?
ce\",
(6.13)
[-t^'-ST
*-*jH*%rl
Considering
the
supplied
PmA^
constancy)
external forces
by the
j4,/,
[=
A2l2,
which is
can be expressed
equal to
for circular
(ji/4)D,2/,
as
Materials:
Solid
P^,
and pm is
force
167
Processes
Mass-Conserving
extrusion
mean
the
Equating
pressure.
=A,Jf7(ln^)\"+'
or
* = ;rfr(ln\302\243r'
this becomes
bars
circular
For
(614)
p\302\253-7m{2lnD~2)
Since the
extrusion
extrusion
ratios
the
process
deformation is rather
Allowing
poor.
50%
(6.14) must be increasedabout
|>*\" =
If an
distortion
internal
on average,
of
assumption
distortion for
a homogeneous
and friction, pm
giving
<615>
l\342\226\2405l^-l{iaT^,
pressure.
o0 and
the corrected
extrusion
becomes
p*m
For
for both
of internal
degree
high
used, the
p*m is the
where
pressure
involves
(/4,//42) normally
(6.16)
1.5o0ln^
bars
circular
p*m =
1.5o0e
3oq In D,
in extrusion,
drawing,
In
\342\202\254|
ideal-plastic
Eq. (6.2) gives
that
In
to
corresponds
drawing
e3 = -0.5e,,
e =
If an
wire
for
strain
e2
this
as
that
for
extrusion,
giving
\342\202\254,,
is,
-p
I =
2 In
material is assumed,
o0 (the
mean yield
strength)
and
Chapter 6
168
9,
^22
IPX
Dl
6.6
Wire
Voq6 =
P=
by
In
wires.
circular
V, =
(re/4)D,2/,-
(n/4)D22l2.
(6.17)
j-
force in drawing
6.6) is We
external
the
area A2
Fig.
(see
is
considered
volume
A2o<>
f2
drawing,
VOq
Since the
D2
*1
FIGURE
'1
A2l2
>Mi\302\273tne
drawing
l2 with
and
this
force becomes
(6.18)
In
For circularwires
If a
is
used
for 0O in
Eq.
reasonable
(6.18),
results can
be obtained.
When
the
can be found
curve can
stress-strain
in
a similar
be expressedas <J
cc\", the
drawing force
manner. Thus
/4i\\\"+\302\273
(6.19)
'-*irHto\302\256
where
The
area of the
wire.
Solid
Materials:
From
this
the
ratio
be found:
can
AXIA2
169
Processes
Mass-Conserving
(6.18) gives
P =
where
and
around
\\
area; consequently,
= 63%
rm
rm
(6.21)
50% are
obtainable,
If the
for
a 50%
by
P =
p
\342\200\224
In -. ~
I
^200
reduction of
rm =
^>
only values
friction.
practice,
friction
x\"
Aj
maximum
y^-t
distortion
= A2Oq In
A2
is the
rm
In
In
oo
A\\
(0 =
1.5i42o0In 7A2
(0 =
,M>;rT-r(,n%r'
owing
internal
to
internal
distortion
and
become
Oo)
\"\
Charge
Necessary
In
section
this
that
means
the
explosive
the
of Explosives
final
free
of
the
H above
must
charge
Equating
Fig. 6.7).This
determined
necessary
work
to shape
(i.e.,
the internal
size required.
the
and
the
blank
involves
blank
work/energy
the
at a
the
(the
necessary
be used;this
is considered (see
stress fields
induced
the
by
blank,
the
high explosive.
the
external
by
conditions.
process
detonation
of sheets
forming
is created
shape
external
amount
the
high explosives),
of the work of
and a determination of the
the charge to the blank).
of
a determination
(internal
delivered
work)
from
work allows
a determination
of the
charge
Chapter6
170
FIGURE
6.7
Explosive
of
Deformation
Work
It is
assumed
approximated
blank
sheets.
is firmly
pure stretching)
clamped
and
that
the
tooling
rings (i.e.,
shape can
a deflection
the
be
6 (Fig.6.7c).
surface
=
As
InRb
6 is the maximum
where
*D\\
deflection. Volume
constancy
gives
t22nRb
is,
r,
<6-22>
From
R2 =
it
in
the desired
a spherical
segment with radius R and
area of the spherical segment is
by
The
that
the
that
involves
deformation
free forming of
is
(R
found
2*6 =
which,
6)2
that
62 +
when
f\302\243
substituted
in Eq.
(6.22), gives
SolidMaterials:
D
*2 _
'i
4(62
c, =
_
1 +
D2/4)
strain
thickness
The
*(6' 23)
'
4(6/D)2
is, consequently,
-ln[l
ln^=
171
Processes
Mass-Conserving
(6.24)
4(^)2]
-id)
\342\202\254o
er
(e\342\200\236
the effective
Consequently,
becomes
strain
=
\342\202\254
+ \342\202\254r2
+
eo2)]\"2
[\302\247(\342\202\254,2
If it
work
In
-\302\253,
is
strains
the
[l
stress-strain
when
(6.25)
4$)2]
e, = 0
a = ce\",
e:
curve
and
the
e2
n + 1
other
For
in this
(6.25)
Eq.
Substituting
geometries,
the same
Charge
expression gives
Supplied
Energy/Work
to contain
determination
of
the
work of
Blank
an amount
- L)
2pji(p
4jtp2
where p is
reduced
\"
the
radius
of the
This expression
can
be
to
\"
The energy
*\"
^)
if
E\\
directed
toward
the
blank
\"cos
*'
is consequently
(6'27)
Chapter 6
172
E'L = yd
cos<t>)
Of
coefficient
El = 1^(1 The
of
efficiency
the
assumed,
EL <
EL
(i
useful
mechanical
of energy
amount
energy.
cos
the
between
varies
If r)max
0.5
is
becomes
(6.29)
<|>)
and (6.29)
-
If
can be expressedas
(6.28)
normally
JXfl(l
useful
<}>)
energy
(6.26)
Equating
tj
useful
*Xfl(l
cos
is convertedinto
the
cos
yields
<t>)
or
X >
a(\\
Substituting
4W
cos
W in
..
(6.30)
<J>)
this expression,
of the
mass
explosive and
is the
total mass
of
size).
procedure
be followed.
can
SUMMARY
6.5
In
is found:
this
chapter
plastic deformation
the mass-conserving
as primary
processes based on
solid
materials
been discussed.The
and
discussion
in the
three basic flow systems for material,
This
means
that
this chapter
and the
(shape),
energy.
and general
described
in Chapter 1 constitute a fundamental
morphological model
of acquiring
a
a primary evaluation of those processes
background,
capable
allowing
desired geometry (i.e., it allows an evaluation of the possibilities and limitations
the geometries,
materials, surfaces, and tolerances).
concerning
the basic principles
It
is important
that the engineer be able to apply
described
by the flow systems in a new and imaginative manner to obtain technical
has
elucidated
information
and economicaladvances
and
in production
situations.
Materials:
Solid
Processes
Mass-Reducing
7.1
INTRODUCTION
final
vary
the
original
circumscribed by
so on (i.e., as scrap).The chips
geometry, tolerances, and surfaces.
and
desired
the
size of
can be
geometry
as chips,particles,
obtain
are extensively
processes
Mass-reducing
or scrap
The
material
process.
are necessary to
of scrap may
amount
work
material.
subjected
(e.g., plastics
and
wood)
to a
are
processes.
frequently subjected to material removal
to the rather
material
utilization of the mass-reducing processes,
Owing
poor
the
and increasing
of materials and energy,
costs,
scarcity
anticipated
developmentin the
last decade has been directed toward
an increasing
of
application
and
the
cost
of
machines
die
costs
capital
mass-conserving processes.However,
remain
rather high; consequently, mass-reducingprocesses
are, in many cases,
has value
the most economical, in spite of the high material waste, which
only
as scrap.
Therefore,it
maintain
their
Furthermore,
more
rapidly
the
important
must
of
development
for mass-reducing
material
for
many
removal
years
processes
will
to come.
Chapter 7
174
TABLE
and
7.1
Fundamental
Classification
Methods
of Mass-Reducing
Processes
in
of Basic
Terms
Processes
of Material Removal
Fundamental
removal
Examples of
method
processes
Cutting:
Turning
Milling
Drilling
Grinding, etc.
Water
jet
cutting
Abrasive jet
Sand
machining
blasting,
etc.
Ill
Ultrasonic
...CD...
machining
Blanking
Punching
Shearing
Electron
II
Laser
machining
machining
Electrodischarge
machining
III
Etching
Thermal
II
&
III
Electrochemical
cutting
(combustion)
machining
Materials:
Solid
this
In
the following
chapter
reducing processes,
the
topics are discussed:
geometrical
the
As an
be discussed.
describedand
introduction,
definitions
fundamental
the
basic
given,
after
which
processes
of the processes
principles
the
chip
formation
are
and
are elucidated.
conditions
process
conditions concerningmass-reducing
the fundamental
section
this
will
power.
PROCESSES
MASS-REDUCING
In
of forces and
examples of mass-
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
7.2
of mass-
characteristics
typical
possibilities,
the determination
and
processes,
reducing
the
175
Processes
Mats-Reducing
Basic Principles
7.2.1
As
removal
and the
The
workpiece.
combined
basic process is
mechanical: actually,
a shearing
action
fracture.
with
is carried out by an
of information
is moved
relative to the
characteristics, which
the final
is a result of the properties of the energy
(i.e.,
workpiece
geometry
of motions).
source and the pattern
can
The medium of transfer
be fluid,
or
combinations
thereof. The basic processcan be mechanical,
gaseous,
granular,
thermal, or chemical.
In
removal
method
of information
is established by the
III, the imprinting
motion
of a rigid transfer
of
medium
elements
the
desired
geometry
containing
In removal
energy
source,
having
imprinting
certain
is a
the final
(the negative picture) relative to the workpiece
(i.e.,
geometry
of motions).
The
product of the geometry of the rigid medium and the pattern
is provided
is necessary
to
through a coupling medium, which
energy supply
establish and control the basic process. The state of the medium
can
be fluid,
or combinations
thereof, and the basic process can be
gaseous, granular,
mechanical,
thermal,
or chemical.
method
is established through
of
of the two
result
the
rigid
geometry
geometry
of motions).
media and the pattern
This method is similar
I
to method
the
basic
which
is
and
caused
mechanical
fracture
concerning
process,
by
specifically
is
one
of
two
The
the
media.
supplied primarily
shearing.
energy
through
In removal
two
IV,
the
final
imprinting
of information
is a
176
methods
removal
accurate
fairly
providing
of the
evaluation
An
fundamental
II does
Removal
method
which
I,
As mentioned
on removal
desired
geometry,
IV)
each
other,
or
(curved
patterns
etc.).
method
unwanted
the
previously,
based
in Section
method
Definitions
Fundamental
7.2.2
following
examples
the
in
in
shearing,
can be
material
the
that
as
and
processes
cutting
in detail
methodsare describedonly
and
punching,
traditional
is discussed
importance,
supply
energy
the workpiece.
and
the
represents
relies
final geometry
geometrically
medium
for such
case
the
because
unconfined
or granular
a fluid, gaseous,
through
same potential
between a
interaction
the
on
entirely
so
Chapter
I\342\200\224is
removed
and surface
are turning, drilling,
obtained.
are
finish
tolerances,
Examples
of
reaming,
milling,
shaping, planing,
processes
group
and lapping.
broaching, grinding,
honing,
or machining
Most of the cutting
processes are based on a two-dimensional
two
which
relative motions are necessarybetween
surface creation,
means
that
are defined
tool and the work material. Thesemotions
as the primary
the cutting
which
the cutting
and the feed motion, which
determines
motion,
speed,
mainly
this
in
In turning
and
zone
the cutting
provides
in
the
primary
it is
planing
provided
motion is a continuous
of
translation
the
motion
the
of the
the
by
rotation
of the
translation
tool, and
in
table;
planing
of the
in
workpiece,
the
turning
it is an
feed
intermittent
tool.
of the
The cutting
v is
speed
tool relative to
be
is provided
the
the
instantaneous
workpiece
(at
velocity
a selected
of the
point
on
the
edge).
cutting
on,
by
translation
Cutting Speed.
primary
material.
new
with
motion
v = n dn
drilling,
m/min
7.3
and
show
fundamental
definitions, designations, and so
The cutting speed for these processes
can
milling.
(7.1)
to be cut
d the diameter of the workpiece
the cutting speed in m/min,
in rev/min.
Thus v, d, and n
and n the workpiece or spindle rotation
kinematic
or the tool, dependingon the specific
material
may relate to the work
measured
in m/s.
the cutting speed is normally
pattern. In grinding
where
in
v is
meters,
177
Mass-ReducingProcesses
Solid Materials:
Primary
motion
rev/min)
(n,
Feed motion
(axial,
Primary
f, mm/rev)
motion
(n, rev/min)
Feed motion
(radial,
Feed
f, mm/rev)
(mm/rev)
Depth of cut
(mm)
(Back
engagement)
Cutting
speed
(m/min)
Area of
cut
(mm
FIGURE 7.1
Definitions
of turning.
bh.,
irdn
= fa
Chapter 7
178
Feed
motion
motion
Primary
Feed
Depth of cut
(Back
Cutting
Area
speed
of cut
FIGURE 7.2
Definitions
f/2
(mm/rev)
f(=
(mm)
a = d
(m/min)
engagement)
(mm2)
(f,mm/rev)
(n,rev/min)
cutting
per
edge)
= Tidn
A =
b\302\253hj
\342\226\240*\342\200\242'
ed9e
5Per
of drilling.
are not
cases
the
basic SI units in many
of machining, but the units used are recognized by ISO
and applied in the relevant standards
for Standardization)
(International
Organization
ISO 1000 describes the Si3685.
and
ISO
for example ISO 229, ISO
It should
used
in
the
field
3002/1,
unit
system.
Solid Materials:
motion(n,rev/min)
Primary
motion
Feed
Feed
(vf,mm/min)
motion
mm/min)
(v,
Feed
speed
Feed
(per
Feed
(per
(for table)
(nun/mi
tooth)
rate
Removal
7.3
n)
of cutter)(mm/rev)
revolution
(nun/tooth)
Cutting speed
FIGURE
179
Mass-ReducingProcesses
(m/min)
3
(cm
Definitions of
/min
milling.
or
mm
3
/min)
\302\253\342\200\242
vf/n
f2
v
V =
vf/nz
TiDn
f
e pv,.
a a
180
Chapter
cutting
In turning
(Fig. 7.1) the depth of cut a
back engagement) is the distancethat the cutting edge engages
of cut
the original
surface of the workpiece. The depth
dimensions
of the workpiece. In turning,
with an axial feed, the
Depth of Cut
(sometimes
called
also
or projectsbelow
determines
the
final
depth of cut
radial
with
(Engagement).
is a
feed
cutter is called ap
(see
Fig.
decrease in
to
of cut
as
radius
the decrease
the working
axial engagement
(back
engagement)
drill.
is the
of the
7.3).
state is the
Chip Thickness. The chip thickness/i, in the undeformed
of the chip measured perpendicular to the cutting
and in a plane
edge
of cutting
to the direction
(see
Figs. 7.1 and 7.2). The chip thickness
perpendicular
the actual chip thicknessh2) is larger than the undeformed
after
(i.e.,
cutting
thickness
chip thickness,which
hl/h2 is always
less
means
than
that
b in
edge
The area
tool
chip thickness
undeformed
of cut can
unity.
Chip
product of
the cutting
also be expressed
the undeformed
in a
state is the
width
of
the
directionof
as follows:
/n=/sinK
and
^ =
(7.2)
Materials:
Solid
where k is
forms with
the
major
the
working
For
Rate.
For milling
-
area of
cut
the removal
rate is given
or mm3/min)
(cm3/min
by
Edge.
Minor Cutting
a portion is partly
Section
major
part of the
for generating
responsible
cutting
Fig.
(see
cutting
with
tools
geometrically
edge
for which
7.4a,
b, and c).
minor cutting
The
Edge.
with
tools
edge is that
major cutting
the
is discussed.Only
7.2.4).
edge
cutting
Tool Face.
Flank.
that
is, the
the major
minor
of
intersection
exist.
flanks
Two
edge;
to the
edge
the
(see
Fig. 7.4a).
normal
cutting
the
flank
a plane
The major
major cutting
that
edge
is established
which
the
by
chip
to the
adjacent
major
intersection of the
The minor flank is the flank
adjacent
by the
cutting
edge
is formed
by
the
flank.
The cutting
to the
flank
is formed
7.4b).
is, the minor
perpendicular
flank is the
Fig.
(see
edge;
Cutting-Edge Inclination.
between
r is
Fig. 7.4b).
flows (see
and
and
curve betweenthe
the transition
radius
cutting
(or rake
face
tool
The
edge inclination
cutting
cutting
The corner
Radius.
Corner
working
edge
plane
inclination
and
X.
is
the major
the
angle
cutting
edge
7.4c).
(Fig.
Clearance.
normal
(7.5)
Major Cutting
minor
by
(7.4)
a portion is responsiblefor
face
is given
aeapVf
undefined
the
of cut
single-point
7.3)
(Fig.
well-defined
major
edge
Av = fay
After
the cutting
that
angle
(7.3)
the
plane).
fa
Removal
(i.e.,
angle
cutting-edge
181
Processes
Mass-Reducing
from
flanks
clearance
direction
and
the flank.
Chapter 7
182
Corner radius
Major
cutting
edge
FIGURE 7.4
Definitions
of faces
and angles:
(a-c)
for
turning;
the
cutting
major
perpendicularto
Minor
the
the
the minor
angle k is
measured
the
angle
in a
plane
Edge
Cutting
prevent
Edge
Cutting
Major
between
183
Mass-ReducingProcesses
Solid Materials:
minor
cutting
The
and
normal
angle
wedge
a plane
(3 is
the angle
perpendicular
to
a,
angle
the
betweenthe
edge
cutting
the
the
face
(see Fig.
Y is
the
wedge
(5,
and
the normal
rake
90\302\260:
P +
normal clearance
of the
sum
The
y is equal to
90\302\260
shown positive
in
Fig.
(7.6)
7.4.
tool (a twist
In drilling, the
drill)
two major
has
(see Fig.
angle
point
cutting
and
edges
the angle
7.4d).
included
IncludedAngle.
The
and
angle e is the angle betweenthe major
to the working
and
minor cutting edges measuredin a plane perpendicular
plane
parallel to the direction of the feed motion (see Fig. 7.4c).
Moredetailed
of single-point
descriptions
cutting tool geometry can be found
in ISO 3002/1.
Chip Formation
7.2.3
A
is a
process
cutting
here,
[14].
and
it
controlled
interaction
of
of
are
designated
orthogonal
are: the
cutting
in
of parametersin
is considered,
the necessary
the cutting
and
discussed
rigidity and
geometry),
the
conditions. These
7.5.
Fig.
the
workpieceare not
tool (material
and
rigidity),
with an asterisk
cut),
the
is assumed
the workpiece,
the tool, and
the
selected
conditions
by
cutting
the
of
fluids,
cutting
clamping the tool
machine. Figure 7.5 illustrates
this
among
is influenced
interaction
study
which
a plane
strain
Chapter 7
184
tool
Cutting
j^v
material
N^
geometry
Workpiece
fluic
/Cutting
amount
\\tool
of
Cutting
'i
process
and work-
\\
/ 'Cutting
etc.
rigidity
etc.
forces
\\
power
* \\
rigidity
\\
Machine
piece
\\
\\
etc.
1 Clamping
\\
rigidity
type
\\
geometry
V*\342\200\224^A
\\
material
\\*
conditions
cutting
speed
depth of
c\\
etc.
problem. In
width b and
consequently,
undeformed
the
[14].
is perpendicular
the major cutting
to the
edge
the depth of cut a becomesequal
to the chip
chip thickness
hx becomes
equal to the feed/(see
cutting,
orthogonal
plane;
working
Main
7.5
FIGURE
jt y/
Fig. 7.6).
Chip FormationMechanism
From
confined
intersection
7.6a
Fig.
to
of
it can
be seen that
the
the
shear
shear
the
deformation
in the
model is
tool
the
and
not
shear
confined
angle.
to the
plane AB,
but
in
a narrow
Solid Materials:Mass-Reducing
FIGURE 7.6
Publishing
Company,
Orthogonal
Inc.,
185
Processes
cutting,
Chap. 3, p.
(c) from
32, Fig.
3-2.
Addison-Wesley
with permission.
Chapter 7
186
In the
the
cutting
(>
hx)
process,
cutting
conditions
is not
directly
described
completely
The
r =
or chip
ratio
cutting
ratio
-hi~
cutting
shear
the
zone increases
shear
The
practically possible,
the power
Hard
by the rake
of the
angley and
process.
cutting
the
inverse
C\302\260S
(4>
AB sin
V)
<n B,
V'*>
<J>
gives
ratio
(also called
angle
<)>. The
in
length
the
smaller
(i.e.,
chip
<)>, the
compression)
larger
power requirements
increase).
a large shear angle will give the best utilization of the supplied
chip compression
(kh = Mr) must thus be kept as small as
since this increases the shear angle and,
decreases
consequently,
Consequently,
power.
of the quality
indicator
be expressed
can
hi
The inverse
determine
used as an
**
this equation
Solving
by
7.6d):
Kh (Fig.
-I
1Kh
is defined
not
(7.7)
The
cutting
is
geometry
cutting
\302\253D
be measured and
shear angle <p
can
the
consumption.
do soft
give lower chip compression values than
increases
the chip compression
cutting forces. Friction
and can be reduced by introducing
suitable
cutting fluids.
The chip compressioncan be reduced further by increasing the cutting
speed
or the feed. These increasesin cutting
limit,
speed and feed have an upper
the tool life decreases, which
have a greater economic effect
however, because
might
than
the resulting
increases in material removal rate. Different
theoretical
materials
but
higher
require
been
models have
are
these
materials
work
developed
not discussed
by
experimentally
measuring
shear
the
can
angle,
but
be determined
Types of Chip
the
From
actual
cutting
efficient
appearance
process
cutting
properties of the
cutting
conditions.
than
work
can
of the chip,
be gained,
others.
material,
The
the
much
valuable
information
of
as some types
of
is
determined
chip
type
geometry
of the
cutting
chip
about the
indicate more
mainly
tool,
and
by
the
the
Materials:
Solid
It
at fracture
is,
in
of most
which represents the cutting
cast brass, the stresses aheadof the cutting
shear strain exceeds the shear
the actual
in the direction of the shear plane, so that the
material
the
in
material is removed
finish
chip,
edge.
built-up
continuous
the
three
differentiate
broadly
chip, (2)
(segmental)
with
chip
possible to
in general,
is,
discontinuous
187
Processes
Mass-Reducing
case,
surface
small segments (see Fig. 7.7a). Fairly
good
as
in
brittle
the
these
materials,
cutting edge
produced
in fairly
general,
of
production
chip.
This
most ductile
which represents
to take place without
large rake angles (y -
of chip,
type
the shearing
permit
speeds,
produced by relatively high cutting
low friction between the chip and the tool face (see Fig.
and long chips may be difficult
to handle and,
Continuous
7.7b
tool
the
with a chip
breaker, which
be formed
can
breaker
lengths.
tool or brazing/screwing a chip breakeronto
The Continuous Chip with Built-Up
Edge.
be
must
provided
curls
The chip
short
by
of
is
10-30\302\260), and
c).
consequently, the
breaks the chip into
a stop or a recessin
and
grinding
tool
and
cutting
fracture,
the
face.
the
materials at
of ductile
is produced
by
metal
of built-up
separateand
the material surface, resulting
in a
a tool
and
dersurface
on
the
(see Fig.
roughness
in roughness
for low
surface
shown
minimum
At sufficiently
and this upper limit
will
generally
increasing
cutting
edge effectively
angle (see Fig. 7.8b).
influences the size of the
speed
cutting
final
feed,
speeds
example,it
a nose
have
high
cutting
is sometimes
necessary
and, consequently,
do not exhibit the
edge
built-up
speeds.
speed
shift
speed
edge
cutting
machining
free machining
(Fig. 7.8c) will
machining
machined surface
increases the rake angle and
the built-up
a lower
the free
escape
rough
speeds,
the free
is called
the curve
above
cutting
welded
built-up edge
built-up
clearance
the
having
of the
portions
Periodically,
where
low
to the
are
than
a soft
left.
In
chosen,
to approach the
disappears,
normally
speed.
most
material
material. At
A hard
processes,
minimum
(Fig.
7.8c).
Chapter 7
188
FIGURE
7.7
Basic
types of chip:
(a) the
discontinuous
chip;
(c) the
(b),
continuous
chip.
The
7.2.4
As
the
mentioned
workpiece,and
process
between
189
built-up
Deposited
Deposited
metal
built-up
metal
(actual)
Y(tool)
^ Cutting
speed
(c
FIGURE
7.8
geometry,
the cutting
The effect
(c) The
speed.
of a
built-up
edge
consequently,
tool
of
Chapter 7
190
the
(i.e.,
support
machine
The
cutting process.
and that the
in the
corresponds
and
the
the
that
following
to
state)
on
influence
a major
clamping
and
rigidity,
stability,
is assumed
It
maintained
is well
standard
(good)
practice.
workshop
properties
rigidity,
the actual
of
efficiency
machine
The
workpiece.
the
work material,
the
data (cutting
and
the tool
between
interaction
of the
the
of cut).
is governed
workpiece
the tool
material,
tool
geometry,
of tools (material
The selection
the
by
and
the
cutting
and
the requirements of
material,
finish, the desired
(economical)
and power. The cutting
tool life, chip formation, the cutting
forces,
data
(based
on workpiece requirements, machine, and tool material)
must be selected so that
an economical
cutting process is obtained.
the tool (material, geometry, wear, and tool life) and the
In
the
following,
The machines are not described
selection of cutting
data
are discussed.
in detail,
in later sections.
but the basic principlesare illustrated
and
geometry)
depend on
data
cutting
workpiece geometry,
and
tolerances
the
work
surface
involves
formation
Chip
temperatures;
high ductility,
temperatures.The
most important
strength,
highspeed
steels
diamond
of
the
consequently,
cemented
(HSS),
tool
steels
high
(CTS),
(D).
Carbon
and
tempered
materials
below.
described
in the range
temperatures
edge
are
alloyed
The
500-600\302\260C.
and cobalt:
vanadium,
chromium,
tungsten,
1.4%V.
Steel.
High-Speed
for
it
higher cutting-edge temperatures make
about
100%
to
with
that
used
speed by
compared
possible
cutting
steels. This steel is used quite
carbon tool steels\342\200\224hence the name high-speed
and special-purpose
in twist drills, milling
tools and is. in
cutters,
extensively
fact, the most common tool material.
and
The
0.75%C.
to increase
Sintered Carbide.
powder metallurgical
cobalt
(Co)
permissible
the
Sintered
processes.
as a binder
are
(or
Sintered
hard
and
cemented)
carbides
carbides of tungsten
and are used
brittle
are produced
carbide
in
cutting
(WC)
cast
by
with
iron and
191
Processes
bronze.
groups.
Sintered carbidesare
of
200-500%
about
remembered that
to
taken
hard,
very
compared
in cutting
increase
an
tools. But
and,
it must
care must be
consequently,
those that
occur
speeds
be
during
interrupted
cutting operations.
This
edge.
cutting
is
insert
until
all
both
allowing
rate
Production
sintered carbides.
on, can
are used,
edges
recent
During
Titanium
decades.
titanium
carbide,
when
a new
Ceramictool
materials
The material
most frequently
the
been
have
developed,
temperatures.
to conventional
higher
compared
nitride,
materials to prolong
as coating
used
be
Ceramics.
couple of
continues
procedure
substituted.
life
have
a very
unwanted
be reduced
cutting
high surface
by
fluid are
Reduction
effects of high
Flushing
Some other
at low
improved
cutting
is required
tool materials
as well
and
is used
mainly
as close tolerances.
in
fluids
of
are on
wear (increasedtool
life)
edge
surface
against
corrosion
chips
tendency
advantages are decreased
cutting speeds, the possibility
component
can
general:
of friction and
away
friction
suitable
introducing
of the cutting
Cooling
Protection
of the new
tool
hardest of all
quality
are
The
Fluids
Cutting
The
is the
Diamond
Diamond.
where
so
surface
finish,
to produce
of
increasing
a built-up
the cutting
the
factors
wide
affecting
edge on the
speed, and
variety
of
the selection
are
Chapter7
192
work
the
and
in
material,
its
lubricant,
any
of
health
the operating
fluid as coolant
nontoxic or will
the
it is
personnel.
the
and
suitable
most
The
material
rake angle Y,
the
r.
radius
The
form
and
material
piece, toolholder,and
reduced as well
the hardness,
range 0-30\302\260,
milling, drilling,
y- For high-speed
on the type of tool
smaller
the
depending
etc.)
often
In general, the
angle
and
heat,
(3
depends
surface
good
work
strength
face
milling,
\342\200\224
8\302\260-25\302\260,
depending
work
values of y;
standard
the
in
on
to
the
quality,
range
materials.
determines
end
on
materials
and
~ 6\302\260
=
or y =
tool-
1% for
each
+6\302\260
approximately
in Y-
The wedge
values
normally
planing,
(turning,
used.
1\302\260
increase
conduct
hard
material.
the work
and
steels, y is
the tool is
work
tools: the higher
chosen
in the
of
strength
heat. In machining
even
for
and
diamond
carbide
small,
negative
to conduct
large, as the
be too
not
must
its capacity
as
be
Y must
materials,
machine.
rake angle
normal
The
the
affects
the
of the
deflections
larger a values
5-10\302\260 are
tool
and
its capacity to
values
normal,
surface
the smaller
values
the
quality
of the
are
slightly
steel
high-speed
the
to give
harder
added
tool.
Other important
include
the major cutting-edge inclination
X, which
angles
the direction of chip flow. The major cutting-edge angle k characterizes
the rigidity
the
of tool and directly influences the chip thickness.The higher
type
of the support,
the smaller the values of k that
and vice versa.
are applicable,
workThe angle k is often chosen in the range 20-60\302\260. For small-diameter
=
in
the
k
9
is
used.
value
pieces
turning,
r has a major
of the workThe
radius
ufluence
on the surface finish
corner
r
decreases
the
wear
rate
and
better
it is
surfaces;
piece. Increasing
provides
often chosen
in the range 0.5-3 mm.
can be supplied with
of carbides
Inserts
affects
Materials:
Solid
Mats-Reducing
r =
geometry,
Tool
the
cutting
loss
causing
satisfactorily,
For further
mm.
2.4
on
information
tool
standards.
Tool Life
and
Wear
During
literature
the
see
193
Processes
wearsand
fails
eventually
to perform
and power
accuracy, increasedroughness
wear
The
rate
cutting
edge.
dependson
tool
The
tool
may
wear of the
flank
determined
from
tool must
to overheating,
chipping of the cutting
edge,
most tools fail due to gradual
cracking. In general,
or crater
type. When the wear has reacheda specifiedamount,
the workpiece requirements and the cutting
the
performance,
also
fail
due
and thermal
plasticdeformation,
be
reground
or
changed.
(VB,
width of
wear
land)
and
(b)
crater
wear
Chapter 7
194
The
*^max)-
value
cutting speeds
in
may be
(VBtmx or a
land
wear
flank
criteria
failure
or
Wear
the
used as
of materials that
the crater wear in
machining
sometimes necessaryto
include
crater wear
a wear criterion,
the
but
continuous
form
width of
of the
value
of the
value
is predominantly
VBmax
the
defined as a maximum
maximum
(KTmax,
at high
it is
chips,
criteria.
The way in which the flank wear varies with time is very important since it
basis for the determination of the optimal
(economical)
cutting conditions.
VB is plotted against
If the flank
wear
the cutting
time T at different
cutting
7.10a are obtained for fixed
speeds (v, through
v5) the curves shown in Fig.
of cut, and corner radius. Using the flank
values of tool
wear
geometry, feed, depth
is the
VB =
criterion
tool
decreasing
life
VBfmK,
by
Taylor
vT~vk =
be seen
it can
that
The
time
to the
VB
(see
yield
is
is obtained
VBmax
speed v. A
cutting
shows an approximate
usually
speeds
until
speeds
cutting
increasing
plot of
logarithmic
straight
line
within
equation
(7.10)
[18].
experimental
Today,
work
the
important
in
equipment
[17].
are continuously
research institutions
carrying out
with
the industry
accurate
which is very
information,
effective utilization of modern, high-capital-cost
production
several
to supply
can be made.
Data
the
The
choice
criterion
speed,
feed,
and
(economical
cut-
Materials:
Solid
195
Processes
Mass-Reducing
VB
ilium
(Vl>v2>v3>v4>v5)
'5
\302\273
A 5
\\*
\\z
\\2
\\ !
LLLU
T2
T,
time
Cutting
(
p.
T3
Cutting
T(min)
speed v(m/mln)
(log scale)
( b)
a )
f4 *3<2<1
1.0
V3V2V1
v4
Cutting
speed
Corner
v(m/min)
(
radius
c )
r(mm)
d)
1.0
90
30\302\260
Major
cutting
of
Depth
edge angle
cut
(nun)
( f )
FIGURE
7.10
speed at
the
(a) Width of
life as a
tool
different
influence
function
feeds;
of corner
as a function
wear
flank
of cutting
radius,
major
of cutting
speed; (c)
(f) corrections
cutting-edge
time
the
to
tool
at various cutting
life as
the cutting
angle,
function
speed, part
of
(c),
Chapter 7
196
data),
ting
[seeEq.
Q
where
not give
does
(7.3)]
= AvT
area of cut,
is the
can be written
The cost
E =
(7.11)
MT +
Mtct
the
AvT
\302\243^i
MT
By substituting
to
respect
T< =
+ Mtct
for v
CTVk
7\",
the
~(1 +
life.
tool
the
(7.12)
c,
and T
speed,
cutting
as
economical
life,
the
tcl
tool
changing
CI
+ c,
[the Taylor equation, (7.10)] and
tool life Te is found:
13)
with
differentiating
(714)
'\")
k)(M
k is often
the tool
\342\200\2242
to \342\200\2247.
in the
range
determination
data.
cutting
From
Fig. 7.10
it
can
not
automatically
be seen that
speed.
The machining
does
of Te
from
the required
of a component
cut.
economical
surfacequality
is often
carried
The
(see
pages
202-203).
out
in
or more
one
roughing
cuts
finishing
cut
roughing
are
usually
is determined
by
Solid Materials:
Feed
of feed
function
To show
suggested
(a) The
7.11
FIGURE
removal rate
to the
general
trends,
as a
Klog)
f (nun/rev)
Feed
(mm/rev)
corresponding
the
197
Mass-ReducingProcesses
(b)
the cutting
speed as a
economical
speed
feed are
and
next.
Cutting
Feed if
The lower
The
mm/rev,
mm/tooth).
values
are used in
Work
Material
among
ability),
machining
an economical
the geometry,
must
The
have
properties
technological
permitting
de-
properties
Chapter 7
198
scribing the
called
its
of a
suitability
material for
machining
are
processes
general,
performance
product,
number, as it
found only
be
the
studying
the
collectively
machinability.
forces,
cutting
most
describes,
This
of
by
in
the
tool wear
cases,
factor,
important
Machinability
specified
of tool
quality
of
machinability
and
composition,
TABLE 7.2
Removal
Depth of
for
When
as
values must be
accurate
Cut
Rate
Different
a general
obtainedfor
per Millimeter
Groups of Materials
rate
per mm depth
(mm2/min)
Constructional
steel
Toolsteel (annealed)
47,000-63,000
17,000-43,000
Cast steel
20,000-27,000
iron
13,000-23,000
50,000-63,000
Copper alloys
Brasses
From
of cut
15,000-37,000
steel
Stainless
particular
60,000-70,000
Ref.
19.
in
situations
actual
material.
with Carbides
Turning
Material
Source:
the
a particular
Removal
Cast
comparative guideline;
by
the
its
hardness
199
Mats-Reducing Processes
Materials:
Solid
200
150
100
50
U
FIGURE
tempered
7.12
alloyed
The influence of
steel (0.35%C)
in
350
325
300
275
250
hardness
turning
on
HB
the machinability
with carbides
of
hardened
and
[18].
170 to
A hardness range of HB from
has a major influenceon the machinability.
formation
tend to lead to built-up
200 is generally optimal. Low hardnesses
edge
tool wear, as
above HB = 200 lead to increased
hardnesses
at low speeds. High
as the cutting speed for a tool
seen in Fig. 7.12, which gives the machinability
steel.
life
of 30 min (730) for hardened and temperedalloyed
tool
life when machining
it is preferable to accept a lower
Sometimes,
and
hard
materials
rehardening
(HB from 250 to 330) instead of annealing
the material.
on the
The compositionof the work material has a direct influence
the strength properties are affected. It has been found that some
machinability since
affect
the mechanical
that do not significantly
elements
properties have a
alloying
0.2% sulfur
on the machinability. The addition
effect
favorable
of, for example,
In some cases, however,
will increase
the machinability of steel significantly.
a
for example,
of high-temperature strength,
of functional
because
requirements
such as
is acceptable. Other alloying
of only 0.01-0.05%
elements,
sulfur content
on the
influence
and bismuth, have a similar
selenium,
lead, tellurium,
difficult
to produce.
are more
is that these materials
machinability, but the disadvantage
on
influence
can
have
a
material
of the work
The heat treatment
significant
better
has
a
structure
its machinability. A coarse-grained
machinability
generally
and cementite has
of pearlite
than does a fine-grained structure. The distribution
be mentioned,
here. It should
not be discussed
an
too, but this will
influence,
a martensitic
with
carbon steels (>0.35%C)
however, that hardened,
plain
hard constituents, scale,
to machine.
structure are very difficult
Inclusions,
as the abrasive
so on, have a deteriorating effecton the machinability,
oxides, and
wear on the
cutting
tool
is increased.
Chapter 7
200
7.13 shows
groups.
The
materials\342\200\224in
approximately as
high
The
Surface
In a
machining
is again defined
the figure
From
spite
their
of
it
higher
can
as the
be seen that
hardness\342\200\224have
as the
hardness
increased
definitions
groups and
of hardness for
a function
as
machinability
machinability
that a
m/min)
(vr\342\200\2363o
[18].
Figure
material
The machinability
7.13
FIGURE
processes
and
different
cutting
speed giving a
hardened and tempered
machinabilities
milling.
In drilling, an
Quality
process,
a specific
surface of satisfactory
concerning
quality
the description
geometry is produced,which
be produced. In this section
must
of a surfaceare given,
different
the
deviates
enabling
processes.
from the theoretical
also
implies
a few
an evaluation
terms
landscape
used
Materials:
Solid
or warping,
with as
and
little
is shown
feed as well
in
predominant
Fig.
the
as
for
the
Rmax
of the
and
and
value
surface
few
but
definitions,
more detailed
will be described
the arithmetical mean
by
the
maximum
the
height
RmAX
is
within
the sampling length. The
peak-to-valley height
from the mean line
deviations
Ra is the average of the numerical
within
relation
height of
maximum
the sample
triangular
length
(see
irregularities,
7.14).
a relationship
Fig.
exists betweenRmax
(7.15)
Ra^-J1
The
descriptions can be
468.
roughness
maximum
arithmetical
mean
conditions.
machining
in ISO/R
example,
Here the
irregularities
the
7.14.
as possible
Roughness refers to
and
average, ISO/R468.
that the
means
overhang
direction of the
201
Processes
Definitions
7.14
FIGURE
Mast-Reducing
can
be used for
approximate calculations.
Chapter7
202
surface
roughness;
determine
angles
edge
The
geometry
corner
7.15
FIGURE
of
roughness
and the feed.
r of
radius
the surface
R
**max
is so
roughness.
surfaceis dependent
a machined
primarily
In
process.
Figure 7. IS showsa turning
the tool and the feed/determine the surface
angles. From
r of
radius
Fig.
7.15a,
by the major
tool
7.15a
the
Fig.
on the
roughness,
we have
~t o_
By using the
and in
(7.16)
approximate relationship
given
by
Eq.
(7.15),
Ra is
found
to
be
f2
(7.17)
/?\342\200\236-
32r
Considering
the
situation
shown
in Fig.
leads
to
Materials:
Solid
COt K +
from Eqs.
COt
(7.18)
K'
can
be found:
Rn
203
\342\200\224
\"mu
And
Mast-Reducing Processes
k +
4(cot
(7.19)
cot k')
From
roughness value.
equations
A large
best surfaces.
it can
Summarizing,
surface
quality
improves)
be concluded that
when the
can
Furthermore,
improve
The
milling
revolution.
increasing
roughness
decreases
(i.e.,
the
preceding
related
description
where the
operation
A calculation
gives
FIGURE 7.16
the
Roughness
only
diameter of the
height
in face
milling.
to
turning.
Figure
is D and the
cutter
7.16 shows
feed
is/per
a face
204
Chapter
TABLE 7.3
Typical
(Arithmetical
Mean
for
Ra)
Processes
Different
Process
3-12
TUrning
3-12
3-25
Planing
Drilling
1-10
Milling
0.25-3
Grinding
Kmax
workpiece.As
{Ra) for
7.3
(7.20)
4\302\243
calculation
The
Values
Roughness
Value
illustrative
different
information,
processes
POSSIBILITIES
GEOMETRICAL
An evaluation
1, be
Chapter
of
pattern
characteristics
method
process). In this section only mass-reducing processes based on removal
I are discussed (i.e., the traditional
of
processes).
machining
Examples
on removal methods II, III, and IV are given in Section 7.4. An
processes
based
of the
evaluation
geometrical
2.
(removal
processes
be classified
may
possibilities can
be carried
out
the
considering
factors.
above-mentioned
into
two
major
method
(mediaof
transfer)
groups:
tools)
a. Grinding
tools
of
A description
defined
tools
cutting
with
one
tools,
milling cutters,
etc.),
edges
major
single-point
cutting
tools, etc.),
edge
(drills,
that
well-
as
is,
Solid
Materials:
Mass-Reducing
7.17
Examples of primary
(-*).
FIGURE
or
In tools with
random-edge
multipoint
is not valid. Consideringa grinding
abrasive particles bonded
consists of many
(clays/ceramics, silicateof
shape, the
dull
Hie
and positioning
shellac,
(or grinding
togetherby a suitable
or be broken out,
dressing process.
of tools are described
types
exposingnew
during
the machining
and
sharp
process
a special
different
The surface
Total
soda,
will fracture
particles
(->),
motions
adjustment
7.2.2
or
205
Processes
forming
the
having
desired
component
(TF)
One-dimensional
forming (ODF)
later
in
this
section.
geometry may be
producedby
Chapter7
206
Two-dimensional
forming
Free forming
(TDF)
(FF)
The applicablesurface
characteristics of the
creation
removal
principle
depends on the
Most machining
method.
tool
geometry
and the
(TDF),
the geometry
forming
When
forming (ODF).
Translations
Rotations
Combinations of translations
and
rotations
Stationary
Pattern
of motions
Tool
Workpiece
Every one
yielding
of the
a total
Primary
Feed
Primary
Feed
T/R
T/R
T/R
T/R
four
number
columns
combinations
general
following
different
256.
of motion,
a few of these
types
Quite
SolidMaterials:
edge geometry,
tools are
discussedseparately
7.3.1
Single-Point
are
tools
Single-point
in
the
a portion
and
surface
multipoint
geometry
random-edge
multipoint
sections.
Cutting Tools
characterized
out by a
of the minor
is carried
and
following
portion
cutting
major
cutting edge
ends in a corner which
one
by
allows
the
tools,
with single-point
in cutting
possibilities
well-defined
with
principles,enhancing
favorable applications.
The geometrical
tools
the table
but generally
somewhat,
number
of the motion
utilization
an
for
207
Processes
Mass-Reducing
edge
edge
The
edge.
of the
major portion
major cutting
edge,
well-
constitutes
of the cutting
the corner
while
a major influence on
have
with
the
final
roughness.
contacts
edge of a single-pointtool
normally
only a short line on the
creation
must be based on twosurface
desired surface and, consequently,
dimensional forming.
7.4 shows examples of the
For single-point
tools, the diagram in Table
and the
patterns of motions
of the workpiece and tool, the geometrical
possibilities,
of
is
the
motions
selected
from
machines.
The
processing
practical
pattern
of combined
motions in the table discussedabove.
These
of
applications
patterns
or
tools.
It
machines
machine
motions are providedby the particular
processing
should
be remembered
that the machines possesspositioning
or adjustment
The
motions
to the
addition
in
and size
Table
possibilities
of
the
motions
7.18 and
with
single-point
on important industrial
machining
based
principles
Figures
functional
and
the
defining
of all
description
tools,
but
limits
only
as an
of
geometry
the practical
illustration of
examples.
main
elements
and the
basic
satisfactory
component.
and planing
machines is due to the fact
appearance of shaping
for
of
small parts, whereas
the
shaping
machining
relatively
It
is
is
the
of
intended
for
planing
impractical to build
machining
large parts.
with
ram
to machine
strokes
and
table
motions
multiple
shapers
enough
long
The
different
that
large parts.
is intended
7.4
TABLE
Pattern
Pattern
of Motions,
Geometrical
and
Possibilities,
Machine
Tools for
Tools
Single-Point
of motion*
Workpiece
Tool
Processing
machine
Primary
Feed
Primary
Feed
Cutting
with single-point
toolsh
(machine tool)
Chisel (hand)
(T)
Planer
WtMitfrnL
Shaper Slotter
Horizontal
boring
machine
Horizontal
boring
machine
Lathe
Boring
mill
\"R,
h4>.
rotation;
primary
T. translation.
motion;
-->.
feed motion;
-+.
adjustment
motion.
Crossrall
Table
Ways
(reciprocating
-
FIGURE
7.18
Housing
Planer.
Ram
(reciprocating)
Tool slide
Column
Clapper box
with
tool
post
.Crossrall
Table
FIGURE
7.19
Shaper.
209
210
Chapter7
The
in Table
examples
appropriate machine
motions
tool,
of the
horizontal
and
the
carried
out
on a
tool a
horizontal
Table
where the
7.4,
feed
translatory
in
machine
boring
7.4, where a
pattern
(Fig.
boring
section
machine
as well
is the
as the
pattern
of
7.27).
represents turning.
motions
is shown in Fig.
motion,
of
this
primary
Turning
is
7.20.
motion
for
FIGURE
variant
of
which
is shown
7.20
Lathe.
the
in
lathe is the
Fig.
7.21.
Lathes
Mass-ReducingProcesses
Solid Materials:
Housing
Vertical
slide
Vertical
tool
head
Crossrail
/
HI
Side tool
head
Carriage
Rotating
table
3L
Cross
Bed
FIGURE 7.21
Vertical
HGURE 7.22
Examples
boring
mill.
of typical
turning tools.
slide
Chapter 7
212
If heavy
and
vertical
are to be machined,the
can
boring mill, which
wide
as a
tools.
cutting
is beyond
the scope of this
and magazines be studied
knowledge
of the
are
tools
cutting
single-point
with several
simultaneous
description
of
machine
is
lathe
horizontal
be considered
has
lathe,
the vertical
Therefore,
impractical.
workpieces
large
but
book,
and
tours
various types of
tools.
7.3.2
Multipoint
geometry.
cutting
These
tools
edges
FIGURE
of
arrangement
Tools
Cutting
Multipoint
7.23
Examples
the cutting edges
have more
can be
or
than
arranged
cutter
shapes
of multipoint
allows
the
one
major
different
in
(see Fig.
tools
illustrating
edge of
cutting
geometrical
well-defined
patterns
giving
7.23).
how
the geometrical
shapes:
design of a wide spectrum of cutter
(c) twist drills; (d) end mills; (e) plain milling
(a) files
cutters,
213
If
the
edges
cutting
Fig.
(see
each other
in
a straight
7.23a).
must
be
of materials.
The feed is
particular work material or group
provided to the work
material or to the tool.
When
line, inclined at a certain angle
edges are arranged in a straight
cutting
farther
from the line
to the primary
motion (i.e., successiveedgesprotruding
the previous
than
ones), which means that the feed is built into the tool, the tool
to the
appropriate
the cylindrical
so on, are
of
circumference
cutters,
and
The
in Fig.
examples
variety
should be
tungsten
illustrate
carbide
the determination
In
increasing.
7.23
titanium
or
for
appropriate
principles
only, and,
of them
many
inserts
coated)
(eventually
of the practicalpattern
of
of the cutting
geometrical capabilities
saws, T-slot
tools for
throwaway
is widespread
for the
motions
must be
edges
and
But,
by the shape
determined
are tremendous.
motions
the
metal slitting
cutters,
the orientation
components,
the intended direction of cutting.
of specific
production
milling
plain
a huge
It
body,
examples
for
or
machine
tools.
in a
power
as
Figure
milling
twist
drills\342\200\224can
which
be
used.
pattern
of
motions
are general-purpose
for plain
column-and-knee-type
machines. They are primarily
7.5
TABLE
Multipoint
Pattern of
Workpiece
Pattern of
Motions,
of Geometrical
Examples
Possibilities,
and
Machine
Tools
Tools
motion\"
Tool
Processing
machine
Primary
Feed
Primary
Feed
Cutting
with
multipoint
(machine
tool)
tools*
Broaching
machine
Saw
(Hand)
File
Band-sawing
K\302\243W
^
machine
Tiling
machine
Lathe
Boring mill
Horizontal
boring
machine
Drill press
Milling
machine
cutoff
Rotary
saw
Band
saw
Filing
c<
machine
Milling
machines
\"R,
rotation;
T, translation.
-\342\200\242>,
feeding
motion;
adjustment
motion.
for
Solid Materials:
Mass-ReducingProcesses
215
Head
Drill
spindle
Column
(box)
Worktable
FIGURE 7.24
Vertical
drilling
machine.
different
available.
milling
Chapter 7
216
Worktable
-\"
Overarm
^~
Spindle
W\\
^^^-
Saddle
///
-^^^
, Knee
2 Base
f^<s!
FIGURE
7.25
Plain
^$y
column-and-knee-type
Plain
milling
(a)
H
(b)
machine.
milling
Slitting
Side
Double
saw
milling
angle
Am
End
T-slot
milling
milling
Angle
milling
_
FIGURE
7.26
Typical milling
cutters
and (b)
Inserted-
tooth
milling
shank-mount.
Materials:
Solid
FIGURE
7.27
Mass-Reducing
Horizontal
boring
217
Processes
(drilling
and
milling)
machine.
and
of motions for horizontal
boring,
drilling,
Figure 7.27 showsthe pattern
machines. Boring is carried out by a single-point tool, mounted either in
bar supported
in a bearing in the end support.
a stub-type
bar or a long boring
but because of
Most shank-mounted milling
cutters
can be used in this machine,
drills
and
can
be
arbors
the
mounted, permitting
construction,
spindle
milling
cutters
arbor-mounted
to be used.
tool
a quick
head
on the spindle, permitting
It is possible
to mount a turret
can
tools.
since
the
turret
head
contain
many
change,
but a descriptionof these will
Several types of boring
machines
are available,
i
n
not be given here. However, recent
years, many types and sizes of numerically
are variants
centers
have
become
available.Thesecenters
controlled
machining
and
and
for the versatile
of or substitutes
machines,
boring, drilling,
milling
SO
hold
to
or
more
are
with
a
that
they
storage magazine
up
equipped
may
machines
are generally
different
tools,
enabling
quick tool changes (5-10 s). These
lot sizes.
used for small and medium
milling
7.3.3
As
described
particles
Random-Edge-Geometry
Multipoint
previously,
embedded
Tools
218
TABLE 7.6
Pattern
Tools for Grinding
Pattern
Chapter
of Motions,
Examples of
Multipoint
Random-Edge
with
GeometricalPossibilities,
and
Machine
Geometry Tools
of motion8
Tool
Workpiece
Processing
Cutting
Primary
Feed
Primary
Feed
(grinding)
random-edge
with multipoint
tools
geometry
machine
tool)
(machine
Belt grinder
<#?
T
^z\\
5=T
Surface
grinder
(horizontal
or
vertical)
Honing
machine
Surface grinder
(vertical)
Lapping
&&
machine
(rotary)
R/T
Centerless
grinding
machine
#*
\342\202\254
Cylindrical
grinding
machine (plain
center
R
type)
Surface
grinder
<^-
Internal
grinder
i\302\247
R
Supcrfinishing
machine
<S)
\"R,
rotation;
T, translation.
most characteristic
the
of
One
is grinding.
cutting
219
Mass-Reducing Processes
Materials:
Solid
are
edges
Many
processes based on
tools
random-edge-geometry
and have
simultaneously
cutting
very
short
times.
The
grinding
shapes,
segments,bands,and
used
grindingwheel
and
dimensional
control
recent
years, because
quality.
of the
grinding
Formerly,
development is
taking
grinding
Grinding
such as
wheels,
tool is the
offers close
become extremely
in
important
demands
of high accuracy and surface
increasing
was used only
for finishing
but a rapid
operations,
place
with
regard
to
(high-speed)
roughing
grinding,
for
example.
of motions
pattern
provide
and fine
FIGURE
many
geometrical
possibilities
in obtaining
surface qualities.
7.28
Plain center-type
cylindrical
grinder.
high
dimensional
accuracy
220
EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL
7.4
PROCESSES
MASS-REDUCING
In this
mass-reducing
processes
classified in a similar
way
The field
machining
machining,
book
to
described.
however,
in
Chapter
be
Chapter
of
used
to
that
in
some
industry
used
of the
are given.
in Section
of energy, transfer
medium,
abbreviations used are the
mass-reducing
processes,
processes
and
most frequently
The processes
6.3 according to
the
encountered
will
be
category
creation principle,
as in Section 6.3.
surface
same
is huge,
containing
the
of
and
conventional
electrodischarge
electrochemical
and so on. It is beyond
the scope of this
machining,
describe them all and, consequently,only
will be
typical
processes
Further
information
must be sought
in the literature.
It should,
the basic principles discussed
that examples illustrate
emphasized
only
a
for
1, providing
background
imaginative and practical applications.
blanking
punching,
shearing,
SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 1:
Description.
(M,
Turning
The
turning
two-dimensional
221
Processes
Mass-Reducing
Me,
process
a shear
Ri, TDF,
Sh)
is characterized
state of
by
solid
work
material,
is
forming,
a
a
rotated
and
and
in
chuck
(the
(O
center]
by
[e.g.,
clamped
supported
feed
the translatory
R). Through the primary motion (R) and
motion,
for turning and Tr = radial feed for facing)
of the tool (V) the
axial
feed
supported
primary
and
workpieceis shaped.
(Ta
is used
Turning
a nearly
with
Applications.
cylindrical
components
cross-sectional
axial
shapes
in the
primarily
number
unlimited
(including tapers,
Turning
is
production of
of external
various
and
internal
for
is used
used
most extensively
industrial process.
The material
Requirements.
a
minimum
of ductility
possess
Material
should
and
shear
not
to confine
be
too
< 300)
hard (HB
deformation
mainly
to
the
zone.
Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\2610.01
mm.
normally
in
the
lathes,
range
and
tolerances
Tighter
Machinery. A wide
engine lathe, the turret
automatic
should
variety
lathe,
NC lathes.
less
than
is good,
for example,
of lathes are on the market:
and
screw
machines,
multispindle
single-
the
Chapter 7
222
PROCESS2:
Sh)
Ri, TDF,
Me,
(M,
Milling
The
Applications.
wide
the
variety
accessories
various
of
milling
a versatile
etc.)
<
The hardness
Requirements.
250-300)
and a
minimum
and
the surface
type,
plain
quality
A wide
Machinery.
the
column-and-knee
bed-type,
of
high,
special
in extensive
turning
and
the removal
type.
not be
should
material
too
high
is advisable.
tolerances
1 ^
are normally
good (=
\302\2610.05
Ra ^ 10 |xm.
variety of milling
type (general
and planer
of the
ductility
The obtained
Tolerances/Surfaces.
mm)
Through
different
high.
Material
(HB
process.
many
comes close to
process
shapes can be produced.The milling
are
enormous
the
since
industrial use,
geometricalpossibilities
rate
high-production
head, attachments,
(dividing
various
the
process\342\200\224through
machines\342\200\224is
machines
purpose),
are available:
universal
for example,
column-and-knee
SolidMaterials:
PROCESS 3:
Me,
(M,
Drilling
223
Processes
Mass-Reducing
Ri, TDF,
Sh)
The drilling
Applications.
circular,
cylindrical
etc.). Drilling
Through
etc.)
different
Material Requirements.
exceed
HB =
tolerances
reamingprocess.
Machinery.
bench,
various tools
(twist
interior
combination
hole
The
shapes
can be
drills,
drills,
hardness
of the
material should
not
normally
250.
Tolerances/Surfaces. For
is around
used to produce
is primarily
process
spade drills,
drilled and
holes.
\302\2610.1mm.
Larger
upright, radial,
types
diameters
holes often
is often
typically
of drilling
deep-hole,and
carried
s Ra
machines are
multispindle
tolerance
normal
\302\2610.3mm.
Finer
by a special
out
s 25 |xm.
available:
drilling
for
machines.
example,
Chapter 7
224
PROCESS4:
Ri, TDF,
Me,
(M,
Planing
Sh)
Description.
two-dimensional
The
planing
process is,
or inclined flat surfaces
Applications.
horizontal,
vertical,
Material
HB
minimum
Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\2610.05
to
\302\2610.10
Machinery.
housing
planers,
mm.
used
general,
The
of
should
hardness
is
advisable.
ductility
quite
Normally,
surface
open-side
planers,
planers
are
generally
large
in
the
3 ^
range
available:
exceed
not
can be
tolerances
good
roughness is
Different types of
to produce
The
Requirements.
= 300, and
in
Ra
obtained,
^
for example,
pit-type
12 fim.
double
planers.
Solid
PROCESS5:
Description.
two-dimensional
of stress.
the
is characterized
process
shaping
(one-dimensional
forming
the
vertical,
The shaping
or
mostly in toolrooms.
the more productive
Material
minimum
inclined
Planing
The
Machinery.
lically
powered.
roughness
Shaping
material,
process.
milling
Different
work
is primarily
used to produce smaller
process
flat surfaces (curved surfaces may
be produced)
and shaping
in
substituted
for by
are,
many cases,
The hardness
Requirements.
is advisable.
of ductility
surface
solid
by
forming
Sh)
Ri, TDF,
feed
Applications.
horizontal,
The
Me,
(M,
Shaping
state
with
giving
225
Mass-Reducing Processes
Materials:
will
types
is
can
normally
of shapes
gradually
should not
being
be obtained
be in
(\302\2610.1
the range
are available,
replaced
HB
exceed
3^
300, and a
to
mm
Ra
\302\2610.05
12 |im.
mechanicalor hydrau-
by milling.
226
Chapter 7
PROCESS6:
and
(cylindrical
Grinding
surface)
TDF, Sh)
grinding
process is characterized by solid work material,
and a shear
forming (one-dimensional forming
occur),
may
state of stress. The workpiece (W) is supported betweencenters (P) or clamped
on a table (B) and given a rotary
(/?) and translatory
(T) feed. The tool V (the
is
a
motion
(Rv) and, depending on the
grinding wheel)
given
rotary
primary
a feeding motion
sometimes
also.
particular
process,
The
Description.
two-dimensional
cylindrical
Today,
roughing
including
grinding,
sometimessubstitute
for
profile
milling,
turning,
it is
Tolerances/Surfaces. Grinding
tolerances
around
\302\2610.001
produced,0.25 < Ra
removal
<3
mm
y.m.
is
are
at
grinding
in
finishing
other processes.
high cutting speeds,
can
or planing.
has
Also,
normally
obtainable
The grinding
no limit in
high ductility
processes have a
low
be
material
rate.
Machinery.
Various
types of
grinding
machines
and
surface
are available;
grinders.
for example,
Electrical
7:
PROCESS
work
discharge
electrical
The
Description.
solid
227
Mass-ReducingProcesses
Solid Materials:
discharge
process
machining
one-dimensional,
total,
material,
machining, EDM
is characterized
or two-dimensional
forming,
by
and
stress, as the
state of
evaporation.
creation
surface
The
of motions.
Material
independent
and strength
hardness
Tolerances/Surfaces.
\302\261
0.02
to
\302\261
0.005
Machinery.
different
mm,
Various
sizes and
materials
conductive
Electrically
Requirements.
of
(i.e., also in
the
can be shaped
heat-treated
of electrical
capabilities.
state).
tolerances
fine,
10 u-m.
of
Chapter7
228
8:
PROCESS
Shearing
Description. The
shearing
TDF, Sh)
is characterized
work
solid
by
material,
and
a shear state of
(sometimes one-dimensional)forming,
stress. The workpiece
the tool (V) is carrying
(WO can either be clampedso that
and the feed motions, or moved
out
both
the shearing
so that the tool is
(fed)
the
motion.
The
is
out
metal
cut
between
two shearing
shearing
carrying
only
bladesor rolls with a clearance of 5-10% of the thicknessof the work material.
two-dimensional
Applications.
sh<
With
is and
plates.
curved
Material
and
blades,
The
Requirements.
lower
considerably
than the
Tolerances/Surfaces. The
hardness
tolerances
squaringshears,
roll
wide
shears,
process
should
not
shears
be
too
depend
on the actual
mm. The
roughnessof
of machines
< 200)
wear.
heavy
high (HB
to avoid
are available:for
and
machines.
slitting machines,
blading
variety
in industry to cut
is called shearing.
special names.
hardness of the
Machinery.
extensively
the
of
pattern
the
cut
example,
motion
surface
is
Materials:
Solid
PROCESS9:
and
Blanking
229
Processes
Mass-Reducing
ODF, Sh)
Piercing
Description. The
work
(P)
If the
material.
if the
and
piece punched
piece punched
is the
out
is scrap,
out
State of stress
Shear zone
p
ry
-s
(w)
the
Deformation:
narrow
shear
zone
used
extensively
State of deformation:
Nonsteady
The
Applications.
household
equipment,
a mass
typically
Material
ductility to
blanking
production
appliances,
controlled
Limited
in
fine
surface
blanking,
roughness
in
motors,
is
200, and
sufficient
shearing.
considerably,
clearance
the
\302\2610.05-0.5mm.
is normally
HB ^
hardness,
Tolerances/Surfaces. Dependingon
tolerancesvary
processesare
to
process.
Requirements.
permit
and piercing
mechanicalindustries
is held
is usually
a
of the process.
Ra
a pressure
50 (im.
by
mechanical or
They may
be
hydraulic
plate. The
press,
single-operation
but
dies
Chapter7
230
7.5
All
flow,
and
material
Basedon
the
elementary
system can be determined.
processes
machinery.
In the following
General
7.5.1
The
sections,
1.
The shear
The
If
wx
but
of
the
and
more
necessary
out a
is
process
cutting
ny consumed
the
when
chip
slides over
the
face
tool
(7.21)
processes,
is approximately
work
frictional
equal to
xdy,
value of
can be
from
found
the
shear
stress-shear
(7.23)
odl]
(= f
be shown
a mean
to
modified
be
(7.22)
work
(x-yj
f'
the
and, consequently,
work
total
curve
in the shearing
consumed
to I.50K
(1.25
can
which
w,
work
cutting
The shearing
ws
are described,
wf
20-30% of the
strain
requirements
detailed specification
of the media of transfer
that
h'v +
most
work
frictional
This means
in the
the
the
out
carry
flow.
information
and
supplies
system
energy
transfer\342\200\224to
methods
approximate
the literature.
Chapter
sections
of
2.
For
in
the
Background
unit volume
per
energy
composed
be found
can
theories
refined
The
elements
major
they set
since
system,
energy
are
and power
of
theory
planned material
to the
according
Forces
I, material
flow,
of this chapter,
the
processes have been elucidated.
the main elements in
plasticity,
in
previous
medium of
a suitable
necessary\342\200\224through
energy
the
on the
and
flow
energy
the
in mass-reducing
flow
information
this,
as discussed
involve,
processes
and energy flow. In
manufacturing
information
POWER
AND
FORCES
OF
DETERMINATION
to be identical to
stress
shear
the
Eq. (4.42).
xm is
used, Eq.
(7.23) becomes
(7.24)
xmy,
ys is
processes
in
the
range
2 to
4,
which
means
that
Eq. (7.24)
can be written
w,
(2 to
Tresca's yield
=
o\342\200\236
2xM,
(7.25)
4)xm
criterion
where
o0 is
for
the
pure
uniaxial
=
shear (Section 4.4.1) gives
o,/2
x,\342\200\236
be
yield stress. The yield stress o0 can
or
re-
of the material
hardness
the
to
lated
231
Mass-Reducing Processes
Solid Materials:
through
\302\253
HB
(7.26)
co0
of relation
is
[Section 2.3.2, Eq. (2.14), relates
outt and HB but the same type
for a given material. This
also valid for the yield stress] where c is a constant
means
\342\200\224
HB
that
(2 to 4)HB =
or
For steel
cutting
necessarywork
10HB
normal rake
the
rake
the
empirical
3
where
feeds/|
To
reference
such
this
angley and
angle
per
volume
unit
equation
most
gives acceptable
of the equations
dependent on
the
the
within
traditionally
special
20%
used
[15].
in
attention.
conditions,
especially
can
cutting
The influence
feed/.
results to
the
be
follows:
as
formulated
the work
approximation,
(7.30)
homogeneous
w necessary is
work
The
a first
N/mm2
not
are
machining
in
(7.29)
that, as
be rememberedthat
It must
measured
a cutting
out
show that
Experiments
o0 is
the hardness
of
process can be determinedfrom
The lower value 4 of the factor in Eq. (7.29) corresponds to
which means that
it is reasonable
to estimate the
conditions,
in cutting
as
the material.
w ~
is approximately
c \342\200\224
0.3
when
in Eq. (7.28) gives
N/mm2
shows
to carry
necessary
10)HB
(7.29)
Equation
favorable
(7.28)
substituted
(4 to
leads to
(7.22)
Eq.
3)^
(cold worked)
which
N/mm2,
in
substituted
w^ (1.25 to
(7.27)
Uto2)Hp
*>.**\342\200\224\302\243
Equation (7.27)
consequently becomes
(7.25)
Equation
2cxm.
relation
[15]
(T
w,
at
and/2
a reference
Eq. (7.30)
must
value cannot
be
used
controlled conditions(given
be
independent
values
the
found,
approximate
of y and/. Usually,
/, y, etc.) when
of v,
If
calculations
Chapter 7
232
are necessary.If w
N
where
wAv
A is the
7.5.2
(7.32)
wfav
area of cut
to the
(equal
and Power
Forces
Cutting
force
process, the total
(see Fig. 7.29)
components
of cut)
and
the
v is
P, =
force
tangential
Pa
Pr
= radial
on the tool
can be resolved
into
force)
(cutting
force
axial
force
been shown
it has
Experimentally,
the
that
magnitudes
of these
by
given
approximately
in Turning
P acting
a turning
three
as
speed.
cutting
In
the power
is known,
times the
= 4:2:1
P,\\Pr'Pa
fcr-(\302\261Y
-Hj
/
'
/
/
k '
iV
1/
r v
V. V
FIGURE
radial
7.29
force,
Forces
and Pa
in turning: P,
the
axial
force.
the
tangential
force
(cutting force), Pr
the
The
P, is
force
tangential
233
Mass-Reducing Processes
Materials:
Solid
force
external
the
component
which
must
the
supply
(internal) work:
necessary
P, =
wA
(7.33)
can be modified to
(7.33)
Equation
P, =
(7.34)
wfa
where
the area
measured
experimentally
of
A is
cut
and,
by A
substituted
consequently,
= fa
[Eq.(7.3)].Often,
can
P,
is
be calculated
[Eq. (7.34)]:
\342\200\242
where
the
many
cases
(7.35)
/.Y
suffixes/,
only /
is
which
known,
means
values of/and
in the
used
of y on
test.
w
In
must
be neglected.
pressure
for
different
the
Eq. (7.30),
If the
rule
the
and
force
tangential
N =
If Eq.
N
a comparison of w, determined
from
enabling
values of ks. It can be seen that Eq. (7.30) gives
measured
as a rough
approximation.
Table
7.7 are used at values of/and y other
than
values, correctionsmust be carried out according to Eq. (7.31),
used that ks decreases 1% for every degree y is increased. The
the power consumption,
P, determines
of ks
(or w)
in
(7.36)
P,v
(7.34) is
=
force
materials,
values
the reference
volume
the
with
results
reasonable
unit
cutting
wfav
substituted
into
Eq.
(7.36),
the power
is given
by
(7.37)
kjav
in N/mm2,
N=
ks is
Eq. (7.37)
$m>
kW
becomes
(738)
234
7.7
TABLE
Values of
Typical
ks for
Various
Materials\"
HB
Material
*,
(mm/rev)
(N/min2)
Yo
carbon steel
Plain
steel
Mild
120-150
1950
0.4
-6
140-160
2100
170-210
2250
0.4
0.4
-6
2350
0.4
-6
2250
0.4
-6
230
2300
0.4
-6
250-310
2200
0.4
-6
0.4
-6
(0.15%C)
Steel (0.35%C)
Steel (0.50%C,stress
relieved)
hardened
375
hardened
230-330
steel
Stainless
0.2%C, 179&CR,2%Ni,
hardened
and tempered
0.08%C, 17.5Cr,8.5%Ni,
160
2050
180-200
1900
200
1300
1100
annealed
Cast steel
iron
(gray)
Copper
80-120
Brass
Aluminum
Aluminum
850
550
alloys
700
various sources.
from
'Evaluated
\"
-6
steel
Alloyed
Cast
Chapter
consumption
power
required
at the
edge.
cutting
kW
If the
by
<7-39>
6<wki
Often, f]
It
should
accuracy
The
consumption
a value
has
be remembered
obtained.
axial force
(<5%)
pa is
relatively
is negligible,
small,
since
the
and
feed
its contribution
speed
normally
to the power
is very low.
and Power
Forces
7.5.3
235
Processes
three
on the tool can be resolvedinto
the
of
force
to
direction
cutting is
P, parallel
components.
Only
\342\200\224 Practical
considered.
In general,
is
wfa.
P,
given by P,
experience shows that
in
and
specific
cutting pressure
shaping
planing normally lies 15-20%above
be
value for turning, so that
can
P,
approximated to
the total
in turning,
As
force P acting
the tangential
P,
=*
the
the
(7.40)
1.18*/\302\253
Table 7.7.
from
ks can be found
The power necessary(when
/ is measured
mm2, and v in m/min) is given
by [modification
where
The efficiency
In
with
drilling
major cutting
and
Pa,
and Power in
divided
of Eq.
mm, ks
N/
Drilling
separate
edge P
edges
cutting
the
can be resolved
three
into
components,
force
P, can
be
found
from
Eq.
P\342\200\236
(7.34):
wfa
in
(7.39)]
Fig. 7.30).
tangential
Pt =
two
into
For each
edge.
Pr (see
The
twist drill,
can be
force
total
a in
mm/stroke,
0.7-0.8
is normally
Moment
7.5.4
in
(7.42)
ks{&
where ks has the referencefeed/z = fll (the feed per cutting edge),/the
total
axial
feed of the drill
(see
Fig. 7.2 and 7.30a), and D the diameter of the drill.
The torque acting on the drill is given by (see Fig. 7.30a)
l. LQ.D
0. _
- ks
22 2
w _
-
P
r,
2
that
is,
= ks&-
the
drill.
The total
PA
where
calculated
Pa
as
the
required
The change
axial
2Pfl =
(7.43)
is the
force
in
moment
with
the
feed
and the
diameter D
ks with/is
PA can
2P; sin
increases
(^)
perpendicularto
the
edge.
Pa can
be
236
Chapter
f-^^
D/2
D/2
\302\253
^
The forces in
FIGURE 7.30
r\"
drilling.
K22
P' = k
&
that
2Pa =
by
material
(area
ks, Pa
p.
Substituting
PA
=s
to press
2P, sin
PA,
(^)
is,
PA =
If PA
is
j2,Pt =
related
V3
(7.44)
-fksfD
to the
moment (7.43), it
is found
that
PA =
The
(7.45)
2j3%
at the
required
power
237
Processes
tool
cutting
is given
by
\"
\"\342\200\242
(746)
4(\302\243fe
where *, is measured
= rev/min).
(n
in
power
If
the
N/ram2,
to
provide
it is
consequently,
of the
efficiency
/ and D
in
is
the feed
v = nDn
and
mm,
1-5%
only
normally
in
m/min
of the
neglected.
drilling machine
rj
is
the motor
included,
size
is
required
\342\200\224kjDv
Values of
the cutting
milling,
pressure
may
In most
Vs.
of material
cases
it
removed
can
is acceptable
to consider
it
drilling,
cutting
is necessary
to
only
the
power consumption
specific
that
be removed
per
kilowatt
per
minute.
If Vs, as
= back
(see
Fig.
7.3),
ae = working
mm, and
mm,
engagement,
=
vf
table
feed speed,
The
rate V is
removal
V
specific
and
be based on the
cm3/kW-min;
material
the
thickness.
can
This
in turning
than
calculations
define a mean
ap
7.5.5
In
be found
can
it,
.-
U'*'}
114(60,000)
but
total
aeapVf
mm3/min
(7.48)
\302\243
(7.49)
S$*
in
general,
is given
by (Vs
measured
in
cm3/kW-min)
238
Chapter
7.8
TABLE
Values of
Typical
the
Specific
Removal
Rate V,
V,
Material
End
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
\"
r\\
If
9-11
8-10
22-28
16-20
18-24
18-22
20-28
40-50
35-45
45-70
KT3 kW
Vs
cutting
(7.50)
efficiencyof
the
is unknown,
Vs
be used
can
10-12
20.
60,000
is the
11-14
11-14
50-80
From Ref.
where
12-15
12-15
24-30
metal
Source:
Face milling
milling
14-17
Brass
Light
min)
(cm3/kW-
in
the work
machine
w =
(0.7-0.8).
10HB N/mm2)
exists relating
Vs
andHB:
as 1800
V,HB
(7.51)
in cm3/kW*min.
where Vs is measured
Table
a
steel
with
0.35%C,
Considering
substituted
Vs
From
milling
in
Eq.
s*
Table
together
(7.51)
HB =
150,which
= 12cm3/kWmin
7.8 it can
are
V,
in the
givesreasonableresults.In
cannot
7.7 gives
leads to
be distinguished.
these
approximate
calculations,
for
end
means
and face
that Eq.
(7.51)
Materials:
Solid
8.1
In
INTRODUCTION
previous
discussed.Often,
possibility
joining two
section
If the
done in
it is
described.
componentsare
1.
elements (components)A
three
The elementscan
elements
3.
The
the
can
can
elements
first
are to
be joined,
through localized
joined
permanently
and/or adhesion between the elements.
be joined
a geometrical
through
or plastic
be joined through
(rivets, bolts,
joining
Fig. 8.1
B in
be
oh elastic
based
fasteners
In
cohesion
elements
The
and
this can
be
ways:
principal
basedon
2.
Processes
Joining
locking
coalescence
of the
deformation.
the
use of
special
elements
joining
or
etc.).
method, coalescence is
brought
about
through
cohesion
or adhesion:
Cohesion,which
established
means
through
that
the elements
a suitable
combination of
temperature
and
pressure
to
239
Chapter 8
240
(a)
\342\226\241
b)
(c)
TYPE
TYPE
TYPE
s^r7xZ2iy
8.1
FIGURE
Joining
examples of joints
geometrical
atomic
sufficient
bonding
the
elements
of physical, electrical,
common
structures)
This
is not
many
that
activity
are bonded
or chemical
nature
basicstructure.
means
and
proximity
that
together
(i.e.,
the
two elements
that
materials (seeFig.8.1band
Assemblies based on
geometrical
locking
c,
assembly
are obtained
forces
surface
through
the elements
do
not
types of
materials,
the
form
different
is,
it is necessary
to apply filler
joining
processes
the cohesion or adhesionis establishedbetween
is basedon
forces)
Coalescence
(b), (c)
elements).
joining
locking,
create
based
filler
which
material
type 1).
through
stresses
plastic deformation
be shaped
2c). The elements must
according to the chosen assembly
(assembly
type
and
method.
may, for example, be
Assembly
type 2b is called shrinkage
the shaft (A) oversizefor the hole (B) (interference fit). By
established by producing
the two members can be
the housing,
the shaft and/or heating
cooling
arise between
the
stresses
to room temperature, high
assembled. After
cooling
If the interference is not too large, the elements
them together.
elements
locking
generated
by
may be
elastic
deformation
pressed together
cold.
(assembly
type
2b)
or by
241
Joining Processes
Materials:
Solid
JOtNtNO
MECHANISM
COHESION/ADHESION
1
MATERIAL
FL JID
RIOID
CONDITION
MECHANICAL
BASIC PROCESS
RIGID/FLUID
THERMAL
THERMAL
THERMAL
ENEROY
ELECTRICAL
CHEMICAL
COLD WELDINO
WELDINO
DIFFUSION
RESISTANCEWEI. DINO
WELDINO
ARC
SOLDER INO
BEAM
ELECTRON
WELDINO
BRAZINO
FOROB WELDINO
ADHESIVE BONDING
LASER WELDINO
PROCESSES
PROJECTION WELDINO
ARC
ULTRASONIC WELDINO
INDUCTION
EXPLOSIVE WELDINO
RESISTANCE
of
Structuralization
8.2
FIGURE
WELDINO
OAS WELDINO
WELDINO
THERMIT WELDINO
WELDINO
methods.
welding
3) could
joints are
In this
to
intended
chapter
or
be separated
those
only
use
the
bolting,
stresses
at some
joining
methods,
the processes
naming
date.
future
methods
adhesion
8.2
mean riveting
This
discussed.
different
based on
methods
Assembly
type
based on a
1 assemblies
showsa detailed
most
commonly
specific processare
involving
cohesion
classification
used
and/or
of the
in industry.
OF THE JOINING
CHARACTERISTICS
PROCESSES
To
achieve
a satisfactory
adhesion\342\200\224two
basic
joint or bond
requirements
1. The surfaces
involved
other contaminants.
must
based on
coalescence\342\200\224cohesion
and/or
must be fulfilled:
be free
of oxide layers,
adsorbed
gas,
and
Chapter8
242
2.
forces
bonding
must be
involved
surfaces
The
(atomic forces
intimate
into
brought
or surface
can
forces)
contact so that
be activated.
the
can be fulfilled
These basic conditions
in different ways, resulting
in the various
to
methods.
8.2
should
it
be
out
that
in fusion
Fig.
joining
Referring
pointed
of
fluid
material:
in
of
the
the
the
conditions
(state
weldings
vicinity
joint)
are fulfilled
bonding
by a localized melting along
to
two
be
often
a filler material because of
joined,
edges
parts
using
the
need
to fill gaps in the joints.
These gaps are made by chamfering
the edges
before welding in order to facilitate the conveyance of heat,
when
particularly
material
is the main ingredient
in some
welding heavier gages. The filler
processes:
and gluing, for example.
brazing,
soldering,
a satisfactory
to obtain
necessary
of the
the
the
In
conditions
are
removedby
of the
deformation
plastic
solid)the
surface
two
oxides
and
surfaces, so that
surfaces
are created. Depending on the amount
of deformation
and
virgin metallic
some of the oxide layer becomesdistributed
in
the geometry of the specimens,
the joint causing weaker bonding.
and gluing are processes based on the introduction
of a
soldering,
Brazing,
a lower
filler material having
those
of the materials to be
melting point than
joined. The
as
bonding
wirebrushing
in
weldings
weldings by a high
of
combinations
development
In
fusion
create
by
a high
temperature
of a large
and pressure
number of
exist,
temperature,
suitable
many
is
which
the
and
soldering,
adhesion.
and pressure
and useful
for
background
the
processes.
important
industrially
so that capillary
WELDING
FUSION
8.3
are characterized
(mechanicalsuch
welding,
cohesion-based
localized
bonding,
is established
surfaces
welding
thus
to
a suitable
requires
a suitable
method
In addition
to that,
energy source to produce the melting.
metal
to protect or shield the molten
from contamination is needed because
melt
has a tendency to react with
the oxygen
and nitrogen in the
the
in a vesicular, porous weld
with
inferior
atmosphere
resulting
surrounding
mechanical
properties.
The
most frequently
chemical, although
characteristics
conditions
other
are electrical
used types of energy
may be used. Because of
types
of electrical and
is given
in the
following
chemical
section.
energy,
a short
(the major
the
highly
type) and
differing
account of important
Solid
Materials:
The molten
FIGURE
8.3
8.3.1
Electrical
(Arc
Under
the
pool of
in fusion
metal
welding.
Welding)
a number
of processes are found
where
designation arc welding,
is
induced
means
of an electric arc. With
few
energy
by
is established between a metallic
electrode
and the specimen. The
the joint
necessary
exceptions,
243
Joining Processes
the
arc
arc is thus
a primary
condition
for
any
arc
welding
process.
Theory
is a stream of electrons.If an air gap is created in the
of the electronsis broken
and the current ceases to flow.
The flow can be reestablished
the air gap, making
electron
by ionizing
movement possible
from
their
During the ionization, other electrons are moved
again.
An
circuit,
electric
current
the movement
244
FIGURE
Sandviken,
Chapter 8
8.4
Generation
of an
electric arc.
(From
Sandvikens
Handbook,
0.34 Sv.
Sweden.)
to destroy
the
to ionize(i.e., loseat
structure
least
of the
one electron)
Materials:
Solid
Arc characteristics
8.3
FIGURE
Handbook, 0.34
the
anode
the
ions
Sv. Sandviken,
at
maximum
and
minimum.
(From Sandvikens
Sweden.)
where
that
245
Joining Processes
energy
to heat.
b accelerate
Correspondingly,
toward the cathode,
thus
its ability to emit new
electrons\342\200\224is
maintained.
temperature\342\200\224and
electron bombardment is fiercer than that of the ions, causing the anode to
more than the cathode when
direct
current. When alternating
heated
using
whose
The
be
current
In
the
cathode
as describedearlier.
246
Chapter
The temperature
the
in
working
an
depends
intensity
values
being
of
of magnitude
order
V, with
35
A.
50-80
other
on\342\200\224among
100-600
each possessing
be used,
may
is of
arc
the
to initiate
needed
as direct
such as:
well
as
disadvantages
with
of the
gage
things\342\200\224the
Alternating
advantagesand
and
5000-7000\302\260C,
ac).
have a
Ac welders
ac welders.
on
but
have, until recently, dominated the welding
field,
in the last few years,
cheap and effective ac machines
developed
are now used extensively in industry.
they
In general,
the arc can be established
in either
of two ways. First, it can be
established
which
between a consumablemetal
is gradually melted
electrode,
Dc
machines
welding
because
the
of
during
electrode
process,
corresponds
and
must be
the
filler metal,
necessary
correspondingto
the
work
supplied separately.
mentioned
of
the three main groups of electrodes,
the one most commonly used.
of coating
the electrodes, the
Instead
fluxing powder
by inert
of a
gases
which
or basic
the low-hydrogen
forming
around
atmosphere
behind
fusion
a number
the
welding
type
is
granulated
be protected
can
welding
are
of industrially
zone.
fairly
simple,
important
Processes
Here the arc is maintained between a bare
and the work material (see Fig. 8.6aand b). To
for the continuous melting of the electrode, it must be moved
compensate
toward
the work material
to keep a constant
arc length
along the weld. In welding
the
with bare electrodes, the arc tends to become unstable
and,
consequently,
Metal-ElectrodeArc
consumable
metal
Welding.
electrode
Joining Processes
Solid Materials:
8.1
TABLE
247
Rutile
Low-Hydrogen
Neutral (%)
(%)
Ca02
CaF2
27
Si02
15
20
36
45
\342\200\224
MnO
9
5
26
FeO
21
34
Ti02
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
A1203
\342\200\224
MgO
\342\200\224
2
7
BALANCE
the
temperature
is produced,
in special
this
for
to a
known
is stud
application
workpiece.The
is established
arc
workpiece
coalescence.Special
developed
The best
applications.
is joined
stud
metal
process.
This
(see Fig. 8.6c) is used
process
the shielded electrodes consist of metal
wires
or
rods (2-10 mm in diameter)
upon which is extruded a specialcoating. During
the coating provides a gas shield around
the arc and forms a
welding
protectiveslag
that prevents oxidation and other contamination.
At the same
coating
time it prevents
too rapid cooling of the molten
metal.
The coating, in general,
fulfills several purposes, some of which
are: It provides a protective atmosphere;
Shielded Metal-Arc
extensively
it
in
the arc;
stabilizes
accumulate
adds
coating;
for the
it
elements;
and so
different
on.
Many
and
of all
80-90%
metal
in
it
the
speciallydeveloped
is done
welding
to
rate;
cooling
recommendation
manual
slag
provides
the
are available,
manufacturer's
the
it
down
rate by powdered
deposition
of electrodes
types
applications,
followed.About
always be
increases
it
refinement;
metallurgical
performs
it prevents
impurities;
alloying
Welding.
Here
industry.
should
with coated
electrodes.
Submerged-Arc Welding.
granular
fusible
flux
(see Fig.
shielded metal-arcwelding.
to provide good electrical
supplied ahead of or around
coated
flux,
and
high-quality
and
contact
it.
The
arc is
thus
is fed
into
the
completely
submerged
as
in
ships,
large
tanks,
material,
granular
by the
automatic,
It is widely
tubes, and so on.
248
Chapter8
Electrode
\342\200\242-Electrode
(a)
metal
Molten
jJ%
drops
material)
(filler
(b)
Extruded
coating
Electrode
Gaseous shield
Molten
flux
Granular
metal
covered
with
slag
*&m
(d)
(c)
Electrode
3s*- Inert
electrode
(metal)
Tungsten
gas
\"\342\200\242\342\200\242-Inert
gas
Filler
material
(TlG-welding)
(MIG-welding)
sz
<msm
(f)
(e)
arc
welding; (b) metal-electrode
welding;
welding; (e) gas metal-arc welding;
FIGURE
8.6
(a) Arc
welding;
(d)
submerged-arc
(c) shielded
(f)
gas
metal-arc
tungsten-arc
welding.
Gas Metal-ArcWelding.
molten metal
Here
is called
through a
are
MIG welding
special gun,
shielded
a bare
metal electrode
by an
is usedand
atmosphere of
inert
gas.
both
the
This
which
Materials:
Solid
gasescan
be
249
Joining Processes
used:
is used
dioxide
carbon dioxide.Carbon
For
heavier
weldings,small
cheapest gas.
helium, or
argon,
extensively to weld
steel as it
is the
be supplied through
many applications.
of flux may
amounts
has
a hollow
a process that
electrode,
also
in the
used
The more expensivegases,such as argon and helium, are mainly
is
steel.
Gas
of
and
stainless
metal-arc
aluminum,
welding
magnesium,
welding
at
with
a
even
used
at
welds
rate,
high
speeds
being
growing
giving high-quality
or automatically.
thick plates. The processcan be carried out manually
a nonconsumable electrode of
process,
is suppliedseparately
and the shielding
established
dioxide for steel
or carbon
by an inert gas, for example, argon, helium,
called
TIG welding (tungsten-inert
(see
welding
Fig. 8.6f). The process, often
in light-gage
with other
work and is not competitive
gas), is used mainly
for heavier gages of metal.
weldingmethods
in the
of processes
More detailed
and equipment can be found
descriptions
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding.
In
is used,
the filler material
this
tungsten
literature
[2,21-241.
8.3.2
in other
Electrical
arcing.
Electron-Beam
than
ways
and
welding
through
laser-beam
Welding
for coalescence
(see Fig. 8.7), the heat necessary
of the workpieces with a high-intensity
of high-velocity electrons. The processis carried
electron beam
out in a
consisting
vacuum chamber to avoid heavy
of energy and to shield the molten
metal
loss
oxidation. The electron beam is produced
against
by a special and rather
expensiveelectron
to perform welding
chamber
gun. The need to use a vacuum
serious
limitations
on the size of the workpieces
that can be welded. In the
imposes
into
of a type of
the development
past few years, much effort has been put
In
beam welding
electron
is obtained
from
chamber.
by inert
bombardment
the workpiece
remains outside the
welding machine wherein
special precaution must be taken, for example,by shielding
electron-beam
vacuum
the
Here,
Electron-beam
is usually
welding
carried
but
also
materials
process,
be applied.
it is
difficult
super
used
alloys,
primarily
to weld
by
in a
out
other
for example.
when
vacuum
is high (>100
used to join not
chamber. No filler
only
processes:
Because of the
other
welding
the
and
mm)
heat-
common
metals,
this
processes cannot
refractory
high
cost of
250
Chapter8
CATHODE
CHAMBER
VACUUM
ANODE
POWER SOURCE
SEAL
FOCUSINGCOIL
ELECTRON
BEAM
WORKPIECE
Electron beam
8.7
FIGURE
Laser-Beam
Welding
In laser-beam
welding
welder.
(see
8.8),
beam
Emission
Stimulated
by
Amplification
Fig.
This
welding, the
of Radiation)
or indirectly
in
the
welding,
is relatively
versatility
of cases.
welding
small
expensive,
(no
vacuum),
are
wavelengths
industrial
up to 20
rather than
steel with a
components,
welding
the
direct
for example,
through,
is shallow, 10-12 mm in
penetration
affected zone is very small. Laser beam
and at a rapidly increasing rate in
industry
of
mediathrough
range
in pulses
Munich.)
Hanser Verlag,
J. Flimm,
(From
is
mechanical
are
of
Today,
produced.
applications
kW
supply
flash lamps.
in
available.
welding.
In
as a continuous
beam.
The
2-kW laser, but the heatused in the electronics
industry
for light-gage
and the
number
251
Solid Materials:JoiningProcesses
Gas laser.
FIGURE
8.8
8.3.3
Thermo-Chemical
Welding
processes
in which
are of
chemicalreactions
two
Welding Processes
the parts to be joined are fused
types\342\200\224one
in which
This method
thermic
flames,
employing
by the
or gas
heat of
as
welding
it is
aluminowelding.
Gas
Welding
In the gas welding
forced convection
by
heat
radiation.
and
efficiently,
process
and
pass
reaction
C2H2 +
Maximum
this
contact
flame
+ H2
+ 106,500 cal
temperature\342\200\224about
combustion
of the
2CO
02 ;\302\261
preheats
the
the welding
material
reached
3500\302\260C\342\200\224is
The products
zone.
point
this
first
reaction
zone. Becausethis
it largely
of view.
and provides
of
The outer
zone, or envelope,
some shielding
against
oxidation
of the
of the
of the
flame
mol-
Chapter 8
252
^Oxygen
Torch
1\342\200\224F~~,M -
Acetylene
cone
/inner
\\
jBt (luminous)
Flame
JLl
material
Filler
-Outer
\\w| envelope
(a)
Gas welding:
FIGURE
8.9
FIGURE
8.10
ten
metal,
The
owing
process by
the so-called
applications
flame
cone.
becoming
than
it is
reducing,
increase
the
air
is used
it
in
airflow.
altered
to suit the
of acetylene and oxygen.For
used. This is essentially the
less desirableto
is usual
have
to arrange for
a slightly
a slight
excess
white
flicker
at the end
by a slight
volume
of acetylene results in the flame
is indicated
in
the
carburizing.
in
welding flame.
be
is
flame
neutral
welded. When
carbon,
oxygen
the ratio
changing
adjustment
further
of the
oxy-acetylene
because
one which is
Correct
Any
but
a neutral
in
the welding
of acetylene.
of the
distribution
torch flame.
neutral
(b)
flame as discussedabove,
oxidizing
(a) principle;
characteristics
chemical
requirementsof
most
Temperature
combustion,
secondary
(b)
in a
reduced melting
point
must
be added to the
steel
the surface
so
that
only the
material being
layers pick
up
Materials:
Solid
techniqueis useful
oxidized
With a normal
flame,
in the atmosphere.
The essential
FeO 4-
CO
FeO +
2H
be avoided.
-\342\226\272
Fe +
-\342\226\272
Fe +
of surface
requirements
process
mainly
by the CO
materials the reactions
ferrous
is to
zinc
and
performed
fusion
the surface
on
where deep
surfacing,
flames
Oxidizing
hard
for
253
Processes
Joining
in the
H2
C02
H20
boric acid.
in
is formed
an
by
3C -I- CaO
After crushing,
is then
CaC2
calcium
carbide.
at high
The
temperature
CO
carbide
calcium
the
to free
purified
+ 2HzO
CaC2
on
limestone
furnace:
electric
which
is produced
Acetylene
carbide
^\302\261
Ca(OH)2
Acetylene is unstable at
from
it
to produce
acetylene,
phosphorus:
+ C2H2
pressuresabove
into
regulator
and
a gauge.
often
the molten
With
manganese.
chemistry
weldingthe
pool.
correct
The
but
products
a dominant
also
contains
to impart to
of deoxidation
effect on
the
fluidity
the
pool
and
suitable fluidity.
During
metal surface which
of the molten bead.
the most
form a thin
film
stability
on the
has
Chapter8
254
Gas
with which
of the
most
has
it
and
has declined,
other
with metal-arc
equal in importance
welding. Since
inert-gas methods (particularly
tungsten-arc
welding,
in common from the view of welding technique), its use
used for repair work and in the field where
now primarily
or where electric energy is not available.
be transported
ranked
once
welding
introduction
the
is
it
cannot
equipment
Thermit
Welding
A number of metal
the liberation
with
aluminum
reported:
being
+ 2A1
Fe203
A1203
2Fe
steel or alloys
molten
steel
of
for welding
rounds. It
construction
electroslag
joining
and
is
now
shows
8.11a
a few
both
all
of
welding
sides.
for
welding
and
gas
processes
and Fig.
welding,
can be used for
gages
Many
procedures.
welding
national
X-rays.
The quality
the
large,
in Fusion Welding
Joints
control
by
also
has
8.11b shows
from
joints
bars,
8.3.4
the
600\302\260C.
application
in heavy
repair welding. The use of Thermit
welding
the
from
more
recently developed
receiving
competition
Nonferrous
aluminothermic mixtures have been used
process.
conductors.
copper
reinforcing
Figure
to
a superheat
The
main
the
from
soundness
and
quality
produces
prepared
production
procedure
chosen
a major
influence on the
distortion
of
the
product.
TABLE
8.2
Process
Groups
255
Joining Processes
Solid Materials:
of Pressure
Principle
Welding and
Some
Pressure
Welding
Energy
Energy to
to heat
create pressure
Solid
Solid
material
4-
(thermal
Heating
Solid
I
\342\200\224O-
basic process)
create
to
Pressure
\342\200\224O\342\200\224
coalescence
(mechanical basic
process)
of energy
Type
of energy
Type
to
Process
create pressure
for heating
groups
(examples)
Mechanical
Cold welding
Electrical
Mechanical
Resistance welding
Mechanical
Mechanical
Friction
Chemical
Mechanical
Pressure gas
Chemical*
Explosive
Mechanical\"
Ultrasonic welding
'Also creates
in the
The
WELDING
term
welding
pressure
of
by a combination
obtained
low temperature,
a combination
flow
plastic
involving
known
slightly
temperature
are thus
all the
temperature,
pressure
Pressure welding
as
thus
and
cold
welding,
to
low
ranges
pressure
The processes
below the melting point
of the workpieces.
of two basic processes:a mechanical
basic
process
and to create
to remove oxides and other contaminants
basic
to facilitate the
and activity,
and a thermal
process
The removal of
by lowering the yield stress of the workpieces.
also
be
done
or chemical
other contaminants
mechanical
may
by
sufficient
proximity
welding
process
oxides and
covers
Table 8.2).
(see
requirements
welding
welding
zone.
welding
PRESSURE
8.4
basic
heat
welding
8.4.1
In
cold
Cold Welding
welding
or cold
The pressure
alone.
causes the
workpiece
by
pressure
to deform
the
plastically, providing
To obtain reasonably
structures.
necessary
high
strength
intimacy
welds,
Chapter 8
256
Plate
thickness
Simple
butt
Single
\"V\"
4-30mm
U
bevel
Double
Double
20-25mm
\302\273v\"
Single
\"J1
Single
>
-u\"
a)
^n
\\
\302\273
\302\273
^
(b)
FIGURE
8.11
joints
25
mm
Solid Materials:
Joining Processes
257
resistance
-contact
Electrode
-interface
impression
(small)
resistance
z
R
-material
resistance
Weld
FIGURE 8.12
surface
Resistance
expansion
welding.
caused
common
by
plastic
process
deformation
is generally
(wires, rods,sheets,
most
nugget
rings,
Resistance
8.4.2
To reduce the
materials, they
Welding
necessary
pressure
are
often
heated
to obtain sufficient
to temperatures
coalescence
of the
correspondingto
the
work
forging
usually
minimized
material
the electrodes
of high-electrical-conductivity
by appropriately shaping
The
resistance
of the
copper
tips and applying a suitablepressure.
with
electrode material
Resistance
projection
welding
welding,
is, in
general,
includes
small
processes
compared to that
such as spot
welding.
of
the work
materials.
Chapter8
258
Spot Welding
most extensively used resistancewelding
or more metal sheets (see Fig. 8.12).The
is the
welding
Spot
two
of about
diameters
end
with
size of the
sheet)
to keep the temperature low. If different
a reasonable
to give
the
5<fh
are
electrodes
of
the thickness
h is
(where
nugget, and
weld
is
and
process
are
they
cooled
water
different electrical
electrodes
must be
materials
having
are
conductivity
to the
respectively.
Spot
many
limit is about
the
is used
welding
in both
extensively,
and combinations
materials
different
3-4
The
mm.
materials,
have reasonablysmooth
quality
welding
be free of
so they must
dirt,
surfaces.
Seam
Welding
In many applications
material
primarily
the
to obtain
is essential
continuous
overlapping
is provided
directly
manufacture
which
of
is provided
or
liquid
by a
successivelypressedtogether.
in
spot
of both
Seam
current,
seam
welding,
for the
of
flow
the
current
current
When
the
on
is turned
the
electrodes
and
is used
welding
vessels,
pressure-tight
high-frequency
In
to compensate
welding
sheets.
of spot
series
8.13b).
of the
welding
in
by
the
it
tanks, radiators,
workpiece
shapes
can
from
After
process.
the butting surfaces are
must
be higher than
through
the previously
made weld.
Projection Welding
In
welding,
projection
made on one of
The
projection
of the
the
sheets,
the
allowing
process
welding
spot is determinedby
current
the
is
thus
is
concentrated
flat electrodes to
similar
projections
in suitable projections
be used (seeFig.8.13c).
the
location
in cost reductions
be welded simultaneously, resulting
be
to
The
can
that
natural,
is, they are
projections
compared
spot welding.
of
o
r
associated
with
the
the
that
artificial,
is, they
components,
directly
geometry
Many
projections
can
Joining Processes
Solid Materials:
CZ
259
,?s\\M
Seam
^3
Electrodes
(b)
Electrodes
(a) Spot welding
(c) Projection
-\302\273>-
welding
Seam welding
jr\"n
lift
2*-
\342\226\240+C
^-3
butt
Upset
FIGURE 8.13
(e)
welding
Resistance
3-
-E
cCD=]
(d)
\342\200\242'
butt
welding:
(a) spot
(e) flash
welding;
butt
Flash
butt
welding
welding;
(c) projection
welding.
The
projections
is,
they
are supplied
with
suitable
projections.
welded zone,
In flash
or
points
boil
in a
slight reduction
more
complicated
equipment, the
When the highest
together at a slow, controlled
speed.
causes
these to melt
asperities
approach each other, the large current
is
away; when the next
points approach each other, the process
highest
mating surfaces
and
resulting
butt welding,
are brought
which
requires
Chapter 8
260
Chucks
\"'T-
\"\342\200\242T
Force
-^\342\200\224
C-
l.
\\7
Workpieces
$
8.14
FIGURE
Principle
of friction
welding.
repeated; and so on. The melted surfaces are expelledfrom the interface. After
a short time, the flashing has completely removeda thin layer of the materials
The
at the interface, and they are now pressed together, causing a small
upset.
for
that
butt
is
better
than
of
the
weld
bars,
tubes,
Rods,
welding.
upset
quality
methods.
of uniform section can be welded by these
and structural
shapes
The
Pressure
Other
8.4.3
described
processes
Friction
Welding Processes
below are
listed
in
Table
8.2.
Welding
friction
the heating is provided by mechanical
welding,
to
welded (see
surfaces
be
between
the
under
relative
motion,
pressure,
by
and the other part rotates.
of the parts to be weldedis stationary
One
friction
In
established
Fig. 8.14).
under
an applied axial pressure create
the relative motions
the yield stress considerably.A temperature
up to the
is
rotation
and
the
second
the
is
reached.
In
fusion
stopped
phase,
temperature
the
is
The
until
weld
or
even
increased
is
the
maintained
completed.
pressure
is removed after welding, if necessary.
flash formed due to the deformation
The processis used to weld circular bars, tubes, and so on. In the past few years,
has increased
the number of applications for friction
considerably.
welding
In
the
first
phase,
heat
sufficient
to reduce
Pressure Gas
Welding
heat
gas
is supplied
welding
261
8.15
FIGURE
welding.
Explosive
Welding
In explosivewelding
(see
to
a
top plate
high
velocity,
Explosive
the
it collides
when
pressures
removal
collision
and so
high
bottom
on, is provided
accelerate
plate.
by
point.
Explosive
of tubes to
welding
of
manufacture
tube
metallic
so on.
and
plates,
a few companies
by only
performed
in the
is used
welding
materials,cladding,
process
providing
impacts on the
with or
of oxides,
the
the
8.15),
Fig.
It
compound
is a
specialized
[25].
Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic
plastics,
welding
in
generatedby
or
dissimilar
materials,
or perpendicularto
necessary clamping
including
or
of
surface
the
attached to one
transducer
ultrasonic
an
tools,
clamping
joints.
overlap
of the
force
welding
to
the surface
seam type.
Moredetailed
the
JOINING
8.5
PROCESSES
MATERIALS
WITH
SOLDERING,
AND
forces
temperature
the
of the
descriptions
various
processes
welding
can
be found
in
literature.
melting
between
(group
processes
points of the
material
work
T^\342\200\224BRAZING,
BONDING
ADHESIVE
the filler
of the filler
BASED ON FILLER
T, <
3 in Fig.
Tf
materials
is lower
Tw.
materials.
The
on
melting
than
into
262
two
on metallic filler
based
groups,
Chapter
and
Soldering
and
soldering
materials
and non-
soldering)
Brazing
a permanent
brazing,
materials is obtained by
the
of
joining
metallic
or dissimilar
similar
of a nonferrous
application
of the work
melting
and
(brazing
bonding).
these occurs).The
is
materials
in
distributed
action.
The joining
and the
little
betweenthe
filler
metal
permits
materials
temperature
joining
in brazing,
but
materials,
metallic
all
virtually
primarily on adhesion
is based
process
work
difficulty.
To obtain
the
joint,
high-quality
following
requirements
be
must
fulfilled:
surfaces
Clean
joining
the gaps
or clearances
be
must
small
to
enough
temperature
melting
point
of the filler
material)
the
Soldering(<450\302\260C)
Brazing
(>450\302\260C)
Braze
welding
(>450\302\260C)
the heating
sources
description of these processesis given,
basic
be
The
is
mechanical
mentioned.
(flow
usually applied
process
primary
of the filler material into the joint), but the secondary process of heating
is
thermal. Table
their
8.3 shows the types of heat source and
practical
applications.
The words in parentheses
whether the heat source is used for soldering
indicate
or brazing or both.
a short
Before
will
Soldering
In
is used
a solder
soldering,
extensively
used solders
are alloys
with
of
a melting
point below 450\302\260C. The most
tin and lead with
amounts
small
(less than
A typical
0.5%) of antimony.
example would be solder with 40%
lead. Higher contentsof tin increase the fluidity, cost, and strength
The
working
temperature
of
temperatures
is about
temperature
solder consisting
about
of
tin,
and
zinc,
300\302\260C.
wide
250\302\260C.
cadmium
variety
400\302\260C.
As
For
the
soldering
is often used,
of solders
mentioned
of
with
are available
previously,
tin
and 60%
solder.
of the
light
metals,
a working
with
working
the surfaces to
263
Solid Materials:JoiningProcesses
TABLE
8.3
Type of
energy
Heat
Sources Used
for
Soldering
Practical
Chemical
Torch
Electrical
Resistance
principle
(soldering/brazing)
(soldering/brazing)
Soldering
Furnace
heating
(flame) (soldering/brazing)
Induction
Thermal
and Brazing
iron
(brazing)
Metal
Butt
joint
joint
Overlap
Commonsolderedjoints.
FIGURE 8.16
be
soldered
be corrosive
Somefluxes
must be
by
the use
or noncorrosive. After
the fluxes
soldering,
can also act as temperature indicators,as their
of fluxes, which
can
must be removed.
color
changes
with
temperature.
in industry
for many different applications. The
shows
8.16
N/mm2).
(25-50
strength
Figure
typical joints. The
clearancesmust be in the range of 0.25-0.025 mm, depending
on solder, flux,
and
material.
The desired strength and the geometry of the joint
also influence
the choice of clearance.Most of the heating methods are the sameas those used
in brazing (see Table 8.3) and
are mentioned
briefly in the next section.
is low
shear
Brazing
In brazing, brazing
with melting points above 450\302\260Care used. Table
metals
8.4 shows typical
of brazing metals and examples of their
groups
application.
Many brazing metals are available,and the right one for the specific application
must
be
carefully
selected.
Chapter 8
264
8.4
TABLE
of Brazing
Examples
Metals
and
Their
Applications
Brazing
temperature
metal
Brazing
Application
(\302\260C)
Copper/copper
To obtain
Cr)
braze,
high-quality
850-1100
750-850
850-1000
Copper, copper
Steel, cast iron,
600-850
Copper,copper
500-600
Aluminum,
the
surface
oxides must be
etc.
etc.
nickel,
copper,
steel,
alloys,
aluminum
steels,
etc.
alloys,
alloys
removed, no
take
should
production.
the preloaded and fastened assembliesare dipped
the melting point of the
a
above
at
temperature slightly
kept
and where very thin or
used
for
is
larger components
brazing metal,
primarily
Induction
where
thick
sections
are
brazed.
brazing,
high-frequency
very
Salt
into
bath
where
brazing,
salt
molten
the preloaded
induction currents
heat
lends itself to
some automation.
assemblies
electrical
supplied
with
industry
through
assemblies, is a
It is
widely used
fast
in
production
industry,
that
method
especially
for
is mainly
used in the
surface finish. Resistance brazing
to braze
conductors,
connections, and so on, and the heat is
of graphite.
Metal bath or dip brazing, where the
electrodes
a good
etc.
Solid
Materials:
FIGURE
8.17
Joining
265
Processes
brazed joints.
Common
bath of the
is used principally
metal,
wires
of
in
the electrical
fastening
In
the
metal
bath
or
is
used
soldering,
dip heating
extensively, and the
industry.
of
induction
is
Much
application
heating
increasing.
soldering is done with
is
a
electrical soldering
which
versatile
and
method.
irons,
cheap
The shear strength
of brazed
is rather
assemblies
100-150
high,
normally
but
as
values
as
300
N/mm2
be
obtained.
N/mm2,
high
may
for
brazing
the
Braze Welding
is used primarily
Brazewelding
for the repair of gray and malleable
cast-iron
to
components, and sometimes for steel parts. It is generally
preferred
welding
because
of the longer heating
Braze welding differs from ordinary
time.
brazing
that
the filler material is supplied. In brazing, capillary forces
only in the way
distribute
the liquid filler metal, whereasin braze
welding
using vee or doublevee
as in welding, the material is distributed
An oxyacetylene
joints,
by gravity.
torch is predominantly
used
as a heating source.
Adhesive Bonding
8.5.2
In
adhesive
dissimilar
and the
bonding,
materials.
workpieces,
a nonmetallic
Bonding,
not
between
adhesive material
is used
place betweenthe
which takes
the workpieces
to join
adhesive
similar or
material
themselves, is based on
the
basic
The primary
physical, electrical, and chemicalnature.
the
or
the
flow
of
the
adhesive
material
involving
placing
in a hardening
joint. The secondary basic processis chemical,
resulting
the
adhesive.
adhesive forces
process
of a
is mechanical,
in
of
Chapter 8
266
|y///M//
L=
IWWWWk
\302\273f *
M
\342\226\240
r~r~!
'
'
1.
^
L^
FIGURE 8.18
all types
Nearly
metals
a high-quality
obtain
(b) components
very
adhesive
adhesive
the
in
rapidly
in
right
bonding.
bonding.
past 10
of
Joining
years, and
many
been developed.
adhesive bond, the recommendationsor
must
be followed
by the adhesive manufacturer
adhesive
material is dependent on the actual
prescriptions
given
of the
increased
materials have
adhesive
and
adhesives
by
suitable
To
carefully. Selection
work
the
materials,
chemical,
requirements (loading: mechanical,thermal,
surrounding
media, etc.), and the joining
(or desired). A short
procedure
practical
be given of adhesive materials, joint
descriptionwill
and joining
geometries,
functional
procedures
[26,27].
A wide
variety of
of properties.An
ingredients:
Depending
the
base
on
more of the
the
last
gives
material
are
consists
offering a large
in general of the following
available
adhesivematerials
adhesive
ingredients
gives
a suitable
the
may be missing.
adhesive the desired
cure
the
spectrum
hardener.
one or
adhesive,
adhesion properties.The
of the
adhesive.
filler
267
Joining Processes
Materials:
Solid
to
to increase strength,
and so on. The hardener activates the
expansion,
and
The base material can be thermoplastic
such
artificial elastomers.
of
Other types
materials,
material
be added
may
adhesives. Thermoplasticbasematerials
vulcanized rubbers.Thermosetting
base
and
rubber,
on the
Depending
vinyl.
reduce
or thermal
shrinkage
adhesive.
and
resins
thermosetting
as ceramics,can
as
be used
also
be polyamides,
vinyls, and nonmaterials
can be epoxies, phenolic
can
the
temperature,
setting
adhesives
cold-setting
thermosetting
low-molecular-
(normally
weight
of the
manufacturer
shown
in
and the
adhesive
0.3
overlap
the
and
mm
An important
8.18.
Fig.
Common
followed.
used
thickness
length is generally
overlap
adhesive
in
characteristic of a joint
/0. The
length
joints
is
in the
times
are
of the
range 0.05-
thickness
is the
normally
5-10
bonding
the
thickness
the
range
of
the workpiece.
but
obtainable
procedures
special
in adhesive bonding
and adhesives may result
8.6
SURVEY
When
selecting
the
including
of
10-50
strengths. As
few
years has
past
metals.
JOINING METHODS
method for a
a joining
be considered,
Functional
OF THE
in
in higher
in the
adhesives
bonding
are
specific application,
many
factors
must
following:
requirements
Materials
Design (geometry)
Dimensions
Production
conditions
and rates
methods
Available
Economy
It should
resistance
be rememberedthat
welding
are
normally
the
soldering,
used to join
most
common
brazing,
thin
sheets
joining
adhesive
(<3
bonding, and
mm thick).
methods
and
the
suitable
Chapter 8
268
8.5
TABLE
Schematic
Survey of
Joining
Methods
and Suitable
Materials
Aluminum
Process
Steel
Gaswelding
Submerged-arc
welding
welding
Cast
steel
iron
alloys
copper
alloys
aluminum
TIG welding
C02
welding
Spot
welding
MIG
welding
Projection welding
Friction welding
Brazing
Soldering
Braze
welding
Adhesive bonding
Stainless
metal-arc
Shielded
Copper
(X)
(X)
(X)
Solid Materials:
8.7
Joining Processes
OF
EXAMPLES
TYPICAL
269
JOINING
PROCESSES
this
processes
section
short
are given.
270
Chapter 8
PROCESS1:
Arc
Shielded
Localized
Description:
arc establishedbetween
The electrode,which
is obtained
melting
Ga, ODF)
the
using
metal electrode
a consumable
acts as filler
is coated,
(T, El,
(Manual)
Welding
decomposes
shield
a gas
METAL CORE
\342\226\240M/t#aWMi/&
. FLUX COATINO
MOLTEN
TOOL
arc
metal
SOLIDIFIED SLAO .
'
WELDBEAD
and
///,\342\200\224
SLAO DEPOSITS
'
OASKOUS
SHIELD
\\
V-&
it can
shipbuilding
steel
mild
be used in
and
of joint
4 mm
of
weld
types.
and
are used
uses
as all
other
runs to
equipment
of material typically
the edges of the
chamfering
fill
Tolerances/Surfaces:
with few welds, ~5
the
portable
and can
3-30
two
parts
It
is a
be appliedto
process.
used
in
as many
low capital
range
a wide
joint.
Light gages
mm,
put together.
types
Thickness
requiring
Machinery:
all
structural
electrodes
cost processwhich
metal-arc
Manual
Applications:
Because
with
many
Transformer (ac) or
with
few
\342\200\2421
mm.
welds,
welds,
~50 mm.
generator
(dc),
electrode
Heavy
holder,
gages
cables.
271
PROCESS
Welding
Submerged-Arc
(T, El,
Ga, ODF)
resulting
very high
Submerged-arc
Applications:
mild and
It
is a
low
although
automatic/semiautomatic
welding of
welds are long and straight. Flat butt welds
the most common joints produced.Ships,pressure
vessels,
are typical
fields of applications.
constructions, and storage tanks
method
steel
steels,
alloys
used
thicknessesabove
or fillet welds are
large
productivity.
for
mainly
5 mm
downhand
where the
from
or
Machinery:
Semi-
10 to
50 m/hour.
For heavy
production
rates.
offeringhigher
Equipment
using
fully
continuous
automatic
gages
covered
machines,
welding
tandem
electrodes are
electrodes
is also
welding speeds
often used,
available.
272
Chapter8
This
Description:
is struck between
is fed
of aluminum,
welding
used with
Gas
Applications:
welding
the
when
equipment
may
The
joints
be used.
massive
steel.
electrode
the
with
is a very
for all-position
techniques,
pipes),
nonferrous
and
is about
current
include
shipbuilding,
Machinery:
melting
and a
used
in
the
is always
MIG welding
positive.
versatile process.With
welding
metal
semiautomatic
with
can
be welded from
welding
values
Welding machines
general engineering
that
are
1-5
provide
geometry
(pressure
of the
workpiece and
mm.
a regulated
of the
shielding
welds, typical
700 A.
industries.
automotive
melts,
He are mainly
and
Ar
thicknesses
Maximum
served
industries
vessel tanks,
for
The electrode
gas. The
the competitive
steels
Higher
gas.
stainless
welding
is used
an arc
workpiece. Shieldingis
/nert Gas.
the protecting
supplies
which
in
sheet gaugesup to
For
it
Using special
equipment.
arc
metal
process
and
and usually
than 250 A,
less
of
also
magnesium,
current
direct
for A/etal
acronym
which
weld
to
extensively
and the
electrode
MIG is an
gun,
arc welding
electric
an
wire
are
gases
following
Welding (MIG)
is
process
a consumable
by an inert gas.
a special
through
provided
currents
Metal-Arc
Gas
3:
PROCESS
dc source of power
the electrode as
and
the
electrode
workpiece.
it
feed,
Solid
4:
PROCESS
tungsten
Welding
joining process
in
an arc
which
electrode
the workpiece. The tungsten
high melting point. Shielding of the
and
electrode
Gas
Inert
1\\ingsten
A metal
Description:
273
Processes
Materials: Joining
coil is fed
Although
Applications:
the leading
into
automatically
edge
joints,
joints,
inert
metal,
and
material,
a wire
weld
pool.
are
a process
close
or outside
cornerjoints.Because
the process
welds,
atomic, and
the aircraft,
weldingin
TIG
metal
molten
He. Filler
it must
parts. Before a surfacecan be welded,
or
action.
does
not
gas
fluxing
provide any cleaning
when welding single-pass or double-sided
butt
best
thick
is struck between a
is not consumed
or rod. It is not
filler
wire from a
welding,
as
edge of the
currents
welding
high
the welding of
possible, permitting
for welding sheet metal
or small
be clean, becausethe
The process is at its
mechanized
With
materials.
thin
Ar or
Ga, ODF)
is
greatly
industries.
instrument
it is
so easily
favored
mechanized
for precision
Various
automatic
devices
are available.
Similar
Tolerances/Surfaces:
clean,
very
smooth,
Machinery:
a water
The equipment
supply to cool
rod. Powersuppliescan
reverse
polarity
magnesium.
to MIG
and uniform.
is seldom
the
be
consists of a power
supply,
a
and a filler
gun,
shielding
gas,
welding
Dc
polarity.
straight polarity or dc reverse
for
torch,
ac/dc
TIG
used except
welding
occasionallyfor
welding
aluminum
and
Chapter 8
274
PROCESS5:
beam
Electron
welding
(T, El,
Va,
ODF)
as a metal joining
is defined
Electron beam welding
process
is produced by the heat of a concentrated stream of high-velocity
into heat upon impact
The kinetic energy of the electronsare changed
to 5 x 1012W/m2,
at
the
work
can
amount
Energy density
workpiece.
arc
In most
for
other
than
welding
process.
higher figure
any
is used.
filler material
Description:
where melting
electrons.
the
with
a much
applicationsno
DC
FILAMENT SUPPLY
<&>
CONTROL
ELECTRODE
ANODE
rocus coil .
&
WORKPIECE
P7
ZZ2
Because of the
Applications:
possibleworkpiece
Tolerances/Surfaces:
being
0.1-0.5
high
cost
components
characteristic
on
finished
narrow
beam
parts to exacting
and
narrow
heat-
tolerances, typical
mm.
features
of the equipment are the electron gun,
Important
chamber. Because of
and beam-control system, and the working
for high-quality
of the equipment, the process is used primarily
other welding processes cannot be applied.
and when
Machinery:
focusing
The
welding
the
the
SolidMaterials:
Laser Beam
PROCESS 6:
specific
is a
welding
heat
the
beam
lenses
and
obtained
Ga, ODF)
metal joining
from a narrow
beam
distances
spots
only by
is equaled
process
in
without
which
the
that
attenuation
the energy
electron
produces
of coherent,
beam.
density
No
which is
and delivery of the beam,
for the generation
each
medium (gas: C02; solids:Nd-YAG),
type having
The laser output can be pulsedor continuous.
Shielding
gas
nozzle most often coaxially with the beam protects the weld.
is required
chamber
generated
(T, El,
Welding
Description: Laserbeam
melting of materials with
This
monochromatic light.
and may be focused through
amounts to over 1012W/m2
vacuum
275
Processes
Joining
in
a laser
characteristics.
blown through a
no filler
Typically,
material is used.
LASER UNIT
^^2ZZ^tS3S5^)
.NOZZLE
SHIELDING CMS
Applications:
manufacturingindustry
penetration
capabilities.
joints, edge
geometries. Because
new technology
in the
welding is a relatively
is seeing wider use becauseof its pinpoint
heat and
Typical
welding thicknesses are between0.3 and 10 mm. Butt
workpiece
flangejoints, and various lap joints are typical
of the limited dimensions of the beam,
high precision is required
Laser
but
of the componentsto
where
particularly
be
welded.
minimum
Tolerances/Surfaces:
Machinery:
laser
gun
(often
The equipment
As
for
electron
beam welding
The essential
equipment for
COz or Nd:YAG, the workholding
is expensive.
laser beamwelding
device,
and the
includes
the
power supply.
Chapter 8
276
PROCESS7:
Spot
(T, El,Ri,
Welding
TF)
is a process
in which contacting metal
surfaces
Spot welding
from
resistance
to
The
the
heat
obtained
electric
current
flow.
by
electric current
the heat is introduced to the work
electrodes
in
generating
through
to place
contact with the work, resulting in a weld nugget. Pressure is required
The diameter of the
and is an important
the parts in contact
process
parameter.
of the weld and must be
the size and shear strength
affects
electrodesdirectly
adjusted accordingto the thickness of the work.
Description:
are joined
ELECTRODE
Mwftttm.
POWER
SUPPLY
WORKPIECENUOOET
WELD
of sheet
welding is extensively applied in the joining
in mild and stainless steels, heat-resistingalloys,
of operation,
ease of
aluminum
and
speed
alloys, etc. The high
copper
the
absence
of edge
nature of the lap joint, and
mechanization, the
self-jigging
spot welding
preparation or filler metal are attractive features of the resistance
for mild steel are: current
200-400A,
parameters
process. Typical welding
Spot
Applications:
metal (thickness^3
time per
welding
nugget
resultant
geometry,
tolerances,
Machinery:
different
special
0.15-1
The
Tolerances/Surfaces:
inaccuracies.
Size,
mm)
s, welding
shaping,
values
typical
Because of the
types
of
holding
being
about
wide variety
of spot-welding
N/mm2.
as such introduces no
process
and
pressure 70-100
the workpieces
2 mm.
of applications,
machines, all
containing
serious
determine
there are
the
many
a power
supply
of current,
time, and pressure;
(transformer); arrangements for the setting
electrode holders;
and water supply for cooling of the electrodes.
PROCESS8:
Description:
convection
277
Joining Processes
Materials:
Solid
Gas
Welding
this
In
process
and radiation.
Ga, ODF)
(T, Ch,
The welding
a flame to
the
work
by combustion
is produced
flame
by
of
and acetylene
is to bring
(C2H2) in a torch, the function of which
(02)
mix them, and form a flame with
together correct volumes of gas and oxygen,
suitable
characteristics.
steel
Acetylene and oxygen are suppliedin separate
oxygen
cylinders
in
between
the
cylinders
supply
some shielding
separate rod.
form,
compressed
against
OXYGEN
FILLER
METAL
a
I
WORKPECE
Applications:
applications
as
introduction,
in places
the
where electric
power is not
has
process
Tolerances/Surfaces:
holding of the workpieces
2-5
\342\200\242ACETYLENE
same fields of
and
is
about the
MIG
iheir
and
available.
Depending
primarily
as well as on the number
upon
of
size,
welds,
geometry,
and
mm.
Machinery:
welding torch,
connecting
The
pressure
hoses.
and consists
of a
regulators,gauges, and
Chapter 8
278
PROCESS9:
(T,
Soldering/Brazing
Ri/Ga,
El/Ch,
ODF/TF)
Description:
In
soldering
is bridged
work, which
a liquid
shapes, sizes,and
consistencies.
Soldering
Applications:
methods,
temperature
joining
little
the
in
primarily
and
are
brazing
mass
producing
compared to welding,
distortion
joining
important
industrially
Because of
industries.
of
the
lower
the
causes
assembly
difficulty.
filler materials
When
with
melting
temperatures
may
when
with melting
examples often
Tolerances/Surfaces:
and
geometry,
Machinery:
soldering
resistance
holding
A heat
for single
and
furnaces,
iron
of
and Cu-Zn
filler
a gas welding
torch
are
materials
alloys are
source such as
the
or an
on
electric
electrical
piece production or repair work. Salt baths,
so on, are used in mass producing
industries.
size,
Solid Materials:
Adhesive
Description:
or semiliquid
Bonding
(M, T/Ch,
is a
bonding
state is applied to
process
. . .)
Ri/Fl,
in which
a substancein
a liquid
to provide permanent
and/or heat of
pressure,
workpieces
adjoining
to curing
due
bonding
Adhesive
10:
PROCESS
279
Joining Processes
of a catalyst,
nonmetallic
material.
bonding
since the
Similar
between
takes
ADHESIVES
LIQUIDS
PASTHS
(\342\200\242\"
fg>
u '
CLUB STICKS
-Z>
APPLICATORS
Applications:
virtually unlimited,
aerospace,
with
lightweight
relatively
0.1 to 10N/mm2
range
may
joined
to
solids.
Several
from
while
5 to
gauge
automated
heavy
fabrication materials.
resultant
100 N/mm2.
Bonding
pressure
may
range
from
shear strength,
workpieces,
systems for
applying
the
adhesive
are available.
and
holding
of the
is varied,
and
Machinery: The essentialequipment
including hot glue guns
both
of
which
a
are
to
adhesives
in
used
caulking
guns,
apply
essentially
paste
or semiliquid form. Spray applicatorsare used to apply liquid adhesives and can
be automated,
whereas
brushes
are manipulated
manually.
Materials:
Granular
Powder
9.1
As
the
Metallurgy
INTRODUCTION
in Chapter
described
solid,
granular,
the shaping
can
1, the forming
liquid
or shaping
to the
state\342\200\224referring
sometimes
The
or
of
be integrated.
of
manufacture
a product
from the
granular
or
state covers,
particle
in
as
such
general,
spectrum of materials and componentsor products,
carbide tools
or
cemented
metal
sand
tool
(sintered
inserts),
components,
powder
and
bread.
molds, ceramics, concrete, tablets,
A granular material is a mixture
of solid grains or particles possiblyof
Each grain or particle may
of smaller units,
for
be a combination
varying sizes.
the crystals
used
for
in metal grains. Granular materials are generally
example,
one or more of the following
reasons:
a broad
material is only
The particular
granular
The
or can
available
only be producedin
the
state.
desired
obtained
Manufacture
granular
Small components
of materials,
etc.)
can
only be
materials.
are difficult
to
than
produce
by
other
methods.
by other methods.
281
Chapter9
282
of
Production
from
components
granular materials
will
generally
follow
the
same pattern:
Production of the
Conditioning
granular
material
or preparation
for
stabilization
and
shaping
Shaping
Stabilization of the
shape
operations
Finishing
powder
metallurgy.
the last
Within
increased
has
decade,
to come. This
the
100%) material
(nearly
high
final
The
even if
properties,
from metal
of components
production
rapidly,
is due
of 10-20%
expansion
powders
in the
years
reasons:
following
can be
geometries
performed
in
one
accuracy.
utilization.
not on
are
they
the same
level as corresponding
solid
The
with
Powder
is
metallurgy
Powder metallurgy
sections
the characteristics
9.2
of powder
economic
process
in many situations.
discussed
metallurgical
post-sintering
sintering,
compacting,
are
normally
processes
treatments,
(powders,
[28-31].
METALLURGICAL
Production
the
only
primarily
competes
methods
cutting.
applications
most
the
These
preparation,
methods
difficulty.
of a
componentby
stages
following
Production or selectionof
including
Preparation,
Pressing
Sintering
powder
metallurgy
or phases:
the
powder
mixing
and
or compacting
or
Post-sintering
heat
treatment
treatment, if necessary
blending
techniques
normally involves
Granular Materials:Powder
Metal
9.2.1
283
Metallurgy
Powders
by
has increased
atomization
final
for
and
of the
properties
Powders
rapidly.
component, so that
by electrolytical
produced
for these
special
powders
on
knowledge of
a major
a fundamental
influence
is important.
powders
Produced
Powders
by
the
of Ores
Reduction
method).After
heat-treated
and
this
reduction,
the resulting
iron
sponge
in a
to provide
hydrogen
atmosphere
contain
The
powders
powder particles.
cake is crushed,
a reduction of the
ground,
oxides
Powders Produced
by
Atomization
from
the liquid state, which
the powders are produced
gives
freedom
of
in
in
the
choice
materials
and
the
great
alloying process. The purity
of the powders
is directly related to the raw materials
and the melting and
sizes
of
the
The
and
can
wide
be varied within
refining
shapes
particles
processes.
on
the
limits,
depending
process
parameters.
A flow of liquid
metal
an orifice is broken up by a jet stream of gas
through
or inert gases),
water steam, or water.
Gas
atomization
(air
gives spherical and
without
large particles; water atomization
gives smaller and irregular
grains
In atomization,
internal
pores.
can be
Atomization
stainless),
lead,
The use
zinc,
used to producepowdersof
bronzes, brasses, and
aluminum,
of powdersproduced
by
atomization
steels
iron,
so
has increased
and the
(including
on.
rapidly
due
powder properties. It
atomization
has been
powders
prices are comparable.
to the
should
higher
Chapter9
284
PowdersProducedby
Deposition
Electrolytic
is crushed
After electrolytic deposition, the metal
to
the
desired
sizes.
Iron
grinding
grain
powdersproduced
and ground
are more
or atomization.
powders
electrolytic
density,
purity,
As
exist.
expensivethan
mentioned
will
They
produced
by
by reduction
for
The
high
(including
processes
by these
processes
applications.
special
powdercan
deposition
electrolytic
those
mill
by
be
characterized
by:
Chemical composition
Particle-sizedistribution
Particle
(spherical,
shape
irregular)
Surface characteristics
structure
Internal
Flow
(pores,
(ASTM
ability
etc.)
213.48/212.48)
Compressibility
Green
(strength
strength
after
compaction)
abilities
(change
of dimensions,
strengths,
etc.)
strengths.
the
In
information
additional
9.2.2
Preparation
be described
further,
but
[30].
of the Powder
stage
important
preparation
of the
must
manufacturer
in the production
powder
be followed.
or external lubrication.
can be provided
as internal
(zinc stearate or stearic acid, 0.25-1% by
and decreasing
the powder, increasing its compressibility
Lubrication
lubrication,
mixed
with
a lubricant
In
internal
weight)
is
its green
Granular Materials:Powder
285
Metallurgy
1
\342\200\242H
sx
\342\200\242H
W
W
d)
M
/1
o
u
m
\342\200\242h
S^
*>%
\342\226\240H
tn
4J *\342\226\240\342\200\224\302\273
^,^***
-\342\200\224\342\200\224\"\342\226\240'
>i
^C^-
TJ
0)
\342\200\242H
tt
#-l
4J
r^\"^\"
of
The influence
9.1
FIGURE
(%)
element
Alloying
compressibility of steel
on the
elements
alloying
powders [28].
strength.
before
375-425\302\260C),
the die
lubrication,only
drive out
the
in a
sintering
walls are
is driven
lubricant
lubricated,avoiding
method does not
but this
lubricant,
out by heat
the
the
Considering
nonmetallic
and
elements
thus
elements,
alloying
alloying
diffusion rates
In general,
nonmetallic
other
must be
varying
require
metallic
between
distinction
made, sincethey
have
quite
require
reduce the
and
different
of carbon
is measured
The
in
preferred
a steel with
and
and decrease
as the
method is
0.8%C after
in compressibility
are used,alloying
which
the improved
provide
structure.
homogeneous
reduction
air at
necessary to
flow and
treatment
heat
(in
external
properties.
compaction
will
treatment
controlled atmosphere.In
requires
with
metallic
a special
alloying
very
severe
elements
stage.
286
Chapter
has taken
powder
place.
During
an
that
final
the
If atomization
is completed.
diffusion
so
heat-treated
and
elements
alloying
incomplete
sintering,
true
or
alloying
a wide
brass,
bronze,
emphasized
including
of
Pressing or Compacting
9.2.3
The
of pressing
technology
requiring
are
powders
available,
powders.
Powders
or compactingis a
and
broad
complicated
ingenuity. Therefore,
of engineering
degree
high
the
subject,
description
be consideredas elementary.
here must
given
Background
section
In this
the
compacting
the
as
The
apparent
in
(resulting
the
various
specifiedby
powder
is specified
the
desired
by
its
density,
compressibility
pressure (double-actionpressing)(seeFig.9.2a).
or filling density is 2.4 g/cm3 and for a compaction
ratio of 2
half the original height), the density
will
be 4.8 g/cm3 For practical
function
density
before
are discussed.
methods)
The component is
so on, and
for the
background
design is discussedbriefly
of compacting
purposes,the
densities
must
increase
compaction
short
in
press
travel
compaction
the
from
200 to
is required
length.
about
800-1000
only to provide
N/mm2,
high
which means
compacting
pressures
that
the
over a very
Powder
Materials:
Granular
.Filling
(apparent)
400
200
(a)
in
the
components
components
of
because
600
200
800
PressureN/mro
Pressure
(b)
as a
function of
1000
800
600
400
9.2
Approximately
densities
^ratio
2.4
density
iron powder
Compression
(g/cm )
Density
FIGURE
287
Metallurgy
N/mm
for
pressure
compacting
[30].
of the
have
industrially applied powdercomponents
few
but
in
the
the
years,
application of
g/cm3,
past
has
the
7.0-7.2
densities
in
increased;these
g/cm3
range
having
excellent
have
mechanical properties. This has becomeeconomical
with
wear resistance
the development of better die materials
higher
90%
range 5.7-6.8
and powders
with
compressibility.
high
the
powder
phase
ejection
must
has
be
been compacted, it
carefully,
considered
must
since
be ejected
fracture
from
may
The
die.
the
arise
at weak
forces
act
when the elastic energy is released,or when
the
of the powder surface. To obtain
over a small fraction
optimal
production,
and ejection
must
analyze both the compaction
designer of the component
before
on
the
final
geometry.
phases carefully
deciding
points
or
weak
Compacting
sections,
or Pressing
Thedesiredcomponent
Principles
in general, have a
must,
When
compacting powder in a cavity
throughout.
(single-action
(Fig. 9.3a), the properties
pressing)
distribution
due to friction
nonuniform
between
density
and the die walls. This means
between the particles
uniform
of the
the
that
distribution
density
with
one movable
cause
powder
individual
density
punch
grains and
decreases
with
Chapter 9
288
Vi
Y/
111
\302\253
%m&4
2#
\342\231\246
Ippf
4
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240:\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240-4
a)
(b)
111
it
I\"
t
\302\243
Jr
h2,P
\342\226\240
(d)
(c)
77 h'\342\200\242:\"\342\226\240'/V
P^|i;^
sw
am.*
11
K?
N$
*:.'i
it
I
^^3
FIGURE
action
I-
9.3
pressing;
E5SSS555J
Powder
(c),
of
compaction
(d) compaction
double-action
SSWS
KSSS^to
9.4
FIGURE
The
four
main
principles
289
of die
design
in
powder
compacting
[30].
increasing distance from the punch. Because of this, only nearly plane and thin
can be produced satisfactorily by single-action
components
By
compaction.
sides
from
both
(double-action
pressing
density
pressing) a more uniform
a reasonably
distribution
can be obtained
(see Fig. 9.3b). To obtain
good density
ratio
the
should
be
below
1-Vh
whenever
distribution,
height/width
kept
possible. For the compaction
of components with different
levels in height, it is
to
lower
to
section
the
obtain
the
same
necessary
punch
compression ratio (i.e.,
the
9.3c
and
d) (Ah,/Ah,,
density)
throughout
component (see Fig.
p = Ah2/
f show
of
die
when
sectioned
Ah2,
p). Figures 9.3e and
examples
design
are necessary.
punches
how
the die
Figure 9.4 shows the four main die design principles, illustrating
The single-action compaction, Fig. 9.4a,
design affects the pressing
equipment.
two motions:
an active pressing motion,
requires
by the upper punch,
provided
and an ejection
motion, provided by the lower punch. As mentioned, only thin
flat components can be produced
by this method.
Double-action compaction (Fig 9.4b) requires
the same number of motions as
the
difference
single-action
only
being that the lower punch is
compaction,
active during
not simply used for ejection. During
the
compaction,
compaction,
two punches move against
each
other with the same velocity.About
80%
of all
powder components in the United States and about 40% in Europe are produced
and
in
this
way.
Chapter 9
290
powderand
farther
or by
moving
In
down,
compacting
crank, cam,
(eccentric,
press
can be
press
hydraulic
there
free,
container
the
of
down
the container
moving
by
by moving the
the component is
motion
withdrawal
out
is carried
ejection
either
until
stationary
the
until
is free.
component
Any
die walls.
the
container
used
with
in powder
possibilities
descriptions
knuckle
and
any
dies, provided
that
etc.)
joint,
withdrawn
is sufficient
The geometrical
principle
and
floating
compaction depend
on
primarily
the
engineer. Moredetailed
of the
ingenuity
in the literature
[30].
tolerances
dimensional
the
(or
heat
treatment)
aboveare
carried out.
The
which is carried
at moderate
compacting
pressures,
of the product. For a small batch of
the primary pressing or compacting
die can be used to carry out
components,
the sizing
of compacts
of the compact. Large batches
are normally sized in a
an
die using
inexpensive
sizing press.
special
The coining operation serves two purposes:
the mechanical
improving
and improving
properties of the product
the dimensional
tolerances. The mechanical
of the compact,
which
propertiescan be improved only by increasing the density
means high compacting
or
to
than
the
(higher
equal
primary
pressures
sizing
serves to
operation,
the
improve
higher
accuracy
Thus,
pressures).
compacting
often of a
dimensional
out
wear conditions.
is involved,
coining
the
carried
process
sintering
incomplete
primary compacting and the coining operation is often
the form of pre-sintering for a short time and at a temperature
below
After
excellent
of
the
the normal
coining,
the compact is
mechanical
product
properties
fully
sufficient
but
temperature
sintering
sintered,
are exceptionally
high,
a sizing
takes
considerably
to anneal
producing
and dimensional
and
the
compact.
with
a component
tolerances. If the
requirements
operation
coining operation.
Details
of sizing
and
coining
operations
are described
for the
production of constructional
metal
by
powder
in
far
the
literature
the most
components.
[30].
important
To pro-
components,
been
have
processes
291
Metallurgy
in
often
two of
developed,
to shape,
difficult
materials
various
here.
described
are
which
is placed in a deformable
container
Isostatie Compaction. Here the powder
is subjected
mild
to a high fluid
made of plastic, rubber,
steel, and so on, which
pressure in a heavy pressure chamber. The container is removed after the
densities can be obtained with
this
which is
method,
compact
compaction.
High
the
to carry
is possible
process
out
properties, different
field of
9.2.4
green
is expanding
compact
necessary
to acquire
surface
particles,
If sintering
constituents,
Solid-state
is used
phase
liquid
sintering
state sintering
will
sintering
will
the
and
the
of
If sintering is carried
two constituents,
sintering with
a liquid
as carbidesand
here,
the
at temperatures
out
components;
the
applied.
of
points
the
obtained
shape of
pressure
the melting
structural
and
size
compacting
below
practical
factors in
The properties
material,
the
strength
the
important
atmosphere.
of
the
and
results.
although
sintering
phase
with a
Solid-
ceramics.
liquid-phase
phases
briefly.
the particles in the compact
form a coherent whole.
sintering,
in the sintering process can be identified.
areas
necks, but
channels.
interconnecting
the second
phase, the necks grow
particles
form
of
of channels gradually
tend
to
become
time,
pores.
spherical,the
smaller
ones vanishing and the larger
in
thus
the average
size;
increasing
size
but
total
the
decreases
increases,
pore
slowly.
only
porosity
reduces
second
combination
of
to isolated
In
and
the
only
phase
the
network
the pores
first phase
is fully completed,
is partially completed, resulting
channels and isolated
interconnecting
In practice,
the
and
temperatures
In the
In
This
chosen.
be
be described
solid-state
Two major
be
porosity
characteristics,
points
causes
which
to decrease,
by the powder
sintering
the melting
between
time,
takes place at
solid-state
process,
the temperature,
the
are
influenced
sintering
their
its
and
sinteringare
In
or rolled
and the desired
rapidly.
both the
covers
sintering
to increase
operations
results.
in the
Sintering
The term
after
sequences
production
to manufacture extruded
is possible
It
the powder
from
products directly
and
the
and depending
in a product
pores.
on conditions,
with
Chapter9
292
The
generally
process
sintering
of the free
surfaceenergy
mass transportation
with
range 0.5-1.5
in the
with
componentvaries
tensile
coining,
used
are
temperature
the driving
in practice. The
and time in a way
similar
final
the
of
ductility
to
in
variation
the
strength.
During
when
as
in other
iron
have become
the particles
higher
out in
necessitating
is carried
strength,
without
annealed
fully
any significant
increase
coining pressures.
to prevent oxidation
protective
atmosphere
to
remove
to
from
reduce
heating
existing oxides,
gasesresulting
during
to
the
and
other
and
control
the heating of lubricants
carburization
material,
of iron and iron-rich compacts. The most commonly
and decarburization
used
on
and
are
actual
the
material
the
(the
type
depends
purpose)
atmospheres
Sintering
and
dissociated
hydrogen,
gases,
is carried
Sintering
continuous
or
batch
In recent
developed,
burned
ammonia,
endothermic
vacuum.
and
out
in various
furnaces,
which
can
be of
the
type.
dischargedfrom
types of
a capacitor
combining
process.
and sintering
has
compacting
a high-energy electrical
Here,
bank removes,
within
a second
or two, the
been
spark
oxides
Granular Materials:Powder
Metallurgy
and other
the
is pressed
in
been
has
to
different
many
but
materials,
it
to a
subjected
10 s,
desired
the
obtain
then
about
the
and
density.
is not
powder
This
yet widely
used
industry.
The
different.
discussion of sintering
foregoing
one of the
major
of
involves
very
accuracy
carbides
sintered
the process
sintering,
during
sintering. When
is quite
solid-state
phase
dimensional
lower
only
example.
important
9.2.5
a liquid
with
Sintering
covers
is liquid
constituents
40-60%, causing
The production
an
to
applied
for
maintained
the electrodes
between
further
which are
particles,
is
current
The
pressure.
compaction
process
from
contaminants
293
Treatments
Post-Sintering
(Finishing Operations)
desired properties
after sintering to obtain
the
on
Depending
a product
treat
of the component,it
these
properties.
be necessary
may
These
to
finishing
take
the form
operations may
be specially developed for particular compacts or may
of conventional processes. A few of these processes are describedbriefly
next.
A wide variety
of self-lubricating
bearings are made from
with a type of lubricant,
impregnated
mostly oil. The compact,
is produced
which
with a porosity of 25-35%, is immersed
in heated
oil under
so that the network of pores is filled
with
oil. The
pressure or is vacuum-treated,
at a rate depending on the load and the
lubricant is released during
service
The
are generally bronze or iron-based.
materials
temperature.
The
of compacts with plastics, for example, can be carried out
impregnation
Impregnation.
compacts
porous
to achieve
or
or airtight
other desired
pressure-
to produce
by closing
components,
properties.
in the
are closed by filling
compact
of
the major
constituent
melting point than
the compact. The infiltration
can be carried
out either in a special pre-sintering
normal
The infiltration material can be applied
process or during
sintering.
upon
or below the compact as a solidwhich
at the actual sintering
melts
temperature,
or it can be appliedas a liquid.
molten
The
metal is drawn
into the compact
by
In
Infiltration.
them
with a
this
process,
metal
the pores
lower
of
action.
capillary
The
molten
strength of
100%.A
Heat Treatment.
methods. The higher
Hardening
processes
compact
nitriding,
with
iron
and
steel
carbonitriding.
from 70 to
by infiltration
infiltrated
the
are applicable
gas carburizing,
is an iron
increased
be
can
component
example
typical
compacts;
copper.
by
conventional
results.
phase transformations,
Chapter 9
294
by
plated
conventional
properties of the
corrosion
Some
Machining.
special
must
corrosion,
coolants
containing
Powder compactscan
welding
In this
powder
section a short
metal
densities,
used to
can be
peening,
chromiz-
improve
the
compacts.
can be machined by the standard
processes, but
to the tool materialsand geometry.
To avoid
water must not be used during machining.
welded
together to provide complexshapesby the
be
methods.
PROPERTIES
9.3
methods,
plating
be
densities can
high
lower
having
compacts
be given
attention
usual
with
Compacts
wax
impregnation
with
Treatments.
procedures,
AND
APPLICATIONS
descriptionof
is given;
components
the
properties
and the
applications of
be
can
found
in
the literature.
9.3.1
Properties
mechanical
The
of powder
properties
metal componentsare
mainly
dependent
Increasingthe
of
Application
pressures
compaction
compactions
Multiple
powders
or pressings
with high compressibility
Infiltration
Hot
pressing/forging
An increase
in
the
compaction
for
single
pressures
pressure
within
300-500
will
N/mm2
result
are
in heavy
in
used
pressings.
be chosen,depending
1.
Pressing +
on
sintering
the
requirements:
Powder
Materials:
Granular
295
Metallurgy
(a)
(b)
40
400
N/mm
30
300
\302\260uts
I\"/
20
200
\302\2600.2^
*
100
10
*<\342\200\242
1,
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.5
Density
g/cm\"
Density
(c)
40
N/cm2
8.0
g/cm~
(d)
200
1 1000N/m
Impact
7.5
7.0
^r
strength
30
150
20
100
50
0
Density g/cm
FIGURE
9.5
strength;
(d)
from
7.5
7.0
6.5
of elasticity
and
as
7.5
7.0
Density g/cm
iron powder.
6.5
8.0
8.0
at fracture;
(c) impact
yield stress; (b) elongation
of density
for components manufactured
function
TAfiLE 9.1
Examples
of Properties
of Powder
Metal
Components
Tensile
Material
Iron
group
and low-alloy
Alloyed
steel
compacts
compacts
Stainless steel
compacts
Bronzes
Brass
Source:
Density
strength
(g/cm3)
(N/mm2)
5.2-6.8
6.1-7.4
6.8-7.4
6.3-7.6
5.5-7.5
7.0-7.9
5-20
14-50
20-80
30-75
10-30
11-24
Elongation
Examples of applications
(%)
2-8
8-30
2-15
5-30
2-11
5-35
Bearings
Medium-duty
Heavy-duty
and
good
structural components
parts, magnetic components
parts, components
corrosion
resistance
and
machine
light-duty
structural
structural
Components with
Biters, bearings,
Machine components
components
Granular Materials:
Pressing +
Pressing +
Pressing +
2.
3.
4.
In
sintering
297
sizing
pre-sintering+
pre-sintering+
coining
sintering
coining
sintering
the simple
general,
2 has
procedure
for
powders
a high
with
As described
earlier,
is
this process
but
70-100%,
the
but
3 and 4
procedures
complex
also due to
rather
the strength
and is used
increase
will
infiltration
of all applications,
of
development
one
in
treatment.
heat
with
more
giving high-strength-components
compressibility,
combined
+ sizing
80%
about
This is
components.
special
possibly
pressing,
by
Powder Metallurgy
expensive
of the compacts
for
only
special
products.
In the past few
compacts has
gives tolerances
+ sintering
Pressing
Pressing
sintering
sizing
The
the
Ra is
roughness
reduce
discussion
foregoing
powder
information
must
producers,
9.3.2
metallurgical
be obtained
and
the
gives
+ coining +
+ pre-sintering
to grinding
(axial
tolerances
generally
in
the
range
10-15
workshop
0.005 mm/mm,
mm/
-0.003
to
corresponding
mm/mm,
The surface
treatment
common
(axial ~
so on
die
casting,
~0.010
(pressing
corresponding
and
drilling,
tolerances
gives
sintering)
comparable to
|im,
practice (axial
but
can
sizing
|im.
the general
of
capabilities
only to illustrate
and
in
detailed
processes,
specific
applications
from metal powdermanufacturers,
powder
component
serves
literature.
Applications
must
compact
The height
in
(length)/diameter
thick-walled
components)
(width)
ratio
die (no
should
undercuts,
be kept
grooves,
etc.)
below 2-2.5
(3-4
298
Chapter 9
Plane or flat
give
punches
Burrs can be
solution-.
removed
the
simplest
in
Acceptable
Avoid
Prefer
30
min.
30^
barreling.
0.1-0.2
60v
.
<~
,i i i
ri
jj>i.
-V-i\\i
Prefer
Avoid
Prefer
Prefer
FIGURE
9.6
Examples
of the
design of acceptable
powder
metal
components
[30].
Granular
FIGURE
9.7
Typical components
produced
299
by powder
metallurgy.
Chapter 9
300
below
thicknesses
Wall
2 mm should
Sharp edges,corners,and
As
few
on,
as possible
variations
In general, the
so
shape
must
in
allow
be avoided
be avoided
should
wall
the
thickness
design
of
strong
dies
technically and
acceptable.
economically
shapes,elimination
or
materials
disadvantages
are:
Powder
production
powder
rate,
metallurgical
production
processes
of complicated
of machining,
a combination
solid materials,
advantagesof
relatively
relatively
metallurgical
rotors
for
gears,
contact
pawls,
parts,
pumps, bearings, cams, levers,
A
metallic
and
sintered
carbides
few examples
filters,
(tool
inserts).
magnets,
are shown
in Fig. 9.7.
As described previously,
the application
of extrusion and rolling
to produce
and
structural
so
is
and the
sheets,
on,
rods, bars,
shapes,
increasing
rapidly,
same is true for the isostatic compaction of specialcomponents.
include
10
Materials:
Liquid
10.1
Processes
Casting
INTRODUCTION
In previous
chapters
the
or
shaping
can
forming
also take
of materials
place
in
the
in
liquid
the
solid
material
or granular
state;
this
a solid component.
to produce
metallic components. The
process
alone but are also
confined
to
metallic
materials
stages,
of a suitable
to some
applicable
plastics, porcelain, and so on, are: production
mold cavity; the melting of the material;
material
into
the
the
liquid
pouring
stabilization
of the shape by solidification,
chemical
hardening,
cavity;
so on; removal or extraction of the solid component
from the mold;
evaporation, and
and cleaningthe component.
In principle,
no limits
exist
the size or geometry of the parts that
regarding
can be produced by casting.
are set primarily
The limitations
by the material
the properties of the mold material
properties, the melting
temperatures,
and the material's production
characteristics
chemical,
(mechanical,
thermal),
(i.e.,
whether it is used only once or many
times).
Casting
main
is the
which
oldest
known
are not
301
302
Chapter
more
field allows
one
The differences
liquid
state.
an
easier
the
between
understanding
many casting
the principal
in general,
for most
same
The
glass
industry,
knowledge of
from the
allowing
broadly,
(foundry
casting
the characteristic
of
many
be shaped
can
which
term
the
Normally,
stages and
ideas from
etc.).
one
Having
10
materials
be treated
to another
a good
field
of another field.
processes are due mainly
to
the
Casting processesare
and
used manufacturing
extensively
of
or
intricate
in nearly all
methods, enabling
very complex
production
parts
to
and
of
with
metals
tolerances
types
high production rates, average good
of the
and good material properties. The competitiveness
surface roughnesses,
fact
is
on
allows
based
the
that
the
casting processes
primarily
casting
in alternative
of substantial
amounts of expensive machining
often
elimination
required
important
the
production methods.
different
The
casting processes have been developed.
be
related
to
of
mold
the
(nonprocesses
may
type
or to the mold material or the
method
permanent, permanent)
pouring
(gravity,
the
of the names is
high pressure, low pressure). Furthermore,
application
which
causes
confusion.
10.1
shows
not
sometimes
Table
consistent,
always
to the different
the major casting processes classifiedaccording
characteristics.
most commonly
used names are given,
but if doubt about them arises,
The
can
be identified
are
by their characteristics. The individual
they
processes
As
many
mentioned,
names associated
described
the
with
later.
Only
discussed
10.2
Casting
in
this
chapter.
CHARACTERISTICS
are
common
Figure
production
of
shows
components
PROCESSES
can
processes
stages which
OF CASTING
are
and other
be broken down
for all casting
TABLE
10.1
Some Characteristics of
Type of mold
Nonpermanent
Mold
the
material
Major
Casting
Processes
Pouring principle
Sand (green)
Pattern
metal, plastics
Wood,
Gravity
material
Permanent
Green sand,
core sand
(single-purpose)
Alloy
steels
High
name
Process
dry
Grouping
sand,
Die casting
pressure
Sand
casting
casting
Permanent (metallic)
mold
cast
Low pressure
steel,
Graphite,
\342\200\224
iron
casting
Low-pressure
mold)
(permanent
casting
Cast
iron,
steel
Gravity
Non-pressure-gravity
mold
permanent
casting
Nonpermanent
Nonmetallic (sand,
(single-purpose)
plaster,
ceramics,
etc.)
Gravity
Shell mold
Metal
casting
(Low pressure)
Wax,
plastic,
Plaster
Precision
mold casting
(rubber, metal)
Wax,
plastic,
(rubber,
metal)
Wax, plastic,
(rubber,
Nonpermanent/
permanent
Nonmetallic/metallic
Centrifugal forces
metal)
\342\200\224
casting
Ceramic
mold
\"Lost
Investment
shell
casting
casting
wax\"
(investment
casting
casting)
Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal
casting
Chapter 10
304
Raw material
Component
specifications
Melting
Control
t| Productionof
and
of
correction
mold
composition
L_\302\243
Pouring
L
Solidification
Extraction/
removal
Cleaning,
inspection,
FIGURE 10.1
liquid
material
desired
properties,
The
stages
casting
or operations
of metals).
component (geometry,
number
of components,
is melted
Depending
on
the
in
tolerances,type
etc.), the
raw
the
of components
production
of
material,
material
material
consequently,
main
state (the
etc.
can
final material
be chosen. The
shaping
raw
corrected.
eventually
be
from the
selected
method)
and,
can
be
305
Casting Processes
Liquid Materials:
molten
identified.
The
the mold.
dependent
on the work
is
material is now
stabilized
into
or poured
inserted
by
is
After
conditions.
external
the
or removed
from the mold. The
solidification, the componentis extracted
heat
and
If
cleaned
is
treatment,
finally
component
inspected. approved,machining,
out.
be carried
and other processes can then
be analyzed
listed
in Pig. 10.1 can now
Each stage or operation
according to
1 (i.e.,
material flow, energy flow, and
the principles describedin Chapter
double-lined
in Fig. 10.1 will be
In this context, only
the stages
information
flow).
and
solidification.
mold
discussed:
melting,
production, pouring,
either by
As mentioned previously, the casting processescan be characterized
which
makes it
the type of mold, the mold material, or the pouring
principle,
to describe
difficult
to specific
relating these
of
characteristics
processes.Therefore,
first and
described
methods are
casting
In a
solidification.
final
presentation
to the
introduction
production,
section,
descriptions
general
design
without
solidification
section
a general
the melting
in this
a short
then
and
be describedin
primary
given. After
pouring,
rules and comparisons of
processes
10.3
selecting
be discussed
be
produce
limited
the
the
and
the
production
requirements,
be considered. Among
of the melt, and
temperature
rate. Before
the
melting
processes
fulfill
the
several factors or
to
equipment)
melting
metal
chemistry
capacity,
are described
or
including
these factors
will
briefly.
10.3.1
To
must
features
characteristic
melting
casting specifications
the metallurgy,
the delivery
and
are presented.
casting
When
the
this,
of molding,
the requirements
material properties and to
fulfill
concerning
must
have the right composition, with
a
casting, the molten metal
content of metallic and nonmetallic
contaminations,
gases.
including
able
to
a sound
raw
material
the metal fed into the furnace),
a refining
(i.e.,
of the composition
of the melt might
be necessary.
This
process or correction
can involve the removal
or addition
of elements, the removal of dissolvedgases,
so on. When a considerable proportion of uncontrolled
and
is used in the
scrap
raw
and contaminants are introduced and the need for a
material,
impurities
Depending on the
refining
process
increases.
306
Concerninggaseouscontaminations,
can dissolve these in greater
it should
metal
freezing,
gas
of the particular
during
consequently,
Another
10
Chapter
effect
of the
the ductility
Thus, the
final
composition
that
occur
of the
and
during
nitrogen
(i.e.,
casting
final
the changes
is precipitated,
gases
into
two
be mentioned
than
amounts
causingporosity
and
that
molten
the
hydrogen
in the
is that
casting.
they
reduce
can
after
the
categories:
process.
melting
(1) melting
without
The
and all
melting
refining
and
with
materials.
deoxidation
various
The
properties
influences
selection
the
composition of
melting processes
cooling
(machinability,
the
10.3.2
Temperature
to cast
the
melting
properties,
with
etc.).
different
\"hereditary\"
This consideration
of the melting
raw materials.
able
providematerials
and
shape,
are discussed
later.
of the Melt
be
selection of
process.
Liquid Materials:
307
Casting Processes
10.3.3 MeltingCapacityand
are of
Rate
Delivery
importancehere: the
factors
Two
of 5
rate
preferred.
When
selecting
costs must
the
capital
to be
the choice
allow
that
operating
madewill
Melting Processes/Furnaces
10.3.4
be
considered.
be discussed
not
To
be
able
temperature
Sincemelting
the
of the
to be
composition
right composition
and
of the
contamination
prevent
made.
to line the
place
temperatures,
metal against oxidation,
material. To protect the molten
dissolution of gases, to limit or reduce the content of other undesired elements,
and
so on, it is necessary to cover the
metal
with a layer of slag.
on
of
furnace
the
the
process can be classified
Depending
type
lining,
melting
as acid or basic. In the acid process, the lining consists of fire clay and quartz
sand.
is used. The acid processis
In the basic process, a lining
of magnesite
often
to
the
as
the
is
a lower
basic,
preferred
lining
strong and cheap, giving
acid linings
higher production. In general,
energy consumption and a slightly
is necessary and a small quantity of sulfur
are used when
no refining
can
be
tolerated. The basic processprovides
low-sulfur
iron and allows for carburizing
to give higher carbon contents.
The lining and the slag must be of the same type, both acid or both basic. In
the acid slag, quartz
sand
(FeO, MnO, etc.) is used, and in the basic slag,
limestone is used.
After establishing the melting process, the sourcesof
furnace
with
contaminations
must
The
at high
takes
it
is necessary
a refractory
Typical sources
be minimized.
(02,
atmosphere
N2, H20,
are:
electrical
unprotected
furnaces.
Combustion products
coal, coke,and
so on.
Where solid
firing
in
materials
are used,
fired by oil,
furnaces
the
sulfur
gas,
and
content
not completely
Al,
Si,
02,
H2) may
Chapter 10
308
TABLE
10.2
Melting
Furnaces
the
Most
Used Industrial
Frequently
Furnace
of energy
Type
of
of Some
Classification
Chemical
Solid
Application
Cast
Cupola
sometimes
iron,
alloys
copper
Granular
Steel
furnace
Open-hearth
dust)
(coal
(Siemens-Martin)
Cast iron,
Rotary furnace
Liquid (oil)
steel,
alloys,
Crucible furnace
Gaseous (gas)
(gas
copper
metals
light
Nonferrous
or oil)
Electrical
Arc
Arc
furnace
Direct
Indirect
Induction
Induction
Low
Resistance
cast iron
Steel,
High frequency
Copper,
aluminum
Alloyed
steel, sometimes
alloys
frequency
furnace
Resistance
cast iron,
and
aluminum
copper alloys
can be developed
only
given. If the
type
a characteristic
a
of
classification,
Cupola.
charged
materials
supplied
cupola.
to
the
production
The
cupola
continuously
and
alloying
melting
furnace
process,
approach
morphological
of the most frequently
classification
used to create the thermal
energy
using
this context,
of the
the
the summary
according
applications
shown
to the
in
building principles
described
used
basic
Table
in
Chapter
furnaces
is used as
process
10.2 results. Within
of the
1. In
will be
material
is
listed.
to produce
cast iron. It is
(Fig. 10.2a) is used primarily
with alternating layers of cokeand iron; eventually,
flux
elements
are also added. An air blast (cold or hot) is
of the
(tuyeres) around the periphery of the lower part
openings
to the combustion of the cokes (i.e.,
The melting rate is directly
related
can be either acid or basic. The
of the air blast). The lining
amount
meter of the furnace crossis typically 8-10 Mg per hour
rate
per square
through
sectionalarea.
The open-hearth
furnace (see Fig. 10.2b)is an open
Furnace.
oil-fired furnace used in steel foundries to produce steel casting. The
and
it takes about 8 h to
is often in the range 25-350 Mg per charge,
Open-Hearth
gas- or
capacity
produce
a charge.
Liquid Materials:
309
Casting Processes
Charging
\"\"\"\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\342\226\240\302\273\302\273\302\273\302\273\342\226\240\302\273'
7
Preheating
Lining
zone
Shell
Melting
Wind
zone
box
Superheating
Tuyeres
zone
Crucible
Taphole
Mw;/;//////yZ>////,
^^%Lm
w//////////////////a
FIGURE
(a,
10.2
Furnaces
hot combustion
(gas fired).
gases; b,
Chapter 10
310
Mg, for
Rotary
of copper
melting
iron
cast
or oil-
gas-
are used
products
capacities
and
metals,
light
furnace (see
rotary
gaseouscombustion
have
furnaces
and
The
Furnace.
Rotary
fired. The
and steel
alloys
production.
CrucibleFurnace.
The
to melt
used
the direct-arc
types
Fig. 10.3a)the arc is
graphite electrodes and the charge. In the
two
into
groups:
type (see
direct-arc
the
consumable
the
between
established
are divided
furnaces
Arc
Furnace.
Arc
the graphite
and the
electrodes,
type, the arc is establishedbetween
heat from the arc is transmitted
to the charge by radiation, conduction, and
convection.
Arc
furnaces
are used most commonly
in the production
of cast iron
indirect-arc
steel.
and
the
in
range
of the
wear
the
are few,
applications
lining,
generally
a low efficiency,
factors.
other
and
is
to
owing
and the
used for
applications,
2-50
The three-phase
capacity is
Furnace.
furnaces
Induction
are divided
(1000-30,000 Hz) crucible-typefurnace
high-frequency
Induction
into
(see
two
Fig.
groups:
the
furnace
(see Fig. 10.3b). The highlow-frequency (60-180 Hz) channel-type
crucible
is
in
the
furnace
used
mainly
production of cast iron and steel.
frequency
The low-frequency channel-type furnace is used for the melting
of copper and
aluminum
The
alloys.
Resistance Furnace.
electrical
furnace
is used
mainly
heat produced
heat is
to melt
by
rapidly.
the
radiated to the
melt
and
type, where the
aluminum
of the crucible
furnace is frequently
the crucible.
about melting and furnaces can be found
surround
elements
information
Further
of
The
resistance
The
alloys.
heating
type
use the
elements.
heating
are increasing
furnaces
induction
furnaces
Resistance
graphite
furnace. This
and the
copper
in the
resistance
of
applications
in the
literature
[33,42].
10.4
MOLD PRODUCTION,POURING,
AND
10.4.1
The
cavity
next
and
properties.
SOLIDIFICATION
Mold
step
mold
Production
10.1) is the
(Table
must be
10.4 illustrates
material
Figure
of
manufacture
such that
how
the
the
a suitable
final
component
requirements
liquid Materials:
IV-
FIGURE
furnace
10.3
Processes
Casting
>YiWn
Furnaces
(low-frequency);
311
lYnYhVy
electrical
using
energy: (a) direct-arc furnace;
(c) induction furnace (high-frequency) [32].
(b) induction
Mechanicalenergy
Liquid
Thermal
Solid
Liquid
Liquid
I
Solidification
Pouring
(mechanical
basic
process)
Molten
metal
Geometry
(allowances)
Tolerances and
Temperature
Erosion
principle
Low pressure
for
Allowance
Gravity
Material properties
Number
Delivery
of gases
and
solidification
cooling contraction
Must
FIGURE
for escape
cannels,etc.)
10.4
Determination
of the
requirements
not
react
of the
with the
specifications
metal
mold system.
Tolerances
resistance
conductivity
Allowance
High pressure
component
Geometry
finish
surface
Temperature resistance
Thermal
Pouring
Casting or
requirements
system
Composition
Amount
process)
Phase 3
Mold
specifications
basic
(thermal
Phase 2
Input
energy
(porosity,
Price
of
components
time
The
determined.
and
melting
metallurgy,
materials,
and
determined.
This
specifications
component
material
313
Casting Processes
Liquid Materials:
metal).Basedon
this
heat transmission,
solidification,
so on,
is,
fluid
mechanics,
can be
mold system
the
of
process.
of mold design,
the principles
requirements have been defined,
can be
of mold material and method of mold
selection
manufacture,
utilized.
in
1
be
described
can
Here
the morphological
Chapter
approach
When the
including
analyzed.
This approachwill
differences
be considered
not
characteristics
the basic
the casting
in
and
in detail,
but
provide
discussion
a brief
will
reveal
understanding of the
a fundamental
processes.
on mold
influence
a major
design and
manufacture:
of mold
Type
Permanent (nonexpendable)
once)
(expendable\342\200\224used
Nonpermanent
of
Category
pattern
Permanent
Nonpermanent
principle
Pouring
High
pressure
Low
pressure
Gravity
This is
in
illustrated
identified:
I,
Table
III in the
II,
column.
left-hand
I.
Method
the
parting
plaster, ceramics,
leaving
or
basic
the
MethodHI.
dissolved,
of the
halves
two
The
etc.),
mold
otherwise
is
meet.
(sand, plaster,
granular
is employed.
The
times
are separated
mold is ready
be removed.
The molds
pattern.
After reassembly
the
the
that
the
nonpermanent.
removed
if sufficiently
can
a complicated
have
material
the
is nonpermanent,
pattern
used several
removed.
requirement
and the
a cavity which
two halves.
pattern
the two
where
mold is nonpermanent,
a pattern
that can be
The
II.
Method
be available.
must
line
pattern
can
the material
The
granular
pattern
(sand,
is melted,
patterns),
split
into
Chapter 10
314
TABLE
10.3
Type of
mold
Features
Characteristic
Mold
Influencing
Category of
Mold
material
Permanent
.Molds
swvs^a
Design
pattern
Pouring
pattern,
material
principles
Metal
High
Graphite
Low pressure
etc.
pressure
Gravity
.parting
777T//A
avity
*\302\243
Sand
Permanent
Plaster
Wood
Ceramics
Metal
etc.
Gravity
Plastic
Pattern
Nonpermanent
Sand
Nonpermanent
Wax
Plaster
/Mold
Gravity
Plastic
Ceramics
etc.
Permanent
Rubber
Pattern
No parting
These
three
used today,
but
fundamental
10.4.2
The
mold
of mold design
methods cover the major methods
if
analyzed carefully, may lead to new
approach,
are discussed
further in Section
methods
10.5,
used
casting
processes are described.
the systematic
Patterns
is not a true
for some or all
cavity
compensate
negative
of the
of the
desired component,
following:
Shrinkage
Contraction
Contraction
during
solidification
solidificationtemperature
since it
must
Category of
Permanent
Classified
Patterns
10.4
TABLE
315
Casting Processes
Liquid Materials:
Type of
pattern
Loose
pattern
and Material
Type,
Category,
by
Wood
pattern
Metal
Single piece
(removable)
material
Pattern
pattern
Plastic
Split
Gated
pattern
etc.
Rubber,
Match-plate pattern
Cope and
pattern
drag
pattern
Wax
Plastic
(polystyrene,
styrofoam)
in the
Contraction
The
if necessary
dimensions,
to remove
necessary
mold
permanent
draft
from
solid state
final
to
Machining
Considering Table
10.3, it
the
be seen that
can
or in
molds)
in
component
an important
play
general,
role
in
casting
are described
the
and
mold or the
the
from
pattern
below.
briefly
principles
The requirements
or specifications for the desiredcomponent
lead
to the
of a casting
If
selection
a
or
casting processemploying
nonpermanent
process.
molds
the
next
is
concerns
the
manufacture
of
the
selected,
expendable
question
a classification of
10,4 shows
pattern necessary to produce the mold. Table
processes
patterns
The
of the
quality
process.If only
a larger number,
can
Patterns
in
employed
to category
according
hard
mold
or
a plane
(see Fig.
small
are,
Section
(see
castings
or
metal
numbers,
and
when
patterns
metal
used in the
normally
or
surface
irregular
loose
Because of their
in principle,
10.4.3).
Match-plate
wooden
large
types, accordingto
will
how
they
be
used.
are
desired
casting of up
component
to facilitate
to
100
with allowances)
extraction from
the
mold
10.10).
Gated patterns
runners
are
which
as one
made
along
split
halves
very
into different
production.
Loose patterns,
components, are
and for
wood;
divided
be
thus
(permanent,
the
number
are
plate (known
split
with
patterns
higher
of castings is
patterns
as a match
gates and
used
they are
high
(\342\200\2241000).
mounted
plate)
attached
cost,
giving
on
opposite
the parting
only
for
sides of a
surface (see
316
10
Chapter
jfiiSIEliL
W////////W/////////>/////)//?//
Hk
^rTrA*:::: RF
\"Tft
*
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242'
-fpffiffiff^^ffiff^^Z
a)
(b)
and (b)
pattern
drag
pattern.
match-plate
Gates and
runners
are
also mounted
on the plate. Locating pins
location of the plate between the upper
and lower
(cope)
the mold halves. The
(drag) flask. A flask is a four-sided metal frame containing
match
is used in machine molding, allowing
the cope and drag mold halves
plate
10.5b).
Fig.
be
to
accurate
an
provide
the plate.
around
made
brought together,
the
giving
After
removal
desired
cavity.
of the plate,
Because of the
two
the
are
of match
halves
cost
high
is required.
of
castings
on
mounted
the production
of the mold halves on
drag plate), allowing
different
machines
(see Fig. 10.5a).
are wooden cross sections of very large
Sweep and skeleton
patterns
used
of
in
hand
a mold. A sweep can be used to form
components
forming
cylindrical shapes
the
rotation
of
section.
Skeletonsare wooden
frames
by
outlining
cope plate
and
the
the shape
discussed
As
shrinkage,
and
previously,
the
In
cope
flask and
core the
placed in
cores
are
internal
the
split
in the
half
the castings
cases,
many
pattern
for draft,
allowances
include
must
as guidance
machining.
Draft is
Draft.
serve
the
shape.
cavity
made of
Cores
when
patterns
are hollow,
the
the external
are produced
pattern
which
has
by
been
so that
pattern
to be
pattern
are used,
half
is often
necessitates
shape of the
of the
casting,
of special
removed. In sand
a number
(see
Section
pattern is
in the range
the use of
1-2\302\260.
cores
and
the
methods and
casting, the
10.5.1).
Liquid Materials:
(a) Pattern
10.6
FIGURE
317
Casting Processes
and
draft
(b) cores.
Allowance.
Machining
machined,
varying
On
those
surfaces where
a reasonable
depending
the
casting
machining
on the
wall
be
allowance,
is to
thickness
and
the tolerances.
Selection of pattern
number
of castings,
material
FIGURE
10
Chapter
318
10.7
10.4.3
Examples
of molds
ready
for
pouring
(gating system
not
shown)
[34].
Pouring
of the
casting without defects dependson many factors. One
mold
into
the
is
the metal
cavity.
in which
is the way
factors
poured
important
can be characterized by the filling or pouring pressure and
This pouring
process
can
pressure
the
(channels for delivering the metal). The pouring
system
gating
The
or
higher
gravity.
be classified as high (2-15 MPa), low (0.12-0.30 MPa),
The production
of a
casting of thinner
is a requirement
sections,
for
higher
higher-strength
at
or
Materials:
Liquid
Schematic
10.8
FIGURE
sand
319
Casting Processes
illustration of
the
main
elements
of the gating
system
for
casting.
low pouring
pressures normally
as graphite,
such
materials,
require
can be
used for
perma-nent
the lower
metal molds,
The general
supplied
to
the
system
gating
temperature
influencing
actual
elements
gating
elements,
grain
structure,
other
metal
liquid
A poorly
too
porosity, etc.),
high
turbulence
to be
designed
a pouring
in
the
fluid stream,
material,
the
but
pressures.
entrapping
of
gases,
processes.
basin,
gating
a sprue,
system
Chapter
320
10
fO
jto2
well
Sprue
(a)
(b)
?Q
V
(d)^
(c)
10.9
FIGURE
centrifugal
gating;
system
Typical gating systems: (a) gating
or finger gating.
(c) horn gating; (d) comb
Figure
is no
is necessary,
final
flow
a few
typical
general agreement
different
about
gating
the
relative
designs of gating
place
20%
larger
than the
total
area
of the
in the
more exist,
advantages
area of the
gates, to
obtain
there
of the
sprue is made
of the runner
is decreased after
filling
area
of
from the beginning. The cross-sectional
has been
of proper gating
The importance
systems
gate.
out
carried
is
no
the
and
the last few years
recognized during
longer
design
craftsman but by the engineer.
for a well-engineered
requirements
Summarizing, the most important
the
these
gate(s).
but
and disadvantages
the cross-sectional
systems,
to
distributed
takes
Several
systems.
well; (b)
systems.
In the
about
shows
the metal is
gate
one
with sprue
runner
each branching
system
are:
the
Prevention of slag and oxides from
entering
of air or gases
Prevention of the inclusion
Prevention of mold and core erosion
Decreasing the requirements for a high pouring
mold cavity
temperature
by the
gating
Materials: Casting
Liquid
the
Leading
metal
liquid
rate, resulting
Details can
When the
avoidance
during
the
be found
1.
in
of shrinkage
from the
cooling
literature [33,42].
has been designed,
to
be given
must
attention
the
or shrinkage
contraction
up of
is made
temperature
contributions:
three
Contraction
solidification
the
system
gating
following
in castings
the amount
Minimizing
321
Processes
from
cooling
during
the pouring
temperature to the
temperature
2.
Contraction
during solidification
3.
Contraction
during
from the
cooling
solidification
to
temperature
room
temperature
For carbon
aluminum
steel, the
the carbon
on
solidification
and for
6-7%,
cast
iron
from
is in the range
shrinkage
1.9% to an expansion of
2.5-3%, for
2.5%, depending
content.
To compensatefor
pouringtemperature
the shrinkage
to solidification,
from
cooling
metal
should
the
be attached
information
can
10.4.4
Solidification
The mold
design
be found
in
the
literature
[33,42].
and
on the
Solidification
slow,
of
the
and
casting
a directional
the mold.
The possibilities of obtaining
up through
solidification
on
the
of
the
depend
component.
design
With permanent
the
mold
is
molds, solidification starts even before
filled
and
terminates
This
means
that
thin
sections
after.
completely
shortly
may
close to prevent further
to other sections. Consequently, the requirement
feeding
of uniform
sections is very important
In die casting (permanent metal
here.
is
the
the gating
molds),
feeding
supplied by
high pressure acting through
system.
to obtain
Modifications
to the component geometry may
be necessary
and continuing
asound casting.
Chapter10
322
Drag
flask
flask
Drag
Drawing
Pattern
Core
Cope flask
Air
&??*,
-,^r-V^
FIGURE 10.10
Sand
the most
section
this
in the
production of sand
molds
using split
patterns [35].
important
casting
processes
Sand Casting
10.5.1
this
stages
CASTINGPROCESSES
10.5
In
Typical
channel
of cast
casting
description,
molding materials,
mold
used in
and
production,
industry.
In
applications
are
discussed.
Molding Sand
Sand
is
1000kg, it
the
is
of
molding
sand must
To produce
of
molding
be handled and
a casting of
sand; in other
maintained.
The
sand
are: temperature
resistance,
requirements of the molding
a
the
to
retain
and
to
withstand
mechanical
given shape
strength
loading from
the
the
of
and
metal,
(to permit
liquid
permeability
escape gases),
collapsibility
of these requirements is obtained in
(to permit shrinkage).The fulfillment
from the following ingredients:
moldingsand
fundamental
temperature
resistance
and permeability)
Liquid Materials:
binder
The
323
Casting Processes
strength)
(giving
The
most
widespread
It is
sand.
can be:
formability,
Clay
Cement
silicate
Sodium
process)
(C02
Oils
Resins
In
sand,
molding
are
sand.
clay is generally
or illite.
kaolinite,
bentonite,
Cement
(portland)
used as the
The amounts
binder.
primary
vary
between
when
strong
The types
of clay
discussed
the
present
primary
context.
in
sand
molding
A molding sand
flour
porosity
1-2%
in the
of pitch
4-8%
when
and
clay
water,
is used
perhaps
as
the
with
sand.
an
oven
using
(at
dry
for several
hours, a dry
molds, usually 1-2% of cereal
molds reduce gas holes, blows,or
100-300\302\260C)
sand
sand
casting.
The
is usually
be
maintained
tested
frequently
to
sand
production
of
(Chapter
1), so
Chapter10
324
10.11
FIGURE
molds.
of flaskless
Arrangement
Mold Production
the
When
produced,
and
has been
pattern
typical
stages
in this
mold
can
be
are
flask by sandslings,
the
a high
giving
rate.
production
methods.
development of flasklessmolding
10.11 shows two different
in the arrangement of flaskless
Figure
principles
molds.
10.12 shows an automatic molding machine producing
a
Figure
horizontal
of molds at enormously high
This process,
string
speeds.
developed by the
late V. Aa. Jeppesen at the Technical
University of Denmark, has revolutionized
the mass production
[36]. Further information on molding machinery
foundry
can be found in the literature.
Much
been
has
effort
Applications
castings.
very
complicated
processes
sand casting
Casting
(by
in
components
been
have
is,
developed
far the most
in industry for
a relatively
general,
extensively
used
process),
Liquid
Casting Processes
Materials:
325
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
RGIIRE 10.12
(b) compressing;
Disamatic
(c)
separation;
flaskless
(d)
molding machine:
of mold; (e) separation;
automatic
removal
(a) injection
(f)
of sand;
ready [36].
Chapter 10
326
core
shell mold
Shell
10.5.2
In
silica
dried
metal
is heated to
pattern
so on. An
is
variant
important
Mold Casting
casting, which is a
sand mixed with
mold
shell
from
is described
variant
of
sand
a thermosetting
150-250\302\260C,
and
sand mixture is
the
produced
accurate
dumped on
the
Investment
10.5.3
In
part mass is
Maximum
method.
investment
of
Production
10-20
kg.
Casting
casting
wax
of
pattern
about
a master
sometimesused),used
wax
or \"precision
casting\"
in the
investment casting
but
wood
(low-melting-point
casting\") a
processare:
or plastic is
alloys
or steel)
Production of wax
Assembly of wax
iron
soldering
patterns
patterns
can be
of the
by pouring or
and a common
injection of
gating
system
wax
into
with
if several
pattern assembly
slurry of fine-grainedsilica)
the coated pattern assembly
Production
of the final investment by placing
a flask
to remove
into
and pouring investment material around
(vibrated
air,
etc.)
entrapped
for several hours
and
Drying
hardening
the mold and inverting
it to
the wax pattern assembly by warming
Melting
allow the wax to flow out
(850-1000\302\260C)to drive off moisture
Heating the mold to higher
temperatures
Coating
(dipping
and
in
with
a thin
volatile
matter
a thin
Liquid Materials:
the
Preheating
Pouring
of
the casting
or
frozen
Removal
Polystyrene
used for
may be
to
mold
500-1000\302\260C
thin
327
Casting Processes
pressure,
can also
mercury
patterns
of the
molten
to
metal
control)
or evacuation
permanent
flow
(facilitating
dimensional
be usedas the
whenever
of the mold)
solidification
it is
pattern
material.
possible to extract
Rubber
it
after
investment.
The main
and
of investment
of very
even
mm),
(~0.4
finish,
by
pouring
advantages
shapes
complicated
sections
(bonded
low
(for
plaster
very high
dimensional accuracy(0.003-0.005per
dimensional
unit,
cm/cm).
require
process
etc.).
Examples
are
casting
is used mainly
of the process
are metals that are
characteristics
special
complexity,
investment
costs
are also
high. The pattern
to produce componentsthat
tolerances, high
(good surfaces,
to machine or to deform
difficult
plastically.
As
mentioned
mold
and
previously,
high
pouring
design
feature
of the
Chapter 10
328
solidification
and
tion
casting
is used
pressures
in the
mainly
of alloys
of
die
zinc,
The cold-chamber
magnesium.
metal is transferred
the
on
depending
material.
channels.
multiple
Optimum
Zinc/zinc
often
alloys
Magnesium/magnesium
the
Low-Pressure
10.5.5
In
this
of castings
and die
machinery
high
process,
number of
\342\200\2245,000
(thickness
number
high
induction furnace,
necessary to give
costs.
>
the
castings
1
mm)
1.5-2.5
> 1.25
>
used
inserts.
for zinc.
mm)
mm)
2.0 mm)
economicalproduction
is due
to
Die Casting
mold\342\200\224made
and
castings
\342\200\22460,000
(thickness
Copperalloys
The
million
\342\200\22450,000
(thickness
alloys
up from
built
\342\200\224200,000
(thickness
alloys
Aluminum/aluminum
water-
are
a single-cavitydie is
Alloys
of holes
metal
from
graphite
is forced
into
or
the
metal\342\200\224is
die
cavity
mounted
by inert
above
an
gas. The
varies
between
0.12 and 0.20 MPa. Castings made
by this method
are dense, free of inclusions,
and have high dimensional accuracy.The
process
and other
is used for railroad-car wheels, steel ingots,
applications.
gas pressure
Liquid Materials:
(c) cold-chamber
activated;
10.5.6
In
Die casting:
10.13
FIGURE
gravity
metal
the
(a) hot-chamber
329
die
casting,
air activated;
(b) plunger
die casting.
perhapscoated
that
Casting Processes
mold
Pouring
is made
process
mold,
from metal
is by
in the
or graphite,
good
range ~0.02
zinc/zincalloys, and
surface
(cm/cm),
sometimes
330
10
Chapter
FIGURE
10.14
for brass
and
Depending on the
or
manually
and
finish,
nonpermanent
required
cast
of gray
has
iron
acceleration
the
inclusions
and
metal
centrifuge
(see
pressure
Fig.
solidification
in cast
by
10.14a). This
process is limi1
a common
the semicentrifugal
axis,
are removedby
the
axis
along
slush
In
casting, which
gives
sprue
works, sculptures,
and bronze.
by
inverting
toys,
and
so
fo symmetrical
components.
obtained. The
impurities
machining.
a shell-like
component,
a thin
liquid
processes
metal
is poured
an
casting process is
where a
10.14b). The
Fig.
method.
this
centrifugal
rotational
to flow
(see
allowed
casting,
centrifugal
by
due
which
in
tolerances,
necessitates
are produced
casting,
givesbetter
500 to
from
vary
Casting Processes
bearing
be operated
properties.
centrifugal
where g is
Impurities
described
casting
die casting
permanent
casting,
mechanical
of pipes
casting
permanentor
sand
Miscellaneous
10.5.7
If
the
the permanent
mold can
The economical number of castingscan
the die is water cooled.
places
critical
in
Comparedto
to be
years,
requirements,
mechanically.
40,000, and
The
casting [32].
centrifugal
(b)
In recent
bronze.
aluminum
and
in interest.
gained
surface
casting
(a) Centrifuge
exist,
but they
for
tin,
will
is
metal
ornamental
lead,
not
zinc,
be
10.6
331
Casting Processes
Materials:
Liquid
POSSIBILITIES
GEOMETRICAL
Introduction
10.6.1
One of the
unlimited
of casting results from the virtually
can
be produced).
possibilities
very complex shaped components
But the cost of the components
depends
directly on the complexity. Most
factor. To achieve the
foundrieshave
cost estimation
methods involving
a complexity
advantages
major
(i.e.,
geometrical
certain
be
casting for a given
design rules must
complexity,
to obtain a goodcasting. When
a component
for casting, it
designing
so that the possibilities
to know the casting and molding
method,
necessary
possible
cheapest
followed
is
of the
limitations
and
particular process
concerninggeometry,
depending on
of
dimension
maximum
another
(1 is best
process
must
be
between
comparison
as a
obtained.
General
10.6.2
castings having
and
information;
mm
mm.
is intended
comparison
only
where the properties
comparison,
The
general
1-6
material,
be cast. In
that can
and
figures correspond to
These
400
about
a rough
size.
actual
the
size,
Design
Rules
A few
of the main design rules that
are described briefly below. Figures
must
to
be followed
10.15and
10.16
sound
obtain
illustrate
castings
the most
importantrules.
When
considered,
designing
since
cost. The
most
Pattern and
if forgotten
important
factors
main
to
factors
considerably
must be
increased
are:
costs
etc.)
(plane
parting surface, simple, draft,
(method and properties)
Core production
(simplicity, methods, and properties)
risers as a function
of geometry
Casting
system,
[gating
(Fig. 10.16)]
Cleaning (easy accessto core cavities, easy removal of gating
system)
Table
allowances,
(where, how, and what
10.7)
Machining
Thermal stresses [reducedby uniform
thickness or when
section
changes
Mold
pattern
production
necessary,
gradual changes
restraints]
(Fig. 10.15),by
permitting
the contraction
are
to
10.5
TABUE
Processes
Tolerances
Sand
Range of metals
method
Casting
cast iron,
(examples:
steel, Al and Cu alloys)
Die
Al, Mg,
casting
Zn,
casting
Shell
mold
casting
Investment casting
Centrifugal
Source:
From
limitations
No limitations
No
casting
Ref.
No
12.
limitations
(-0.05
alloys;
to
roughness
(mm)
Ra(lim)
lot
Economical
5-25
0.5-2
1-2
Minimum
kg
2-3
More
than
2-5
More
than 100
kg
0.5-0.8
6
Unit to
sand
casting)
Up to
50 kg
of 1000
for Cu)
-0.01-0.025
-0.02-0.05
-0.003-0.005
-0.03-0.10
Few
Up
Few
Up
grams
to 20
grams
to 50
1-3
kg
to 10
to several
Mg
size
mass production
2.5-5
Mg
precision
(-0.003
Cu
thickness
range
Few grams
Surface
section
Normal
mass
-0.0015
and
Cu alloys
Permanent mold
unit
(cm/cm)
-0.03
limitations
No
casting
Minimum
per
dimensional
1000
1.5-2 100-5000
5-25 A few hundred
Comparisonof Various
TABLE 10.6
Casting
Processes
Casting
Die
Porosity
Surface
quality
Dimensional
accuracy
Strength
Die casting
Permanent
Investment
Centrifugal
(cold chamber)
4-3
3-4
2-1
1-2
6-7
3-2
1
4-5
5-4
6-7
2-3
2
5-4
3-2
5-4
7-5
2-1
1-2
7-5
3-2
mold
casting
casting
casting
section
Minimum
5-7
thickness
Mold cost
rate
Production
Small
lot sizes
Large
lot
sizes
From
Ref.
Source:
casting
(hot chamber)
Sand casting
Property
process
1-2
6-7
2-3
7-6
4
5
6-7
7-6
4
3
16.
1-2
2-1
Chapter
334
10
=T
rT
FOR
rr^f-
T<1.5t
=T
T>1.5t
FOR
E
R*T
T
15
FOR
T<2t
(a)
X~R =T
3 It
1 It
0,9T<R<1,3t
M
R
t2<R<t]
=T
ki
kl
t2<R<t1
\342\200\224<\342\200\224u-
*2
(c)
rules
for castings:
(a) changing
of
dimensions;
(b)
changing
of
Liquid
Materials:
Casting
Processes
Avoid
R=2T
Preferable
Avoid
Preferable
Avoid
Preferable
FIGURE
10.16
Design rules
for
castings.
335
336
Chapter
10.7
TABLE
Allowances for
Machining
Sand
Castings
dimension
Main
0-300
Material
600-1000
9.0
Nonferrous metals
1.5
2.5
2.5
Steel
3.5
3.5
5
Mechanical
(in the
loadings
considered along
1000-1500
6.5
5.0
10.0
8.0
shaping of the
the
with
(mm)
300-600
Cast iron
must be
10
component,proper
of the
characteristics
force
transfer
casting process)
Appearance
More
information
detailed
this
section
a
most frequently
Figures
Brigham
used
in
Young
University,
elements
in Chapters
are described.
courtesy
Provo,
casting processes,
CASTING PROCESSES
used
by
of castings,
design
[32-35,37,38].
fundamental
industry
are provided
the
literature
OF TYPICAL
according to the
way similar to that
classified
stressin
concerning
in the
found
EXAMPLES
10.7
In
be
Utah.
of
6, 7, and 8. Only
The
processes,
casting
Manufacturing
those
state of
processes
Consortium,
Liquid Materials:
1:
PROCESS
Casting Processes
Sand
Casting
337
(M, Me,
In sand
Ri, TF,
Co)
metal
molten
the
sand mold,
used
It is,
in
of
general,
cast
iron,
a relatively
very
stage. It is a low-volume
production
process
when not automated/mechanized and a high-volume
when automated.
process
from 500 g to 50 kg, but the method
is feasible
Typical component weights
range
for weights
of several
metric tons. Wall thicknesses are generally
5-50
mm.
are engine
blocks, crankshafts, connecting rods, bearing
Examples
pedestals,
machine
tool
beds, turbine housings, etc.
in one
components
complicated
dimensionally
stability,
sand
compaction,
allowances of 3-10 mm
Machinery:
commonly
made
continuous
string.
the
compressing
Equipment
of wood
For
applications.
sand
Many
for
shaping
system,
the molds
automated applications
different machines have
to a suitable
strength
at
etc.,
handles
necessitating
consists of
and guide
patterns
pins for
a high
rate.
machining
manual
Chapter 10
338
2:
PROCESS
Casting (M,
Mold
Shell
Me, Ri,
TF,
Co)
This method is very much the same as sand casting, but with
Description:
resin instead of
mixed
with thermosetting
a molding mixture of fine, sharp sand
A
metal
mold
nonreusable.
is
As in sand casting, the
sand.
pattern of the
plain
with
and
covered
is
to
150-250\302\260C
heated
with sprue and gate
complete
casting
mm
is
5
a
shell
about
thick
a few minutes,
After
a layer of sand mixture.
in an oven
baked
The shell is then
removed.
and the excess mixture
partially cured
be
that
must
mold
and heat-resisting
and becomes a rigid, strong,
destroyedto
remove
the cast
component after
Shell
Applications:
solidification.
its
mold casting
offers greater
dimensional
accuracy
and
the
from
accuracies
50-100
and the
from
\302\2610.2%
Machinery:
pattern, pattern
an oven for curing
The process
mold
may
for
Equipment
shell
need
castings
reproducibility
to
\302\2610.5%
and
very little
cleaning after
process is
smooth
surfaces,
of
the
high.
/?a-values of
obtainable.
the mold
producing
box
for
shells consists of
be mechanized.
Further,
the
a metal
and
material.
a burner
casting
Investment
3:
PROCESS
Description:
mold made
by
339
Casting Processes
Liquid Materials:
process
means
of a
Casting
molten metal is
in which
disposable
layer of
of
the
from
mold.
complex
shapes,
MOLTEN
Before casting,
the
allowing
which cannot
it,
inverting
METAL
is melted
pattern
No draft
out.
by
other
a preheated
casting
_^^
v.
Tf^y-
MOLD
the
wax to flow
be made
poured into
or plastic
of wax
pattern
CAVITIES -J
^%
CERAMIC
SHELL
ttfjfip
ffl
%#
9\302\273
Geometrical
of investment casting are almost
possibilities
mold geometry and draft are not a consideration becausepattern
and workpiece
do not need to be removed
from
the mold. Workpieces with
wall
as thin as 0.4 mm can be cast by this method.
thicknesses
The castings typically
in size from 100 g to 20 kg. TUrbine
and other products
wheels,
range
gears,
Applications:
since
limitless
of
calling for exact dimensionsin metals with a high melting point are examples
can be used to produce castings in all
applications. The investment
process
ferrous and
nonferrous
in the casting of special metals such
alloys and is important
as unmachinable
and radioactive
metals.
alloys
Tolerances!'Surfaces: Tolerancesof
to 15 mm. For large components
roughness of investment
castings
range
componentsup
remembered,
work
and
however,
skill,
that
making
the precision
investment
\302\2610.075%
\302\2610.7%
from
1.5
too
for
obtainable
be expected.
The
may
to 3 u,m Ra. It should
involves
attainable
casting
are
expensive
a lot
for
of
surface
be
preliminary
routine
foundry work.
for
Machinery.
Equipment
tank and baking oven. Equipment
Chapter10
340
Mold Casting
Permanent
4:
PROCESS
Co)
TF,
grain
giving
or steel.
iron
favorable
more
mechanical
It
in critical
is possible
cooling
places,
in
resulting
better
properties.
mold
The permanent
casting
process can produce a wide
but complex shapes require considerableexpensein mold design
and fabrication. It is used primarily for aluminum,
zinc,
magnesium,
copper and
for
cast
iron.
also
their
and recently
gray
Component
weights typically
alloys,
costs of the molds are high.
between
30 g and 10 kg. The initial
range
Applications:
variety
of
parts,
Dimensional
Tolerances/Surfaces:
mold
and
by
changes
in position
of
is affected
accuracy
moving
parts
in it.
to \302\2614
mm
across parting lines. Surface finish
\302\2610.25 mm
of the mold wall, mold coatings used,venting,
casting
are 25-100
etc.
ranges for surface finish
Typical
design,
Machinery:
gate and runner
The setup
normally
consists
basin,
of two
alignment
of the
by the
quality
Typical tolerances are
on the finish
depends
temperature,
gating
u,m Ra.
mold halves
containing
pins, an ejection
system,
of metal
or sand
Liquid
Die
5:
PROCESS
341
Casting Processes
Materials:
Casting
Co)
Description: Diecasting
is forced
is a process where molten metal
by a ram
(10-100 MPa) into a reusable mold and held under
is hastened by
occurs. Cooling of the workpiece
pressure
water
in the die, which
also
increases
the life of the very expensive die.
circulating
Diecasting is economical for large production runs only. Two different methods
are employed:the cold-chamber
which has a separate melting
furnace
process,
from which the molten metal
to the machine by hand or
is transferred
the hot-chamber
has a melting furnace as an integral
method, which
mechanically,and
of the machine.
part
under
high
injection
pressure
until solidification
is rapid\342\200\224production
of up to
rates
Applications: The die casting
process
1000 castingsper hour\342\200\224and is used for components of a wide range of sizes and
geometries, such as engine
parts,
gears,
fly wheels, rotors, frames,covers,etc.
method
cold-chamber
The
is used
for
mainly
ranges from
1 to
40 mm,
range
weights
and
from
takes care
about
of
alloys
with
Wall thickness
magnesium).
10 g to
and
aluminum,
bronze,
brass,
method
50
kg.
Machinery:
cylinders,
plunger,
die
and mold
to 500 shots/hour,
are feasible for
although
machine
casting
or die
cavity.
high
consists of
Typically,
production
small components.
pressure and
production
outputs of
power
2000 to
5000
shots/hour
50
11
Plastic
and
Plastics
Processing
11.1
INTRODUCTION
In
this
plastics.
a short
Then some
chapter
is given
description
of the
more
important
of the
methods
manufacturing
of
properties
of processing
plastics are
discussed.
are as diverse
11.2
can
plastic
PROPERTIES
MANUFACTURING
In Chapter
discussed,
as the
based
3 the
most
on their
be classified
OF
PLASTICS
of plastic materials
characteristics
important
molecular structure. Depending on the structure,
were
plastics
as:
1.
Thermoplastics
2.
(having
a linear/chain
structure)
a cross-linked
structure)
343
Chapter 11
344
The consistency
11.1
FIGURE
as a
of thermoplastics
function
of temperature.
The secondary
the chain
allowing
heating,
change is reversible;
chains
the
between
bonding
is weakenedby
in thermoplastics
increasingtemperature
them harder
softens
each
This
other.
and
thermoplastics
The strong primary
bondings
not
plastics are, in general,
to a very limited extent.
influenced by temperature; and if influenced, only
Classificationof plastic materials into thermoplastics and thermosetting
behavior
in processing and
their
valuable
information about
plastics thus
gives
makes
temperature
decreasing
(cross-links) betweenthe
chains
and
stronger.
in thermosetting
service.
11.2.1
Thermoplastics
(e.g.,
The consistency
classvaries
11.1 for
with
considerably
both
Below the
ductile,
measured
depending
and
amorphous
glass
transition
the
temperature.
crystalline
temperature,
modules) of thermoplasticsas a
in Fig.
This is shown
schematically
elastic
thermoplastics.
the materials
are hard,
on the
by
brittle,
or
indicated
in
and
crystalline
glass transition temperature, amorphous
For amorphous materials, the structural
changes
differently.
of the structure
to rotate
and slide (reversibly) relative to
short
segments
solid to thermoelastic (leathery) to
from
other. The state changes gradually
For
or liquid
(i.e., decreasing viscosity with
temperature).
increasing
Above
the
thermoplastics
behave
allow
each
rubbery
345
amorphous
between
the
in
utilized
curves
lying
regions, resulting in consistency-temperature
state
flow is
in Fig. 11.1. In the rubbery
(rubbery
materials) the temperature must be controlled
very
crystalline
shown
limits
shaping
carefully.
The
of the
states
different
processedby
the
In
or solid
glassy
drilling,
(turning,
machining
of
materials enable the application
the
materials
can
be
state,
milling, etc.). The existenceof the
thermoplastic
processing methods.
different
has allowedthe
or leathery state
The material
processes.
thermoelastic
of many
development
different
can,
state,
undergo large reversible
forming
deformations
of
the
orientation
accompanied
by
long-chain molecules. By
will
cause
this
orientation
internal
which tend to establish the
stresses,
high
cooling,
when
heated
again (i.e., components formed in this state have
previous shape
and vacuum
a low thermal
stability).
Examples of processes are blow
molding
this
in
forming.
the
In
flow or
rubbery
(i.e.,
after
most
thermoplastic
state,
liquid
and
cooling,
materials are
forming
results).
product
shaped using
molecular
permanent
a stable
processes
It is in
injection molding.
Thermosetting Plastics
11.2.2
propertieswith
At a
structure.
or
thermal
In
only
heat
the
by
carried
machining.
out
in the
and/or
or cured)thermosetting
of thermosetting
However, forming
uncured or partially
temperature,
in consistency or
change
molecular
of their cross-linked
a chemical decomposition (i.e.,
significant
because
In general, thermosetting
than do thermoplastics.
resistivity
solid state (hardened
the partially
during
high
sufficiently
place.
any
temperature
increasing
takes
destruction)
exhibit
do not
plastics
Thermosetting
forming.
final
network
cured
state.
structure
plastics
plastics,
If forming
(curing)
be processed
in general,
is carried out
then develops
is
in
Chapter 11
346
\342\200\242H
\342\200\242H
\342\200\242H
Time
Hardening
The
liquid
forming)
illustrate,
agitators)
11.2 shows
Figure
for a liquid (A) and
the
how
process
until
the
final
solid
during
forming
plastics are
granular
availablein
granular
or
consistency
(solid)
a polyester
example,
to cause
The
hardening.
for
plastics
(solid)
for thermosetting
materials
raw
form.
for thermosetting
consistency
raw materials.
of
region with
heat developed during
state has been reached.
curing
will accelerate
the
are available
in the powder
plastics, which
the heating
of the material.
forming is combined with
has two different
effects: the material becomessofter
and attains
a
or
can be used to shape it; and the hardening
plastic state, so that processes
After some time, the curing
dominates
and changes the
curing is initiated.
process
state
from thermoplastic
to solid. In the forming of thermosetting plastics, the
Curve
B represents
or granular
The heating
importance of control
termination
When
of
forming,
the
curing
is obtained), the
thermosetting
Here
state.
of the process,
so that
must be emphasized.
process
has reached
the
a certain
final
curing
level
(i.e.,
starts after
sufficient
the
strength
mold.
in forming both thermoplastic and thermosetting
The main parameters
the necessary
materials
are:
chemical agents), the
the actual plastic material (with
of temperature
has been discussed
temperature, and the pressure.The influence
componentcan
be
removed
from the
Plasticsand
Plastic
briefly. The
accuracy,
the mold
the soft or
on
temperature
and
a knowledge
detailed
about
information
process
parameters
detailed information
In the following,
can
some
plastic componentsare
of
the
particular
sufficient geometrical
to flow into all portions
of
material
of
1
can
to have
the particular
material (from the manufacturer)
and surface creation principlescan be selected.
More
be found in Chapter 3 and in the literature.
of the most important
used to manufacture
processes
discussed
briefly.
PROCESSING
PLASTIC
11.3
plastic
pressure,
to analyze and
be used
to acquire
material
used
liquid
or die.
Based
before
pressure is generally
to force
i.e.,
347
Processing
METHODS
materials
are
variety of methods to processplastic
broad knowledge of plastic materials
and
their behavior,
the
1) will reveal the common factorsin the
morphological approach(Chapter
of many
described
below
plastics. Therefore, the important
processing
examples
consideredas
from
should be
the morphological
structure.
specificcasesderived
As
mentioned,
available.
Based
11.3.1
a great
on a
Casting
casting
of plastics
of metals:
other suitable
materials.
for thermosetting
materials such as phenolics,
but
also
materials such as ethyl
resins,
epoxies,
allyl
thermoplastic
cellulose
acetate butyrate, acrylics, and vinyls
can be cast.
cellulose,
The casting processhas many industrial
rods
including short
applications,
and tubes, toys, jewelry, clock and
instrument
cases,
handles, knobs, drilling
and punches and dies for sheet metal
and
jigs,
forming,
including
drop-hammer
stretch
dies.
The case components can be reinforced
in various
manners (steel,
Casting
polyesters,
is used
primarily
and
348
11
Chapter
FIGURE 11.3
(3) solid shaft,
(4)
rotational
mold
Rotational
11.3.2
machine. (1)
molds,
(5)
(6) oven
molding
tables,
Motor
and
gear,
(2)
tubular
shaft,
wall.
Molding
rotation
of thin-walled
models (of metal
to
each
distributes
the heated
and
other)
(perpendicular
molten material in the mold in a layer covering the inside of the mold. The
of material
thickness of the layer is determined by the amount
fed into the mold.
mold.
the
is
from
the
A
After
removed
rotational
cooling,
component
molding
in Fig.
11.3. Heating and melting
machine is shown
is carried
out in a large
In
rotational
molding,
two
axes
sheets)about
oven using
water, and
the mold
temperature
air
hot
so on,
can
wall
a simultaneous
control.
containers,
The
with
chairs,
products
the
tanks of
obtainable
thicknesses
main dimensions
of 2-3
wall
vary
m
are
between
not
drums
2 and
unusual.
for
various
12 mm, and
Plastic Processing
Plastics and
11.4
FIGURE
forming of
Open-mold
used for
The materials
example,powdered
reinforced
plastics
rotational
the
(100-300
u,m)
which
paste,
used.
349
molding
polyethylene
but
important,
most
(manual).
be
of the
Advantages
components
molding
on
the
same
process
equipment,
closed-
costs,
tooling
rotational
be produced
can
and low
finish,
can be produced
and
other
materials.
11.3.3
alone
action
temperature
after
are
primarily
can
or temperature action
a fiber material is
that
is
feature
(resin) which,
materials
and
by a
synthetic
variety
of
fibers. Fiberglass
the
mold
vacuum
commonly
action.
plastic
used
materials can
random
or woven
other
many
in
other
composite
processes.
a liquid
The most
and
under
a pressure
with
impregnated
of methods
out
be carried
combinedwith
is allowed to \"solidify/*
and epoxy resins, but
polyester
materials
can be glass (predominantly)
be made
are placedin
can
forming,
mold
is applied,
to produce
The main
of plastics
and lamination
reinforcement
The
Reinforced
mold
is used
materials.
(see Fig.
11.4). The
Chapter11
350
Heat
channels
Heat
11.5
FIGURE
ing normally
aircraft
boats,
or
finish
Examples of
closed-mold
(both
sides),
pressing
luggage. Closed-moldforming
hydraulic
Cutting
reinforced
plastics.
Closed-moldforming
Excess
forming of
Closed-mold
channels
Examples
truck
include
requires
bus
and
trays,
helmets,
relatively
expensive
and
housings,
machinery
tooling and a
press.
of equipment,
but if larger
Open-mold
forming generally requires a minimum
number of componentsare desired,special
be
can
machinery
developed. Figure
11.4 shows the simple manual method, but in many cases, for example, boats
and
other
the spray-up method shown
in Fig.
11.6 is used.
large components,
Here glassfiber (cut into small lengths) and resin are depositedsimultaneously.
The production
of tubes, pressure cases, circular
and other
bodies,
cylindrical
products is carried out by filament winding. Single strands of fiber yarn are used
as reinforcing material, which
is passed
through a bath of resin and wound onto
a mandrel. This processhas become
in recent years.
important
Laminated plastics consist of sheets of paper, fabric/cloth, asbestos, wood,
and
so on, which are impregnated or coated with
resin
and formed under heat
and pressure to the desired shape.The resulting
is cured under
\"sandwich\"
at elevated
are
pressure
temperatures. These products, which
commercially
available as stock materials in sheet form, rod, tubes, and many
special
shapes,
have excellent strength
properties,
high impact resistance, and good electrical
Common
insulation.
handles,
and
furniture.
applications
Laminated
insulating
properties.
parts,
Many
and Plastic
Plastics
Pressure air
Pressureair
11.6
FIGURE
for
further
details,
Resin
mixture
been
developed
produced;
Extrusion
11.3.4
The
^-ss^
of fiber-reinforced plastics.
Spray-up
special processeshave
.Cutting
mixture
Resin
351
Processing
extrusion
of plastics
is extensively used to
as long profiles,rods,tubes,
important
application
wires and cables.
is the
sheets,
extrusion
and foils,
coating
various
geometries,
in different lengths. A special
of the electrical insulators
produce
such
but
on
air
or water,
giving sufficient
strength
through
hardening
is a cheap and rapid method of molding.
handling.
Products
close tolerances can be calibrated
(i.e.,
requiring
after the extruded shape has left the extrusion
die.
by
for
further
Extrusion
11.3.5
The
blow
formed) just
Blow Molding
hollow
process is used to producethin-walled
components
materials. A cylinder
of plastic material (a parison) is extruded
in the opened two-part
mold
(see Fig. 11.8).
molding
thermoplastic
and
finish
positioned
in
Chapter 11
352
Heating
Cylinder
Extrusion
bands
(jacket)
Screw
die
Pressure
bearing
Water
cooling
of screw
Air blower
FIGURE
FIGURE
cutting;
11.7
11.8
(e) split
removal of
the
Blow molding:
component.
blow
cooling
extrusion press.
Single-screw
mold; (f)
Water
(a) extrusion
mandrel
or core
press;
(b) extrusion
(d)
mold and
and Plastic
Plastics
is cut
material
The
tube,
expanding
opened and
the
Examples of
11.3.6
is the
molding
of
metals.The
it
hollow
the
the mold is
cooling,
bottles,
containers,
floats,
materials are polyethylene,
include
Suitable
packaging.
After
mold.
the
blow-moldedcomponents
cosmetic
and air
closed,
walls of
removed.
the
for example.
acetate,
Injection Molding
Injection
components
mold
the
component
cellulose
and
polypropylene,
off,
toward
it
353
Processing
is heated
most
widely
used
process
then
under
injected
for the
into
of
manufacturing
is similar
to
a screw
high pressure
casting of
chamber, where
the mold or die
place when the
the die
into
and
to solidify
The
takes
solidification
boxes,fittings,
elements,
pumps,
propellers,
gears, bearings, guiding
caps, and
of
rates
for
Because
the
obtainable, it is a
housings
high production
appliances.
to \302\2610.5mm,
in
the
\302\2610.1
Tolerances
cheap mass-production process.
range
the
on
are
obtainable.
size,
readily
depending
The materials are primarily
but in recent years the injection
thermoplastics,
molding
molding machines
well
materials\342\200\224as
as
been
rubbers\342\200\224have
becomequite
thermoplastic
extensively
and
used,
and
thermosetting
developed.
conditions.Consequently,
injection molding.
components
must
Since
mold
the mold
be manufactured
or die
design plays
an
important
role
components
compression
in
a large number of
system is rather expensive,
to make the processeconomical.
both
a two-part mold.
the plastic material is placed in the heated
lower
molding,
and the mold is closedunder
the application
of a high pressure
causingthe softened material to fill the cavity (see Fig. 11.10).
using
Chapter11
354
forward,
11.9
FIGURE
(2)
material; h,
injection
nozzle;
(1) Injection:
motor;
elements
i, mold;
of next
b, hydraulic cylinder; c,
for the plasticizing cylinder;
k, component.)
stroke
g,
FIGURE
11.10
FIGURE 11.11
Compression
Transfer
355
molding.
molding.
is placed
in a separate well or
molding, the plastic material
heated and forced under pressure into the cavity
(see
Fig. 11.11).
to process
Both processes are used primarily
thermosetting
plastics. The
or
can be supplied in granular
material
to about
160\302\260C.The
molds are heated
tablet form.
than
Transfer molding provides better geometricalpossibilities
compression
but for simple geometries,
(more complicated shapes can be obtained),
molding
In transfer
chamber,where
it is
compression molding
is usually
preferable.
Chapter 11
356
11.12
FIGURE
Examples of
installation
materials
filler
11.3.8
(i.e.,
differential
11.13).
The
fibers,
the
requirements.
Figure
by
infrared
componenttakes
place
shows
11.13
Figure
then
is
increased
These stages
can be obtained.
thicknesses
The thermoforming
componentsof
components,
process,
into
the
mold
where
after
the mold
the material,
by evacuating
the
by
blowing
a size
the mold.
through
wall
a more
by pressurized air
introduced
into the formed
the mold
onto
mold
Figs. 11.12and
over it.
cold air
drawn
pressurized
cooling.
by
is sucked
radiation,
(the therair
soften
into
atmospheric
pressure forms the sheet). Coolingof
partly by the sheet contacting the mold and partly
the
(i.e.,
cavity
or
pressures),
forced
heating
boats,
sheets
thermoplastic
thermoforming,
plaster,
appliances,
Thermoforming
uniform
molded
transfer
parts,
insulating
are
components
may be
Many
bearings.
In
compressionand
materials,
different
(by vacuum).
Thermoforming
process
up to
skylight
about
covers,
or plastic.
can be balanced
so
that
gradually
reasonably
panels
appliances, housings,
sheet
and
shields,
small
of wood, metal,
Plastics and
FIGURE
11.4
11.13
357
Plastic Processing
Thermoforming.
EXAMPLES
OF TYPICAL
PLASTIC
PROCESSING
METHODS
following.
The
Consortium,
Chapter 11
358
Blow
1:
PROCESS
Description: A
forming
short.
in which
process
Molding
cylinder\342\200\224a
Te)
hollow
the parison
the mold is
expands
cooling,
products
parison\342\200\224into
to match the
usually
formed
an
open
by
two-
contours
inner
in thickness
quite uniform
Raw materials for blow molding are generally
are
Parts
are
compounds.
fl
.-AIR
1m
MOLD.
PRESSURE
,-\302\256N
fi
\342\226\240
WORKPIECE
PARISON
r%
Jul
of thin-walled
is used to form a wide variety
Blow molding
Applications:
are
Wall
thicknesses
etc.
ducts,
such
as
floats,
bottles, containers,
components
mm
in
5
to
and
mm
bottle-sized
in
0.5-1
larger
up
components
typically
are polyethylene, polypropylene, and
materials
Suitable
containers
(cans).
cellulose acetate.
matches
the
componentsclosely
the mold parts are
are obtainable
\302\261
1%
Machinery:
extrusion die
supply.
for
The
producing
blow-molding
machine
the parison,
two-part
consists
mold,
of extrusion press,
and a pressurized
air
Plastic
and
Plastics
PROCESS2:
359
Processing
Extrusion
Description: In
The
fixtures
cooling
regained
the
carefully
jacket
is then
some
extrusion
materials.
Typical profile
components.
material
produced,
controls
continuously
the
forced
a die
locatedat
temperature
the
through
the
of the
die
end
of
plastic.
and
opening
are
material forms
mixed
ones
with
extruded.
extrusionsare pipe,film
or sheet,
rain gutter, and window
is
a
volume
with accurately controlled
molding
high
process
from
0.1
to
10
mm.
Intricate
can be
thicknesses,
ranging
profiles
3
and
between
30
m.
lengths
typically
Extrusion
Tolerances/Surfaces: Depending
of workpiece
material,
tolerances
dimensional
to 5 degreeson
Extruded parts
Machinery:
heating/cooling
cutting
toward
barrel
to produce a hollow
To maintain the desired shape,
workpiece.
used. When the component
has cooled enough to have
it is cut to desired length.
strength,
Applications:
used in
type
ODF, Te)
a mandrel
around
virgin
heating
material
molten
Me, Ri,
extrusion
the machine.
(M,
Molding
system.
angles.
thus
on
the condition
pressure,
working
temperatures
typically
range
The surface
require
Specialized
very
extrusion machine
systems, die,
mandrel,
conveyor
with
with
hopper,
cooling
extrusion
screw,
fixtures, and a
360
Chapter
PROCESS 3:
Description: In
screw-type
cold so the
mold remains
with this
produce
very
mm
500
many
be used with
plastics. One of the
cannot
various
be used
Injection
bearings,
gears,
single part or
usually
also
any other
than
propeller
solidifies
process.
Applications:
products
plastic
In some
is filled.
mold
the
the
The
molten.
nozzle,
TF, Te)
granular
molding
injection
heated barrel. As
the
plastic is forced
plunger,
into a
a hopper
from
Me, Ri,
(M,
Molding
Injection
11
another
major
geometric
complex
in length
or
width
for
because of different
shrinkage
to
of the process is its ability
size ranges
are between 50 and
typical
material
advantages
shapes. The
up to about 400
and
mm
in
depth.
injection
machines
consist of a material
molding
normally
a
and
ram
or
screw
plunger,
heating system. Practically
hopper,
injection
type
all
machines may be operated on an automatic
cycle. They are
injection
molding
rated accordingto the number of ounces of material
by one forward
displaced
or by the closing force of the dies. CNCstroke of the injection
plunger
Machinery:
Injection
controlled machines
are available.
Plastic
and
Plastics
PROCESS4:
361
Processing
Thermoform
Description: Thermoforming
is heated
material
thermoplastic
is a
to
its
against the
contours of a mold
applied
to
plastic
allowed
to cool.
the
and sealing
of
An
excess
sheet
the
forming
softening
pressed
pull
(M,
Molding
by
process
point
a plug
tightly against
of material
is
to the
Me, Ri,
mold. This
the
TF, Co)
in
of
a sheet
which
radiation
by infrared
then
and
is
it
is
forming,
a secondary
operation.
Applications:
undercuts.
bowls,
Production
thicknesses
Varying
of simple
with large radii
and no
geometries
on the finished product are to be expected.Trays,
cups,
formed
typical
examples
10 m.
Machinery:
a plug
assist,
of sizes.
and
consist
of an
are made
in
oven, a mold,
a wide
range
12
Nontraditional
Manufacturing
Processes
12.1
In
INTRODUCTION
processes
used manufacturing
sophisticated
increasingly
on these processes.
They have
designs and new materials have imposeddemands
beenable to meet these demands only with great difficulty or, sometimes, not at
has therefore taken
in manufacturing
in
all. Since the 1940s, a revolution
place
order to remedy the shortcomings
of the traditional processes.
As
the conventional manufacturing
in use today
described,
already
processes
for material removal
on
electric
carbide
tool
materials
motors
and
primarily
rely
to perform tasks such as sawing, drilling,
and so
milling,
turning,
broaching,
on. Conventional
electric motors
energy
sources
In contrast,
sources in
nontraditional
new
ways
Material removal
electrochemical
liquids
and
form
powerful
can now
reactions,
abrasives.
are now
electric
be
considered
with
sparks.
that
magnetic
in
the
unconventional
with beams
accomplished
high-temperature
Materials
formed
processes
manufacturing
or sources
from
with thermal
energy
not
of
light,
sparks,
fields,
Material-joining
explosives,
years ago.
many
jets of
to
difficult
from
expanded
363
364
Chapter
of high-frequency
use
the
with
beams of
12
and
electrons
coherentlight.
As discussed
processes
the
in
\342\200\242
Increase
either
productivity
are
geometries
since their
nontraditional
described
new
a steady
for the
growth
many of them
of
this
workpieceproperties
today
are
nontraditional
processes
used alongside
commonly
chapter
partly
processes,
and
principles
nontraditional
processes
will be
utilize:
chemical/electrochemical.
those
are
manufacturing
of
some
of
processes
potential
in
PROCESSES
12.2
The
old
and
previously,
developing
the
counterparts.
The purpose
the
operations
required
introduction,
traditional
their
of overall
performing
that cannot
These
reducing
detrimental effects on
or minimizing
a capability
because
of the
Provide
either
a product or by
used method
rejects experienced by
repeatability,
increasing
workpieces,
\342\200\242
manufacturing
number
the
reducing
by
to produce
needed
nontraditional
to:
manufacturing
operations
method
the
sections,
following
be applied
may
Only
grouped
electrical,
processes
into
four
sections
according
thermal,
most commonly used
mechanical,
to the
and
in
industry
discussed.
Electrical
12.2.1
Discharge
Machining (EDM)
required.
in
in Fig. 12.1, the electrically conductiveworkpieceis positioned
machine and connected to one pole of a pulsed power supply. An
conductive
electrode,
electrically
shaped to match the dimensionsof the desired
to
or
is
connected
the other pole of the supply. The two parts are
hole,
cavity
separatedby a small gap flooded by an insulating (dielectric) fluid to provide a
resistance in the gap. An increasing voltage is
controlled
amount
of electrical
As
seen
the EDM
NontradiHonal
365
Processes
Manufacturing
Servo
System
a^
Dielectric
Electric Discharge
Dielectric
Schematic of
12.1
FIGURE
EDM
an
Generator
Workpiece
System
system.(From
to the
applied
electrodes,
in an
resulting
increasing
it is
considerable,between
vaporization
of a
the workpiece at
vaporization, a
around
the
spark
the
small,
rapidly
by
the
in the
resulting
of
the surfaces
melting
the
both
gaseous
in
the
and
and
electrode
of
byproducts
fluid
dielectric
channel.
pulse is terminated,
solidifying
both the
causes
of cool
inrush
metal from
formation of a small
the
gap
of spark
of molten
resultingin
from
expanding
rapidly
This
stopped instantly.
collapse. The violent
expulsion
10,000\302\260C,
of material
points
the electrical
When
and
5,000
small amount
both
the
crater
balls
hollow
the
spark
spark channel
dielectric
fluid
and heating
and
results
action are
vapor bubble
in an explosive
the
to
electrode
in the
fluid.
The sequence
just
described
is repeated
to
at a
shortest distance betweenthe electrode
An
of the workpiece, and to a smaller extent
of the tool, takes place
erosion
also
the distance.
across
The repetitive discharges wander
the
locally,
increasing
the shortest distances, and erode the material
electrode surface, always
seeking
in a form that matches
from
the workpiece
the contour of the electrode. As the
toward the workprocess
automatically
progresses and the electrode is advanced
a constant
is generated
in a
piece to maintain
gap distance, a hole or cavity
of the electrode.
reverse
image
several
point
hundred
that
thousands
is the
of times
spark
occurs
discharge
and the workpiece.
Chapter 12
366
modern
On
electrode
the operating
machinery
material,
makes
it
tool electrode to a
Since the cross section
on the
to
precisely
the
above
proceeds
of
shape
impossibleto
machine
the
point of
of the
melting
independently
for
hardening
of
distortion
the
or
removal
wear
corresponds
cavity
be
and
by the workpiece.
experienced
that very
within
selected
be
choice of polarity
the material
means, can
conventional
complex geometries,
formed
accurately
by
operating
temperatures, well
Metal removal therefore
material.
Heat treatment
workpiece
high
material.
known
any
that
it follows
stems from
may
a suitable
workpiece
resulting
electrode,
by
of
fraction
of the
the
with
to minimize
possible
small
Another advantage
EDM.
parameters
of settings.This, combined
wide spectrum
hardness of the
thus be applied at
an early
can
stage, eliminating the risk
of the work
after
with
difficultAlso, working
machining.
to-machine
materials such as tungsten
and cobalt
constitutes
no problem.
the cutting
the spark alone is in contact
with the workDuring
operation,
is
to
the
mechanical
of
a cutting
which
therefore
not
stresses
piece,
subjected
tool. This results in the ability of the EDM processto machine
extremely
fragile
It is also worth
that the surface finish
workpieces without
damage.
mentioning
of the lifts and scores that
none
produced
by the process is nondirectional, with
are characteristic
of chip-forming machines. This is an asset where polishing is
reduces
the time necessary
required as a final finish since the surface uniformity
for this operation.
metals
Equipment
Although
refinements
dielectric
schematic
EDM
four
electrode,
system,
spark
erosion
user'sparticular
major
subassemblies
and servosystem.
machines, each
specification,
with
the
its own
typical
12.1
shows
system.
The powersourceconverts
Power Source
solid-state
conventional
the pulse
width
and
rectification.
repetition
frequency.
Nontraditional
367
Processes
Manufacturing
nnn
jljljlj
circuit providing
Transistor
12.2
FIGURE
pulses.
voltage
square
function
and
voltage
enabling
achieved
by
it should
That
serve as an
of a
requirements
standing
insulation
in the
the
the
spark,
functions,
efficiency.
Poor
machining
residue
circuits.As
dielectric
results
flushing
shown
fluid
flushing
cycle
particles
in Fig. 12.3,
through
paraffins
low viscosity,
and
is by far the
in stagnation
the
and
have
light
oils,
a flash
occurred.
and
fluid
in
low
value of
a consistent
process
optimum
of tiny
rates or short
a buildup
removal
gap, resulting
several methods are available
cutting
spark
has
discharge
is essential if a
leading up to another spark
in the
breakdown
the
until
are:
which
* That ionization
should
occur as quickly as possibleat
breakdown voltage.
*
That
it should serve as a flushing
agent.
four
appropriate
dielectric fluid
spark gap
once a
Of the
between the
is attained.
voltage
*
The
servosystem,
This is
process.
error
the
actual
the
System
it should
That
the
below,
Dielectric
*
the
control
to
it
for
flushing
the
zone.
point
high
enough
to make
commercially
have
a suitably
them safe to
work
368
Chapter
t-
PRESSURE
12
THROUGH
ELECTROOE
4
THROUGH ELECTROOE
SUCTION
TT
PRESSURE
THROUGH
WORKPIECE
THROUGH WORKPIECE
SUCTION
JET FLUSHING
FIGURE
12.3
Urbana,
Illinois).
with. The
by
means
The EDM
flushing
techniques.
is continually
fluid
cleaned,
of pumps and filters.
(Courtesy,
recycled, and
Hanstvedt EDM
returned
to the
Division,
cutting
gap
Electrodes
EDM
Nontradltlonal
_^
j-
FIGURE 12.4
but
is a
Processes
Manufacturing
OVERCUT
H H-
EDM electrodesand
resulting
material to machine.
difficult
molding electrodes
from
this
material.
overcut
in the workpiece.
Techniques(expensive)
Besides
are
available
for
machining of copperelectrodes,
to the
used to produce a copper shell
corresponding
with
allow
then
material
to
shell is
filled
a suitable
component;the
fastening.
electrode materials. Both are
are very popular
Graphite and copper graphite
of grades for application to all
easy to machine and are availablein a number
materials.
The
wear
rate
of
is
low because of the very high
workpiece
graphite
at
which
it
temperature
vaporizes.
in the workAll electrode materials and configurations producean overcut
The
amount
of
and
hence
the
overcut
12.4).
piece (see Fig.
necessary
once the workpiece and electrode
as well as the
compensationare
materials
predictable
electroforming
EDM operating
is
parameters
are known.
be made
for
electrode
wear.
Chapter12
370
VOLTAGE
ERROR
=a
ELECTROMAGNETICUUUU
DOUBLE-
VALVE.
ACTING
CYLINDER
M>fDR*UUC
FLUID
%i
bdA
WORK
MEAD
I
-OELECTRODE
P^^jWQgKPIECE
+ oFIGURE 12.5
Process
Schematicof EDM
holes,
slots, and
servosystem.
and Applications
Capabilities
velocity
all
particularly
cavities
with
electrically
accuracies
of
\302\2610.025
to
\302\2610.1mm.
With
to
10 Jim
RMS for
high-power,
low-frequency
machining.
Newer
and parameter
selection, are
special care in operation
to maintain
surface finishes as fine as 0.2-0.3 (*m RMS.
able
now
is removed from the
material
of the process is that because
A limitation
of
and
solidified
a
melted
thermal
material, known as
action,
layer
by
workpiece
machines,
combined
with
Nontradltlonal
Some typical
FIGURE 12.6
371
Processes
Manufacturing
erosion
spark
machining techniques
[48].
between
0.002
on the machined
surface. The recast is typically
mm thick and is very hard, in excess of HRC 65, and brittle. Because
be removed
from
of the poor physical propertiesof such a surface, recast must
of
For
levels
resistance.
surfaces of products that require
many
high
fatigue
however,
purposes,
subsequent
finishing is unnecessary and the matte finish from
craters can be an asset for the retention
the
minute,
saucer-shaped
overlapping
of lubricants.
recast, remains
and 0.0S
used
to
its
to
ability
materials
conventional
processeshave
processes
Electrical
conventionalEDM
electrode.
The
been
discharge
are
production
instance,
of
making
to several
and
electronics,
parts
such as
geometries
complex
produce highly
is turned to good account.Figure
or
injector
in
12.6
shows
operations.
Processes Derivedfrom
electrical
the
otherwise difficult-to-machine
the
industry\342\200\224for
manufacture
the
nozzleholes,where
some typical
and dies
punches
forging
high-precision
From
in industry, from
extensively
modification
dealt
derived,
with briefly
Process
spark
grinding
EDM
the
in
erosion
the
following:
EDWM
differs from
(EDWM)
Discharge Wire Cutting
a thin wire is used as an electrode
of a formed
instead
and is taken
wire unwinds from a spool, feedsthrough
the workpiece,
in that
Chapter 12
372
Nozzle
for
dielectric
wire
Moving
(dcionized water)
electrode
Workpiece
motions
Engineers
machine.
EDWC
Manufacturing
of
pulses
spool. A dc power supply delivers high-frequency
is eroded ahead of the
wire and to the workpiece, and material
Either the workpiece or the wire is moved, causing the
discharges.
a second
on
wire
to the
electricity
spark
by
A schematic of an
Handbook, 4th ed.)
12.7
FIGURE
up
Spark gap
to cut
wire
with
EDM
electrodes.
cutting processes or expensiveformed
High
and
finishes
are
obtainable
and
fine
surface
make
wire-EDM
accuracy
extrusion
in the manufacture of stamping
dies,
dies, dies for
particularlyvaluable
conventional
cost
powder metal
has
EDM
not
compaction,
been
fully
die configuration
parts (if the final stamping
and even for the fabrication of conventional
prototype
determined),
electrodes.
(EDG)
As shown
in Fig.
conductive
wheel is
used as the
Electrical
Discharge Grinding
electrically
operation a rotating,
the wheel and the workpiece
Pulsedelectrical
energy
250,000 pulses/s,resulting
in a
flushing
problems.
in
a tank
flow
an
EDG
Both
containing a dielectric.
flow of
The
in
electrode.
is delivered
are submerged
12.8,
wheel,
to the gap,
thus
of up
rates
a small
to
quantity
made
often
eliminating
Nontradtttonal
373
Processes
Manufacturing
Current -fo
control
FIGURE
12.8
American
Society
and
wheel
zone. (Courtesy,
interaction
to produce
Wheels can be dressed
complex shapes in a single pass, and since
contact
EDG is
there is no mechanical
between the wheel and the workpiece,
often used to perform
on very fragile parts or to producethin sections
operations
without
damage or distortions.
Electrical discharge grinding
is popular
for form-grinding carbide thread
turbine
blade fir-tree root forms, and similar
with thin cross
chasers,
geometries
sections. Conventional grinding
sections
would
tend to distort the thin
the
rendering
thermally,
workpiece
12.2.2
the electrons
can be accelerated
are
beams
Electron
formed
thus
much
fields,
In electron
beam
upon
into
and
can be
of
formed
industrial
electron
to be treated, converting
energy with an efficiency
glass
by
a very
the material
thermal
by
welding
equipment,
from 30 to 75%
velocities
is focused on
locally,depending
on
the
of
whether
scatter
of the
small
of light.
where it
speed
spot
energy of
kinetic
100%,
cutting
or
prevent
lenses.
relatively high-power
nearly
vacuum to
because
by an electric
and
electrostatic
beam
narrow
and
of electrons
today
equipment
into a
as light rays
machining
unacceptable.
welding
or
vaporizing
is desired.
collisions
the electron
the
beam.
between
Chapter12
374
lead
voltage
High
Cathode
grid
of electrons
Stream
Magnetic lens
chamber
Vacuum
View
12.9
FIGURE
Components
drilling,
heat-treating,
of electron
types
power focused
on
of an
beams are
Electron
cutting,
different
vacuum pump
port
[45].
of applications
a particular
including
welding,
applications require
or the
density
application.
amount of
the
However,
different
varying
parameters.
Equipment
beam
electron
together
environmentfor
in Fig.
to
gun, power
generate
the process.
12.9.
supply,
make
and
to
the optimal
provide
machine
is
shown
schematically
Nontradltional
A cathode,
375
Processes
Manufacturing
The
beam
electron
is
which
is formed
inside an
electron
gun,
of:
consisting
a tungsten
filament heated
to
inductively
electrons
emitting
high-negative-potential
with
to
the
filament
biased
negatively
respect
which
ions pass
the accelerated
ground potential through
thus
approximately 2500\302\260C,
2.
3.
A
stream
accelerated
cup,
grid
anode
An
at
is emitted
of electrons
toward
the anode
by
a high
from
the
surface
potential
of the
between
the
hot
anode
bias
cathode
and
and the
flow
cathode.
of electrons
shape of the
are electrostatically
electrostatic
focused
by the grid cup, the electrons
as
a
and
the hole in the anode without
pass
colliding
converging beam through
is provided by an electromagnetic
field
with the anode itself. Final
focusing
produced
coil. As soon as the electrons
have passed through the
by a focusing
have reached their maximum velocity for a given
anode, they
accelerating
voltage
will
this velocity since the process
and
maintain
takes place in a collision-free
until
environment
they impinge on the workpiece.
coils after the
set of electromagnetic
Most EBW guns incorporate
a final
is
as
the
beam
This
of
coils
known
deflection
set
focusing
system.
system and is
used to provide a small amount of programmable beam motion.
beam
is a heat source which,
The electron
with
its power density, precision,
exceeds
such as
and
mobility,
any known commercial heat source. Light
rays
whose
those emitted by a laser produce electromagnetic wave radiation
energy
content depends on the temperature of the light source. Light rays cannot be
to increase
accelerated
the energy content.
Electronemissionis different.
beam consists of negatively charged
The
particles
whose
is
determined
mass and velocity of the
content
energy
by the
individual
the
acceleration
particles.
process, due to the potential between
During
in the beam can reach intensities far
anode and cathode, the energy content
in
excess of those obtainable from
the
a
beam
variable
light.
By refocusing
through
colide
with the workpiece
strength electromagnetic lens before the electrons
overa well defined area (typically 0.01-0.02 mm in diameter),
power densities
of 107\342\200\224108
W/cm2
are reached at the point
of impact,
immediately
vaporizing
material. Table 12.1provides
a comparison
of power
any
type of workpiece
field
density
of
some
formed
thermal
energy sources
used for
The powersupply
provides
the
the bias
electrons,
accelerating
controlling
deflection
coil.
most
the
The
operating
important
since these determine what
voltage and current,
will be capable of performing.
particularsystem
Power Supply
production-welding
energy
applications.
of applications
the
376
Chapter
TABLE 12.1
Gasflame
flame
Hydrogen
TIG torch
beam
Electron
beam
Laser
Source:
Electron
a total
O2
\"1\" C2H2
10 W/cm2
02
+ H2
30 W/cm2
200 A
150 W/cm2
continuous
107 W/cm2
continuous
107W/cm2
beam power
efficiency
between
and
generally
is high,
are available
beam systems
voltage
conversion
Heat Sources
Adapted
accelerating
of Various
Densities
Power
12
generate
ranging
from
of
15 W
300
from 30 to
beam
current,
to 200 kW.
The
kV
of
resulting
in
electrical
to the
approximately 60-70% of the power supplied
the workpiece.
For comparison, laser systems
an efficiency
of 10-20%.
dioxide lasers exhibit
to
carbon
high-power
that
the
The vacuum system comprises two subsystems:
All
electron
beam
the
vacuum
chamber.
systems require some
pumpingsystem
a
vacuum
in
the
sort of pumping
to
electron
high
system
generate
gun. The first
and
were
the
the
as
available
of
required
workpiece
systems
high-vacuum type
the
vacuum
well as the electron
to
be
enclosed
in
which
of
course
chamber,
gun
Vacuum
System
and
limited
the productivity
because of the time necessaryto evacuate
the chamber
in it. In order to increaseproductivity,
mediumafter placing a new workpiece
vacuum
and even nonvacuum systems have been developed.
These
still
systems
to
a
a
but
deliver
the
beam
vacuum
in
the
electron
gun
workpiece
require
high
thus reducing or avoiding
low
at
vacuum/atmospheric
pressure,
nonproductive
welding
cycles. Current penetration capabilities for electron beam
pumpdown
a high-vacuum
vacuum is limited to
using
mm
mm,
and
a medium
while welding with
to
about
10
welding
nonvacuum
penetration.
and transmission
of the
A vacuum chamber is required since the generation
of 10~4-10~6 torn
The
of
electron
beam takes place in a vacuum
impingement
it
to
shield
results
in
electrons
emission,
X-ray
making
necessary
high-velocity
stainless
steel or lead\342\200\224to
materials\342\200\224thick
the vacuum chamber with suitable
and
are
mechanisms
absorb
this radiation.
positioning
Appropriate workholding
installed in the vacuum chamber.
Process
As
Capabilities
mentioned
applications,
electron
previously,
usually
subdivided
and Applications
beam welding
into
beams are
used for
two categories:
(EBM)
(EBW) and
heat
treatment
a number
of different
Nontradltlonal
Manufacturing
377
Processes
Electron
The EBM
Machining
range of materials,
metallic
as well
ratios as high as
deep, high-aspect ratio holes.In most materials,
with hole diameters from
0.1 to 1.5 mm in thicknesses
up
to 10 to 12 mm.
The
tolerance
on the hole diameter is typically
\302\2615%of the
or
diameter. Since the beam does not apply any force to the workpiece, brittle
Minimum
materials can be processedwithout
of fracturing.
fragile
danger
In
permissible
between
distance
holes is generally twice the hole diameter.
can be perforated with
limitation
and
practice, this
poses no difficulty,
workpieces
features
of
is one of the really strong
small
holes at up to 1000 holes/cm2,which
to drill
ability
IS:1
can
be achieved
the process.
To
slots in thin-gage
materials.
short
beam
minimize heating
and melting adjacent to the cut, extremely
pulses are
to
used with considerably
periods between pulses
longer
permit
dissipation
by
thermal conductivity of any incidental
heating
adjacent to the cut. The cutting
lower
than the actual efficiency of the equipment
efficiency is therefore much
of time.
since the power is off a large percentage
Figure 12.10 shows metal
rates
removal
since the
power.
material
removal
cuts are
rate is
the production of
makes
contour
versus
relatively small
Only
in
narrow
to cutting
possible
any material.
economically
feasible
with EBM
techniques
precise
and fine
cuts of
any
EBM
desired
and
of EBM are for aerospace, insulation,
food
applications
of
a
industries.
turbine
combustor
and
The
chemical,
clothing
drilling
engine
dome made of a CrNiCoMoW
has a wall
steel
is a good example. The part
thickness of
mm
1.1 mm and is perforated with
3748
0.05
holes
that are 0.9 \302\261
in diameter. Each part
is drilled
in 60 min, that is, a drilling rate of
hole per second [47]. Filters and screensused in the food processing
approximately one
also
of holes
to be drilled through
thin,
industry
relatively
require thousands
formed sheet metal.
A rather
new use of electron beam perforation
involves
the shoe
A
of
are
from artificial
made
fabricated
shoes
manufacturingindustry.
today
percentage
leather consistingof a plastic-coated
textile substrate. This artificial leather is
not
to moisture and air, which
makes its level of comfort poor.Partial
permeable
material
EDM
for use in shoes. A similar
the
makes
it
by
perforating
acceptable
Most
current
00
12.2
TABLE
Holes
by EBM
Drilled
in Various Materials
Workpiece
Average
Hole
Thickness
Drilling
Diameter
Work
Speed
Accelerating
Voltage
Pulse
Beam
Current
Pulse
Width
Frequency
mm
in
mm
0.010
0.25
0.0005
0.013
<1
130
60
0.030
0.76
0.012
0.30
30
125
60
80
50
0.010
0.25
0.001
0.025
<1
140
50
20
50
0.040
1.0
0.005
0.13
<1
140
100
80
50
0.080
2.0
0.005
0.13
10
140
100
80
50
0.100
0.040
0.080
2.5
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.003
0.13
10
140
100
80
50
140
100
80
50
140
100
80
50
140
100
80
50
140
100
80
50
130
100
10
80
50
Material
in
kV
Hz
\\ts
H-A
400 Series
steel
stainless
Alumina
A1203
Tungsten
90-10Tantalumtungsten
3,000
90-10 Tantalum-
tungsten
90-10Tantalumtungsten
steel
Stainless
Stainless steel
Aluminum
Tungsten
Quartz
NOTE:
(Source:E. J. Weller
parameters
within
et
0.13
0.13
1.3
0.13
0.076
0.025
<1
10
10
10
<1
<l
140
the hole are the pulse width for the depth of the hole, the beam current
well as the position of the focus with respect to the workpiece.
Dearborn Mich. 1984).
al, Society of Manufacturing
Engineers,
distribution
0.2
2.5
0.100 2.5
0.016 0.41
0.125 3.18 0.001
0.100
Stainlesssteel
the power
1.0
for shaping
the beam as
12
for
the diameter
50
of
Nontradltlonal
METALREMOVAL
FIGURE
efficiency
method
diameter
12.10
Metal
379
Processes
Manufacturing
rates
removal
RATE
<CM3
versus power,
SEC
W ~3)
\342\226\240
assuming
15% cutting
[46].
is used for
holes at
Electron
Beam
source results
not
for rainwear,
material
a rate of
Welding
only
5000
The
in deep,
with
0.05-mm-
beam
as a heat
associated
holes/s.
high intensity of the electron
narrow penetration but also
in the
Chapter 12
380
i (
II
I
I
I
II
I!
it
I
I
f
ii
ii
it
\302\261
w
FIGURE
croft,
12.11
Cambridge,
effect of narrow
properties
in joints
use a vacuum
they
variety
speeds
high
to electron
beam welding.
(Hould-
zones.
Both effects together are of considerable
result in reduced distortion and improved mechanical
when compared
once both an
is at
applicable
heat-affected
as
importance,
to
<*)
to
with
other
welding
processes.
and a disadvantage.
advantage
be made,
and
shape
The necessity to
It
enables
of the
fusion
workpiece
chamber.
of joint
types can
attainable,
however,
be weldedby
and the
difficulty
the
process. Because of
filler wire through
feeding
EBW
of
the
the
do
not
beams
chamber,
filler.
of narrow
it
Joints must
convergence
in the bottom
to use
is customary
it
of a deepnarrow
is
possible
to weld
(b) the
in
inaccessible
positions
cavity);
Nontradltlonal
volume of
than
more
of jet
Components
industry.
etc.\342\200\224and
welding
Use of
in the
beam
electron
an
with a
nuclear
rotors, nozzles,
chambers
giant
vanes,
guide
engines\342\200\224compressor
of automotive
Treatment
Heat
examples.
is
treatment
finding
and
increasing
levels
bearing
A
EBW
most
chamber,
381
Processes
Manufacturing
of about
beam, with power density
to be hardened. The beam density
powerful
moderately
over the
is scanned
surface
1.5
104 W/cm2,
a thin
causes
to the materials
part surface to rise almost immediately
austenitizing
As
the
beam
is
or
either
turned
off
moved
to a new location, the
temperature.
cool
core of the material rapidly
draws
the heat from the surface to provide a
thus
a thin layer of the surface material to
action,
self-quenching
transforming
portion
of the
martensite.
hard
distortionis
12.2.3
Laser Processing
Laser
processing
is
acronym
an
is based on
of /ight
processdependson
variety of
treatment,
beam of light
from
be focused
Directivity:
10~2to
The
light
emitted
using simple
The
beam
10~4
radians.
is
laser
has several
by lasers is
Before
discussing
of the
These
must
principles
marking,
characteristics
collimated
with
typical
heat-
be
that
can
divergence angles
divergence,
a very
onto
brief explanation
a wide
perform
power
to
welding
material
optics.
highly
to remove or melt
and
The
coherent,
directional,
drilling,
cutting,
word laser
of radiation.
cladding.
Spectral purity:
highly
a workpiece
with
The
recently.
emission
stimulated
the material.
modify
selective
by
of an intense,
interaction
tasks, ranging
and
principles discoveredonly
amplification
the
and monochromatic
from it or even thermally
(LP)
explained
at the
atomic level.
all of
the
laser
small area,
to machining,
aid
of
understanding.
Chapter 12
382
a/^
E,
E,
E,
E,
a)
spontaneous
emission
|A/V
E.
b) stimulated
Interaction
12.12
FIGURE
between
emission
light
and
matter
[52].
Many
build
a working
laser operation.
required
to produce a
a portion
frequency
small
light,
but
the
emission
of
the
and
of the
to
a feedback
provide
coherent
of still
percentage
amplification
process.
the
laser is
photons
back
maintain
the
Nontradltlonal
FIGURE 12.13
is a
glass tube
cavity,
gas at low pressure.
delivered by electric
which
the working
shows
12.13
Figure
383
Processes
Manufacturing
placing parallel
mirrors
Energy
principle of a gaslaser.It
containing
to
discharges
at both
stimulate
consists
active medium, in
the atoms or moleculesof
the
laser
supplied from a
ends of the tube,
made to
high
voltage
the
necessary
of a
laser
this
case
the
gas
is
power supply.
feedback
By
to 100% reflectiveas
the laser output.
possible,
transparent
provide
is
the
it
When
to
forms
a
electricity
applied
gas,
plasma, and photons are
The small percentageof them that were emitted along
emitted
in all directions.
the optical axis of the tube or resonator are reflected by the mirrors to provide
amplification, while the photons that were not emitted
along the axis are lost
and
from
the
removed
as
waste
heat.
The
result
of this is a standing
system
wave
between
the
S
ome
mirrors
of
the
light
(Fig. 12.14).
light is emitted through
its
the
from
where
is increased
mirror,
reflecting
partially
power
density
mechanism
is established.
while
by
the
One mirror is
is partially
be
as close
other
to
focusing.
Equipment
in a laser
lasing capability, each medium
resulting
but
a
few
parameters,
output
only
types are powerful
and reliable
Lasers can be
enough to be practicalfor machining
operations.
classified by their
or gas. The two types
lasing medium. They are solidstate,
liquid,
most used in machining are the C02
gas laser and the solid state laser.
having
As
already
mentioned,
gas lasers
usually
consist
of an
optically
transparent
filled
with either
Chapter 12
384
PARTIAL
MIRROR
FIGURE 12.14
MIRROR
Transition
from
nonlasing
to lasing
conditions
[46].
to cool the
is limited
by the ability
gas lasers, the availableoutput
properly.
gas and to stabilize the gas discharge
or glass host material and a doping
Solid-state lasers consistof a crystalline
ions
needed
to provide the reservoir of active
for the lasing action. The
additive
of
with
0.05%
solid-state
lasers used ruby (A1202)doped
approximately
original
the
common
Nd:YAG
Another
solid-state laser is
Cr203 as the lasing medium.
of yttrium
aluminum garnet (YAG) shaped as
laser, which uses a single crystal
a rod with parallel, flat ends, which are optically ground and polished and doped
In high-power
Nontradltlonal
385
Processes
Manufacturing
solid-state
laser [52].
may be
Since the
Nd:YAG
water to
water.
inherent
with
all
lasers,
speeds
essentially
high
processing
laser manufacturing
are
controlled.
Machine
systems
computer
designsvary,
of the particular application, but they can be as
the requirements
upon
depending
driller
or as complex as a seven-axis
cutter.
The processing
simple as a two-axis
motions can be accomplished
the
the laser
by moving
workpiece, by moving
a combination
of the two.
beam, or through
to air,
water,
and
refrigerated,
recirculating
Because of the
Process Capabilities
Lasers
are
processing is
and Applications
mark, weld, and
as a mass
employed
usually
heat-treat
material
but laser
materials,
removal
or
heating
Chapter 12
386
to
good coupling of laser energy
application
requires
is essentially
be machined sincelaser processing
a controlled
heating
The
material properties and characteristicsare:
most important
process.Successful
the
part to
process.
Those
the
is absorbed
by the material.
light
surface at the particular wavelengths being
of the bulk material. Materials with
used and the absorption coefficient
such as gold, copper,and aluminum
electrical
are poor
good
conductivity
and
wood are almost perfect
light energy absorbers, while
plastics
in which
manner
the
affecting
These are
of the
reflectivity
absorbers.
Those
flow of heat
the
governing
thermal
material:
in
conductivity
and
diffusivity.
Those
to
relating
Laser
Drilling
single or multiple
cause a desiredphase
heat of vaporization.
amount
of energy required to
heat capacity, heat of fusion, and
the
density,
change:
drilling
is a processfor
from
pulses
small
producing
laser beam to
a stationary
penetrate
droplets.
ratios of about
diameter
degree of roundness.
to
0.1
from
ranging
mm
can be
produced
by a tapered,
characterized
with
length/
rough
shape
hole exhibit
a recast
layer
and a heat-affectedzone that can vary in thickness from 0.002 to 0.10 mm
Almost any
the material type, thickness, and drilling
parameters.
depending
upon
as 15\302\260
from
the
material
can be drilled, and hole entry angles can be as shallow
\302\261
10% of the diameter. Application of
surface. Diametral repeatability is about
in industries producing
fuel
the
to drill small holes may
be found
filters,
ability
and
holes
in
blades.
carburetor
nozzles,
cooling
jet engine
a high
lacking
by
In
practice,
are more often
mm they
lens in a
a focusing
stationary
and will
limited
by
by
a CNC
enabling
size
system
cutting
larger
than
of
density
larger in
drilled.
than
focused spot
of the
1 to
will
diameter
Systems
than approximately
0.5
are available for rotating
any desired
is lacking
on
plane
in a
rotated
the
laser-cut
horizontal
beam. The
be
walls
because power
when holes are
drilling
percussion
common
diameters
with
Holes
Cutting
The
shape.
use
to
of
incoming
the lens
operation
is
table controlled
laser beam,
stationary
an X-Y
a
the
axis of
Nontradltional
387
Processes
Manufacturing
Laserbeam
A)
B)
Gas inlet
Lens
Nozzle
(gas outlet)
12.16
FIGURE
Laser cutting
showsa typical
such as
of laser cutting
Principle
and
drilling
gas-assist
cooling
area
the
system [52].
around
away
blowing
of gas. Figure
several
12.16
functions,
swarf
also helps to
debris
control
that
When
The
results
using
produce
Kerf widths
about
Focusing
it follows
wavelength
that the
to a
in
with
achieved
thicknessbelow
becomes
is increased.
thickness
with
of the material
one-third
a 1.25-mm-diameter
affected
heat
0.5
about
zone
the
the
mm above
surface.
the
cut
metallic
better focusing
than
laser
for any given power output
of
work.
types
be found in almost any industry
may
in thicknesses
types of material
of
high degree
precisionand complex
Figure
ability
12.17 is
an
example
of a
as
between
melting
is preferable
with a need to
0.5 and 10 mm
cut contours,
layout for a
its
a long
Nd:YAG
or other
a relatively
batches.
small
gives
material
given
with very high
cutting
preferably
sequence
388
Chapter
12.1?
FIGURE
for
Layout
laser-cut
items
in
mild
22-mm
steel for
12
just-in-time
[52].
production
in 2-mm mild
Notice
machines.
that waste
used
are
material
from
a minimum.
A more
automobile
and a
advanced exampleof
is seen
Industry
seven-axisgantry
holes and
three-dimensional
cutting
in Fig.
cutting
and
producing
openings.
are
Lasers
used
in place
when
in this
to a
case limited
maximum
of
by
2.5
Deep penetration
small molten
thermal
conduction
mm.
welds are
enough
channel
a keyhole, is held
by
accomplished
high-power
open by
vapor
pressure
as
lasers
producing
to actually
and
vaporize
This hole, often referred
the beam is traversed across
W/cm2 or more)
(5.105
the workpiece.
through
Nontraditional
FIGURE 12.18
Volvo,
the
instead
cutting
of item
for
automobile.
(Courtesy,
Sweden.)
This
workpiece.
material
laser
Three-dimensional
Gothenburg,
389
Processes
Manufacturing
of only
allows the
on the surface.
the
work-
in Fig.
12.19, the final
ripple pattern. As shown
and beam power.
on
material,
depth
welding
speed,
depends
workpiece
of
as
those
laser
the
same
in traditional
encountered
welding
joints
types
pool in
penetration
In
a characteristic
have
lasers
12.20
illustrates
some examples. Although
welding are found. Figure
the mid- 1970s, it is only in the last decade or so that
been used for welding
since
have gained real industrial
the development of highthey
acceptance
through
lasers
with
beam
and
reasonable
power
prices. Table 12.3 shows
high
quality
some typical
laser
industrial
welding
industrial
removal
drilling,
implementations of the
marking, surfacetreatment,
Laser
applications.
marking utilizes
of material from
and
the
top
laser,it
is also
cladding.
laser
short
cutting,
1 fis
pulses\342\200\224duration
or
less\342\200\224toensure
layer
of the
well
the
blind
beam
short
pulse
thermally
holes
to produce
the
smooth-
390
Chapter 12
Weld Speed,
m/min
12.5
\302\251
o
Q.
40
120 160
80
FIGURE
Possible weld
12.19
240
200
Weld Speed,
for a C02
depths
penetration
280
320
in./min
laser [53].
conventional
hardening,
the
material
must contain
sufficient
carbon
to produce
the
by
In laser
C02
cladding, a defocused
and selectively
cladding
are
lasers.
those
deposit specialalloys
small areas to
onto
that reouire
and
beam
a local
surfaces.
Nontraditional
391
Processes
Manufacturing
Joint
Corner
(a) Conventional
(a)
(b)
(b)
Modified
1
Butt Joint
T-Joint
Edge Joint
Joint
FIGURE 12.20
but do
J
Lap
used
Commonly
types
joint
expensive materials
seats, piston rings,
require
that
applications
include
valve
12.2.4
not
Abrasive
workpiece of
Abrasive
abrasive
fine,
jet
[52].
welding
be used for
turbine
entire
the
and
blades,
the
by
in
entrained
particles
blasting
removal
Material
controlled.
free
with the
carrier
gas
Figure
12.21
as a
objects.
coolant,
because
problems
AJM
to
produce
In addition, the
cutting
and
experience
workpieces
action
intricate detail
since the
no thermal damage.
of an
fine,
in
is cool,
AJM
system.
Parameters
Major processvariables
type, abrasive
abrasive
treated
and
vibration
and
resist the
processed
effectively
depicts
schematically
Process
not
workpiece, enabling
sensitive
serves
chatter
from
inherently
contact
extremely
are
thus
and
action
on the
impingement
in that the
are
action
carefully
which is especially
action,
finer, and
is much
abrasive
part. The
rock drills.
differs
machining
laser
removes material
(AJM)
machining
jet
in
briefly
in the
affect
that
flow
following
rate,
and
discussion.
the removal
gas
is
392
Chapter
12.3
TABLE
Typical
Industrial Laser
and electronics
Electrical
Terminal
Applications
Welding
laser welding
Nd.YAG
12
engineering
Membranes
ports
Gas sealedbatteries.
Cathode picture tubes
Precision engineering
Pressure sensors
Sheet metal
plates
Tubes
Mechanical
engineering
Mixer
Air
frames
Spectacle
Dental instruments
parts
condition
compressor
pulley
containers
Sealing
Membranes
Thin
Metalworking
Mechanical
Automotive
Engineering
idler rolls
mine
Coal
foils
industry
Gear parts
Springs
Motor
Thermostats
Etc.
components
filters
Fuel
Body parts
(doors,roofs, windows,
etc.)
Diaphragms
Caburetors
Nuclear
plants
power
Tubes
Pipes
Etc.
Source:
52.
Ref.
an
gas
decreasing
addition,
is reached.
optimum
expanding
as
accelerates
shape
even
(see
increases.
Fig.
At
distances\342\200\224about
larger
as well as
At
radially
the
in
Fig.
from
same
axially
and
energy
7-13
mm\342\200\224the
is lost,
resulting
a glass workpiece.In
work, the diameter of the hole
the walls of the cut assumea
in
12.22 for
the
time,
or
12.23).
Nontradltlonal
393
Processes
Manufacturing
HIGH-VELOCITY
GAS (AIR) + ABRASIVE
ABRASIVES
AND
WORK PARTICLES
PARTICLES
CARBIDE)
NOZZLE
Abrasive jet
,'
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
POWDER)
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
'
#.
/
/I
i
\342\200\242
\302\253.-
&
MATERIAL:
3
0.19
0.28
4.8
7.1
NOZZLE
FIGURE
GLASS
CUTTING
Tl\302\273
HE:
30 SEC
J
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\302\273
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
'
\342\200\242
\342\200\242
MATERIAL
S. S. White
(NTD)
[46].
(AJM)
machining
I ABRASIVE
\342\200\242
o>
10
12.21
,'
tu
DISTANCE
ACTION
ABRASIVE
FIGURE
TIP
12.22
Influence
Company.)
0.5
0.41
13
10.3
0.59
15.1
\\
0.78
19.8
DISTANCE |in./mm)
of nozzle tip
distance
on
cutting
speed
in glass. (Courtesy,
394
Chapter
TYPICAL CUTTINGACTION
OF
NOZZLE
DIAMETER
.018\"
TIP
HOZZLl
DISTANCE
DIAMETER
NTOI
Of
.031\"-,
.018\"\342\200\224\342\200\236^3t
12
CUT
--T-\"
..025\".
.197\".
-J-..
FIGURE 12.23
2\302\243
394\"
059\"
590\"
079\"
is a
Kerfwidth
-1
\342\200\224
function of nozzle
distance
tip
(Courtesy,
S. S.
White
Company.)
ting
results
Abrasive
are obtained
when
should
powder
bulk
the
not be
of particles
reused becauseits
between
vary
and
cutting
15 and
abrading
45 \\im.
action
becomes
contaminated
with foreign material.
abrasive particles is directly relatedto the metal removal
in Fig.
12.24. The curve showsa maximum
in the
rate, as shown
because,
the flow rate means more abrasive particles available
for
beginning,
increasing
the abrasive velocity
However, as the powder flow is further
increased,
cutting.
The flow
rate
of the
TABLE
The AJM
12.4
Abrasives
Abrasives
Silicon
Carbide
Glass beads
Crushed glass
Sodium
Source:
bicarbonate
Ref.
Their
Application
Applications
oxide
Aluminum
and
47.
Cleaning,
As
Matte
above,
cutting, deburring
but for harder materials
polishing,
cleaning
Peening, cleaning
Cleaning,
cutting-soft
materials
Nontradltlonal
-J
20
hj
<
16
<
395
Processes
Manufacturing
see
:PLATE
MATERIAl
\302\253s
GLASS
1/32
MO:
3g
CC\302\253c
3*
ABRASIVE
White
Effect of
12.24
FIGURE
16
12
flow
powder
rate
on
material
20
28
24
MIN
removal.
S. S.
(Courtesy,
Company.)
decreases,
is modest
helps
pressureresults
compared
increases are
20-100
N/cm2 are,
small
effect
becomes
and consequently
which also
rate. This
IS g/min,
about
10 g/min,
at
performed
the removal
reducing
with
to
conserve
in a
the other
nozzle
with flow
apparent
most
are
operations
life.
small increase
in
removal
offset by decreased
nozzle
therefore, seldomly used.
life, and
pressures
but
rate,
process variables.However,
these
higher
than
elements
of
removal
conductive
and so on.
gallium are cut, cleaned, drilled,beveled,
in steel molds and dies after
possible to make small adjustments
and
silicon,
It is
have
and
been
given a
final
hardening
treatment.
Precision
they
Chapter 12
396
l:Tool
\\/
\\
r^
2: Abrasive slurry
3: Workpiece
Ultrasonic
12.25
FIGURE
for AJM
applicationssincehigh
standards
are required in such
quality
equipment, and computers.
can be used for
mentioning that abrasive
jet machining
medical
technologiesas
aerospace,
is also worth
It
of metallic
removal
machining.
etc., especially
from
to
too delicate
parts
The
conventional grinding.
is
process
it
not
not
manual
withstand
heavy
safe
coatings,
or
scraping
for removing
practical
should
resistive
metals,
or
burrs
large
be used for
or
Ultrasonic Machining
12.2.5
Ultrasonic
high-frequency
machine
effectively
is a
(USM)
in hard
mechanical
used to
shaped tools,
mechanical
and an abrasive slurry.
USM
is able to
motion,
all hard materials whether
are electrically
conductive
they
machining
cavities
or
brittle
removal
material
process
by using
workpieces
or not.
The processis
frequency,
typically
corresponds
to
the
kHz,
shape
to be
reciprocations of the
workpiece (see Fig.
impact of the abrasive
in
The
the
form
tool
of small
material,
The tool is
magnetostriction.
tool
drive
12.25).The
is the
produced in
being
principally
this
by
and
exploitation
phenomenon,
are
The
The
workpiece.
across a small
with
a magnetic
gap
against
much
as
field undergoing
the
force. The
for material
tool
high-speed
a uniform
away by the
wears out at
ductile,
of an effect known
high
of the
shape
responsible
carried
at
oscillates
which
fed
is gradually
tool
energy
tough
the
oscillated
With
a cutting tool,
in an abrasive slurry.
by
performed
20-40
removal
abrasive
slurry.
slower
rate.
longitudinal
variation
in the length of a
frequencies causes correspondingchanges
A magnetostriction
within its region of influence.
transducer,
placed
a piezoelectric
in Fig. 12.26, or (more common
such as that illustrated
today)
ultrasonic
ferromagnetic
object
at
Nontradltlonal
397
Processes
Manufacturing
Leads to
energize
transducer
winding
Cooling water
Magnetostriction
transducer
Concentrator
Tool
Abrasive
slurry
/% Workpiece
12.26
FIGURE
transducer
a millimeter
removal
can
resonance
Material
between
Elements
of ultrasonic
machining
[45].
a few hundredths
is used. The tool vibrates
with
a stroke of only
in a direction
parallel to the axis of the feed. For efficientmaterial
be designed
to take place, the tool and toolholdermust
so that
be achieved
occurs
removal
the tool
of
and
them
impact propels the particles across the cutting
gap, hammering
into
the surface
of both tool and workpiece.
Since the tool is made of a ductile
the abrasive grits only
rise to plastic deformation here, whereas
material,
give
at the workpiece
actual disintegration
occurs
by the chipping out of small
pocketsat the surface.
Besides direct impact,
researchers
also report that cavitation erosion
tool.
The
contributes
to
disintegration.
suspension
results
in very
Collapse
the
workpiece.
in
the
of the
abrasive
associated shock
at the
interface of the
of particles
to chipping
398
Chapter
The
made
contribution
relative
vary
with the
general
accounts
to
in
to material removal by
operational conditions, but
for less
than
5%
of the
the
two
it seems
12
effects
that the
total volumetric
rate.
removal
Equipment
that
the
offers
supply is a sine-wavegenerator
and
of
the
It
power
generatedsignal.
frequency
converts low-frequency
(50/60
Hz) power to high-frequency
(\342\200\22410-25kHz)
power,
into mechanical
which is supplied to the transducerfor conversion
motion.
Power
over both
Transducer
supplied
The
Supply
user control
power
the
Two types
of
of operation:
transducers
are used
to mechanical
energy
and
magnetostriction
in
based on
USM
two
to convert
different
the
principles
piezoelectricity.
Magnetostrictive
another.
one
Among practical
highest
materials, iron-cobalt,
transducers
up
to 2.5
As the
magnetostriction.
amount
therefore
kW.
of
NontradiHonai
Piezoelectric
by which
piezoelectric
effect
generate a
the material
is applied,
is removed,
are
materialundergoes
when compressed.
current
electric
small
electric current
materials
399
Processes
Manufacturing
particles
by heating
polarization
to its
an
When the
in size.
original shape.
together
above
the Curie
point;
current
Piezoelectric
The
by sintering.
bound
it
titanate
zirconate
Conversely, when
increasesminutely
returns
the
through
lead
or
it is
when
placed
field on
electric
an
mm.
0.025
is approximately
limit
The toolholder
Toolholder
tool. Its function
the link
provides
the tool
to increase
is
vibration
steel, which is
are
that
properties
and
fatigue
low-
it to
limiting
applications.
amplitude
are available
Toolholders
the output
amplitude at
section that
function.
of
concentrator.
end as at the
toward
diminishes
are designed
They
relaxation
the toolholder
Figure
two
in
12.27
input
and
nonampiifying
in the same stroke
configurations:
holders
Nonampiifying
amplifying.
end.
result
Amplifying
have a
toolholders
an
following
cross
exponential
concentrator.
Because of the gain in tool stroke, amplifying holders are able to remove
the nonampiifying
up to 10 times faster than
type. The disadvantages
toolholders
include increased cost to fabricate, a reduction
using
amplifying
surface
finish quality, and the requirement
of much more frequent
tuning
maintain resonance.
material
Tools Toolsshould
stainlesssteels,brass,
wear
rate
will be.
It
constructed
mild
is important
on the tools
are sometimes
in the
workpiece.
reproduced
be
and
tool
of the
generally
in
to
materials such as
tool material, the faster its
necessary
of
because
or polishing
their surface
corresponds
unavoidable overcut,
finish
to the geometry
allowancesmust
operations
be
will
of the
be
cut
to
made
to
400
12.27
FIGURE
Energy
propagation
smaller
by
silver
in
toolholder [51].
an exponential
holeor cavity.
Tool
and
tool-
brazing.
Slurries of synthetic
abrasive
in a liquid,
Abrasives
water,
usually
powders
The
criteria
for
are generally used in ultrasonic
selection
of an
machining.
abrasive for
a particular
application include hardness,usable life, cost, and particle
is
far the fastest abrasive, but
is not practical
size. Diamond
because of its
by
cost.
is
economical
and
Boron carbide
rates. It is
good machining
yields
thereforeone
of the most commonly used abrasives
for USM,
but silicon carbide and
aluminum
oxide are also widely
used.
Grain
size has
strong
influence
on removal
rate
and
surface
finish.
Coarse
rates,
grain size becomes
grits
highest
a
the
tool
maximum
is
reached
and larger grains cut
with
comparable
amplitude,
be
the
the
more
As
would
slowly.
expected, larger
grit size, the rougher the
surface.
Water is the liquid
medium
machined
used, with an abrasive
predominantly
mixtures
are used to promote
concentration of about 50% by weight, but thinner
cavities.
efficient flow when drilling deep holes or when forming
complex
exhibit
the
removal
but
when
the
Nontradltlonal
TABLE 12.5
at 700 W Input
Penetration
401
Processes
Manufacturing
Tool Wear
and
Rates
Ultrasonic
in
Machining
Maximum
Practical
Ratio
To Tool
Aresi
Wear*
100.1
Glass
Ceramic
Germanium
carbide
Tungsten
mm/min
3.81
25.8
0.150
19.4
0.060
1.52
100
3.5
22.6
0.085
2.16
1.5
7.7
0.010
0.005
0.25
0.020
0.080
0.125
0.51
Carbon-graphite
100
Ferrite
100 1
Quartz
50 1
Source:Data
in./min
3.0
2 1
Boron carbide
Glass-bonded mica
cm2
4.0
100
ruby
in.2
1 1
of pearl
Synthetic
Rate**
75
Tool steel
Mother
Penetrating
Removed
Stock
Material
Average
Machining
21
100
1.2
0.875
4.0
0.875
3.0
3.5
3.0
0.875
3.5
5.6
25.8
5.6
19.4
22.6
19.4
5.6
22.6
0.13
0.150
3.81
2.00
3.18
0.065
1.65
0.008
0.20
0.125
3.18
Raytheon Company,
Impact Grinders for Ultrasonic Machining,
cold rolled steel in all cases; #320 mesh boroncarbide
abrasive.
**Vi\" (12.7 mm) diam. tool; W (12.7 mm) deep.
from
1961.
\342\231\246Tool
material;
Process
Capabilities
and Applications
Ultrasonicmachining
does
not compete
with conventional material removal
of the process
operationson the basis of stock removal rates. The productivity
extent
on the hardness and brittleness of the workpiece.
depends to a marked
The best machining rates are obtained
on materials
harder than HRc 60, with
ferrites,
ceramics, glasses, and tungsten
germanium,
representing
or impossible
to process conventionally
or by spark
groups that are difficult
but are well suited for ultrasonic
A representative
erosion,
machining.
ranking of
for various
hard and brittle
is shown in table
materials
process performance
carbides,
high
tool
wear rates.
Parting
and
machining
of
diamonds
and other
precious stones.
Chapter12
402
holes that can be cut by USM
are approximately
size being limited by the strength
of the tool and
for the abrasive. The largest
diameter
solid tool used so
hole
required
mm diameter, but
is limited by tool
end of the tool.
are
and
finish
rough
workpiece
can, of course,
holes
larger
and
wear
finish
Surface
best finishes
easily
0.08 mm
smallest
The
diameter,
in feeding
difficulties
by
be
cut
by
has
far
a 115-
Hole depth
to the
slurry
trepanning.
fresh
in
clearance
the
cutting
is governed primarily
the abrasive
by
particle size. The
order of 0.25 jim RMS (800-grit).
For accurate holes,
cuts are advisable. The surface
of an ultrasonically
machined
a nondirectional
exhibits
surface texture
and is therefore
on the
usually
polished.
involve
applications of ultrasonic machining
in nonconductive
ceramic materials, making
successful
Most
cavities
machining
holes or
a
process
drilling
the
to
oxide
produce
Electrochemical
12.2.6
nozzles
in a
mul-
Machining
electrochemical
Because
machining,
the principles
to
according
and bearing
of this,
so
of applications
component shapesand
in
gas
turbine
The
manufacture.
machined
in
contrast
simultaneously
in the
aerospace industry,
of the
high-strength,
use of
where
field
of
conventional
also be economic
main
the complexity
of
of very
since with electrochemical
to conventional machining, the whole surface can be
less than by
and the machining time can be very
much
can, however,
complex workpiecesin
machining,
the electrode
mind
toughness
engines
process
in
is found
far
relatively
soft
for
the
machining
materials
conventional machining.
As
determined
placed in
a conductive
by
Faraday
electrolyte
(1791-1867), when
bath and energized
two
poles are
direct current, metal
conductive
by a
Nontradltional
Manufacturing
FIGURE 12.28
Principles
between
closely
be
deplated
may
plating
of electrochemical
from the
of current
flow
plating
electrochemical
machining. Distribution
spaced electrodes.
403
Processes
machining.
In order
A/cm2,
rates,
narrow
high
404
12
Chapter
a high
circulation
velocity through the gap. This forced
permits
from
the anode, and the original gap increasesin
fast metal removal
at first, but then at a progressively decreasing rate becausethe
size,
rapidly
as the gap, and hence the electrical resistance,increases.
current falls
To
maintain
the current density at its initial
moved
toward
the
high value, the tool is therefore
the metal is being dissolved. This ensures a
anode at the same rate at which
removal
and current and metal
rate will remain
constant
gap
spacing,
high.
its
the
electrode
in the
(cathode)reproduces shape accurately
Theoretically,
all
since
is
conducted
of
the
current
from
surfaces
cathode
workpiece (anode)
smaller
the gap spacing between confronting
to all surfaces of the anode. The
will
the
the
be
current
surfaces,
density and the greater the rate of
higher
of
the
cathode
towards
With
movement
the anode, the two
removal.
progressive
the
surfaces
will ultimately
In
final
fact,
correspond closely.
shape of the workthat
the
of the
is
of
of
not
the
inverse
tool,
piece
exactly
requiring
adjustment
of
trial
and
since
one
the
cathode shape (usually
error)
by
outstanding
is the calculation and design of tools to produce a given workproblems of ECM
electrolyteat
continuous
piece shape.
removal from the anode is calculated by
for each
constitutes approximately
cm3/min
1.5-2
have been built that are capable of removing metal
1000 A
in a wide variety of
ECM machines are available
at a rate of up to SO cm3/min.
have
dc
sizes and configurations.
between
10,000 A
they
poweroutputs
Usually
and 40,000 A. Potentialsof 5 to 25 V applied across the tool and work
to circulate these currents through
are required
the
resistive
electrodes
machining
rate
theoretical
The
of metal
of electrolysis
and
of current.
Machines
Faraday's laws
characterized
often
necessary to
high
flow. Although
resulting forces can
the
electrolyte
high,
a large
The
the
is a factor in determining
the
of the work contour.
to buy and operate. They are
becausea very
containing
electrolyte
be tremendous
when
is
construction
solid
surface.
corrosive
considerationsfor
contact
while
deflection
withstand
expensive
enormous size
it
with
nature of the
Any portion
the electrolyte
must be
ECM electrolytes
machines.
ECM
by
sealing
and
of
the
made of
units
such
special
or tooling that
promotes
machine
stainless
steel,
plastic,
comes in
or other
must
dry,
Equipment
system consists of
provides high-velocity electrolyte flow between the
In
broad
categories,
an ECM
an
electrolyte
electrodes;
system that
electrical
an
Nontraditlonal
2 to
405
Processes
Manufacturing
20
Vdc.
Centrifuge
system
power
electrochemicalmachine
Schematic diagram of
12.29
FIGURE
structure
mechanical
of
and a
electrodes,
the electrodes.
These
12.29.
in Fig.
diagramatically
to the
[SO].
Electrolytes
The electrolyte
reaction
and
as
reactions
machining
from the
away
products
therefore
the circuit
completes
sodium chloridein
although
machined
electrolyte,
used as
which
water,
its corrosiveness
with
less
sodium
corrosive
effective
electrolyte should
nontoxic, safe,
at present is
electrolyte
most widely
used
desirable characteristicsoutlined
has the
presents a problem.A
potassium
and
be inexpensive,
and
electrolytes include
An
zone.
machining
range of metals
is another
commonly
wide
Other chemicals
chloride,
sodium
that
above,
have been
used
have
hydroxide,
been
sodium
406
Chapter12
main
Schematicrepresentation
FIGURE 12.30
in
ECM
and
chlorate,
sodium
latter
All electrolytes
be
must
having
current
better
far
a constant
produce
the
should
of tiny
form
filtration,
no more
have
particles as
and/or
settling,
Electrode
its
as
small
results
etc.
machine,
components.
because during work
oxides
at a rate of
properly
in
may
Both
temperature
they
100-
functioning
content.
\\im.
centrifuging.
there
material can be used asa cathode
tool,
steel.
is
or
stainless
copper
Copper normally
resistant, easy to machine, and its
preferred material since it is corrosion
ensures distribution of the electrolyzingcurrent
to all parts of
conductivity
Although
high
sludge
which
Tools
almost
2%
than
the
since
temperature
of temperature,
conductivity changes as a function
in the machining gap. Further,
variations
higher
electrolyte
cause changes in the thermal expansion of tooling, fixtures,
of the machined
factors affect the dimensional repeatability
electrical
electrolyte
control
dimensional
characteristics.
density
to maintain
cooled
on overcut
electrolytes
[45].
less
much
electrolyte
efficiency and
its current
different
chloride.
electrolyte
Proper
chloride yields
the
nitrate,
of
because
of
of effects
acid.
sulfuric
sodium
12.30,
Fig.
(a) sodium
drilling:
gap
machining
operating
any conducting
in using
either
surfaces
without
overheating or
of copperwith
thermal
but
capacity,
Determination
its
of the
regard
to chemical
resistance
shape of the
problem
powerloss.Stainless
tool necessaryto
in the
steel
does
to thermal
produce
or
the required
not
work-
it should
Nontradltional
be possibleto
stage, but this
407
Processes
Manufacturing
is not yet
Capabilities
ECM
The
a theoretical
perform
is
process
and Applications
usually used to machine hard,
machined
same
possibilities
much
higher
is completely determined.
mm, and taper can be limited
\302\2610.05 mm
process parametersbeing
workpiece
material,
of
RMS-values
Typically,
density.
workpiece,
tool,
range
be produced
may
at the
overcut
the
with
but
side of
once the
tool
shape
tools is about
0.15
to 0.001
type
of the
material
be
ECM
Basically,
and
The typical
design and
the
finish.
metals the
ECM.
of approximately
Tolerances
conductive
electrically
Any
that
materials
intractable
geometry
regarding
ways.
some
for
uneconomical.
or
difficult
in other
mm/mm,
tool
the
of
the tool.
When compared
slightly less fatigue
a part
very
common
in shape
complementary
to the
peaks of the
surface
are
irregularities
mechanical
with
irregularities
therefore
removed
attractive
shown
in
Electrochemical
blades
of gas-turbine
densities
at the
and the
elsewhere,
that
the workpiece
becomes
times
being 5-25 s,
process
those
than
preferentially so
fast process, typical
a fixed,
stationary tool. The processis
the intersectional regionof cross-drilled
holes,
with
drilling is commonly
(see Fig. 12.32) and
engines.
depths of more than 300
Multiple-hole
as
An example
pattern
of 9
It
is
possible
used
for
for drilling
many
to drill
the cooling
other jobs
holes of a
in
diameter
the
holes in
manufacture
of
1 mm
to
mm.
suited.
spacing of the
are higher
tool,
current
12.31.
Fig.
gas-turbine
is a
be performed
for deburring
often
can
and
a cathode
where
deburring,
is
application
milling,
Chapter 12
408
Burredsurface
Insulation
FIGURE
a time,
the
but
holes
ECM deburring of
12.31
to the
converting
at the same time,
cross-drilledhole.
use of ECMmakes
substantially
reducing
Also, ECMeliminated
it possible
machining
all
and cost.
to manufacture
time
on the
the need for subsequent deburring
operations
plate.
is not restricted to round
holes.
Since the shape of the workDrilling
by ECM
is determined by that of the tool-electrode, a cathode \"drill\"
with
any
piece
cross section will produce
a corresponding
This is
shape on the workpiece.
in die-sinking
utilized
as well as in trepanning.
extensively
bottom
of
FIGURE
the burner
12.32
Deep-hole
drilling
by ECM
[SO].
Nontraditional
409
Processes
Manufacturing
Design of
12.33
FIGURE
Full-form
Full-form
turbine
is
shaping
blade [45].
of turbine
profile
and a
gap across the entire workpiece
the type of shape illustrated in Fig. 12.33.
well known for the production of compressorand
order
in
to obtain
shape
a constant
utilizes
shaping
constant feed-rate
tool
cathode
to produce
blades.
LAYER
12.3
The processesmentioned
members of
the
TECHNOLOGY
MANUFACTURING
12.2 are
in Section
of nontraditional
family
some of the
manufacturing
most
used
commonly
processes,
characterized
of geometrical
by their
flexibility
capability of combining a high
degree
of intractable
materials. The processes
with a capacity for economicalmachining
describedcan all be classified as belonging to the material removal processes
of bulk material
since basically
and remove all
start from a larger amount
they
material.
excess
Today
new
of manufacturing
group
technology
manufacturing
(LMT),
the
principle
or deforming
to
material, is beginning
low melting points can be used,rendering
the
models
without
purposes as producing
prototype
removing
with
on the
displayed
assemblies,
promising
processes
even
not
but bearing
sufficient
in
tend to be
mind
shapes of
three-dimensional
complicated
designers CAD
techniques,
based on
station. The
to enable
how
overcome,it
mechanical
their
swiftly
seems
use
properties
as functional
shortcomings
reasonable
in
the
of the
parts
otherwise
to assume
that
in
410
12
Chapter
esoteric
case here. The rather
commented
on next
processes
well
be
the
the
future.
of
important
production processes
may
among
very
in
the
future
success
of
One
believe
the
reason
to
based
on
major
processes
of material increase is to be found in their basic CIM nature.
All the
principle
discussion are developed for and fully
processes mentioned in the following
with
and CIM. This contrasts drastically
CIM as applied to
on CAD
dependent
These
were developed
material removal and forming
techniques.
techniques
the manufacturing
entered
environment and it has been a
long beforecomputers
hard
to adapt them to CIM, CAD, and CAM.
business
where
needed
and without any tooling
The fact that material is deposited only
the LMT very well suited for CIM and eliminatesmost
makes
of the problems
The result is a considerablereduction
in lead
encountered with other methods.
time from product development to delivery and improved
competitiveness.
the new techniques:
Several names are used to describe
this
be the
also
will
thus
Rapid
prototyping
CAD-oriented
manufacturing
3D printing
Desktop
Instant
manufacturing
manufacturing
Layer manufacturing
Solid
fabrication
Material deposit
manufacturing
addition
Material
manufacturing
Material increase
But
all function
by the
solidification
way:
or
manufacturing
reaction
to
build
A few
12.3.1
the part
successive
in
layers
polymerization,
or points created
availableprocesseswill
in basically
or
the
same
of
liquid
binding
or chemical
on top of each other.
be
described.
Stereolithography
is an
of a
based
layer-by-layer manufacturing
process
is
the
still
available
and
system commercially
of 1991.
most popular one with more than 250 machines sold by the beginning
in a vessel
The part to be produced
is built on a horizontal
platform
placed
a liquid
about
by photocontaining
plastic monomer. Solidification is brought
the
of
from
on
a
laser
the
from
impact
polymerization resulting
light
upper
limits the polymerization to
surface of the liquid.
Light absorption in the monomer
to the
a few tenths of a millimeter below the surface,
roughly
corresponding
Stereolithography
on polymerization.
It
example
was
the first
Nontraditional
411
Processes
Manufacturing
CAD/SLICE
MASK GENERATOR
COMPUTER
(Photoplotter,
Ionographic
charger)
LAMPS
DRIVES
Mirror
LASER
XY directed
beam
laser
Part
FIGURE
12.34
by-layer
scanning
corresponds
solidified,
whole
the
cycle
Most
(a)
scanning,
point-by-point
(b) layer-
layer thickness.
lowering
of stereolithography:
Principle
[56].
Illumination
to the cross
is repeated
until
stereolithography
12.34a).
laser
the
part
machines
scans the
beam
liquid
is totally formed.
apply a point-by-point
surface
in order
to
solidification (Fig.
solidify
a series
of
with
0.1-1
connection
mm\342\200\224to ensure
voxels, each large enough\342\200\224typically
voxels
and
with
the
from
0.5neighboring
layer. Scanning speeds
underlaying
2.5 m/sec are used. The sizeof voxel
is controlled by adjusting
the
overlap
between
the
distance
the
the
laser
and
voxels,
layer thickness,
power,
scanning
is important
for the accuracy of the
speed. Close control of these parameters
finished
which may be expected to be within
\302\2610.5% for
part,
workpiece
mm
dimensions
to
500
cubed.
up
To save time, the workpiece's cross sections are often only partially scanned
and solidified, i.e., the laser only scans the outer and inner contour of the cross
section together
the part
a sufficient
cross-hatching
pattern giving
in Fig. 12.35. Solidificationof the liquid polymer still
contained within
the cross-hatching
been
pattern is done after all layers have
This
further
the
to
generated.
happens by
light.
\"green part\"
exposing
initial
stiffness
with
some
as shown
12
Chapter
412
Skin-fill
inside contour
hatching
b) Bottom
through
12.35
FIGURE
c)
Stereolithography:
in
a toner
Intermediate
(2 directions)
layer
hatch
pattern
layers [56].
a whole
solidifies
Illumination
a photoplotter
by
as done
machine.
the
workpiece
a glass
electrostatically
charging
by
a photocopy
in
at
solidified
12.34b.
Fig.
foils
photosensitive
plastic
pattern
a mask
through
as shown
and
slicing
solidification.
point-by-point
accomplished
with
Hatch
(close hatching)
plate
glass plate
to
and
for successive masks since a new mask
deposited
describe
innovations
systems
different layer to be solidified. Recent
by using
that eliminate the need for creating large numbers of foil masks
the
be put in direct contact with
can
or lighting arrays that
masks
programmable
be reused
for each
monomer.
liquid
Solid Foil
12.3.2
This
used
process
in
foils
solid-to-solid
applies
Raw
stereolithography.
stacked
progressively
which causes
locally,
Polymerization
polymerization rather
consists of
material
Each
than
the liquid-to-solid
semipolymerizedplastic
separate
foil is
further
to polymerize
the illuminated
parts
Illuminated parts also becomeindissoluble,
exposed to be dissolvedafterward,
leaving
the desired
and
illuminated
adhere
allowing
product.
to
the
Nontraditlonal
413
Processes
Manufacturing
SLS part
FIGURE 12.36
of a
layout
to
and
solidifies
below
sintering
powder
selective laser
of the
that
similar
polymer
laser sintering
[56].
12.3.3
The
of selective
Principle
is replaced
by
that
Selective solidificationoccursby
by means
is not
(SLS)
machine:
stereolithography
point-by-point
successive
machine
sintering
scanned
by
of
the
the
laser
XY
controlled,
further
pulsed
is unaffected and
the
liquid
slightly
heating
to the
laser beam.
remains
in
place
The
to
12.3.4
the
next
layer
of powder
Particle
Ballistic
Manufacturing
(BPM)
of molten
droplets
parts by shooting
The
other
(see Fig. 12.37).
dropletsare produced
by
piezoelectric
diameter.
nozzles generating droplets of about
ink-jet
printing
S0-^m
The technique is primarily
for creating wax models for investment
applied
without
need
be extended to other materials with
for
dies
but
could
casting
easily
low melting
machine
able to deposit up to
and solidification points. A prototype
I kg of aluminum droplets per hour
built.
has been
Ballistic
particle
manufacturing
produces
Chapter 12
414
Ballistic
12.37
FIGURE
A layer of material
time a layer
Each
layer
parallel
certain
by moving
in a
values
they
are
downward
Printing
heads
and
directions.
(Z)
a new
and
up to 32
with
rates,
high deposition
of individual
drops so
about
control
the
in X
moves
exactly
deposited
within the
that
wanted
object.
of BPM
advantage
major
or colors
and curing,
fusing,
of the
geometry
exist in regard to
problems
collision,
is created
[56].
(BMP)
Manufacturing
although
after
Particle
is that
materials
application of different
and
so
on,
accuracy,
correspondto
it permits
speed,
the
12.3.5
traditional
the
Compared
with
deforming
of material,
possess a
number
and Disadvantages
Advantages
Summary:
of
or
nontraditional
processes
on removal
based
or
technique
manufacturing
Advantages
Multi-Material
material
different
Fast
and
Anisotropic
Parts
complexity
no
of
problem
thin-
details,
Prototyping
the
creation of parts
change
of
combining
properties.
molds,
or dies.
Nontraditional
Small
Series of
breakeven
components. Series
economicallyby
layer
simultaneously,
formation time
Parts
in
This
mainly
the
order
manufacturing,
especially
since
it is then possible
over several
to plastic
applies
still requires
of tens or hundreds
a mold
justifying
point
415
Processes
Manufacturing
series of
to divide
of
thousands
be produced
can
different
when
parts
the
are produced
long
layer
relatively
products.
Disadvantages
Accuracy
an
approximation
at the slices, not
approximation
Materials
joining
The
to the real
Only
cross-sectional
the
object.
materials
points
are
slices,
only
is correct only
the closer the
layers,
description
applicable.
13
Systems
Manufacturing
on capabilities
of manufacturing
book we have focused
the
individual
as
methods
to
processes
optimize
Normally,
processes.
in the fabrication
of products. The
many manufacturing processes are involved
of the manufacturing
productivity
process seen from a holistic point of view is
then
much
determined
how
the production
system is designedand how
very
by
we plan and control the production activities.
some of the fundamental
in
This chapter
and technologies
presents
concepts
modern manufacturing
the mechanical industry,
within
including
systems
Up
to
this
point in the
as well
discussion
production
13.1
of state-of-the-art
and
planning
THE
production equipment
management
philosophies.
As
an
SYSTEMS
value-adding
system.
manufacturing
forms and
and
subsequent discussions of production
systems
it is useful
to present
a definition of the term
technologies
manufacturing
manufacturing
useful
to the
introduction
in
OF
FUNDAMENTALS
MANUFACTURING
advanced
as well as developments
eventually
A manufacturing
processes
finished
as a series of
system can be defined
the raw materials into more
converting
products.
417
Chapter 13
418
factors
Controlling
sales
Orders,
fluctuations
Input
Consumed
artlc,8i
Production
Social requirements/
philosophy
pressures
Products
Produce
Output
products
Production
system,
equipment and
Employees
technology
& mechanisms
Tools
FIGURE 13.1
and
materials
value
(output).
transformation
are:
higher
basic meansof
semimanufacturing
The basic mechanisms
2.
management
manufacturing
factors
in
1.
Figure
in
either
controlled
is mainly
and
production
fluctuations
the
of
fluctuations
changes
impose
manufacturing
in the
involved
operations or
by
factors
three
(controlling
the
desired
market
often
of production
an increased
need for
of
plans to respond to
flexibility
in
the
system.
principlesthat
3.
materials
this
out
13.1):
productionsystem,
2.
equipment
of
transforms
goods of a
in carrying
used
tools
manufacturing
market
process
finished
activities
production
process
to
(input)
and
process.
The
manufacturing.
articles
1.
The
systems as a value-adding
of manufacturing
model
13.1 illustrates
Figure
raw
guide
philosophy
contains
and management
is carried out.
the control
Social
requirements
manufacturingtechnology.
419
Systems
Manufacturing
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00
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00
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CELLULAR
LAYOUT
FUNCTIONAL
O^OOOOabaa
o
o
\342\226\241
-d-d
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A
^j
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O
type A
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type B
Process type
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<*
\342\226\240
Process
Process
\342\226\241
\342\226\240
A A
AQ
LAYOUT
type D
Process
\302\243\302\261
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aoaocdb
PRODUCT LAYOUT
13.2
the three
shows
Functional
will examine
we
controlling
basic
the
aspects
systems
production
the manufacturing
how
by
layouts.
basic
in
in
their
Figure
are categorized
equipment is organizedon
layouts
tools and
13.1.
manufacturing
illustrated
conceptual
the
by
shop
the
layout,
floor.
form:
layout
Product
layout
Cellular
layout
the functional
departments
according
to the
420
Chapter
developedby
Ford
Henry
13
revolutionized
into the
machines
and
workers
are
in
and
lines,
operations,
possible
positioned
the products move from
to
minor
where
a
is
workplace
workplace
operation
done on the product. The advantage
of the product
line is the high productivity
achieved with a small level of work in progress. The drawbacks of the product
line include limited flexibility
to other types of products
concerning
changing
and
the
of
the
to
breakdowns
and other
vulnerability
production system
line.
in
the
Breakdowns
will
the
whole
line
because only
stoppages
production
stop
industrial
The
manufacturing.
is divided
smallest
buffers
minor
cellular
The
functional
layout
that
is,
the
of the
advantages
and
flexibility
productivity.
the group
technology
concept is used.
is the concept of gathering
into a number of
parts
of the parts. Figure 13.3 showsa conceptual
groups basedon similarities
illustration of GT. The criteria applied for classifyingparts
into part families are
of shape, materials, and manufacturing
For such a
usually similarities
processes.
a manufacturing cell can be establishedcontaining
all the
of parts
family
When
implementing
processes
(GT)
technology
Group
to finish
needed
2.
be
the
within
GT manufacturing
The group
the
flow
of
[64]:
are stand-alone
machines of dissimilar functional
and
dedicated
to
In
of parts.
types
together
producing a family
grouped
cell there is no fixed flow
of materials;
in essence,
the GT manufacturing
cells
Compared
environment.
manufacturing
functional
layout,
cellular
manufacturing
typically
has major
advantages:
1.
70-90%
reduction
2.
75-90%
reduction
reduction
3.
A 65-80%
4.
parts in a family.
A 50-80% reduction
Furthermore,
limitations
in
in
setup
times
of cellular
employees
manufacturing
time
and
because
of
work
the
in progress.
similarities
of the
problems.
quality-related
in production lead
in material handling.
is simplified
on the
are:
and
decentralized,
which
FIGURE
421
Systems
Manufacturing
The concept
13.3
1.
Machine
2.
Flexibility
The
is not
education,
essential
group
technology.
utilization decreases.
as great
to be standardized
is possible.
3.
of
and
as
in
the
motivation,
manufacturing
of just-in-time
(JIT) manufacturing.
manufacturing
the
to Japanese production
can improve
production
layout,
which
family,
of shop-flooremployees
are
benefits.
philosophy
be devoted
GT
and engagement
outlined
Cellular
will
functional
into a
designed
the Japanese
further attention
as to how
cellular
in
key technologies
In a later
section
as
philosophy
planning
and
well
control.
of the
between
Figure 13.4 shows the relationship
part volume and flexibility
Besides
the discussed
production system for these basic layout
configurations.
it also illustrates
how FMS (flexible manufacturing
can
basic layouts,
systems)
of product
combine the strengths
than
better
lines and job-shop manufacturing
the cellular layout.
FMSs
are highly automated computer-controlled
which
because of automation
can produce
small batches with
manufacturingfacilities,
422
13
Chapter
High
Part
volume
Low
Part variety
Flexibility/
FIGURE 13.4
and flexibility
volume
Part
relationship
for
different
the
types of
layout
configurations.
in a later
be discussed
will
chapter.
PRODUCTION
ADVANCED
13.2
The
production.FMStechnology
of mass
the efficiency
section of this
EQUIPMENT
introduction
is
in these
low-cost
floor.
the
areas
the
that
opportunities
manufacturing
and accurate
tools.
machine
developed
1952 the
By
machines reached
productive.These
first
first
stage
next
controlled)
which
NC
machine,
in
they
became
was
were introduced
with
(numerical controlled)
three controlled axes, was
the
the
1960s
NC
the CNC
in
complex
manufacturing
of NC
development
used electronichardware,
improvement
new
industry.
Institute of Technology(MIT).In
where
NC systems
technology. The
systems,
the
Massachusetts
at the
made and
mechanical
have problems
tools
machine
manual
Conventional
have been
Tools
Machine
Advanced
13.2.1
major developments
are opening up for the
early
based
upon
(computer
digital circuit
numerical
1970s. CNC
systems em-
423
Systems
Manufacturing
hardware
NC to
the possibility of
of the advantages
and
are:
features
new
additional
hardware-based
Ease of
the
updating
controller
which securing
software,
the
in
investment
CNC machines
Correction of the
programs
Built-in
Control
of auxiliary
and
pallet
status
and
exchangers
a tool
most
modern
CNC machining centers have
To improve productivity,
tools which
typically containing from 20 to more than a hundred
tool manipulator
can
time for unmanned operation. A built-in
prolong the
the greatest
the tool during production. To gain
advantage from
automaticallychange
advanced facilities are required
in the CNC
tool magazines,
having
large
related
to each tool. Modern CNCs can
controller
to manage
all the information
magazine
a lot
handle
therefore
of tool
such
information,
as:
Tool offset
placement
Tool life
Remaining
tool
life
a comprehensive
task
because
it is
not
unusual
management
is made
less complicated.
Many
controllers
can
operate
with \"sister\"
Chapter 13
424
controller
the
continue
exchanges
automatically
the
that can
tools
identical
tools,
the tool
has expired,
the lifetime
When
with
a \"sister\"
tool, which
can
process.
used to
to
two
schedule,loading
programs,
executing
parts,
a small
shows
13.5
two-pallet changersystem
machining.
of machine
tools is most often done off-line
using
CAD (computer aided design)systems
are computer-based
drawing systems for product modeling. CAM (computeraided manufacturing)
the part programs
for CNC
are computer-based
systems
systems on which
model
of the part to be
machine
tools
can be generated on the basis of a CAD
of CAD/CAM for off-line programming
of CNCs
The application
has
manufactured.
two important
advantages:
Today the
CAD/CAM
1.
programming
systems.
It improves
machine
2.
It
enables
operations
machine
the
while
productivity
developing
development
were
that
of the machine
the part programs.
of programs for
\"impossible\"
tool by
not
taking
up the
complex three-dimensional
to program directly on
the
controller.
The
at
the
\"Simple\" DNC
\"Full\"
DNC
A \"simple\"
protocol
DNC is a
interface available
on
communication
almost
all CNC
interface
based
controllers. Using
on the
this
type
punch-reader
of interface
and
a computer
between
possible to upload and downloadNC programs
as used
The \"simple\"
DNC normally uses serial communication,
the
CNC.
to a computer.
This itself, has some
when connecting a plotter or a printer
it is
disadvantages:
425
Systems
Manufacturing
\342\200\242>\302\273ii*
wm.#0-an
FIGURE
13.5
Typical
1.
noise in a
protocol
computer
remote
enables
center
(Courtesy,
SINDAL
speed
has
not
control
performance
two-pallet
changer,
and
is limited;
transmission of large
programs
can
has
a problem
shop-floor environment.
very
limited
coping
Furthermore
error-correcting
the
electromagnetic
the communication
with
facilities.
is an advanced
communication
protocol enabling the
also
and
download
but
to perform full
to
programs
upload
only
of the CNC controller.Normally,
this type of DNC protocol
that
are available on the controller itself
of all the functions
DNC
\"full\"
magazine,
minutes.
communication
The
with tool
machining
communication
The
take several
2.
#a**\"vi
protocol
Chapter13
426
from
can be purchased
as
systems
manufacturing
At present most
This
communication
protocol.
vendorsof
causes
automation
a set of
machine
protocol),
of manufacturing.
satisfying the needs
available on various types of
to be
instructions
coupling
has been
Today,MAP
standard
Organization)
tools,
enables
MAP
CNC
is necessary.
have a proprietary
integrated
MAP specifies
equipment;
of the
controllers
CNC
manufacturingequipment.
Robots
Industrial
13.2.2
The technologyof
the
revolutionize
has matured,
robots
industrial
and robots
are beginning
in applications
useful
to
such as:
Material handling
painting
Spray
Spot welding
Arc welding
Inspection
Assembly
It is
presented
in
industrial
to define
difficult
robot
the
literature.
as a
move materials,
what
is a
robot and
The Robot
\"re-programmable
what
Institute
of
is not.
America
multi-functional
specialized
Many definitions
(RIA) defines an
manipulator
devices
through
designed
are
to
variable
of tasks.\"
The technology of
performance of a variety
but differs somewhat, since robots
to NC technology
include
robots is related
more
in
axes.
needs
six
axes
and
movement
the
robot
velocities
Basically,
higher
reacha
in
to
with
a
orientation
of motion
of
freedom)
(or degrees
point
specific
classified
into
three
The
be
firstIndustrial
robots
can
generations.
space.
control strategies and are often
simple
relatively
generation robots follow
robots
are
robots. The feedbackdevicesof these
referred
to as \"pick-and-place\"
for
each
axes
of
motion.
The
secondof
switches
and
limit
stoppers
simply pairs
devices
controlled in closed loops
computerized
generation robots are generally
programmed
motions
for the
427
Systems
Manufacturing
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 13.6
The Cartesian
by
of the
Two
manipulator.
robots have a
These
servo-drivers.
flexibility.
The
of making
decisions
third-generation
and
captured
as
transducers,
and
and
referred
to as
by sensors such
so on. It is second-
system
motion.
the
industrial
\"intelligent\"
based
motions
force
cameras,
capable
upon
and pressure
that are usually
robots
third-generation
13.6
robot can
differ
much
very
classified according to
has
manipulator or arm), which
can be
robots
frame
main
Figure
an
of
Structurally
the
vision
devices
industrial robots.
The appearance
of
are more
unprogrammed
generating
and control
of programming
level
high
robots
information
robot.
(a) The
(the
two of the
illustrates
four
coordinate
basic
from robot to
the
coordinate
axes of
systems in
three
robots:
industrial
\342\200\242
The
\342\200\242
The
consists
manipulator
in Figure 13.6.
cartesian
as shown
cylindrical
axis.
Typically
in turn,
which
annular
the
consists
manipulator
a horizontal column
is mounted on a rotary
of two
is mounted
base.
axes
linear
Thus
on
axes,
and one
a vertical
the working
rotary
column,
volume is
of a cylinder.
coordinate robot consists
space
\342\200\242
The
\342\200\242
The
Most
spray
spherical
articulated
robots
industrial
painting,
manipulator
spot
are
welding,
used for
automating
deburring, and so
repetitive
on, and
processes
robots
many
such as
are never
Chapter 13
428
flexibility of
least
utilize
the
only a few robot applications fully
The programming of robots
can be done in several ways; at
methods
are commonly used in robotics:
Therefore,
reprogrammed.
the robots.
four
programming
Manual
teaching
Lead-through teaching
languages
Programming
off-line
Computer-aided
programming
systems.
and
simplest
Teaching is done by
coordinates
the
or other
parts
products.
to describe the
are
descriptive
languages enabling one
end-effector in order to perform a specific
in the
similar to the languages known
NC
high-level
of the
movement
very
programming.
is the generation
of robot programs by
Computer-aided off-line programming
based on a geometric model
of the part and the environment
in
which
the specific task is going to be carried out. These off-line
programming
to the CAM systems for machine
similar
(e.g., ROBCAD) are very
packages
and
tool programming
the CAD
they can also be integrated with
systems, in
which products and facility
are modeled.
layouts
is heavily focused on creating a \"smart\"
robot
that
Development in robotics
and consequently
make decisions based on the artificial
can hear, see, and touch
a computer,
sense
In principle
organs.
the
achieve
is to
goal
human's
the
to sense and
ability
In
much research and development
sense impressions.
arc
welding
have beencarried out to develop efficient sensor systems for searching/tracking
the
a high-quality
many
securing
welding
types of joints as well as continuously
seam. These systems can apply techniques
for
as different as vision
systems
and measurement or dedicated laser-basedtracking
localization
for
systems
to react to
arc welding.
case
industrial
An
found
roboticsis
at Odense
This
industrial
has
research
complicate
in
oil
story showing
Steel
been an
use
a world
as
robots
of robotics for
Steel Shipyard
important
arc
for
welding
automation
of arc
given considerable
goal
leader
in
application
arc welding.
in
of
applications
in Denmark.
Ltd.
At Odense
tankers.
robots has
state-of-the-art
many
Shipyard
the
attention.
as well
as
Several circumstances
shipbuilding
industry:
429
Systems
Manufacturing
The
relative
* The
part cannot
to the ship
be moved during
the process;
section being manufactured.
move
sensor
provides a need for advanced
process adjustments.
* Because
few welding
of robot
seams are identical, the number
very
becomes
and
is
enormous
off-line
programming necessaryif
programs
utilization
of
be
the
robots
is
to
achieved.
satisfactory
variancein
quality
of joints
on-line
for
systems
on a three-dimensional
an
CAD
HICADEC,
system,
on
which
three-dimensional
system
complete
models can be generatedand checked
an
for design errors. From the CADmodel
IGES processor
an
IGES
(Initial
generates
Graphics Exchange Specifications)
and robot
file of the section to be welded. Using the off-lineprogramming
simulation
is
whether
or
a
can
be welded
it
tested
not
ROBCAD,
software,
joint
The
are modeled
ships
for shipbuilding
CAD
advanced
in production. If it is possible,
the programs are
or
the
simulation
the
software,
using
design of the ship
section can
be changed to enable robot welding.
used in daily
robots
Odense
Steel Shipyard has about 30 arc welding
Today,
a
or
robots
are
on
two
three
of
mounted
the
production. Typically,
gantry from
cavities
be welded.
be
and
to
which
can
lowered
into
the
different
sections
they
robots
shows
such
an
in
with
two
Hirobo
mounted
13.7
installation
action
Figure
on a gantry\342\200\224both
robots
are welding on large ship sections and
are operated
of the Hirobo welding
of one
robots
by one worker. Figure 13.8 showsa close-up
available
robots
the
using
verified
and
generated
in action.
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURINGSYSTEMS
13.3
Manufacturing
The
of flexible
purpose
of mass
efficiency
A FMS
production
Process
Material
equipment
handling
guided
e.g., machine
equipment
A communication
A computer control
in
e.g.,
tools, assembly
robots,
and
stations,
conveyors,
and
robots
AGVs
system
system
not
automated
directly
say that the system should be fully
controlled since there are a number
of other
means for being
But over the years FMS has become the acronym
for the
manufacturing.
name
FMS does
and computer
flexible
13.4).
vehicles)
The
the
encompasses:
typically
(automated
is to achieve
(FMS)
systems
for
batch
lines)
(product
production (see Figure
manufacturing
Chapter 13
430
Picture
of robots
Steel Shipyard.
(Courtesy,
13.7
FIGURE
at Odense
automated
fully
mounted
future.
is not
FMS
a gantry, welding on a
Steel Shipyard.)
as well,
really new. An
system
manufacturing
factory of the
on
Odense
as it
large
a vision
represents
installation
ship
established
section
of the
in
England
use of
during
enables
fixtures
different
the transportation
the
parts
of materials
within
Transport
production.
In
most
number
of
system.
systems
it is
carried
out
to
by
an unmanned
an AGV,
which is
and flexible
a computer
controlled
vehicle
431
Systems
Manufacturing
\\
/.'
1
'*'\342\226\240!
\\
ii
,e
f
t
ff, %
#*?**
FIGURE 13.8
in FMS
porters
welding. (Courtesy,
OdenseSteelShipyard.)
operations.
The
machining
CNC machines.
and
robot
are used in
robots
similar
Hirobo
*0:
drilling)
The
because
432
Chapter
r~Fixture
\342\226\240
Symbols
elements
I Loading
13
area
/VDNC
/\"^Terminal
7(3)
Operator
Storage for:
-parts
palettes
IPLCJ
A^
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
13.9
FIGURE
The
components
the transporter.
Here palettes of turning
from
Turning
parts
in a
typical Flexible
are
in some
can
centers
moved
Manufacturing
System.
to a fixed position
take the parts one by
near
the
a FMS.
machine
Figure
An automated
in
the
13.9).
FMS.
system
system to
run
is very often
(AS/RS)
or two unmanned
one
integrated
shifts
with
loaded into
on palettes
parts are fixtured
the system and stored in the AS/RS waiting for available capacity on the
can move the part
When the process is finished,the transporter
machines
required.
back to the AS/RSwhere it waits for the next process or to be unloaded from the
next morning.
The fully unmanned
FMS when the workforce reports for work
will always
most
cases
or
more
in
one
FMSs
is
of
rare;
operators
very
operation
situations
be present, not so much to intervene in critical
(this is normally done
control system) but to correct minor faults and
automatically
by the computer
with
the
possible utilization.
highest
system running
keep
reduced
shift
raw
433
Systems
Manufacturing
HOSTUNK
FMS
Control Software
Scheduler
FMS
Database
Transport
Reports
Monitor
Dispatcher
DNC
Load/
Storage
Tool
Unload
control
management
AS/RS
AGV&
Load
Robots
terminal
Tool pre-setting
Machine
machine
tools
&
Tool transporter
FIGURE
The
center
Diagram of
13.10
control
from
is
different
carry out many
that has been carried out
computer
rather
FMS control
in advanced
functions
in the
the
running
and
sophisticated
task
in
simultaneously.
Despite
this area, there is no general
the
system is
control
controlledand
FMS are
complicated
FMS
software.
since
considerable
the
The
monitored.
it
has
to
research
of FMS software.
Sometypical functions
of a FMS control system are illustrated
in Fig.
13.10.
how
The scheduler function
involves
to
current
the
volume
of
planning
produce
orders in the FMS, considering
status
of machine
the current
work-intools,
and so on. The scheduling can be done automatically
fixtures,
progress,tooling,
or can be assisted by an operator.
Most FMS control systems combineautomatic
and manual
the
scheduling;
system generatesan initial schedule that then can be
the
involves
out
changed
manually
by
operator. The dispatcherfunction
carrying
the schedule and coordinating the activities
on the shop floor, that
is, deciding
when and where to transport
when to start
on a machining
a pallet,
a process
and so on. The monitor
is concerned
with monitoring work
function
center,
alarm messages,
and so on, and providing
status,
progress, machine
input to the
functions
and
architecture
messages.
and palettes
within
the
as
generating
various
A transport
multiple
of parts
vehicles,
434
Chapter
13
control
a critical
logic can become rather sophisticatedand become
routing
at the
part of the FMS control software. A load/unload module with a terminal
which parts to introduce to the system
and
loading area showsthe operators
enables
or her to update the status
of the control system when
him
are ready
parts
for collection at the loading area. A storage control module
an account of
keeps
which
are stored in the AS/RS as well
as their
exact location. The tool
parts
module
an account of all relevant
data and the actual
tool
management
keeps
the
by
required
FMS at
13.3.2
Most
their
and
highly
companies
Fanuc
large FMS
the
of
manufacturers,
involved
customer.
installations
undoubtedly because
need the installations as
sophisticated
automation
in manufacturing
in
industry
they
are
working
are found at
mastering
all the
machine
tool
technologies
of the
showrooms
the
capabilities of
is one of
the
leading
automation
factory
automation
success
the
company
products. The Fanuc
FMS
stories of our time. They have several highly automated factories applying
their own products.
to manufacture
To illustrate the state-of-the-art in FMS,
Fig. 13.12 shows one of the Fanuc
in
This factory has a
the
Factory.
plants
Japan,
Machining
manufacturing
such
for
some
as robots and wireof
1100
Fanuc
products,
parts
machining
capacity
was started in 1980 as the first
cut EDMs, each month. The Machining
Factory
unmanned
in Japan to adopt a FMS, which
enabled
facility
operation during the
435
Systems
Manufacturing
FIGURE 13.11
and
transportation
Mazak
FMS
turn-key
system. (Courtesy,
storage
with
with
night. The system later on was enhanced
which has enabled continuous
controllers,
even through
factory is another
floor,
assembly
an automatic
with
together
\"Fanuc
for
Cell
60\"
72 hours,
floors. Materialsstored in
by AGVs,
cell,
manufacturing
facility
and machined
machining
the latest
operation
automated
highly
of 25,000
area,
second
a capacity
has
is located
and
machining
five of
unmanned
integrated
weekends.
motor
Fanuc's
month
and an
management
Machine
tools A/S.)
tool
SINDAL
the
and
automatic
unmanned
machining
between
the two
are supplied to each
carried out at night
using
components
warehouse
is
robots.
handling
the
output
To
1972
and NC
controllers.
machine
ISO MAP
in
Machine
floor.
shop
machining
look
Finally,
information
on
MAP interfaces at
to the international
standard.
illustrate
was $51
period the
number
of Fanuc Ltd.
in automation, the operating
revenue
it had
risen to $1378 million in 1990.
For the same
615 to 1810. This is an outstandof employees only rose from
the potential
million, and
436
Chapter
13
L*
\342\204\242*A-*^.t^.
.\302\243
(
IV
>4
ft1*-
\"?/,#v
fr
.*&
*&&\302\273\342\226\240
Inside Fanuc
13.12
products each month.
(Courtesy,
FIGURE
Factory producing
GE Fanuc Automation Europe
Machining
parts
for
some
1100 Fanuc
S.A.)
\342\226\240!\302\273
\342\200\224r*r
*
\302\273
*.!*\342\226\240\302\253
\342\226\240
?**
i.
.1
ij
h~
-'VA--.
*
'*.
B3**;
\342\226\240^-v-'v;
'
\342\226\240*\342\226\240;\342\226\240\342\200\242
f
,\\
f #*\"
\342\226\240''
\302\253
.'\342\226\240**:
--- i
,^;:
-''*\\ii
'-jy,
\302\273^'
\"-&T--/' '/'-'ft
/
'*^
'
/\342\226\240\342\226\240
:^-.'
FIGURE
S.A.)
13.13
Inside Fanuc's
motor
factory.
(Courtesy,
GE
Fanuc
Automation
Europe
Manufacturing
and
achievement
ing
technology
437
Systems
within
is largely
production
The Hierarchical
13.3.3
due to
and
the
successful
of advanced
application
products.
Nature of ProductionControl
in
automation
and discussing
production control and factory
and CIM (computer integrated
FMS
manufacturing systems applying
it is convenient to put the many planning and
manufacturing)
technologies
control activities
in a hierarchical perspective, with
the overall
strategic planning at
the
at the bottom.
top and the operational control of manufacturing
processes
The
There are several
for such a hierarchical model(seeFig.13.15).
candidates
two most important
Bureau of Standards) now
are formulated by NBS (National
NIST
in the United
called
Institute of Standards and Technology)
(National
States (the NBS-model)
and by ISO (International
Standardizations
which
of control
an international standards for the definition
Organization),
proposed
When
describing
advanced
levels
in
advanced
recognizes
manufacturing
systems
five levels, namely, facility,
(the ISO-model)[59].The
shop,
NBS-model
and equipment.
model, namely,
workstation,
cell,
in their
and includes six levels
cell, workstation, equipment. These
in planning and
of references
hierarchical
models
have mainly been used as frames
but they are also
of computer integrated manufacturing
systems,
implementation
applicablefor discussing
planning and control activities in general.
production
It is relevant to discuss the definition
of manufacturing
control levels because
these include
of the terms often used in the literature
some
and in descriptions
has
The ISO-model
enterprise,
facility
of commercialproducts
the hierarchical
a layer
added
/plant,
section/area,
for
factory
In Fig.
automation.
13.15 an
illustration
of
It illustrates
according to the ISO-model.
the fundamental
that each control function
characteristics,
(at level n)
namely,
controls a minor
set of functions
at the lower level (level n \342\200\224
1). The typical
tasks and responsibilities
at the different levels are as follows:
\342\200\242
structure
control
Enterprise
is presented
includes
the overall
strategic planning
for
the
of
portfolio planning,
strategy,
in the enterprise. The manufacturing
control
carried out
at the enterprise level is responsible
for
achievement
of the
mission of the enterprise;
its planning
horizon
is measured in years and should
not
be changed
too often.
\342\200\242
control
is
It
Facility
responsible for implementing the enterprise
strategy.
includes such functions
as manufacturing
and product engineering,
information management,
and other long-term
production
management,
is product
divisions
between
enterprise. This
work
activities
\342\200\242
Area
and running
controlling
control
is responsible for
in
coordination
operates
of
within
production
a horizon
and division
market
manufacturing
the allocation
facility.
of resourcesand
on the
level
level
the
typically
is also often
Chapter 13
438
the
Inside
13.14
FIGURE
(Courtesy, GE
Factory.
titled \"shop
Automation
level\" and
called \"production
the
below.
the levels
and
control
of Fanuc
department
machining
Fanuc
activity
term
In
control.\"
within
Machine
Molding
\"shop-floor
U.S.
the
workstations
Injection
S.A.)
Europe
cell. This
on job routings,
dispatching
jobs to individual
and
of
the
condition
of workstations.
monitoring
jobs
working
\342\200\242
is responsible for the coordination of tasks to be
control
Workstation
carried out
on a workstation to perform a job assigned
to the workstation.
within
a
time
horizon
This function
of
milliseconds
to hours.
operates
\342\200\242
level realizes the physical execution of taskson a machine.
In
Equipment
making
decisions
workstations,and
relation to a machine
controllercontrolling
COMPUTER
13.4
The
concept
parallel
with
product
tool, this
level
will
typically
or a
integrated manufacturing
concept, and often the two
system
so on.
INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
of computer
the FMS
of axes,
movement
that
can
be
was developed
(CIM)
concepts
purchased,
and
are mixed
it
is
in
up. CIM
therefore
less
is not
well
439
Systems
Manufacturing
Enterprise
Facility
Area
Cell
Workstation
EQUIPMENT
Equipment
FIGURE 13.15
defined than
hierarchical
CONTROL
of the
perspective
model.
control
manufacturing
defined
as a strategy of using
information
to
and improve
manner
integrate
manufacturing
functions
strategic
technology
been
one
of
the
discussed
the flow
CIM has
most
topics in
of information.
is
less
attention
CIM
the
1980s.
Today,
attracting
manufacturing
spheres
during
it has become
and information
because
a matter of course to apply computers
functions. CIM has to a wide extent been
technology in almost all manufacturing
which
succeeded
such
concurrent
as
engineering,
basically
by concepts
the same
and
the
addresses
to
flow of information
problems:
improve
speed up
But concurrent engineering focuses
within
the
manufacturing
organization.
more
on the organizational
than the
and product design aspects of integration
in a
application
and
of
implementation
with
different
CIM,
a company-specific
the mechanical
areas
in CIM
of computer
interfacing
and
management,
technology.
of
systems.
of views on
a computer integrated
system. Looking at
electromechanical
implementation.
to be integrated
with
each
The business information
activities',
points
there are
system
the
ends
some
main
typical
areas which
CIM.
main
obtain
the
covers
all factory-level
designation
and
planning
have
control
financial
production planning,
purchasing,
first
and so on. These activities were the
to utilize information
Because
business
area tends to be conservative,many
administration
the systems
inventory
implemented were
control,
a direct computerization
of
old
up
within
enterprises
manufacturing
industry,
practice,
system,
manufacturing
is. In
CIM
what
paper-based
Chapter 13
440
The Business
Information
System
Computer
Computer
Computer
Integrated
Aided
Aided
Manufacturing
Design
Manufacturing
floor
Shop
Control
System
The main
areas
management systems. A
major
13.16
FIGURE
(see
IS years and
the
with
[63].
enhancement
systems
planning
for planning and controlling large
the next section).
possibilities
during the
CIM concept
the
materials
computer-based
enterprises
within
a period
appearance
complex manufacturing
of tremendous development
of low-cost workstations and
CAD
computers,
technology
with
the
overall
The most
activities
Communication
production
important
into a
systems
management system.
for
technologies
computer
CIM system
networks
CAD
for
are
enable
computer
us to
integrating
networks
distribute
the
manufacturing
and database
applications
and
technology.
exchange
in-
441
Systems
Manufacturing
EDI to
customers
and
Mainframe/Mid-range
\\
Product
development
suppliers
Administration
tioT]
Bridge
CI-
CW^\342\200\224
Scheduling
Bridge
Tool management
FMS&
Cell
control
QQOoaua
DOQQQQQ
floor
Shop
FIGURE
The computer
13.17
PLC's
terminals
CNC's
a typical
Figure 13.17 illustrates
computer
most
of the manufacturing activities are
carried out using various computer support tools. As illustrated,
the enterprise
is fully network
distributed
integrated,
enabling the different
systems
computer
to exchange data and accessthe common
database.
Interface problems and lack
of communication
have represented
standards
the main difficulties in realizing
formation
throughout
the enterprise.
integration
specifying
standards
communicationwith
hardware
computer
for communication
external
organizations
(e.g., customer,
vendors, forwarding
agen-
442
13
Chapter
cies,
taxation
and
This communication
authorities).
with
external
organizations
requisitions,
orders,
quotations,
inviting
invoices).
and
telecommunication
distributedto
In
most
countries
EDI
of
service
ensure
of
trade
13.5 EFFICIENTMANUFACTURING
Until
now,
focused on the
layout,
facility
systems:
manufacturing
sections
how
these
mechanisms
(from Fig. 13.1) in
advanced CNC equipment,
robotics,
FMS,
will discuss
the principles in production
influence
the overall efficiency of
production
systems.
First,
one can
ask
be given
answer can
the
question:
What
is efficient
manufacturing?
No
single
on the enterprise in
question. Efficiency will depend
be
defined
the
can
as
ratio between the
Generally
question.
speaking, efficiency
the value of the
and
of the produced output
resources
value
organizational
an efficient manufacturer
is not
activities.
needed in the manufacturing
Being
can
in
a
is
time.
It
a
of
how
just
many
produce
given
just as
question
parts you
to this
of the products
to the customer
and
of how to enhance the value
The value qualities of a product
will differ
from
needs of the customer.
will be related to properties of the physical
they
product to product. Normally,
well
the
as
as
services
before, during, and after the sale. Some
product
provided
of the value qualities are:
much
a question
meet the
Product
price
Product
reliability
Manufacturing
Product
design
Product
lifetime
quality
Maintenance cost
Product
customization
Speed
of delivery
Delivery
Volume
reliability
flexibility
443
Systems
Manufacturing
Looking only
the
at
activities
production
The
value
process
materials
into
be labeled
of input
can
productivity
or workstation
of
definition
manufacturing
raw
transforming
activities can
of output
value
\342\200\224- \342\200\224
Productivity
of these
be applied on different
(e.g., a machining
levels:
center),
a single
a department
the
industry
the
men,
needed was reduced from 600
These principles of scientific
Bethlehem
productivity
by matching
and distance
to throw.
height,
to 140.
management
and
of
by Henry Ford by the introduction
innovation
was the breakthrough for industrialism,
developed further
This
to traditional
tradesman-oriented
productivity,
and
founded
by
been\342\200\224and
philosophy
in
changed.The
in
dominating
production
places still is\342\200\224a
management
world. Today, the market
as well as society have
Western
basic
needs for material goods are fulfilled
in the industrial
world,
many
the
customers
and
on-time
implementing
activities.
and
1980s,
are demanding
delivery,
new
ways
Most of the
and
old
substantial
difficulty
in changing
and becoming
Chapter13
444
newer Asian
the
with
competitive
within
section
will discuss
13.6
the
of the
principles
MRP
by
there are
Because
and
assistance
and complex
different
products,
the
of
planning
of
It consists
automobile.
an
instance,
so many
succeeding
13.6.1 ProductionPlanning
purchasing
is most
This
enterprises.
manufacturing
the automotive
significant
without
for
of components\342\200\224some
thousands
manufacturedin-house,
MRP
The
technique
the
product
(level 0) we
successively
and/or
materials
raw
of the
needed
produce
end
one
product,
at level 1. Each of
shown
lower
and
end
the
have
are
subassemblies
effectivemanagement
at a detailed level.
is built around a bill of materials
in a
as seen
structure of a lamp
of
inventories
manufacturing
illustrates
a computer-based
realized
licky
purchased
levels, ending at
purchased parts.
as
fundamental
product.
well
these
BOM
the
At
components
level
divided
into
which
components,
must
top
and/or
is similarly
levels
fundamental
the
also include
the
are
quantities
intermediate components to
are typed at each branch
quantities
as the
13.18the
In Fig.
immediate
its
Figure 13.18
(BOM).
BOM.
in
BOM.
the
The MRP
requirements
calculationtakes the
finished
for
products
master
in the
LevelO
Level
Level
production
coming period
schedule
of
time
giving
(e.g.,
the
a total
pe-
Lamp
Base
Shade
assernbm
(Socket
assembly
Socket
Wiring
1
Shaft
1
Plate
Hub
Screws
Holder
3m
1.4 m
Level 3
Tubing
FIGURE
13.18
Wire
Simplified
assembly
Bill
of Materials
structure of a lamp.
Terminals
445
Systems
Manufacturing
calculates
the gross requirements for subassembliesand
is carried out on all products
BOM. When this calculation
in the company,
are added
the gross requirements
manufactured
up, providing
each week (or
for all subassemblies
and components
the
total
gross requirements
in stock and the scheduled
into account the amount
materials
each
day).
Taking
the net requirements can be calculated.
deliveries of materials from
suppliers,
These net requirements
give the amount of materials and componentsto
as well as the production orders to be produced
purchase
in-house.
The
follows
the \"push-principle.\"
The MRP type of production planning
These
orders
and/or forecasts tell the need for finished
incoming
products.
requirements for
finished
down,
products are then broken
by the MRP calculation,to
down to the
orders and purchase needs, which
are \"pushed\"
production
of
departments and
handling the various production phases.The coordination
suppliers
activities is centralized in the production
shop-floor
planning department and
often
the periodic MRP calculation.This is in direct contrast to the principle
applied in JIT (just-in-time) production.
riod of
and
months)
in the
components
almost
all large
modeled
MRP
planning
Production processes
FIGURE
13.19
The push
principle.
Chapter 13
446
Production
orders
Productionprocesses
then
A pull
13.20
FIGURE
on actual
was a two-card
basic
of
principle
a minor
buffer
are divided
into
of components
and subassemblies
parts
pulls
based
system.
manufacturing
stages
Motor Corporation
is
Kanban
the
word
for card). The
(Kanban
system
Japanese
Kanban is that each manufacturing
the
at
stage
assembly line has
in
the
of
the
used
storage
components
assembly
process. These
batches,
by a container, and each batch
typically
represented
is attached
are consumed
at the
to a Kanban. When
components
developed
system
at Toyota
manufacturing
The
cells
an
itself through
controls
is very
the
as well be used
for
of Kanbans.
flow
concept of
the
supply
manufacturing
of components
the
basic configuration
Figure 13.21 illustrates
suppliers.
dedicated
to
cells
pulling components from manufacturing
The major advantages of the Kanban
specific part families.
from
line
assembly
production of
system
system
and
of
Kanban
are:
\342\200\242
is
Many
have
JIT and a
investigated
Kanban
the size
of the logisticsadvantages
control
production
system.
90% reduction
of
production
50% reduction
of
plant
floor
lead time
force
needed
Some
typical
gained
figures
by applying
are [61]:
447
Systems
Manufacturing
\342\200\224\\
Manufacturing
cells
L-A
\302\245
\302\245
\302\245
Assembly
line
C3-t\302\273
Cellular
13.21
FIGURE
reduction
50-60%
are some
in a JIT
layout
system
production
system.
manufacturing
of indirect costs
75-90% improvement
There
\302\245
of
quality
preconditionsfor
a Kanban
applying
system:
Repetitive production:
Steady
be
Kanban
environment,
manufacturing
10%.
around
times: If the cells must be able to operate with small batches and
react quickly to need at the assemblylines, setup times have to be small.
in process
and delivery times: Componentswith,
for example,
a
Uniformity
Such
delivery time of half a year cannot be controlled with Kanban.
to be purchased using
have
forecasts
that may reduce the
components
of Kanban.
possibility of successful
application
Small setup
THE JAPANESE
13.7
The previous
manufacturing
and
have
many
of JIT
realization
seen.
Kanban
Lack
cases of
has been
production
of awareness
JIT
implementation
but
systems
that
systems
planning
can
continue
base
to
MRP.
PHILOSOPHY
PRODUCTION
section discussedhow
system.
of manufacturing
number
on a Kanban
their production planning
be a need for push-orientedproduction
a Kanban
pull system
a key
element
other
factors
of these factors
in Western
operates
has
in
a JIT
industrial success
have facilitated the success we
of
been a reason for the failure
in Japanese
enterprises.
Chapter 13
448
is JIT. Basically,
JIT is a
production philosophy
that we must eliminate all waste in all
focus on production this can be put down to a set of
of Japanese
foundation
The
saying
philosophy
manufacturing
With
activities.
manufacturing
goals:
operational
\342\200\242
defects
\342\200\242
Zero
\342\200\242
Zero
setup time
inventories
\342\200\242
Zero
material
\342\200\242
Zero
machine
\342\200\242
Zero
lead
Zero
\342\200\242
Batch
sizes
Of cause, many
each other.
But
transportation
breakdown
time
of one
these
of
objectives
is one
this
are
productionphilosophy\342\200\224we
of the
important
never
good
characteristics
enough,
in
direct
opposition
of Japanese
improvements can
always
to
be
for
made.
The seven listed items all represent important
areas
improvement
for
In Japan some tools and techniques
systems.
eliminating waste in production
discussion
reducing waste in these areas have been developed. In the following
we will stress a few of the areas where Japanese enterprises have applied
different
Western
than
approaches
enterprises.
The Kanban
and cellular manufacturing
are important
tools used
system
pull
to reduce the inventories (and especiallywork-in-progress),material
But in purchasing
and supplier
transportation, lead
time, and batch sizes to a minimum.
have
also
broken
the
with
management,
enterprises
Japanese
paradigms
in Western
which prefer to have a number of suppliers
prevailing
enterprises,
in getting
an order. In general,
in big ordering
this has been shown
to result
competing
The
so
on.
is
to reduce the
and
Japanese philosophy
quantities, pure quality,
number of suppliersto one or a few, which
are regarded
as partners and linked
to the company
agreements. Furthermore, suppliers are chosen
by long-term
deliver
small
batches
from
them
to
just in time for the assembly
nearby,
enabling
is
in
used
line. Close cooperation
with
also
suppliers
product
development.
a new car, the suppliers are
When Toyota Motor Company is developing
at a very early stage; for example, when
are finished for
involved
specifications
is
of
the
over
to the
brake
the
detailed
handed
the
system,
design
system
the
best
its
and
which
has
supplier,
knowledge regarding
production
capabilities
under the conditions
of
therefore can design the subsystem
for manufacturing
at
the
production
specific supplier plant.
is another area where new
have been applied.
control
Quality
approaches
Quality
manufacturing,
of
raw
with
for inspection
line. Their
quality
materials
of
incoming
is a
and
processes
manufacturing
and inventories
buffers
goods;
is essential
reduced to a minimum.
they
responsibility of the
in JIT
is no time
are supplied directly to the assembly
and based on the relationship
supplier
There
449
Systems
Manufacturing
of trust
gained
the
through
The production
to the lowest
supplier.
control
quality
between
collaboration
long-term
responsibility
and
manufacturer
is delegated
the
down
the
of huge
production
possible level to eliminate
with
bad quality. The operators are responsiblefor the
batches of components
of parts produced at their
and they are educated and
workstation,
quality
provided
the
tools
for
the
right
produced,
planning the actions
controlling
parts
organization
and implementing
needed,
supervisor.
Furthermore,
these correctionswithout
are a deeplyrooted
circles
quality
enterprises.
manufacturing
who
meet on a regular basis
Japanese
discussinghow
educate
the
Japanese companies
participants
employees
quality.
systematic
for problem
techniques
Western
Many
solving
have tried to
enterprises
are
that
of the
part
circle
quality
from
assistance
is a
group
improve
of quality
copy someof
to their
the
in
5 to
of
to
essential
culture
many
10
manufacturing
circles
in
achievements.
Japanese
CONCLUSIONS
13.8
This
equipment
discussed
has
chapter
efficiency
many of
the
technologies
and
of manufacturing
and
manufacturing
the job shop
their
system,
and
the
which
productivity
combine
characteristics
the
of mass
aspects
modern
including
of
high
affecting
the
production
the
flexible
flexibility
of
production.
that
the quality
of production
has a major impact
on the efficiency
of the manufacturing
in general.
The fundamental production planning
enterprise
approaches
push and
control techniques MRP and Kanban)
have
pull (illustrated by the production
been described.
Attention
planning
and
has
control
also
14
Cleaner
14.1
Manufacturing
INTRODUCTION
demands
at
the
time.
same
design
takes
actually
concurrent
the production,
In the
production phase,
optimized
[65].
must be
appliedso that
requirements
are
all
environmental,
materials,processes,systems,
occupational
health,
and
and
so on,
resource
fulfilled.
451
Chapter 14
452
question
now
sections,
some
discussed;
do we make
is, \"How
The
following
further
In the
will be
in
cleaner?\"
manufacturing
cleaner
stimulate
design
technologies
approachcan be found
[65].
Ailing
MANUFACTURING
CLEANER
14.2
The
term
with
minimal
cleaner
and occupational
necessitates
of creating production
an attitude
implies
manufacturing
environmental
health
application
decision
The
damages.
of some
of the
to
following
guidelines.
process uses
A manufacturing
materials
Raw
materials
Secondary
(chemicals,
etc.)
water,
Energy
Information
to produce
Useful products
of
Waste
Waste of
materials
raw
secondarymaterials
of energy
Waste
Emissions to
water,
air,
the
and
(pollution)
ground
which
goal
primary
secondary
\"products.\"
of raw
Waste
materials means
that
raw material
all incoming
not
is utilized
and
gates
and so on, are undesired
much energy, pollution
Since production
of raw materials
requires
byproducts.
of air, water, and ground
is the result.
Therefore it is very important to utilize
in
the
product
on
since\342\200\224depending
materials
raw
create
which
products,
unacceptable
degreasing agents,cooling
dangerous
working
more
fluids,
or less
such
materials
cooling
pollution
Most processesproduce
on. To
establish
lubricants,
(plating), and so
as well as
conditions.
as chemicals,
Often
various
cutoffs,
processes\342\200\224chips,
efficiently.
Most processes
on,
the
various
emissions:
water,
it is
oil and
noise,
oil
vibrations,
vapor
from
radiation
necessary to focus on
the
and so
sources
Cleaner
environmental
producing
to
necessary
In
creating
453
Manufacturing
the
focus
a few
will be
manufacturing
internal
company
PROCESSES
MATERIALS
AND
At
the
It is
outlined.
SELECTIONOF MANUFACTURING
14.3
also
and
(materials
energy).
programs
aiming at
conditions.
working
the resources
of
utilization
discussion
following
cleaner
and unsafe
pollution
on efficient
stage
design
what happens
all the main
in the
Material
utilization
efficiency
Energy
and setup
Equipment
Chemicals,
Emissions
etc.,
lubricants,
to be
used
Exposureof
the
operator
and
vapor,
(substances\342\200\224solid/liquid,
in setup,
their
waste
operation,
properties
water, aerosols,
etc.)
repair/maintenance
Ergonomy
Risk
of accidents
Environmental
pollution
If a specific
material or
environmental
responsibility
of
violated.
the
it is
up
occupational
to
the
measures
necessary
processinvolves
potentials,
pollution
health
manufacturing
risks and
engineer to take
It is
the
the
and directives
are
454
Chapter14
In
waste is produced
will show that
analysis
much
manufacturing,
paid to it.
careful
waste
systematic
not
often
and
much
money
enough attention
can be saved by
is
management.
Waste from
Cutoffs,
PROGRAM
REDUCTION
WASTE
14.4
include
may
manufacturing
products or
unacceptable
components
Chips
Worn-out
Used
toolings
lubricants, coolants,
chemicals,
etc.
water
Waste
water
Cooling
Packaging
In
It
most
can
waste adds
companies
that a waste management
manufacturing
be recommended
records of
Makes detailed
Sets up
programs jointly
Use raw
volume of
material.
be formed
organization
that
waste
any
personnel to:
involved
the
with
a large
to
up
better
materials
etc.
Save expensive chemicals, lubricants,
waste by recycling,
use of water and minimize
Reduce
polluted
of pollutants by filtration,
reverse
osmosis, electrolysis,
Reduce cooling
the
(utilize
heat)
or recirculate
extraction
etc.
cooling
water
(heat
exchanger)
Keep waste
reworking
A systematically
and
pollution,
clean\342\200\224do
of
the
not
program
applied waste management
creates
better working conditions.
14.5
Energy
saving
The
must
process
Support
Heating
wastes since
chemical
mix
this
later
prevents
chemicals
be aimed
at
all
levels
saves
where energy
money,
is used, such
prevents
as:
equipment
functions
(hydraulics,
compressed
air)
Lighting
Often
these
in
has
hydraulic
compressed
air,
systems
pumps
several
has built-in
evaluated. Idle energy
is often spent
for lubricants,
in
pressure
functions
may
reduction
Each of
Idle
energy
high.
using energy.
be too
valves,
excess
CleanerManufacturing
455
functions
Support
heating systems,
may
so on.
in
14.6
POLLUTION
analysis
rarely
doors,
improving
by
and so
heat,
are only
on.
is
Light
often leads to
30-40%
consumption.
MINIMIZATION
prevention is of major
and described. And
on pollution
focusing
must be investigated
program
source
pollution
waste
reduced
systems,
cooling
cranes,
air,
Energy analyses
can often be
in buildings
Heating
performed.
involve compressed
degreasingsystems,and
importance.
of reduction
measures must be performed.The best
reduction is carried out at the source.
Pollution includes emissionssent to air, water, and
Every
source, an
and most cost-effective
for
analysis
each
as
ground
well
as
the waste
from
14.7
CONDITIONS
WORKING
BETTER
A program aiming at
are
CONCLUSION
The manufacturing
engineer
occupational
and
part
working
to higher
related.
closely
14.8
better
lead
conditions
working
of
health,
company
development.
It
will
must
resource
be aware
of the
issues. In the
importance
future
these
of environmental,
issues
authorities
must become
enforce
this
15
on Industrial
Notes
15.1
Safety
INTRODUCTION
In earlier
the manufacturing
point of view. But when
chapters
a technical
processes
it comes
to
have
been considered
industrial
applications,
only
from
a number
a safe
In
chapter
subject of
the
is integrated
the term industrial
place
working
this
book
and as
can be found
15.2
elsewhere
few years
the
SAFETY
of industrial
becauseof
the
safety
[39,40].
INDUSTRIAL
The concept
in
rapid
in the last
become more and more important
where
enwithin
industrial
societies,
developments
safety has
457
Chapter15
458
plays a major
two reasons
technology
gineering
developments.There
role
all
in
for
are
types
increased
the
safety:
1. Society is dependent
Society
developments.
Society
reacts,
industrial
and
directed
mainly
The safety
and
be considered
can
(2)
certain
safety, and so
to
uncertainty,
on.
consequences
of
asking
by
meet
enterprise
questions:
what?
against
safety
this
resources,
developments.
technological
the risks faced by
toward
concept
whom (what),
requires
of fear and
because
and on technological
enterprise
that
environment,
concerning
requirements
2.
industrial
on
now
It should
be realized that complete safety will never
exist but that safety must
be consideredby a degree of probability or frequency of events
that
may cause
in terms of
be measured
undesirable consequences. The consequences
can
Death
Accidents
lost,
(workdays
disability)
Loss of production
Damage
(money)
to equipment
(money)
15.3
can
RISKS IN INDUSTRY
Most often,
risk for the
when
people
talking
risk as
define
that safety
means
which
is
high
AND
when
RISK
is low.
ANALYSES
risk in an industrial
in the industrial
enterprise.
about
involved
context,
This
is meant
is
risk or safety is
and the
objectives
what
influenced
routines
by the
for the
rates)
Overloading of the system (too-highproduction
due to long-term loading (designerrors)
Damages
Poor
reliability
(design
errors)
Poor maintenance
Human-machine
errors
(the
machine
is
not
satisfactory
economically
or a
Poor
personnel
459
training
management
environment
Unsatisfactory
How can a
safe industrial
design
production
and
situation
engineer
Twotypes
of risk
during
analysis
are important:
combinations
the
determines
expected
qualitative
kinds
analysis
of failures
and quantitative
that can occur, and
larger accidents.Quantitative
and can be used to
failures
of
analysis
estimate
systems.
is a
15.4
analysis
GOVERNMENTAL
LAWS
AND
REGULATIONS
federal
References
1. S.
Mechanical
Kalpakjian,
of Materials,
Processing
D. Van
Princeton,
Nostrand,
N.J., 1967.
2. M. I. Begeman
1969.
3.
Standards
DS
used. The
local and
standards,
4.
E. P.
Amstead,
10010,
10110, 10230,
on materials
ASTM
standards,
Materials
DeGarmo,
and
Wiley,
New York,
testing. Danish
materials
10410,10411,10412,12012,etc.,have
standards
international
Processes,
Manufacturing
and recommendations
standards
Various
B. H.
and
should be consulted:
been
ANSI
etc.
standards,
for example,
ISO
Collier-Macmillan,
London, 1969.
5.
A.
6.
B. Chalmers,
[Metallic Materials],
Tapir,
Trondheim,
Physical
Metallurgy,
1962.
1971.
London,
of Engineering Materials, Butterworths,
Brochures and catalogues
from steel manufacturers. The major
steel manufacturers
manufacturers
normally supply data for their steels. Since European and American
use
O.
Properties
Hoff,
types and
steel
different
should
9.
Materialer
1969.
7. J. B. Moss,
8.
Metalliske
Almar-Naess,
Norway,
designations,
data
from
the local
producers (American)
be obtained.
Mekanisk
Teknologi
Forlag,
Copenhagen, 1964.
10.
B. Schifter-Holm,
Akademisk
Materials],
Introduktion
Forlag,
til Plastmaterialer
Copenhagen,
[Introduction to Plastic
1963.
461
References
462
11. G.
12.
mit Kunststoffen
Konstruieren
Schreyer.
1972.
Verlag, Munich.
J. M. Alexander and R.
13. T. Wanheim.
II. and III.
C. Brewer.
Bearbejdning
Sponskjaerende
17.
18.
Handbok
Institutet
series
W.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
30.
31.
Sweden.
I.
1966.
Mass..
Maskinaktiebolaget
Kar-
Verkstadsteknisk
for
Forskning,
of test
Steel), Aktiebolaget
1971.
Mechanics],
[Cutting
Charchut,
Spanende
1971.
Blaue TR-Reihe
of Metals],
Heft
44,
Sveriges Mekan
1961.
Stockholm,
L. Olssonand
lVF-resultat
73627,
Pulversmidning [Powder Forging],
Forskning. Goteborg, Sweden, 1973.
H. Fischmeister,
from
[Powder
\"Pulvermetallurgi\"
Metallurgy], Lecture notes
Technical University.
Sweden.
Chalmars
Goteborg.
Iron Powder
Handbook,
Hoganas AB, Hoganas, Sweden, 1969.
KonstrukTilverkning
(Design Rules in Powder
Metallurgy),
Pulvermetallurgisk
Institutet
29.
Boforsstal\"
for
Bofors.
Forbund,
28.
Cutting
[Metal
\"Bearbetningsdata
Skdrteknik
22.
Handbook],
Data],
19.
Van
I960.
\"IVF-Skardata\"
20.
Reading,
Addison-Wesley.
Engineering
21.
Analysis,
(Mechanical
Stockholm,
lebo,
D.
of Materials,
M7.13.66,
1970.
Bergen,
Norway,
N.
H. Cook, Manufacturing
15.
16. Karlebo
Hanser
Carl
Plasties!.
Properties
Manufacturing
Plasticitetslaere
Teknologisk
AMT-kompendium
14. J. T. Videm,
with
1963.
London.
Nostrand,
(Design
for
B. Anulf,
Verkstadsteknisk
tionsanvisninger,
32.
V.
33.
R. A.
DeLange
Norway, 1970.
Flinn,
Mekanresultat
Davies,
No.
Stoperiteknik
66004,
[Casting
of Metalcasting,
Fundamentals
Tapir,
Addison-Wesley,
Trondheim,
Reading,
Mass.,
1963.
34.
K.
Karmark
Copenhagen,
35.
Hansen.
E. Storm. Gjutning
Stockholm.
1968.
St0beriteknik
[Casting
Technology],
Polyteknisk
1968.
[Casting].
Laromedelsforlagen.
Teknik och
Ekonomi.
Forlag,
463
References
36.
Aa.
V.
37.
38.
\"En
Jeppesen,
Production
ny
Automatisk
Formeproces\"
Ingenijren,
Process],
N. Helner, Konstruknonsreglerfor
For lag, Copenhagen,
1960.
R. W. Bolz, Production Processes,
1962.
[Design
Stybegods
S. Kalpakjian,
Engineering
Manufacturing
New
1989.
York,
45.
1988.
Macmillan,
Manufacturing,
44.
J. A. McGeough,
1988.
Methods of
Advanced
Nontraditional
(ed.),
1984.
Dearborn,
Nontraditional
Benedict,
London,
& Hall,
Chapman
Machining,
Engineers,
47.
G.
F.
48.
N.
Manufacturing
New
1987.
York,
Introduction
Mironoff,
Lausanne,
S.A.,
of
Microtecnic-Scriptar
Spark-Erosion,
1967.
49. N.
La Dicharge
dans un Milieu
Mironoff,
tlectrique
1974.
Microtecnic-Scriptar S.A., Lausanne,
50.
A. E. deBarr and D. A. Oliver, Electrochemical Machining,
1968.
51. A. I. Markov, Ultrasonic Machining of Intractable
Materials,
Liquide,
Diilectrique
London,
Mac Donald,
Iliffe Ltd.,
London,
1966.
52.
F.
(Ed.), Laser
Olsen
O.
Materials
University of
Technical
Processing,
Denmark,
1992.
53.
D. Belforte
54.
T. R.
E. Gajdusek,
Advances
Penn Well
Handbook,
Books,
57. 0. Bj0rke
incress manufacturing
(Ed.), Material
the
CIRP, Vol.
of
(Ed.),
Modern
Machine
technology,
Welding
Journal,
The
by rapid
Layer
Norway,
Publishers,
Trondheim,
F. W. Taylor:
machining,
51-57.
Kruth
Annals
58.
Annual
how
and why of abrasive jet
pp. 76-79.
in non-vacuum electron beam
1983,
February
56. J. P.
Industrial Laser
Levitt,
Dombrowski, The
Shop,
55.
M.
and
1989.
Tulsa,
prototyping techniques,
Future,
Tapir
1992.
Principles
of Scientific Management.
Harper
York,
1947.
59.
Bauer,
A.,
Browden,
From Design
to
Browne, Duggan,
Implementation.
Chapman
and
Lyons:
& Hall,
Shop Floor
New
York,
Control Systems:
1991.
References
60.
J. Orlicky:
Material
and Inventory
61.
W.
V.
C.
P. G.
H.J.
& Co.,
am
Frankfurt
3rd International
1988.
Publications,
MAP/TOP Networking.
Jones:
Integrated
Computer
Ranky:
of Life
Way
in
Production
1975.
Main):
Conference on
The \"Softside\" of
Just-In-Time
New
McGraw-Hill,
Manufacturing.
York,
1988.
Prentice-Hall,
Englewood
NJ, 1986.
Cliffs,
64.
the
York,
IFS
Manufacturing,
62.
63.
New
McGraw-Hill,
Andersen
(Arthur
Gattermeyer
JIT/CIM.Proceedings
from
The New
Planning:
Requirements
Management.
P Desruelle:
and
Steudel
65. L. Alting,
Practice,
Life
Vol.
Manufacturing
in the
Nineties.
Van
Nostrand
Rein-
1992.
Cycle
1, No.
design, Concurrent
6 (1991).
Engineering:
Issues,
Technology
and
Problems
CHAPTER1
1.1
the basic
are
What
a.
b.
Rolling
c.
Powder
d.
Casting
e.
Turning
f.
g.
Forging
(hot
processes,
primary
and
secondary,
in:
and cold)
compaction
Electrochemical
machining
Electrical discharge
Flame cutting
Describe the energy
machining
h.
1.2
in Problem
1.1. The
for the processes listed
systems
to the basic processfrom the
between (1) energy
delivered
from the process
delivered
to the tool/die system
system, and (2) energy
should
answer
tool/die
flow
distinguish
equipment.
for.
1.12a)
1.13)
Describethe information
impressing
systems for the processes
1.1 and discuss how the information (impressing) and energy
b.
1.4
flow systems
Ultrasonic
integrated
(Table
forming
machining
(Fig.
(Fig.
listed
supplies
in Problem
are
1.10).
465
466
Problems
1.5 Discuss,in
a.
Materials
b.
Tolerances
c.
Geometries
and limitations
the possibilities
general,
processes
reducing
(Fig.
1.26)
with
dome is to be produced
is solid. Discussand
supply systems (Table 1.4).
A sheet metal
1.6
of
the
four
of mass-
types
to:
respect
describe
PI.6).
possible
Sheet (blank)
PI.6
FIGURE
1.7
1.8
c.
Powder compaction
Sand
e.
Turning
f.
g.
h.
i.
1.9
Flame cutting
Based
c.
d.
e.
discharge machining
machining
on
Fig.
2.4:
the
engineering
What
happens
Label
the stresses
physically
and
stress.
strain.
at points
A,
at points
start?
straining
strains
law
valid?
B,
K, C,
A, G,
F, G,
and
H.
and
HI
in
energy
forming,
Electrochemical
CHAPTER
b.
one-dimensional
forming,
Drilling
Discuss
a.
electrical
casting
Electrical
manufacturing
2.1
principles of converting
b.
d.
of the
each
other
467
Problems
2.2
In
test of
a tensile
stainless
data
the following
steel,
7,200
11,250
0.508
13,500
2.03
5.08
16,200
10.16
18,900
15.24
20,200
21.80
(max)
20,700
24.90
13,200 (fracture)
initial area
= 50.8 mm and
cylindrical specimen were initial length /,
The area at fracture was Amin = 10.0 mm2. Draw the
of the
A, = 35.8mm2.
engineering
2.3
obtained:
Elongation (mm)
Load (N)
Thedimensions
were
stress-strain
diagram.
CHAPTER
3.1
the
Discuss
basic
forming
liquid
state.
3.2
a.
Mass-conserving
b.
Mass-reducing
c.
Joining
3.3
Discuss
3.4
How
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.9
can
material
Why
Why
are
Discuss
forming takes
place from
the
solid
processes
processes
processes
the processes
how
briefly
change
may
properties be changed
the material
conserving
forming?
Write
a brief essay on
are
when
requirements
the
the material
before
mechanisms
strength-increasing
properties.
process in
or during the
mass-
for metals.
steels
alloyed?
nickel and chromium
the
briefly
difference
often
used
together
in properties of
as
amorphous
elements?
alloying
and
crystalline
plastic
materials.
3.10
3.11
a brief essay on
particular reference to
Write
Describe in
account
3.12
Describe
briefly
their
application
of ceramic
materials as cutting
tools,
with
properties.
general
for their
copper alloys,
the
468
Problems
CHAPTER
4.1
Figure
P4.1
inclined
at the
shows
section
angle 0
EE5
P4.1
FIGURE
a.
b.
4.2
the
figure
the
Determine
0 =
c.
Draw
d.
What
the directions
of
the
normal
the
shear
force
and the
P\342\200\236
shear force
and
60\302\260,
normal stress oe
P = 15,000 N.
and
stress te
when
10 mm,
P4.2
FIGURE
4.3
Show on
rr
A plane stress
a.
is given
situation
= 70 N/mm2.
t^
The magnitudes
b. The magnitudes
=
by ax
-210 N/mm2,
=
ay
-70
Determine:
stresses
and
directions
of the principal
and
directions
stresses
N/mm2,
and
469
Problems
4.4
thin-walled
to a
subjected
a.
The circumferential
b.
The
c.
axial
stress
4.5
How are
4.6
4.11
xra
^
stresses defined?
natural
and
Derive
the expression
Derive
that
relates
the expression
that
e.
Problem
draw
4.10
and true
nominal
the
e and
relates
4.9
and
P4.4
FIGURE
4.8
stress oe
-tf&
^f()
4.7
and
oa
e.
P4.4) is
magnitudes
of:
directions
d.
t) (see Fig.
the
2.2,
a true
yielding.
4.12
A thin-walled
closed-end
internal pressure p and
to an
is o0.
4.13
an
according
required
Problems
470
4.14
thin-walled
(D, =
sphere
to a diameter of D2
4.15
h2
The true
stress
c. Theplastic
6.2
6.3
essay on
a short
Write
1200e\302\260
N/mm2.
20 mm is plastically
25
o = 160e\302\260
N/mm2.
deformed
to
Determine:
deformation
the
end of the
deformation
of hot and
characteristics
the
not
as good
be carried
main parameters
the nature of this
Discuss the principles in
the
List
can be used to
6.6
The
in hot
out
to
cold
working.
cold working?
as in
working
large compressive
very
deformations
fracture?
without
briefly
6.5
pressure
necessary.
necessary
6.4
35
by internal
CHAPTER
6.1
work
the
at
1 mm) is expanded
the plastic work
a =
expression
can
at the end of
a.
mm, h,
be describedby
D,
b.
Determine
= 30
material
The
\\hx.
the
by
specimen
cylindrical
750 mm,
mm.
850
be described
can
material
influence
that
partial
deformations
forces.
and total
the necessary
reduce
the deformation
process
describe
and
influence.
and
how these
illustrate
aluminum
6.7
speed is n
The component
process.
by
the extrusion
Determine
50 rpm?
in Fig.
shown
650i\302\26022
P6.7 is produced
force necessary
in a
direct or back-extrusion
steel material described
a mild
for
N/mm2.
I 020mm
20mm
10mm
070mm
FIGURE
6.8
P6.7
A tube
an outside
with
is reduced
to
an
outside
diameter of D, = 60
diameter of D7 =
mm
50
of
10 mm
in a simple drawing
process
and a thickness
mm
r,
471
Problems
6.9
die
a cylindrical
(through
an internal
with
a.
What
b.
Determine
440c03 N/mm2.
the drawing force when
is
15
mm,
L3 =
the
final wall
possible reduction
P6.9 is produced in
maximum
the
Lj =
material
is
o =
copper with
in
thickness is
t2
7 mm?
thickness.
an outside
80 mm, t
P6.9
FIGURE
= 56.8 mm and
A, = 37.0
having initial dimensions/]
=
N
and
to
be
the
force
was
found
mm2,
21,400
Pm>x
was A/ = 24.4 mm.
elongation
corresponding
a.
to a diameter of D2 = 75 mm
Can the tube be expanded
without
instability
the
axial
when
strain is zero?
imen of the
b.
The
material
same
maximum
the
made
determine
for
expansion
60 mm
transition
the
1200T N/mm2.
6.10
The component
(Ab = 0) from
process
shown
a sheet
is instability.
h a
FIGURE
P6.10
>
Determine
300
mm
600
mm
the
instability
in
a stretch-forming
x b x tx.
strain
The
forming
necessary for
the
process
limit of the
material.
472
Problems
a =
extrusion
shown
a diameter
22
with
<\302\243-
\302\253
ii
..
in
Dimensions
P6.ll
FIGURE
CHAPTER
7.1
Define:cutting
rate
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
for
the tool
chip
width,
removal
corner
edge, minor cutting
edge,
define the angles: major cutting
Also,
major
normal rake,
inclination,
edge angle, minor cutting edge angle, cutting-edge
and included
normal wedge
angle.
angle, normal clearance angle,
in metal cutting?
are the three main
What
factors
the
thickness
is
deformed
always
greater than the undeformed chip
Why
chip
thickness
(h2 > A,)?
Discuss the problems
Describethe three types of chips and their characteristics.
Define
tool
with
a built-up
7.7
Define
the
the
and
edge on
most
term
major
terminology:
face, and
radius,
What are
7.9
speed,
turning,
7.6
7.8
mm
the
important
tool
life
and
minor
tool
cutting
flanks.
face.
the
machinability
it.
of
the work
material.
7.10
turning
100 mm
473
Problems
7.11
with
\342\200\224
30\302\260
is
35 m/min, and
a.
b.
0.70.
A HSS twist
v =
6.5
per
tooth/,
For
a plain
with a HSS
(a,) in milling
and number of teeth z = 26).
= 1200
N/mm2), the power of the milling
the cutting speed v = 45 m/min, and the feed
possibleworking
(diameter 320
is carbon steel (o*uu
mm,
cutter
0.75,
engagement
22 mm,
width
12.5mm,
the clearance
is 2.2
of
this
indicates
7.15
(0.5%C).
= 0.3 mm/rev,
necessary
machine
7.14
the drill
The torque
The feed force
side milling
The material
7.13
r\\
used.
on
c. The power
7.12
diameter is to
of 25-mm
hole
drill
In a turning
process a
clearance angle a
carbide
sintered
+6\302\260,
edge
angle
k' =
tool
is used.
P =
84\302\260,
major
The following
data
apply:
angle k
cutting-edge
r = 0.25 mm.
b.
c.
minor
60\302\260,
a.
Using
mm.
machine of
10 kW
height
is 40
CHAPTER
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Rmux
be obtained
is fully
for this
utilized (T) =
material
0.80)and
when
the
the
power
resulting
of the
roughness
u,m?
What
shielded
(MIG),
metal-arc
and
gas
welding,
tungsten-arc
submerged-arc
welding (TIG).
welding,
gas
metal-arc
welding
Problems
474
8.5
Discuss
8.6
Describe
8.7
What
the
application
the
advantages
welding.
the basic
aspects of
and
8.11
brazing.
by adhesive
is joining
Why
powder
What
9.3
Give
9.4
the
What
9.7
9.8
The component
is meant
iron
main
main
9.6
use of
powder
and
production of parts
by
P9.8 is
increased
to
be
so
rapidly
produced
in recent
by powder
years?
metallurgy
powder).
How can
the
geometry
be changed
in
y
\342\226\240/.
o
in
i
050-0.05
060-0.05
Dimensions
P9.8
infiltration?
metallurgy
in Fig.
shown
03O\302\261O,O5
FIGURE
in the
of sintering.
parameters
by impregnation
process?
involved
normally
factors
main
9.5 Discussthe
common?
increasingly
metallurgy.
are the characteristics
9.2
(reduced
describe
and
Define
a.
bonding becoming
CHAPTER
9.1
welding,
spot
in
mm
o
i
\342\231\246
o
SO
in
minor
ways so
that
it is
more suited
to
the
475
Problems
b. Towhich
c.
finished
the
of the
die system
to ejection
of
component.
What number of
d.
must the
treatments
a sketch
Make
be produced
must
components
to make
the
process
economical?
10
CHAPTER
10.1
Describe
10.2
What
10.3
10.4
arc
allowances
10.5
Make a
10.6
Based on
10.8
10.9
10.10
main
stages
the most
in a casting
frequently
used
process.
types
of furnaces
and
for
Give
melting?
materials).
Describe
a brief
Define the
necessary.
few
sketches
Tables
the various
casting processes.
chamber die casting.
in recent years?
is the industrial application of casting
increasing
Why
Discusshow the pattern in casting differs from the part to be cast.
clutch
The
by sand casting in
part shown in Fig. P10.10 is to be made
characteristics
of
10.7
the
hot
and cold
a batch
of 100.
a.
b.
Givea description
mold. A cross
sketches
of the
of the
mold
and
manufacture
the
pattern
without
Suggest design changes which,
changing
make the mold production
functional
requirements of the product,
Describe the new mold production
and the pattern.
procedure
Dimensions
FIGURE
using
section
P10.10
in
mm
simpler.
476
Problems
b.
c.
Which
the
are necessary
operations
the pattern
discuss
after casting
to
necessary,
fulfill
the
including
on
the specifications
drawing?
.060
o
1
0130
Dimensions
in
mm
11
CHAPTER
a brief
Write
thermosetting
11.2
\342\200\224+\342\200\242
P10.ll
FIGURE
H.i
'
1
*\342\200\224
<7v
\\
Discuss
11.3 Describe
and
what
11.4 Discuss
applications.
essay on
the
manufacturing
properties
of thermoplastics
and
plastics.
the differences
and
similarities
in the casting of metals and plastics.
Which materials can be used,
typical applications of rotational
molding.
are the characteristics of the process?
the principles of the closed-mold
forming of plastics and list typical
Which
materials
can be used for reinforcement?
Problems
477
11.7
showing
characteristics
pressure?
make
features
PROBLEMS
ADDITIONAL
1.
and
in numbers
of 50,000 per year for 5 years.
Fig. 1 is to be produced
,8
be an aluminum
or a thermoplastic. The
(o = 150 e\302\260N/mm2)
be mass conserving or mass reducing.
shown
The
part
The
material
is to
processescan
050-0.5
Dimensions
FIGURE
in
mm
(1)
(2)
c.
1000
per
year?
(3) 500,000per
year?
Determine the
maximum
forces
when the
(1) Extruded
(2)
d.
Make
Cold
forged (headed)
of both the extrusion
a sketch
and
part is:
the
forging
dies.
Problems
478
\302\260V
o
CSi
a
<
i,
JSU
40
^\342\200\224
\342\200\224\342\200\242-
in
Dimensions
2
Figure
3.
nun
The coffeepot
is made from
shown
numbers of
for
components.
the components
a plastic
085
-0.5
.
,
\\\\c
\\\\+l \302\260
\\
\342\226\240
V]
^
//
CM
\302\273\342\226\240\302\253
Cfi
^
\302\253a
0l2O\302\261O.5
in
Dimensions
Figure
r
mm
The
connecting
systematic
The
number
design
'
i
\\
part
survey
shown
is 5000
changes
rod
shown
Fig. 4 is
of the relevant
to
be produced
from
5 is produced
per year. Discuss the relevant
are necessary, describe the
in Fig.
in large
numbers.
Make
production methods.
steel or
gray
production
advantages
obtained.
479
Problems
40.03
\342\200\24260-0
\342\231\2460.02
o
\342\231\246I
T2
ll
T^M/MS/M/ZZZii
Vh
Dimensions in
Figure
4//////////////A
/////////////
L^
55
Dimensions
Figure
in
mm
(A
mm
are
Answers
4.1
oe =
143N/mm2,
oe =
te
only for
given
for
max
42
onomM/,
4.3
o, =
= 200
<Waa =
-41
xe
0 =
for 0 =
= max
108
1200
4.9
P3 =
4.10
^yieid.i
2.5
45\302\260
(and
^yieid.2
N/mm2,
N/mm2,
105 N
05
N/mm2
min for 0
0tmax =
0.36
n =
N/mm2
5ir/8
(compression)
106 N (compression)
4.14
4.15
392J
JV\342\200\236
= 240kJ
W,
o = -164 N/mm2 (compression)
=
\302\260nom
=
Wp
492 N/mm2
2040 J
min for 0 =
= -239
o2
= 6-25 104N
=
= 83
90\302\260
(and
numerical
having
N/mm2
N/mm2,
99
*\342\200\236,.*
problems
N/mm2
0 = 3ir/8, 7ir/8
4.8 c =
Problems
Selected
to
Answers
(compression)
results.
0\302\260)
0\302\260
and
90\302\260)
Answers to
6.6 P =
Selected Problems
kN
2340
P = 3200 kN
N = 69 kW
6.7
6.8
P = 6300 kN
P = 140kN
= 4.7 mm
(without
^>
reduction
= \302\253
= 0-36;
\302\260-9 \342\202\254in\302\253
e =
t2
friction)
r =
ratio
0.47 >
57%
means
(which
eln\342\200\236
be accomplished)
=* 3400 J
cannot
Wp
6.10
^0.17
\342\202\254jn\342\200\236
6.11
P =
7-10
7.11
3800 kN
=
Wp
17 kJ
/max
0.50
A/v
mm/rev
40Nm
= 5.6 kN
kW
PA
N = 2.7
7.12 ae =
7.13
V,
7.14
<J>
=
~
7.15
RaM
A2
20.8
mm.
20cm3/kWmin
35\302\260
/
cot k
+ cot k'
n = 375 rpm
D = 83 mm
P = 250
Extruded,
ry
k'
sin
+ sin
Sin (K'
= 220
k\\
k)
kN.
expansion
Conversions
Unit
Appendix:
SI units
ISO-accepted units
Surface
m, mm
m2, mm2
Volume
m3
dm3
Velocity
m/s
km/h,
Length
Mass
kg, g
Density
kg/m3
Force
Moment
of force
Power
Pressure, stress
Energy,
\"Within
m =
mm
kg
material
meter
g =
N =
Of the
kilogram
gram
newton
units
m/s
2)
Nm
W(l
N/m2
J/s)
= Pa,
N/mm2
= MPa
bar
kWh
= millimeter
=
mentioned,
Multiples usedare:M
and m = milli = 10\"3.
(1)
m/min\"
g/cm3
(1 kg
J(l Nm)
work
= liter
Pa = pascal (N/m2)
J = joule
I = liter
h = hour
s = second
m, kg, and s are basic SI units.
=
mega = I06,k = kilo = 103,d =
use of this
unit.
10~2,
483
484
Appendix:
American
To convert
units
units or
to SI
Conversions
ISO-acceptedunits:
Multiply by:
Multiply
by:
Force
Length
25.4 x HT3
in. to m
25.4
0.3048
304.8
in. to mm
ft
Unit
to m
ft to mm
Surface
in.2 to m2
in.2 to mm2
0.645 X
lbf to
4.448
Moment
of force
Ifb-in. to Nm
to Nm
lfbft
KT3
645.16
ft2
to m2
92.9 x
KT3
ft2
to mm2
92.9 x
103
0.113
1.356
Power
fflbf/s
to
hptoW
to W
Btu/h
kcal/h
to
1.356
745.7
0.2931
1.163
Volume
in.3 to
m3
16.387
x 10~6
Pressure,
in.3 to
16.387 x HT3
lbf/in.2
28.317x
m3
ft3 to
28.317
to 1
ft3
10~3
stress
to
N/m2
(Pa)
lbf/in.2
atm
to m/s
in./s
ft/s
to
m/s
25.4
x 10~3
to m/min
25.4 X
in./min
to
25.4
(Pa)
10\"3
ft-lbf to
Mass
lb
ft-lbf
453.59
slug to
slug
14.594
kg
14.5939x
to g
short ton to
kg
103
907.185
Density
lb/in.3
to kg/m3
lb/in.3
to
g/cm3
lb /ft3
to kg/m3
lb/ft3
to g/cm3
27.6799
x 103
27.68
16.0185
16.02x KT3
to J
to kWh
Btu to
0.4536
kg
to g
101.3 x 103
work
Energy,
Btu
lb to
to N/m2
0.3048
in./min
mm/min
103
x 10\"3
6.895
(MPa)
Velocity
6.895x
to N/mm2
kWh
kcal
to J
kcal
to
kWh
1.356
1.055x
376.6
103
x HT9
0.293 x HT3
4.1868x
1.163
103
x KT3
Appendix:
Unit
SI
To convert
485
Conversions
units
units to American
or ISO-accepted
by:
Multiply
m to
39.3701
in.
3.2808
m toft
Surface
m2 to
in.2
1.55
to in.2
mm2
m2 to
ft2
10\"3
103
1.55 x
10~3
10.76
10.76X
ft2
to
mm2
Moment
3.281x
ft
to
0.2248
39.37 x 1(T3
to in.
mm
by:
Multiply
Force
N to lbf
Length
mm
units:
10~6
of force
Nm
to lbf
Nm
to lbtft
in
Power
W to fflbf/s
8.851
0.7376
0.7376
Wtohp
1.341x
W to
Btu/h
3.4118
W to
kcal/h
0.8598
KT3
Volume
m3 to in.3
to in.3
m3 to
1
x 103
61.0237
61.02
35.3147
35.31X 10~3
ft3
to ft3
Pressure, stress
to
in./s
39.3701
m/s
to ft/s
3.2808
m/min
to
in./min
to in./min
mm/min
to
39.3701
39.37 X
to lb
2.2046
2.2 x
35.274
kg to oz
g
to oz
kg to
J to
ftlbf
J to
Btu
35.274
68.25 x
slug
Desity
KT3
KT3
kg/m3
to lb/in.3
36.13x 10-6
kg/m3
to
62.43
10\"3
g/cm3
to lb/in.3
36.13
KT3
g/cm3
to
62.428
lb/ft3
lb/ft3
9.868
x KT6
work
0.7376
0.9479x
ftlbf
to Btu
kWh to kcal
kWh
10-3
145
atm
kWh to
gtolb
10\"3
(Pa)
Energy,
10~3
Mass
kg
lbf/in.2
N/m*
m/s
0.145 x
N/mm2 (MPa)
to
Velocity
(Pa)
N/m2
to lbf/in.2
2.655
3.4130 x
859.8
10~3
x 106
KT3