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28.11.2006 04.12.2006

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY REPORT

HSEYN KASIRGA
030040323
GROUP

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Ahmet ARAN

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.

Introduction
1. Definitions
a. Hardness
b. Hardenability
c. Jominy Test

II.

Experimental Procedure
1. Objective
2. Examination
a. Experimental Equipments
b. Description of the Specimen
c. Experiment

III.

Data Analysis
1. Hardness Measurements

IV.

Results
1. Hardness Values
2. Hardenability Curve of the Specimen

V.

Discussion
1. Evaluation of the Hardenability of the Specimen
2. Relation Between Microstructure and Hardness
3. Effects of Alloy Elements on Hardenability
a. Carbon
b. Other Alloy Elements

VI.

Conclusion

VII.

Tables and Figures

VIII. References

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I. INTRODUCTION
1. DEFINITIONS
a. HARDNESS
Simply stated, hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It
is important to recognize that hardness is an empirical test and therefore hardness is not a
material property. This is because there are several different hardness tests that will each
determine a different hardness value for the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness is test
method dependent and every test result has to have a label identifying the test method used.
Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine
if they are suitable for their intended use. The most common uses for hardness tests is to
verify the heat treatment of a part and to determine if a material has the properties necessary
for its intended use. Establishing a correlation between the hardness result and the desired
material property allows this, making hardness tests very useful in industrial applications.
b. HARDENABILITY
Simply stated, hardenability is a measure of the capacity of the steel to harden in
depth under a given set of conditions.
With a more detailed definition, hardenability is the ability of steel to partially or
completely transform from austenite to some fraction of martensite at a given depth below the
surface, when cooled under a given condition. For example, a steel of a high hardenability can
transform to a high fraction of martensite to depths of several millimeters under relatively
slow cooling, such as an oil quench, whereas a steel of low hardenability may only form a
high fraction of martensite to a depth of less than a millimeter, even under rapid cooling such
as a water quench. In order to form a fully martensitic structure, the steel must be quenched at
a rate that is equal to or greater than a critical cooling rate. If the quench is indeed fast enough
and the part is thin then one can usually assume that this cooling rate can be achieved through
the whole cross-section, producing a fully hardened part. However, this may not be the case
for thick sections because the interior cools more slowly than the surface. But if one could
modify this steel such that critical cooling rate is lower then thick pieces can be hardened
throughout and even thicker pieces can be hardened to a considerable depth. This is of great
practical importance not only in terms of our ability to produce a fully hardened part (which
will also be fully brittle) but because subsequent tempering will be successful in producing
the desired strength and ductility throughout the part. Hardenability therefore describes the
capacity of the steel to harden in depth under a given set of conditions.
Steels with high hardenability are needed for large high strength components, such
as large extruder screws for injection molding of polymers, pistons for rock breakers, mine
shaft supports, aircraft undercarriages, and also for small high precision components such as
die-casting moulds, drills and presses for stamping coins. High hardenability allows slower
quenches to be used (e.g. oil quench), which reduces the distortion and residual stress from
thermal gradients.
Steels with low hardenability may be used for smaller components, such as chisels
and shears, or for surface hardened components such as gears.
Hardenability should not be confused with hardness, as such, or with maximum
hardness. The maximum attainable hardness of any steel depends solely on carbon content.
The hardenability of steel is governed almost entirely by the chemical composition (carbon

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and alloy content) at the austenitizing temperature and the austenite grain size at the moment
of quenching. In general, the hardenability of steel is improved through alloying and all alloy
additions except cobalt will improve the hardenability of steel. Coarse grain size and
homogeneity of the austenite also improve the hardenability. Such factors as time at the
austenitizing temperature and prior microstructure are sometimes very important variables
when determining the basic hardenability of a specific steel composition.
Hardenability can be measured using the Jominy end quench test.
c. JOMINY END QUENCH TEST
Knowledge about the hardenability of steels is necessary to be able to select the
appropriate combination of alloy steel and heat treatment to manufacture components of
different size to minimize thermal stresses and distortion. The most direct measure of the
hardenability of steel is the critical cooling rate. Hardenability is also demonstrated in cases
where large part fails to fully harden. One can measure this in terms of the depth of full
hardening, the diameter of bar which will just harden to the center and the depth where the
microstructure consists of 50% martensite. A more convenient and very widely used method
of measuring hardenability is the Jominy end-quench test developed by Jominy and
Boegehold in 1939, standardized in ASTM A255. In this test a 1-inch diameter by 4-inches
long bar is austenitized then quickly removed from the furnace and placed in a fixture where a
jet of water of specified temperature and pressure impinges on one end of the specimen. Once
cool, the specimen is removed, cleaned, a flat is ground along the length of the specimen and
then is hardness tested every 1.5 to 6.5 mm. from the quenched end. The result is a plot of
hardness versus distance from the quenched end. This curve is used to compare the
hardenabilities of different steels.

II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. OBJECTIVE
The objective of the experiment is to take readings in the Rockwell C scale along
the flat surface of the Jominy specimen and to plot a hardenability curve of hardness versus
distance from quenched end in order to investigate the hardenability of the specimens.
2. EXAMINATION
a. Experimental Equipments
-

An electric furnace is used to heat the specimen to austenitizing temperature.

A Jominy end quench test fixture spraying a controlled flow of water onto one
end of the specimen is employed as tester (See Figure II.1).
A Rockwell hardness testing machine placed a diamond cone as indenter is
used for the measurements of hardness of the specimen.
A steel specimen made according to the ASTM Jominy end quench test
standard

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Figure II.1 Jominy end quench test fixture

b. Description of the Specimen

In the experiment, a sample of medium carbon steel premachined to a shape of a
cylindrical long bar with a length of 100 mm. and a diameter of 25 mm. is employed as the
specimen. (See Figure II.2)

Figure II.2 Standard size Jominy end-quench test specimen

c. Experiment
The standard-size Jominy test specimen is placed into the electric furnace
preheated to a temperature of 900 C of which value is determined by the help of phase
diagram of the specimen from the principle of austenitizing that means all the microstructure
of the specimen exist in austenite phase (See Figure II.3). This takes about a half hour. Then
the specimen is removed from the furnace and directly placed into the Jominy end quench test
fixture where a jet of water is quickly splashed at one end of the specimen until the specimen
is cooled to room temperature. (See Figure II.4)

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Figure II.3 Austenitizing temperature of a medium carbon steel.

Figure II.4 Schematic illustration of the

Jominy end quench test
After the specimen is removed from the fixture, it is prepared for the hardness
measurements by grinding the surface until obtaining a 2 mm weight ground section along the
length of the specimen (See Figure II.2). Finally, Rockwell C hardness measurements are
made with 2 mm intervals along the grinded section, and the readings of HRC is recorded for
data analysis.

III. DATA ANALYSIS

1. HARDNESS MEASUREMENTS
Determined measurements of the hardness of a specimen in Jominy end quench
test enable a hardenability curve of hardness versus distance from the quenched end to be
plotted. This curve provides basic information on the heat treatment of the specimen in
correlation with hardness, diameter of the part, and cooling rates by the aid of TTT (TimeTemperature-Transformation) and CCT (Continuous-Cooling-Transformation) diagrams. Data
from the Jominy end quench test can be used to determine whether particular steel can be
sufficiently hardened in different quenching media, for different section diameters.

IV. RESULTS
1. HARDNESS VALUES
Jominy Distance
X
(mm)

Hardness
HRC

Jominy Distance
X
(mm)

Hardness
HRC

59

28

21

53

30

21

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6

48

32

20,5

43,5

34

20

10

37

36

19

12

32

38

19

14

30

40

19

16

27,5

42

19

18

26

44

18,5

20

23

46

18,5

22

22,5

48

18,5

24

22

50

18

26

21,5

Table IV.1 Determined hardness values

2. HARDENABILITY CURVE OF THE SPECIMEN

Figure IV.1 Hardenability curve of Rockwell hardness versus distance from the
quenched end (Jominy distance)

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V. DISCUSSION
1. EVALUATION OF THE HARDENABILITY OF THE SPECIMEN
Evaluating the hardenability curve of the specimen (See Figure IV.1) it can be said
that the specimen has a curve that drops off quickly meaning it has a low hardenability only
very high cooling rates produce all martensite.
Due to the fact that if different steels of same size are quenched under identical
conditions (standardized for a Jominy test), their cooling rates or Jominy distances are the
same, the AISI number of the specimen used in the experiment can be guessed by comparing
its hardenability properties with the steels shown in the following figure (Figure V.1).

Figure V.1

Figure V.1 The hardenability curves for several steels

From the hardenability curve of the specimen (See Figure IV.1), a hardness of
HRC 27.5 corresponds to a Jominy distance of 16 mm. (10/16 in.). If assumed the same
Jominy distance, the other steels shown in Figure V.1 have the following hardness at the
critical location:
1050 HRC 28
4340 HRC 60
1080 HRC 36
8640 HRC 52
4320 HRC 31
9310 HRC 40
Comparing with these steels, the specimen can be guessed to be a 1050 steel (10xx).
2. RELATION BETWEEN MICROSTRUCTURE AND HARDNESS
When the Table IV.1 is examined it can be seen that hardness of the specimen
decreases with the increasing distance from the quenched end of the specimen. This is
because of the effect of the cooling rate on the microstructure of the specimen. There are a

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direct relation between the cooling rate and the distance from the quenched end (Jominy
distance). In a Jominy test, an austenitized steel bar is placed into a fixture and sprayed at one
end water. This procedure produces a range of cooling rates very fast at the quenched end,
almost air cooling at the opposite end. That is cooling rate decreases whereas the Jominy
distance increases (See Figure V.2).

Figure V.2 Cooling rate Jominy distance curve

A further relation is between the cooling rate and the microstructure of the steel.
This relation can be explained by examining the TTT (Time-Temperature-Transformation)
and CCT (Continuous Cooling-Transformation) diagrams of the steel (See Figure V.3).

Figure V.3

Figure V.3 The CCT diagram (solid lines) for a 10xx steel compared with the
TTT diagram (dashed lines)

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Examining the diagram (Figure V.3), with a rapid cooling without cutting the nose
of the diagram, a microstructure containing 100% martensite can be obtained whereas some
pearlite and/or bainite is produced with a slow cooling. That is, as the cooling rate decreases
the formation of the martensite in the microstructure also decreases.
There are another relation between the microstructure and hardness: Being a
unstable microstructural constitution resulted from the shape of the crystal lattice, martensite
has a high hardness compared to bainite and pearlite constitutions. This situation increases the
hardness of the steel, too. The types of micro constitutes produced as a result of
transformation, can be arranged in an order of martensite, bainite, and pearlite according to
the decreasing hardness
(See Figure V.4).

Figure V.4

Figure V.4 The TTT (Time-Temperature-Transformation) diagram for a

eutectoid steel, where P=Pearlite, B=Bainite, and M=Martensite. The subscripts
s and f indicate the start and finish of a transformation.
These relations can be summarized and compounded like that: as the distance from
the quenched end increases, the cooling rate decreases (See Figure V.2) which prevents the
formation of an all martensitic microstructure (See Figure V.3), and reduces the hardness of
the steel (See Figure V.4).
Considering the relation between the hardness and Jominy distance the
microstructure of the specimen used in the experiment can be predicted. That is, because the
cooling rate and the hardness is highest at the zero Jominy distance, there exists a 100%
martensitic microstructure, and as the hardness decreases (See Table IV.1) in the distant
sections of the bar, it can be said that proportion and formation of the martensite decreases in
that sections where the formation and amount of bainite and pearlite increases.

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3. EFFECT OF CARBON & OTHER ALLOY ELEMENTS ON HARDENABILITY

Alloying elements are added to steels due to following reasons:
- to provide solid-solution strengthening of ferrite
- to cause the precipitation of alloy carbides rather than that of Fe3C
- to improve corrosion resistance and other special characteristics of the steel
- to improve hardenability.
The term hardenability describes the ease with which steels can form martensite.
This relates to how easily we can form martensite in a thick section of steel that is quenched.
With a more hardenable steel martensite can still be formed with a relatively slow cooling.
Improving hardenability with alloying is therefore important in steels.
a. Effect of Carbon (C) Content on Hardenability
Controlling the hardness of the martensite, carbon is the primary hardening element
in steel. In steels with less than 0.2% C, the FCC (Face Centered Cubic) austenite transforms
to a supersaturated BCC (Body Centered Cubic) martensite. In higher carbon steels, the
martensite reaction occur as FCC austenite transforms to BCT (Body Centered Tetragonal)
martensite because during the transformation from FCC austenite to the BCC ferrite, the
interstitial carbon on the face of the austenite lattice is trapped causing an unstable tetragonal
structure to be produced. As the carbon content of the steel increases a greater number of
carbon atoms are trapped, and because martensite is not an equilibrium phase, these
increasing unstabilities as martensitic constitutions increase the hardness of the steel.
Increasing the carbon content increases the hardness of steels up to about 0.6wt%.
However, at higher carbon levels there occurs a negative side-effect: the formation of
martensite is depressed to lower temperatures and the transformation from austenite to
martensite may be incomplete, leading to retained austenite. This composite microstructure of
martensite and austenite gives a lower hardness to the steel, although the microhardness of the
martensite phase itself is still high (See Figure V.5).

Figure V.5 Effect of carbon content on hardness

b. Effect of Other Alloying Elements on Hardenability
In general, the hardenability of steel is improved through alloying. All alloying
elements, except cobalt, including Cr (chromium), Mo (molybdenum), Mn (manganese), Si
(silicon), Ni (nickel) and V (vanadium) improve the hardenability of steel by retarding the

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phase transformation from austenite to ferrite and pearlite. The most commonly used elements
are Cr, Mo and Mn.
The retardation is due to the need for redistribution of the alloying elements during
the diffusional phase transformation from austenite to ferrite and pearlite. The solubility of the
elements varies between the different phases, and the interface between the growing phases
cannot move without diffusion of the slowly moving elements. There are quite complex
interactions between the different elements, which also affect the temperatures of the phase
transformation and the resultant microstructure. Steel compositions are sometimes described
in terms of a carbon equivalent which describes the magnitude of the effect of all of the
elements on hardenability. This improving effect of alloying elements can be seen by
considering the alloy composition table of several steels (Table V.1) and examining the
following figure (Figure V.6) illustrating the hardenability curves of several alloy steels
having same carbon content of 0.40%.

Table V.1

Table V.1 Composition of selected AISI-SAE steels

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Figure V.6 Hardenability curves of several AISI steels with same C content
(0.40wt%)
For example, according to the table (Table V.1 Composition of selected
AISI/SAE steels), 8640 steel contains less alloying elements than the 4140 steel, and 4140
steel contains less alloying elements than 4340 steel. Comparing with the figure (Figure V.4)
it can be seen that the 4140 steel is more hardenable than the 8640 steel, and the 4340 steel
has the highest hardenability, which certifies the improving effect of alloying elements on
hardenability.

VI. CONCLUSION
Knowledge about the hardenability of steels is necessary to be able to select the
appropriate combination of alloy steel and heat treatment in manufacturing and design.
Jominy end quench test is the standard method used to measure the hardenability of steels,
which is a measure of the capacity of the steels to harden in depth under a given set of
conditions.

VII. TABLES AND FIGURES

VIII. REFERENCES
[1] D.R. Askeland, The Science and Engineering of Materials, P.P Phule Thomson Pub.,
5th edition, 2006.
[2] University Of Cambridge, retrieved from
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/tlplib/jominy/ , on November 29, 2006
[3] Key to Steel, Steel Database, retrieved from http://www.key-to-steel.com/,
on November 29, 2006
[4] Instron, retrieved from http://www.instron.com.tr, on November 30, 2006
[5] Aran, A., Malzeme Bilgisi Ders Notlar, Makina Fakltesi, T.
[6] Material Testing Laboratory Manual, ITU, 2006.
[7]
[8]
[9]