1

SESG6040

SESG6040
2014/15

Failure of Materials and Components

BOOK A

PROF I. SINCLAIR
LANCHESTER 4049
(i.sinclair@soton.ac.uk)

DR B.G. MELLOR
LANCHESTER 4039
(b.g.mellor@soton.ac.uk)

!Engineering Materials
!Faculty of Engineering and the Environment

SESG6040

SESG6040 FAILURE OF MATERIALS & COMPONENTS 2014/15

BOOK A : CONTENTS
SECTION

PAGE

MODULE SPECIFICATION

CASE STUDY

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction to the course, excessive deformation,

introduction to composite classes (L1-4)

11

CHAPTER TWO: Micromechanisms of failure in materials (L5-7)

32

CHAPTER THREE: Fracture and fracture mechanics, toughening

mechanisms in ceramics and composites, probabilistic failure
assessment (L8-11)

48

CHAPTER FOUR: Fatigue, stage I and II crack growth, closure

mechanisms, long and short crack behaviour, fatigue in ceramics,
composites and hybrid laminates (L12-16)

70

REVIEW PAPER: Two steps from disaster the science and

engineering of structural integrity

Attached

SESG6040

Module Profile
Module title

Failure of Materials and Components

Module code (assigned by Banner)

SESG6040

Replacement module (if applicable)

(specify module which should be
discontinued)
Module co-ordinator

Module code
SESG6009 and
SESG3002
Staff number

Module title
Failure of Materials and Service
Performance of Materials
Name
Ian Sinclair

Other staff associated with module

(for Blackboard purposes etc)

Staff number

Name(s):

Faculty

Engineering and the Environment

Academic unit

Cross faculty

Academic session first offered

2014/15

Credit Points

ECTS

Level (4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 in the FHEQ)

Will the module be offered to students from

different levels? Please indicate which are
applicable

Yes

Module coordinator profile url:

(e.g. Level 3 UG module offered to

postgraduate students, Level 6 PC module
offered to PGR students etc)
When will the module be taught
(highlight as appropriate)

7.5

Semester
1

CATS 15

UG

PC

Part 4

MSc

Semeste
r2

Contact hours (L=lecture, P=Practicum)

Teaching Placeme
34
nt

Where will the module be taught

Highfield Campus

Will any other institution be providing

teaching on this module?

NO

YES

Term
1/2/3
Independent
study
116

PR

Split module
give dates
Total
150

Name of institution

SESG6040

Pre-requisite and/or co-requisite modules

Programmes in which the module is core

Pre-requisite:
CoPart II Materials requisite
and Structures or
equivalent
Programme code(s)

None

Part (year)

Programmes in which the module is

compulsory

Programme code(s)
3840 (MEng Advanced
Materials)
3825 (MEng Aero
Advanced Materials)
3882 (MSc Advanced
Materials)
3856(MEng Ship
Materials)

Part (year)
MEng Part 4 and MSc

Programmes in which the module is

optional

Programme code(s)
3846 (MEng
Interdisciplinary)
3847 (MEng Naval
Engineering)
3850 (MEng Industry)
3808 (BEng Mech)
3810 (Beng Aero)
3832 (MEng Aero,
Interdisciplinary)
3833 (MEng, Aero,
Structural Design)
3809 (BEng Ship)
3853 (Meng Ship Yacht)
3857(MEng Ship
Management)
3858(MEng Ship Naval)
3859 (Meng Ship
Interdisciplinary)
3826, 3831, 3839, 3841,
3842, 3843, 3844, 3845

Part (year)
MEng Part 4 and MSc

SESG6040

Module overview
In this module, the emphasis moves away from alloy development and design, and focuses on
the performance of structural materials in a range of engineering applications. The lectures draw
on examples from applications of ceramics, steel, Al, Ti and Ni based alloys, and compares this
with the performance of composites: polymer matrix, metal matrix and ceramic matrix systems.
Engineering assessment of each failure problem is described and the associated micromechanical
failure modes, understanding of which allows improved materials design and selection for a wide
range of service environments.

Aims and learning outcomes

The aims of this module are to:
Enable students to appreciate how and why materials may fail in service, developing
awareness of quality issues
Make students aware of how design and manufacturing influence the susceptibility of
materials to fail by the various failure modes.
Develop an understanding of the in-service behaviour of load bearing structural materials
and the role of this behaviour in materials selection, thus ensuring the fitness for purpose
in terms of operation and maintenance.
Objectives (planned learning outcomes)
Knowledge and understanding
Having successfully completed the module, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of:
In-service performance of commercial materials and be able to extend this to the
performance of composite systems.
Why components/structures can give unsatisfactory service.
What can be done to improve the in-service performance of components/structures, and
thus promoting sustainable development through extending service lifetimes
Issues involved in predicting the fatigue strength of a component, bolted structure and
welded structure.
Intellectual skills
Having successfully completed the module, you will be able to:
Describe failure micromechanisms occurring for a range of service conditions
Relate these failure micromechanisms to optimised materials microstructures
Assess likely service failures for a range of service conditions
Identify appropriate testing approaches to evaluate materials' service performance
Analyse complex service failure problems and apply the correct fracture mechanics
approach
Propose appropriate lifing methodologies for service applications
Critically analyse the factors affecting component/structure performance

SESG6040

Practical skills

assess fractographic images in some detail

Predict how a component/structure would behave under given service conditions.
Predict the fatigue strength of a component with a complex geometry, a bolted structure
and a welded structure.

General transferable (key) skills

Analyse key factors influencing materials failure: evaluate complex materials/structural

failure situations and propose appropriate engineering solutions
Work as materials specialist within a design context

Summary of syllabus content

Introduction to the course: excessive deformation, introduction to composite classes (3
lectures)
Micromechanisms of failure in materials (3 lectures)
Fracture and fracture mechanics, toughening mechanisms in ceramics and composites,
probabilistic failure assessment (6 lectures)
Fatigue: total life and damage tolerant approaches, persistent slip band formation, stage I and
II crack growth, closure mechanisms, long and short crack behaviour, fatigue in ceramics,
composites and hybrid laminates (4 lectures)
Performance of components and structures subjected to mechanical stresses: influence of
design and manufacturing processes on service performance will be examined and the
importance of defects and residual stresses associated with manufacturing processes emphasised.
A detailed case study on the performance of joints will be undertaken to demonstrate how the
fatigue performance of welded and mechanically fastened joints is related to the quality and
design of the joint (6 lectures)
The performance of materials at elevated temperatures: high temperature fatigue, creep,
oxidation, high temperature corrosion and liquid metal embrittlement will be discussed. (3
lectures)
Performance of components and structures subjected to environmental effects: Corrosion,
stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen induced failures will be analysed and the methods of
preventing these failure modes by correct alloy selection, stainless steels, design and the use of
surface coatings, e.g. paints, metallic coatings discussed. (4 lectures)
Industrial guest lecture (1 lecture)
Mid-course classroom quiz (pub quiz) (1 lecture)
Revision lectures (2 lectures)

SESG6040

Summary of teaching and learning methods

Teaching methods include

34 lectures (three 45 minute sessions per week) which develop the themes described in
this module. Skeleton notes are given out at the start of the course, which means you only
have to note down the key points during the lecture, but still have a full set of notes to
work from.

Additional research review papers are provided to give an overview of the themes of the
course

Case study forms part of the lectures

Industrial guest lecture addresses industrial context and applications

Learning activities includeRevision questions set by both lecturers which are intended for small
group self-study teams

Access to past paper exam question bank

Small group self-marked classroom quiz (pub quiz)

Individual work on question sheets supported by surgery sessions & revision lectures

Summary of assessment and Feedback methods

Assessment Method
Mid-course small group classroom quiz: (1,
summative & formative)
Coursework (1 set)
Final Exam (2h, unseen written examination)
Feedback Method
- Classroom quiz feedback is via group discussion
of model answers.
- Individual written feedback is provided for
coursework
Referral Method
Final Exam (2h, unseen written examination)

Method of repeat year: indicate whether a module

can be repeated externally, or if it is only possible
to repeat internally by deleting those not
applicable

Number

% contribution
to final mark

Final
assessment
()

1
1

20
80

% contribution
to final mark
100

Number
1

Repeat year externally

Repeat year internally

SESG6040

Resources
Core Text
S. Suresh , Fatigue of Materials, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0 521 57847 7
Background Texts
T.L. Anderson, Fracture Mechanics fundamentals and applications, CRC Press, ISBN 0-84934260-0
Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, volumes 11 Failure Analysis and Prevention (ISBN
0871700174) and 13 Corrosion (ISBN 0871700190): Library ref. Sci Ref TN671 AME.
William D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering, an Introduction, (Sixth edition), Wiley,
2002 ISBN 0-471-32013-7

SESG6040

CASE STUDY
1. Aims
The aim of this work is to help you take an overview of the course, and to synthesise
across the various areas, as will be required in the exam. In view of this, we are
scheduling submission of the coursework for the end of the course, after the majority of
GDP presentations will be completed. We are however presenting the coursework
materials now to give you the maximum flexibility in planning your time for the
coursework.
2. Structure
This exercise is to be carried as an individual effort, based on each being assigned
ONE of six possible material classes to study, specifically:
- Polymer matrix composites
- Discontinuous metal matrix composites
- Aluminium-lithium alloys
- Ti alloys
- Ni-based superalloys
- Ceramic matrix composites CMCs
Each individual then assesses the structural performance their material class in relation
to 4 specific example applications. These are:
(A) The lower wing of an aircraft
(B) A high performance automotive piston
(C) The turbine disc of a land-based turbine engine
(D) A high pressure H2 gas containment cylinder for advanced fuel vehicles
Review articles on each material class will be provided by Prof Sinclair (downloadable
from the Blackboard site): candidates are strongly encouraged to focus their efforts on
the paper(s) provided, only using additional sources for definition of unfamiliar technical
terms and insight on the four example applications. Candidates with then prepare a
report (~2000 words) outlining the suitability of their allocated material class to the four
applications, drawing on:
- basis analysis of the various service conditions,
- the review article(s) provided for their material,
- the content of the course.
3. Marking criteria
Merit will be given for addressing factors such as:
- critical microstructural and micromechanistic effects
- parameters used to describe a given failure mode
- controlling equations
- related test methods

10

SESG6040

- appreciation of the balance and optimisation of different materials properties

- broader engineering context (e.g. cost, ease of manufacture etc.)
Analysis of the four engineering applications will receive a relatively small mark
weighting of ~25%, i.e. it is the analysis of material characteristics, behaviour, test
requirements etc. represents the majority of the available credit.
N.B. It is recognised that the papers provided will contain some specialised terminology
that may be unfamiliar as the papers represent real articles from the literature. I will be
happy to answer queries on this at the end of lectures and via email. You will only be
expected to apply the level of knowledge gained from this lecture course and previous
Materials courses, and will be marked accordingly. You are free to consult other
information resources, but you should recognise this exercise carries a mark that should
be representative of ~16 hours of effort on your part. As a rough guideline we would
expect the following work schedule:
- Read and prepare notes on individual paper: 8 hours
- Consideration of the four application environments: 4 hours
- Prepare report: 4 hours
4. Summary
- Prepare only a basic analysis of service requirements for the four engineering
applications
- Write a report based on analysis of your allocated material class against the four
engineering applications
- The service requirements analysis represents ~25% of the report mark allocation, with
the remainder allocated to analysis of the individually allocated material class.
5. Deadlines
Written assignments should be submitted by 5pm on Friday May 1st. Written
assignments should be submitted to the Faculty coursework office as per normal
processes.
Ian Sinclair
12th Jan. 2015

Failure of Materials &

Components

Chapter One
Lectures 1-4 - Introduction to the course,
Excessive deformation, Introduction to
composite classes

Failure Of Materials Under Stress

Why is this an engineering issue?
FAILURE OF STRUCTURES/COMPONENTS
Big Examples:
Civil engineering structures
Power generation
Aerospace
Marine/off-shore oil platforms
Small Examples:

11

Modes/Mechanisms Of Failure:
Excessive elastic/plastic deformation, Buckling, Fracture
(ductile and brittle), Fatigue, Corrosion/oxidation, Wear,
Creep...
If we can understand how the material fails on the
microstructural level,
We can engineer better materials & design

12

Assessment/Measurement Of Failure:
We need to characterise the problem
- unambiguous measures to describe service failures

Elasticity / plasticity theories, structural mechanics,

fracture mechanics, micromechanics, electrochemistry,
materials characterisation and metrology...
RISK ANALYSIS

F-N Curve
800000
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

No. of fatalities, N

1.

725490 per 7.5 billion

2.

92500 per 7.5 billion

3.

29600 per 7.5 billion

4.

3 per 7.5 billion

5.

1 per 7.5 billion

6.

74 per 7.5 billion

13

Where societal concerns arise because of the risk of

multiple fatalities occurring in one event from a single
industrial activity HSE proposes.. that the risk of an
accident causing the death of 50 people or more in a
single event should be less than one in five thousand
per annum
How many aircraft flights/rail journeys per annum?

Separate handout giving course background/context:

Two steps from disaster the science and engineering of
structural integrity By Prof. J.F. Knott FREng, FRS
The Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering 1999 Lecture

Throughout the course we will consider:

1

Define the problem :

Mechanisms of failure :

Can we design against it ?

14

Course sub-sections (Chapters)

1. Excessive deformation & intro to composite classes
2. Micromechanisms of failure in materials
3. Fracture and fracture mechanics, toughening mechanisms in
ceramics and composites
4. Fatigue: total life and damage tolerant approaches,
mechanisms, long and short cracks, fatigue non-metals
5. Performance of components and structures subjected to
mechanical stresses
6. Materials at elevated temperatures: high temperature fatigue,
creep, oxidation
7. Performance of components and structures subjected to
environmental effects

Most structural design is based on avoiding

EXCESSIVE DEFORMATION
(a)

section

screw thread

How do we measure this ?

extensometer ridges

We can measure:

gauge length

Typical stress-strain curve

Stress
(Force/Area)

Young s modulus, E
Yield point, y
(usually define a proof stress at 0.2% strain, 0.2

E = /

% elongation to failure (%el.)

% reduction in cross-sectional area (%RA.)

Strain (extension/original length)

15

Materials
Mild steel
High strength steel
Al alloy
Ti alloy
Mg alloy
Wrought iron
Cast iron - compression
concrete - compression
nylon (polyamide)
polystyrene
fluon (tetrafluoroethylene)
polythene (ethylene)
glass fibre composite
carbon-fibre composite
boron composite
Alumina
SiC
Mg2O
SiN

E (GPa)
200
200
70
120
45
190
140
14
2
3.5
0.4
0.2
60
170
270
400
400
276
165

UTS (MPa)
370
1550
430
690
280
310
700 (150)
30 (3)
2
3.5
0.4
0.2
60
170
270
380
450
170
325

(kg/m3)
7840
7840
2800
4500
1800
7670
structural/
7200
construction
2410
materials
high strength
1050
polymers
2220
915
2000
1600
2000
3900
3200
ceramics
3550
2500

Excessive Elastic Deformation:

Stiffness in solid materials can be considered a measure of the bond
strength
Heat treatment variations, compositional tweaking have little effect in
most metallic alloys

Ceramics have a higher stiffness than metals

a reflection of the
found in these structures
Stiffness of composites this is obviously very dependent on their lay-up/
proportions of reinforcing fibre/particle,
and may also be a measure of

Weight considerations..

16

Excessive Plastic Deformation:

SESG6007 concentrated on strength improvements:
Metals: dislocation pinning - various microstructural features can do this:
Grain
Secondary phases
Solid solution
Ceramics: plastic deformation
Elastic limit effectively extended by avoiding
- Cooling cracks often ~ size of grains

Composites: various! Need to define

COMPOSITES: CLASSES
General definition: Multiphase materials in which dissimilar constituents are
combined to give properties which cannot be obtained by one component
Generic types:
Polymer matrix composites:
Metal matrix composites:
Ceramic matrix composites:
Hybrid composites

consider later in the course

Generic types developed to exploit combination of property type

Composite designed to
Composite materials are expensive. Property improvements must be costeffective and exploit

17

PMCs Introduction
Low density gives excellent
Property tailoring by selection of materials and lay-up : strength and
stiffness,

Manufacture of thermosetting PMC: lay-up of unidirectional (UD) prepreg. and autoclaving or fibre lay-up and resin transfer moulding
Manufacture of thermoplastic PMCs requires
Cost effective manufacture of structurally efficient components requires
consideration of
materials selection should be part of the design stage

PMCs Fibres
Requirements:
(plus matrix adhesion, low density,
environmental resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity...)
Aramid (Aromatic polyAMIDE)
Linear molecular chain giving meta-amid paper (e.g. Nomex) and paraamid fibres (e.g. Kevlar):
High
Carbon (PAN and Pitch based)
Planar array of covalently bonded atoms

Glass : Cheap non-polymeric fibre

various electrical and thermal properties

18

(kg/m3)

Fibre

E (GPa)

UTS (G P a )

Aramid

124

3.6

1450

UHM Carbo n

690

3.3

2170

HM Carbo n

400

3.5

1860

IM Carbo n

295

5.6

1740

VHS Carb o n

238

4.3

1810

HS Carbon

235

3.5

1760

E Glass

71

2.4

2540

PMCs Matrices
Requirements: Bonding and protection of fibres, resistance to
environment
Epoxides (thermoset)
O
CH 2

O
CHCH2
N

CH 2

CH 2

CHCH2
O

CHCH2

CH 2

CHCH2

CH 2

Various types:
Resin and hardener partially reacted

19

PMC Matrices - continued

Polyimides (thermoset)

HOOC

CO2 CH3

COOH

CH3O2 C

High Tg improved
and complex curing
Bismaleimides (thermoset)
CO

CO
N

CH 2

CO

CO

Moderate temperature
Epoxy like

PMC Matrices - Continued

PEEK (thermoplastic)

C
O
n

Improved toughness and environmental resistance

Indefinite shelf life and rapid fabrication
Impregnation difficult and expensive

20

 Unidirectional composites: Different E, y in longitudinal

and transverse directions (see over page):

TRANSVERSE
stress transfer
fibres and matrix
experience same
stress

LONGITUDINAL
fibres and
matrix experience the same
strain (otherwise delamination
will occur)

LONGITUDINAL

composite = fibre = matrix

Fcomposite = F fibre + Fmatrix

Fcomposite

Acomposite composite = A fibre fibre + Amatrix matrix

composite = V fibre fibre + Vmatrix matrix

Fmatrix
Ffibre

composite V fibre fibre + Vmatrix matrix

=
composite
composite

E composite = V fibre E fibre + Vmatrix E matrix

21

TRANSVERSE

fibre = matrix = composite

composite = V fibres fibres + Vmatrixmatrix

matrix
fibre

composite V fibre fibre + Vmatrixmatrix

=

1
E composite

1
E composite

composite

V fibre Vmatrix
+
E fibre E matrix
V fibre E matrix + Vmatrix E fibre

E composite =

E fibre E matrix

E fibre E matrix
V fibre E matrix + Vmatrix E fibre

22

Fibre breaks

14

Nominal"Stress""in"CF"layers"

100"
90"
80"
70"
60"
50"
40"
30"
20"
10"
0"

Layers"through"the"thickness"

CF Hoop

CF Helical

CF Hoop

23

Individual sheets of
unidirectional
lamina can be
made up and then
laid in various
orientations:

One unit of strength

and stiffness
o
450

One unit of strength

and stiffness

45

90

One tenth of a unit of strength and stiffness

0o 45

90

One tenth of a unit of strength and stiffness

A typical lay-up might consist of: 0/45/90/45/0 etc. to

give good averaged properties in all directions
-

Chopped strand mats sometimes used. Property

anisotropy may be beneficial for some applications
where a strongly directional stress state is guaranteed.

24

MMCs - Applications
Reinforcement phase is very hard/brittle surrounded by a
ductile metal matrix
(It may be of interest to note that a lot of effort in the past has
gone into refining metals to remove hard/brittle particles,
particularly to improve toughness)

MMCs can offer:

High specific
Improved elevated
Low thermal
Good thermal and electrical

Manufacture:
Reinforcement type (monofilament, multifilament, whiskers
and particles) and matrix affect fabrication route

Possible manufacturing methods:

Squeeze casting
Liquid metal infiltration
Spray deposition (Co-spray)
Powder/particle blending and HIP
Diffusion bonding
Plasma deposition

25

MMCs Fibres or Particles?

Monofilaments

Particulate

Whiskers

Specific strength (GPa/gcm ) 3

0.7
0.6

Monofilaments

0.4

Al - based
composites

0.3

p
ea
Ch

Specific strength (GPa/gcm ) 3

0.7
0.6

0.5

Whiskers

0.5

0.2

Al - based
composites

0.4 0.1

Ch

0.3

0.2

p
ea

er

C
r
are
l
e
a
n
D
tio
ec
Dir

er

t
iso

Particulate

A = SiC
c
pi

B = SiC or B

ro

r
are
l
na
De
tio
ec
r
i
D

C = high modulus

c
pi
100
50
ro
ot
s
i
Specific modulus (GPa/gcm ) 3

150

0.1
0
0

100
50
Specific modulus (GPa/gcm ) 3

150

Fibre reinforcement
Particulate reinforcement moderate enhancement but

26

Potential applications:
Component s

Property

MMC

Airframe

Reduced mass

Al/SiCp

Aeroengine

Reduced mass, high

Ti/SiCf

Car engine :
Brake calipers,

Specific stiffness &

Al/SiCp

conrod e t c
Satellit e
Helicopter
Missile

Specific stiffness, dimensional

Reduced mass/vibration control
Specific stiffness/ high

Al/Graphit e
Mg/Alumina
Al/SiCp

Particulate MMC vs CFRP

27

Airframe: Al alloy/SiC particulate MMC gives modest improvement

over Al-Li and CFRP at minimum cost
Examples: AA2024/20%SiCp [& AA8090/SiCp]
BUT stiffness improvement must be matched by strength and
elastic limit,

Aeroengine: Ti/65%SiCf redesign

possible to minimise mass
Fibre directionality an

Automotive: Formula One applications mostly exploiting the

excellent wear/stiffness properties of the lower cost Al/SiCp
materials ..
and not using them in

Novel structural materials are most likely to find application in

glamorous high value applications
e.g. Formula One, sporting goods (e.g. MMC golf clubs!)
Aerospace: demanding performance requirements, but also
stringent safety requirements,
structural integrity/lifing
cost reduction an

28

CMCs - Introduction
Applications: higher operating temperatures required in
aeroengines and ceramics offer many possible benefits:
High specific
Good
Low thermal expansion and
Chemically stable at low and high
Mechanical properties retained
Low cost

Disadvantages:
Low defect
Poor resistance to
Complex controlled

CMCs use fibre reinforcement to enhance toughness via a

combination of:
Load transfer to
Fibre ductility/
Prestressing
Crack
(more discussion later in the course)

29

Potential Applications: Turbine aerofoils, Nozzle petals, Combustor

CMC manufacture: SiC/SiC via Chemical Vapour deposition (CVD)

Sintering/HIPping

CH3 SiCl 3

H2

SiC + 3HCl

CVD

Typical properties
E=

Density =

UTS =

Design Stress =

SiC/CAS (Calcium Alumino Silicate) Glass-ceramic fabrication

Spreading rollers

Traverse head

Desize oven
impregnation tank
Fibre reel
Pressure

winding
cage

Final densified
plate

Fibre pre-preg

30

Typical properties
E=

Density =

UTS =

Design Stress =

Drawbacks:
Improved fibres and
Cheaper manufacture

(well come back to this later in the course)

INITIAL SUMMARY FOR COMPOSITES:

Many different types of REINFORCEMENT:
Generally these are
SiC, Al203, C etc
Many different classes of MATRIX:
Polymer and metal can be thought of as relatively ductile & tough, with
lower
Ceramic matrix ??
we ll come back to this one.
Composite properties:
In this section we ve mostly looked at improvements in stiffness (rule of
mixtures) similar improvements seen in terms of strength, we ll go on to
look at other more complex properties later in the course

31

Chapter Two
Lectures 5 -7 - Micromechanisms of failure in
materials

MICROMECHANISMS OF FAILURE IN MATERIALS :

Ductility/Ductile failure
Ductile failure occurs at the end of the tensile test: generally seen
in
Ductility measured in terms of
Ductile failure
Cup-cone failure:

32

Cup forms due to microvoid coalescence around

SECONDARY phase particles
Initially get void formation around
Microvoids start to coalesce in the neck region

As cup gets larger, specimen acts as if it is internally

cracked, remaining material breaks as shear

Origin of secondary phases:

Wrought Steels: inclusions
Mild steels, Ni-base superalloys: Carbides
Weld metals deoxidants used in the welding process
High strength Al alloys:
inclusions
dispersoids
ageing precipitates

Particulate MMCs: particle reinforcements!

33

Void initiation
Increased

Secondary

Dislocations pile-up at the secondary phase particle

The bigger the particle spacing, the bigger the
Particle/matrix separation must occur for void to initiate.
Initiation takes place under
Larger particles may crack very easily, or even be

Particle may be well bonded to the matrix, or clamped in position by

residual stresses:
(e.g. Al2O3 in Fe or SiC in Al)
At high temperature (when secondary particle forms or matrix solidifies
around an existing particle)

On cooling metal would ideally contract more than inclusion

matrixT
inclusionT
but it cant hence particle in compression, matrix in tension:

34

There will be a tessellated stress field surrounding each inclusion:

yy

yy

In a MMCp this effectively averaged tensile residual stress field acts

within the material to decrease strength, High aspect ratio
directionality effects:
If particle > matrix then particle in tension and matrix
(e.g. MnS) easy decohesion around particle/
Particle aspect ratio also affects likelihood of particle cracking
long thin particles

Void growth: this is a function of the applied strain but also the
local hydrostatic stress (pressure) is important

Voids grow laterally (i.e. normal to the applied stress)

hence a tensile stress must be developed
i.e. a TRIAXIAL stress state is required
produced in smooth specimens by

35

Specimen
forming
a neck

stress concentration
plastic deformation

Neck generates lateral stress

so voids coalesce more easily

Neck=

Cause of triaxial stress field at a notch

Stress concentration at notch root
notch root material yields, surrounding material
Elastic deformation:
Plastic deformation (slip): volume conserved,
Hence plastic material experiences a lateral tensile strain/stress from
the elastically
= 0.5

22 due to strain mismatch

When is improved ductility wanted?

Mostly in manufacturing,
How do we control ductility?
Yield behaviour of material:
i.e. slip systems, strengthening

BUT also: secondary particles:

-

36

How do the micromechanisms we ve just described contribute to

ductile failure ?
Standard materials fracture test: Notched impact tests (Charpy tests)
Typical Specimen:

Fixed to structure

Impact energies are

measured - high for ductile
failure, low for
Presence of notch severely
weakens sample, lowering
impact

Test: measures impact energy in kJ this will be dependent on

specimen and notch size/geometry.
Really only useful for

Impact
energy

steel bcc

Plastic flow (e.g. slip systems

operating in metals or chain
rotations/ movements in polymers
above Tg) acts as an energy

Al fcc all ductile

Temperature
Steel appearance: microvoids

cleavage
facets

sheared dimples in shear lips

37

Part 1 recap:

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

There is a competition between plastic ductile failure processes and
brittle cleavage processes (you ve seen examples of these
mechanisms earlier).
Brittle fracture:

f =

independent of
temperature

2E
a

Ductile failure:

y = o + kd

1
2

temperature independent
(fcc)
temperature dependent
(bcc and hcp)

Stress

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION (DBT)

FCC case: yield always
occurs before brittle
fracture DUCTILE
failure
BCC case: at low
temperatures y > f, so
brittle fracture will occur
before yield
BRITTLE FAILURE
Temperature
BRITTLE

DUCTI LE

38

Stress

FACTORS AFFECTING DBT 1

f
y bcc

Increase o by: work

hardening, ppt or solution
strengthening
y increases but f
unaffected DBT rises,
i.e. metal becomes more
brittle
- In nuclear plant, service
conditions (radiation
exposure) produces

Temperature

Stress

FACTORS AFFECTING DBT 2

f
y bcc

Increase o by: grain

size refinement, y
increases and f
increases DBT
drops, i.e. metal
becomes tougher (more
resistant to fracture)

Temperature
Grain size refinement improves strength AND toughness

39

Ductile failure surfaces (SEM)

Aluminium alloy - Al-Si alloy

Voids form around
Bigger voids in Al alloy cf steel.

Steel

A533B weld metal (nuclear pressure vessel weld) - cryogenic temperatures

(simulating

Brittle Failure

-196C

-150C - DBTT

Brittle cleavage facets

{100} cleavage facet

Mixed fracture surface

40

Ductile fracture:
Prestrained steel: has already exhausted its work hardening ability
ductile fast fracture (absorbs little energy, but still occurs by
principally occurs under

Notch

annealed
Prestrained material

Ductility exhausted
Full ductility

Annealed steel: can still experience work hardening,

successive regions under the notch are plastically deformed
become harder and transmit stress to next section

What happens ahead of a sharper crack?

41

Small length scales support relatively simple micromechanical descripion...

11

22
33

1
22

Multi-particle populations can be an important factor:

e.g. underaged Al
As strain increases, may reach limit when voids form around
dispersoids
dispersoids
Tends to reduce

crit

42

Void Growth

Stretch zone
Void
growth

10mm

Brittle failure

Observed in certain metals, glasses, ceramics

Two main types:
Transgranular cleavage: occurs along cleavage planes
e.g.
Cleavage planes are
Glass and glassy polymers have no crystal packing, so no slip
systems, therefore show purely brittle behaviour.

Once stress ahead of the crack tip exceeds the bond strength,

43

Crack propagates at the speed of sound.

Typically facets are seen:
with riverlines indicating where the crack front has

Fractography can use riverlines to trace back to the initiation

site (see micrographs)
Intergranular cleavage: occurs when there has been
segregation of brittle phases to the grain boundaries, providing
a preferential crack path
e.g. cementite on prior austenite g.b.s in a

Composite fibre/matrix failures (PMCs and long fibre MMCs)

Fibre fracture: The fibres are normally stiff, strong, but also
The fracture stress will be dependent on the size/distributions of flaws in
the fibres.
The weakest link will always break first, this distribution of fracture strength
in brittle materials can be described
(discussed in more detail later).
If there is a fixed probability of flaws in the fibre production
the longer the fibre is, the higher the probability it contains a
i.e. shorter fibres will tend to
C-fibres tend to be brittle and exhibit tensile failure
Kevlar fibres are more ductile and neck down to failure so matrix failure
may occur

44

Fibre failure is followed by interfacial fibre/matrix debonding

cumulative weakening
Local stress state can affect failure mechanisms

CFRP fatigue failure notched coupon (quasi-isotropic)

125m

Multiple cracking modes in carbon-fibre epoxy composite (rendered with orthogonal 2D

slices superimposed). Yellow = delamination, Red, fibre breaks in blue, (Fu et al., 2008).

45

Fibre failure is followed by interfacial fibre/matrix debonding

cumulative weakening
Local stress state can affect failure mechanisms
Longitudinal fracture
Intralaminar shear
Transverse rupture
Fibre buckling
Variation of properties with off-axis loading in UD composites
is controlled by the

Composite failures are very complex (particularly in multiple lay-up

configurations).

matrix failure

fibre failure

interface
failure

fibre failure

matrix
failure

interface
failure

To model all the micromechanical effects is very complex

e.g. you would need to model effect of fibre failure on interface, interface
failure on surrounding matrix etc, multiplied up by each and every failure
event, overlapping stress/strain fields etc

46

C-fibre composite failures

Kevlar fibre failures

Ductile fibre failures:

47

Chapter Three
Lectures 8 -11 Fracture and fracture mechanics,
toughening mechanisms in ceramics and
composites, probabilistic failure assessment

FRACTURE
How do we characterise fracture? TOUGHNESS resistance to

Tolerance to DEFECTS
e.g. Charpy notch impact tests (similar to Part 1 labs) from which we can
obtain a materials ranking, BUT how does this relate to a component/
structure in service,
how does it help calculate
A more useful test for design/stress analysis of fracture in structures
exists:
KIC toughness testing: slow strain rate testing of specimens containing

48

USED TO CALCULATE K, THE

STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR

A sharp fatigue precrack is grown from the notch

at low alternating stress levels for all specimens.

Testing methodology: ASTM E399 and BS 5447

Specimens are tested at a steady, slow ramp rate (calculated in terms
of rate of increase in K) the crack opening is monitored by compliance
techniques,
Load, P

Displacement

49

PQ is used to calculate KQ
Various factors are considered to confirm whether KQ is valid and
can be quoted as a KIC value (the fracture toughness of the
specimen)

e.g.

DEFINITION OF K - THEORETICAL BASIS

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Assuming brittle continuum behaviour:
Griffiths Energy Balance Approach
Stored strain energy in the plate

Formation of new surfaces

when crack grows

stress concentration
at the crack tip

2a

2a<<W, semi-infinite
plate of unit thickness

50

E = Young s modulus, e = surface energy (per unit area)

f 2a
= 2 e
E

Another rearrangement
of the equation:

f a = 2E e = material.const.
so as a increases,
BUT few engineering materials are TOTALLY brittle

How do we allow for plasticity ?

uniaxial
tensile
test

Above y, plastic flow occurs

LEFM predicts local crack tip stresses are
we expect plasticity to occur around the crack tip

51

 If the crack extends, a new plastic zone has to form at the new
crack tip

This gives us an additional crack growth resistance term

Therefore to extend Griffiths approach to MOST materials,

f 2a
= 2( e + p )
E

where p is a plastic work term and typically

LOCAL STRESSES AT THE CRACK TIP

From linear elastic theory the LOCAL stresses at the crack tip
are found to have the following relationship:

ij =

K
f ij ( ) + higherorderterms
2r

where (r, ) = polar co-ordinates, origin at the crack tip

11

1
r
r

K describes the MAGNITUDE of the elastic stress field

K =

52

 But we can link K to the original energy balance approach too:

f a = 2E = constan t = K IC
General form of the equation:

"a%
K = f $ ' app a
#W &

where f(a/W) is the compliance

function, widely available for many
component shapes and sizes known as Y or Q - shape factor in
Part 1

K is a very useful parameter:

It describes local crack tip
It can be simply calculated from specimens
and

LIMITATIONS ON THE USE OF K - validity criteria

But K is based on LEFM, although some plasticity is allowed, if it can
be treated as:
a contribution to crack
and plasticity at crack tip is limited (small scale yielding)
Why do we get yielding at the crack tip?

11

1
r
r

conditions for LEFM are defined for fracture toughness testing (KIC
determination) in British Standard 5447:
W-a, a, B > 2.5 (KIC/y)2
i.e. there has to be sufficient surrounding material behaving in an elastic
manner to provide

53

All in the same material

KKCcrit

a material
KKCcrit not
constant

KKCcrit

should be constant if it describes local

crack tip stress state at fracture

KKICcrit = material constant

B
Fracture Profiles

slant

Example: The thickness

criterion in fracture
toughness testing
Plane strain condition is
most critical for fracture
assessment
AND defines point at
which K consistently
defines local crack tip
stresses and strains.

square

intermediate

Stress in the thickness Centre of the specimen is under plane strain

direction ~
conditions
plane stress state
Maximum resolved
high degree of
shear stress is
triaxial stress state, high

But what if LEFM doesn t hold ?

How do we measure fracture

Use crack tip opening displacement, CTOD (), or the J-integral

Crack tip opening displacement
If significant plastic flow occurs at the crack tip,

Fast failure / crack extension

Blunted crack

54

 After a certain amount of crack-tip blunting (crack-tip strain), the crack

will extend and give failure.
This critical amount of crack tip opening, crit, is a
and can be used to rank the toughness of materials
To extend the use of laboratory CTOD measurements to the behaviour
of large scale structure is not trivial (requires semi-empirical fits).
Under LEFM conditions it may be shown:

K2
=
yE

The J-integral
The J-integral is a quasi- strain energy release rate equivalent to G
under
derived assuming non-linear

Non-linear unloading
uniaxial
tensile
test

Linear unloading

On loading the behaviour of a non-linear elastic material and a

plastically deforming material
On unloading the comparison
Hence the use of J in unloading situations,

55

 J is defined as a path independent line integral along a contour around

the crack tip,
which gives the change in potential energy release rate
Hence J = G in the linear
A critical JIC value can be used to define fracture under
J has also been shown to characterise the crack-tip stress-strain field
(as does K) and so is a stress field as well as an energy parameter.
For further reading about fracture mechanics parameters, their
derivation and measurement, see: Fracture Mechanics, Fundamentals
and Applications by T.L. Anderson, CRC

Experimental determination of CTOD and J:

Similar to K-testing, crack mouth displacement versus load traces
are obtained:
CTOD testing: how do we relate crack mouth opening to crack tip
opening?

a
W

56


V
=
r(W a) r(W a) + a
=

r(W a)V
r(W a) + a

r is the rotational factor, between 0 and 1, determined

experimentally

J-integral testing:
P, load

Using similar assumptions

as in CTOD calculation
(i.e. linking crack mouth
opening to

J=

2.area
B(W a)

JIC can be obtained

from

V, crack mouth deflection

57

TOUGHNESS SUMMARY

We ve looked at how to CHARACTERISE toughness

We ve looked at the micromechanisms of failure
How do we improve toughness?
Depends on crack growth
Ductile failure: void initiation and growth, e.g. Al alloys
Optimise secondary phase distribution,

Significant work hardening capacity in the matrix is also helpful.

A general trend is seen that as y increases, KIC decreases.
This can be because of a switch to
or can simply be a reflection of an accompanying lessening in work
hardening capability

A VERY ductile matrix will not offer significant energy absorbing

deformation
Most structural applications require

Brittle failure: transgranular or intergranular?

Intergranular need to optimise
Transgranular brittle cleavage, initiation nearly always starts at an
inclusion/secondary particle, so
How can we improve the toughness of an intrinsically brittle material?

58

Improving the toughness of ceramics

Two main approaches:

Crack itself leads to change in the local properties of the material at the
crack tip,
changing the local stress field and shielding the
(local K is less than

Transformation toughening
Occurs in ZrO2 which has different crystal structures at different
temperatures (phase changes)

monoclinic
20C

tetragonal
1170C

cubic
2370C

melts!
2700C

Monoclinic tetragonal transformation is

59

 Principle of transformation toughening is to form small particles (< 1m) of

metastable tetragonal ZrO2 in a matrix.

transformed to
monoclinic ZrO2

Tensile stress associated with crack tip:

Associated volume increase produces

Dilation of transformation ~ 3-5%

Theory:

KIC E T h
Matrix modulus

Optimum size for ZrO2 particles is 0.5-1m

Too small surface energy effect,
Too big get spontaneous
Maximum increase in toughness (KIC) has been achieved in Al2O3
matrix,

60

Microcrack toughening
Use locked in strain energy to shield the crack.
Al2O3 has anisotropic thermal contraction with a small enough grain size
can avoid cracking
These will superpose with the applied stress field when a crack tip

Microcracks relieve local stresses and hence toughen the material

KIC E m h

KIC

Strain fields associated with tetragonal ZrO2 particles can also act as
microcracks

61

Crack interaction mechanisms

Cause deviation of the crack crack no longer experiences pure opening
mode
Hence K at crack tip is decreased,

reduced opening
mode

Crack may deviate because it interacts with microstructural features

Crack bowing
Requires dispersed second phase particle that is tougher than the matrix
similar to Orowan bowing of dislocations around

Crack
front
advance

Degree of bowing is controlled by distance between

62

Crack deflection:
Crack deflects due to weak interfaces/phases or strain fields
e.g. ceramics containing a grain boundary glassy phase:
A non-equiaxed grain shapes maximum crack path and maximum
deflection
Intermetallics: lamellar microstructure gives a more tortuous crack path
than the more equi-axed microstructure

Crack deflection (1)

Crack deflection (2)

Crack deflects due to 2nd phase particles (e.g. MMCs)
Thermal expansion coefficient differences residual compression or
tension of particle and corresponding matrix stress field around particle
Tensile radial stresses

p > m particle
is in hydrostatic
tension

tensile hoop stresses

p < m particle
is in hydrostatic
compression

Both cases give crack deflection

Distribution of particles, size, volume fraction and aspect ratio all have
an effect on

63

Crack bridging - only really occurs in fibre composites, CMCs, PMCs

When tough ductile fibres remain intact behind the crack:

Crack is held together by bridging fibres reduced crack tip stress,

N.B. matrix-fibre interface failure gives v. effective blunting/90 deflection

More complex composite failures (LAMINATES)

Edge delamination
(stress concentration)
Fibre fractures
where

Applied load

0o ply
90o ply
0o ply

Internal delamination at
intersection between a split and
a transverse crack

64

BARELY VISIBLE IMPACT DAMAGE

POINT OF IMPACT

0
45
0
45
45
0
45
0

SIMPLE consideration of ONE crack and its associated stress/strain

field (i.e. fracture mechanics)

(but in this course we ll stick with fracture mechanics)

ADVANCED MICROMECHANICAL SIMULATION

A-FEM (augmented finite element method)
e.g. Hansbo and Hansbo, 2004

! Ghost elements add extra crack displacements

! Can set up as user elements (e.g. in ABAQUS)

14

27

21
26

24

12

4 9 26 3

16

17

14

27

21
26
12

23

10

4 9 26 3

23

10
16

17

15

8 5 1

7 11

18

22
19

13
20

15

8 5 1

25

Ling, Yang & Cox, 2008

18

22
19

Arbitrary crack initiation and growth

Incorporate cohesive zones
Stochastic processes

7 11

13
20

Round hole cracking,

multiple plies

65

ADVANCED MICROMECHANICAL SIMULATION

IM7/8551-7
~ 600 MPa (60%)

IM7/8551-7
~ 400 MPa (40%)

IM7/8551-7
~ 800 MPa (80%)

90

90

90

90

90
0
90
0

IC = 491 J/m2 ; IIC = IIIC = 1682 J/m2

n = 62 MPa; t = s = 92 MPa

FAILURE ASSESSMENT IN STRUCTURES

What comprises structural failure?
Structural collapse undue deflection under
Choose appropriate stiffness or strength
Catastrophic fast failure from a defect
We can define
What is the critical defect ?
Does it develop during service

66

Might structural collapse precede/win out over fast fracture?

As load increases, stress in uncracked ligament increases and may

reach general yield

app =

K = Y app a
If stress in uncracked ligament

L
BW

L
= y
B(W a)

Kr = K/fracture toughness

Failure locus (largely noninteracting)

K IC = Y app

OP
OQ

Lr = load/collapse load

% K (2
a f a f = '' IC **
& Y app )

67

Probability of a

p.d.f. of
defect sizes
distribution

Defect size, a

probability of failure

FAILURE ASSESSMENT IN CERAMICS

Ceramics exhibit very brittle behaviour, they are very notch sensitive
since they exhibit little or no plastic behaviour
Hence elastic stress concentrations produced at
Defects arise from a number of sources
so for a given batch of material, the fracture stress can
how do we
Weibull statistics

68

Weibull statistics
Probability of failure, P, at a given stress level, f
At low f
at high f
mw .
*, $
f ' ,
P = 1 Ps = 1 exp+ &
) /
,- % f , 0 ( ,0

where Ps = probability of survival, mw is the Weibull modulus and f,0 is

a reference strength

To calculate P and hence mw :

Carry out a series of Ns tests on the same batch of material, rank tests in order of
failure strength, assign probability of failure at each stress level according to
fraction of failures at this stress and below
Rearranging the Weibull equation:

) f ,
1 %
"
ln $ ln
=
m
ln
+
.
w
# 1 P '&
* f,0 -

#
1 &
ln%ln
$ 1 P '(

sf /s f,0

# &
ln%% f ((
$ f ,0 '

This analysis can of course be applied to any materials class, and

any failure mode (e.g. endurance limits, creep rupture)

69

Chapter Four
Lectures 12 -16 - Fatigue, Stage I and Stage II
crack growth, closure mechanisms, long and
short crack behaviour, fatigue in ceramics,
composites and hybrid laminates

FATIGUE
What do we know already ?
Revisit Part 1 notes
In service, components often see
fluctuating stresses: = max - min
Even though < y or f
Eventual failure is seen: termed fatigue
Associated with 90% of metallic failures in
service
A small defect initiates and grows until it
reaches ac and sudden fast failure occurs

70

FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION: S-N curves

Smooth polished test pieces are

cyclically loaded until fatigue failure
occurs.
- Number of loading cycles against
stress amplitude is noted.
- In steels a fatigue limit is observed,
a stress amplitude below which no
fatigue failure is observed

Rotating Bend Testing

Stress amplitude, S

FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION: S-N curves

Al

In Al alloys, no fatigue limit is observed

- an endurance limit is usually
defined: the stress amplitude at which
a lifetime of 107 cycles is observed.
Cycles to failure, N

S-N curves give information on total fatigue life, i.e. no. of cycles to
initiation of a crack and no. of cycles to grow that crack to fast
fracture point. Ntotal = Ni+Ng
The curves are very dependent on surface finish (scratches act as
pre-initiated cracks) and so S-N curves are not useful in determining
the safe life of structures which already contain defects.

71

FATIGUE
Total Life approaches:
High cycle fatigue, HCF (Nf >105 cycles)
Low stress, mostly elastic deformation, Nf characterised in terms of
b

= 'f (2N f )
2

Low cycle fatigue, LCF (Nf < 105 cycles)

High stress, lots
of plastic deformation, Nf characterised in terms of
p
c
= 'f (2N f )
2

In designing using such S-N data, we are designing against

BUT most engineering components contain FLAWS

A DEFECT TOLERANT LIFING APPROACH will allow for real-life

engineering situations.
This requires:
Good NDT - X-ray, ultrasound, dye penetrant, optical to determine size
AND position of
Known fatigue crack growth behaviour (da/dN = fn(, a))
no. of cycles for crack to grow from
where acritical causes

72

USE OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

log da/dN

Allows crack growth to be characterised in transferable/general terms:

(3)

(2)

Three regimes:

(1)

Kth

log K

Definitions:
da/dN = crack growth increment
K
range of stress intensity factor

time

R-ratio =

73

Why do we use K (K) to correlate crack growth rates in fatigue ?

K can be calculated
and it characterises

#a&
K = f % ( a
$W '
can characterise

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH MECHANISMS: STAGE I

Typically Stage I crack growth is associated with early crack growth, just after initiation
Stage I - crack along slip
bands at max. shear

Crack grows along crystallographic slipplanes in the material (e.g. {111} type in
most f.c.c. materials) experiencing the
most

Characterised by
surface appearance

app

fracture

Ni-based superalloy at RT

74

 Crack growth mechanism:

shear decohesion along
Slip-bands are sets of dislocations, shuttling back and forth along

{111} slip
plane

Eventually the material becomes so weakened by the repeated

passage of the dislocations that it fails.

Slip bands in Ni-base superalloy at RT - ppts revealed by etching

ppts have {100} cube edge orientation aligned with matrix
{111} slip-plane revealed by cutting of

75

Planar slip is promoted by:

Repeated cutting of
Dislocation pairing (if the ppts are ordered)
Stabilisation of dissociated dislocations by
low stacking fault
Dispersed, or wavy slip suppresses Stage I crack growth
Wavy slip is promoted by:
High temperatures
High stacking fault
Incoherent or semi-coherent

log da/dN

Crack Growth

(3)

(2)

Three regimes:

Near-threshold

Paris regime

Unstable, v. fast crack

growth rates

(1)

Kth

log K

76

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH MECHANISMS

Stage I - crack along slip
bands at max. shear

app

Ni-based superalloy at RT

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH MECHANISMS - STAGE II

Perpendicular to the applied opening stress:
By eye the fracture surface appears relatively smooth,
At higher magnifications (in the electron microscope) striations can
sometimes be seen, their origin can be explained by the following
micromechanistic model:
Crack blunts out at maximum
(a) crack opening

(d) crack closing

Crack tip extends by

(b)

(e) crack fully closed

(c) peak stress

(f) crack re-opening

CTOD

Crack resharpens on reverse

loading
Therefore, one striation
observed for
see p.6 Royal Society
Lecture

77

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH MECHANISMS - STAGE III

Towards the end of crack propagation

Monotonic (static) failure modes start to predominate:
Bursts of ductile tearing
Bursts of cleavage

Stage II striations:

Stage III fatigue failure:

Microvoid
coalescence

log da/dN

Kmax > 80% Kcrit

(3)

(2)

Regime (3) - Stage III bursts of

monotonic fracture are contributing
to the very fast crack growth rates,
occurs
Generally , throughout fatigue life
Kmax << KIC

(1)

Kth

Kmax = Kcrit

log K

SERVICE APPLICATION: nuclear pressure vessels can contain defects (e.g. quench
cracks)
Pressurising and depressurising the vessel occurs
Fatigue life can dominated

78

Regime (2)
Empirical finding, the Paris law:

da
= CK m
dN

So, if we know the crack is in the Paris regime

We can calculate the lifetime by INTEGRATION, if we know ai and acrit:

da
= CK m
dN
# #a&
&m
da
= C% f % ( a (
dN
$ $W '
'
a final

a initial

" a %m m2
f $ ' a da = C
#W &

" a %m m2
f $ ' a da =

#W &

Nf

C
0

dN = C

dN

Nf

But this sort of lifing analysis can only be applied if crack growth is ALL
in the Paris regime
So we need to accurately know the extent of
How does the crack grow?
STAGE II
Laird-Smith mechanism a per N =

da
~ CTOD
dN

CTOD =

K 2
yE

da
K 2
dN

m values have been quoted for a range of engineering materials between 2

and 8

79

log da/dN

SLOW FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH - Regime (1)

Load shedding:10% increments
to find da/dN at

(3)

P.D. wires
(2)

constant
current

(1)

As crack grows, resistance

increases, P.D. increases
continued measure of
crack growth throughout test
Kth

log K

Below Kth USEFUL as it indicates the safe operating stress level for a

Extrapolation of the Paris regime gives a conservative estimate of

threshold.
Deviation from the Paris regime extrapolation occurs usually at da/dN of
10-7 mm/cycle or 10-10 m/cycle
10-10 m = 1 Angstrom
Crack growth increments cannot be less than this, so why do we
observe crack growth rates below this?
The crack may only advance every few
The crack growth itself may be

80

 Determination of threshold: when da/dN below 10-8 mm/cycle

based on limit of crack length
When the material reaches threshold, the inherent material resistance
to a propagating crack
Mechanism of near-threshold crack growth
In polycrystalline materials, crack propagation mode changes from
Typically Stage I crack growth is also associated with early crack
growth, just after initiation

log da/dN

Stage III
Al-Li
alloy

Stage I
K th

log K

Stage I crack growth is more faceted

(rough/deflected) than Stage II crack
growth

Ni-base superalloy at RT near threshold

81

Kmin/Kmax

log da/dN

Effect of R-ratio on threshold

Low R-ratio

Kth

Kth

log K

(= KIC material fails)

Keff = Kapp
Keff
= Kapp
Kapp

Keff

Keff = Kmax - Kclosure, if Kclosure > Kmin

82

CLOSURE MECHANISMS
(a) Plasticity induced closure
Plastically deformed
material
Crack-tip
plastic
zone

A fatigue crack grows through a succession of plastic zones, resulting in a

The plastic wake is in 3D: through-thickness (and in-plane) contraction allows for

The bulk of the component is responding elastically on unloading

The constraint of the surrounding elastic bulk results in excess plastic wake
material being pushed

This closure mechanism only has a significant effect in sheet components (e.g.
aircraft fuselage), where the plane stress state results in larger plastic zones.

(b) Oxide induced closure

new oxide forms

If the oxide is broken off, and more oxide forms,

This mechanism tends to predominate more for

83

(c) Surface roughness induced closure

asperity contact

The deflected nature of the crack leads to propping open of the crack if
asperities
A degree of sliding irreversibility must occur for this to operate.
Deflected crack paths are required

Asperity contact

Mode II
irreversibility

R.T. Stage I crack growth in Ni-base single crystal

84

 In all cases, the crack is PREMATURELY closed

Crack flanks are in contact at a Kclosure level above Kmin
Crack closure is generally observed at
So the higher threshold value observed at
The high R-ratio, lower threshold is an intrinsic measurement of a
material s resistance to fatigue crack growth, with no closure operating.

In materials that show highly faceted Stage I near threshold crack

growth, grain size also affects threshold values:
Near threshold fatigue fracture surface profiles:

large grain size

small grain size

Again, the higher threshold values shown by larger grained materials,

85

log da/dN

COMPARISON OF LONG AND SHORT CRACK BEHAVIOUR

Through-thickness long cracks

P.D.

a 10d
(d = grain size)

a > 10d
Kth

Freely initiating small cracks

- how do we measure them?
log K

To monitor free initiation of cracks and their growth whilst very small,
requires interrupted testing and replication of the top surface

Magnified view of specimen surface:

Short cracks grow under a

combination of

Typical short crack behaviour:

High da/dN c.f. long cracks at the same
High degree of scatter
Crack growth observed at K-values below
Stage I crack growth mode along slip bands

86

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF SHORT CRACK BEHAVIOUR

Physical shortness of cracks : little effect of
Too little crack length for the effect to develop
So faster crack growth rates c.f. long cracks
Validity of using KI : Is KI providing a genuine measure of the cracktip stresses and strains?
Validity criteria have been transgressed by:
(i) a ~ same size as
(ii)
(iii)
So why use K?

Nominal K values are NOT describing the same local crack-tip

stresses and strains for the long and short crack cases.
BUT, we do use K to correlate long crack growth, so, even though it is
an invalid parameter, we want to use it for the short crack case
So we can use
(see exam 1996/7 Qu. 1)
Scatter: caused by the crack temporarily arresting at the grain
boundaries
Near threshold, long crack growth is also microstructurally dependent
LOCALLY the crack front temporarily arrests at grain boundaries,

87

Short Crack Lifing

Requires a statistical approach, to allow for scatter, OR
a more conservative approach, where the upper bound of the crack
growth envelope is used.
Need very good NDT,
Very good microstructural characterisation required to
e.g. range of grain sizes needs to be known
In highly stressed components (e.g. a turbine disc) the majority of the
fatigue life is taken up by short crack growth
so many studies of short crack behaviour in Ni-base alloys have been
carried out.

How do short cracks initiate and how do we design against it ?

From a cracked inclusion or a pore/void
Fabrication and processing routes must be
From initial flaws, e.g. scratches
Shot-peening: gives rise to a residual stress (compressive) in the surface
of the component,
so can improve resistance to crack initiation
BUT, take care that the surface finish is not impaired, embedded peening
particles can

88

 Slip band initiation: Slip occurs in the most favourably oriented grain
where a slip-plane is closest to the direction of
For crack growth to occur, the slip-band must become

From Part 1 lectures : Hall-Petch,

Stress concentration at the

grain boundary

y = o + kd-1/2

Larger the grain size, the longer the slip band (dislocation pile-up)

Therefore easier for the slip band to propagate

As the crack grows, it will experience fewer grain boundaries if the grain
size is large
INITIATION and GROWTH are easier in large grained c.f.

How does this compare with long cracks?

89

FATIGUE IN NON-METALS
Ceramics
Very limited fatigue is seen in ceramics, crack advance occurs under cyclic
loading - how much can be explained by incremental monotonic failure? p. 395
Fig11.5 (Suresh, Fatigue of Materials, Second Editio n )

Static crack advance per cycle is predicted to be considerably slower

than crack advance under
Hence cyclic loads are
Progressive degradation of
Crack tip shielding provided by:

These become progressively less effective during cyclic loading.

90

Composites
Particulate composite:

da/dN

Plastic zone
encompasses
brittle particles
additional
monotonic failure
modes

Near threshold da/dN similar to matrix material, at higher K levels, monotonic

failure of the reinforcement leads to accelerated da/dN and fast final failure at a
lower K

Composite laminate
Cyclic loading

Metal

Composite laminate

91

Fatigue damage in CFRP

100m

45

Intralaminar cracking = yellow: Delamination = red: Fibre breaks = blue

Hybrid Laminates

Intact fibres

Crack in
matrix
Fibre bridging

92

Fatigue lives of bolted joints

under mini-twist spectrum loads

Effect of reinforcement stiffness

on f.c.g. of Al-Li laminates

Std Al-alloy
Fixed
nominal
+
varying
environment

Large improvement in lifetimes

Al-Li alloy

Initially cracks are seen to slow

down as apparent ( applied ) K
increases in hybrid laminates

93

Hybrid Laminates
See summary sheet for diagrams
Essentially we are seeing a fibre bridging process in the crack wake
giving us
The crack can be thought of as
Hence will not experience the

In addition a delamination process between the composite layer and

the metal layers gives rise to a further shielding process:

Fibres not only

bridge crack, but
delamination gives
further shielding
too:

Delamination
between metal
and composite
layers

In all these cases (ceramic, composite, laminate) the crack can no longer be
described by a simple crack tip stress state, and the use of K to describe
crack tip conditions becomes more and more problematic.

94