Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
VOLUME ONE
by
A. R. van C. WARRINGTON
A.C.G.I., B.Sc.(Lond.), Fellow I.E.E.E.,
C.Eng., Fellow I.E.E.
The English Electric Company Limited
Stafford
1968
Author's Prelaee
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ix
Contents
1. PURPOSE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS AND RELAYING
page 1
24
3.
99
4.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Time-Current Characteristics. Application. Limits of Error. Ratings. Directional Overcurrent Protection. A.C. Tripping. Schemes for Radial Feeders.
Construction. Application. Problem.
141
5.
DISTANCE RELAYS
General Principles. Special Characteristics. Limitations. Application to Lines.
Settings. Multi-terminal Lines. Construction. A.C. Potential Supply. Simultaneous Ground Faults. Auto-reclosing Zero Sequence Compensation.
191
6.
273
7.
298
317
347
10.
380
11.
BUS-ZONE PROTECTION
General Principles. Current Differential Protection. Voltage Differential.
Frame Leakage Protection. Directional Comparison. Back-up. Supervision.
413
xi
Contents
12. BACK-UP PROTECTION
page 429
440
468
REFERENCES
473
INDEX
481
~3)
c
d
J
k
xiii
List of Symbols
I length
m mass; unspecified number
n an unspecified number
p in-phase component
q quadrature component or electric charge
r resistance per mile
s modulus of attenuation
t time
v velocity
x unknown quantity or reactance/mile
y admittance per mile
z impedance per mile
ex
an angle
an angle
')I
attenuation factor (complex)
~
an increment
e
base of Naperian logarithms
"
efficiency
()
characteristic angle
A.
an angle
(L
penneability or prefix micro
1t
radians in 1800
p
resistivity
[Jt
reluctance
(1
conductivity
()
characteristic angle; angle between system voltage vectors
q, magnetic flux
cjJ
phase angle, generally the angle by which the current lags the voltage in
a protected circuit
'" an angle
OJ
frequency in radians/sec; ohms
L summation
n ohms
ex is also used as the complex ratio of two currents and p their inverse ratio.
cjJ and G on circuit diagrams refer to phase and ground relays respectively.
List of Subscripts
A, B, C the terminals of a protected line
J: F
List of Symbols
g,G
h, i,j
I, L
m
n
q
r
R
s, S
t
res
max
min
1
2
[600
160
IVI
ground
general suffixes
line
magnetising
neutral; nominal
zero sequence; a basic value
in phase component; primary; polarising
quadrature; quadrature axis
replica; restraint
relay; relay (to distinguish in the case of a secondary quantity);
also suffixes denoting restraining signals; receiving end
source; secondary; sending end
suffix denoting quantity variable with time
residual
maximum
minimum
positive sequence; suffix denoting a derived relaying quantity
negative sequence; suffix denoting a derived relaying quantity
lagged 60
advanced 60
scalar value of V
Abbreviations
B.S.S.
British Standard Specification
C.E.G.B. Central Electricity Generating Board of Great Britain
1
Purpose of Proteetive Belays
alUl Belaying
Causes of Faults-Definitions-Functions of Protective RelaysApplication to a Power System
capital investment involved in a power system for the generation,
THE
transmission and distribution of electrical power is so great that the
proper precautions must be taken to ensure that the equipment not only
operates as nearly as possible to peak efficiency, but also that it is protected
from accidents. The normal path of the electric current is from the power
source through copper (or aluminium) conductors in the generators, transformers and transmission lines to the load and it is confined to this path by
insulation. The insulation, however, may be broken 'down, either by the
effect of temperature and age or by a physical accident, so that the current
then follows an abnormal path generally known as a short-circuit or fault.
Whenever this occurs the destructive capabilities of the enormous energy of
the power system may cause expensive damage to the equipment, severe
drop in voltage and loss of revenue due to interruption of service. Such
faults may be made infrequent by good design of the power apparatus and
lines and the provision of protective devices, such as surge diverters and
ground fault neutralisers, but a certain number will occur inevitably due to
lightning and unforeseen accidental conditions.
The purpose of protective relays and relaying systems is to operate the
correct circuit breakers so as to disconnect only the faulty equipment from the
system as quickly as possible, thus minimising the trouble and damage caused
by faults when they do occur. It would be ideal if protection could anticipate
and prevent faults but this is obviously impossible except where the original
cause of a fault creates some effect which can operate a protective relay.
So far only one type of relay falls within this category; this is the gas detector
relay, used to protect transformers, which operates when the oil level in
the conservator pipe of a transformer is lowered by the accumulation of gas
caused by a poor connection or by an incipient breakdown of insulation.
With all other equipment it is only possible to mitigate the effects of a shortcircuit by disconnecting the equipment as quickly as possible, so that the
destructive effects of the energy into the fault may be minimised.
1.2
Protective Relays
In the very eady days of the electrical industry a power system usually
consisted of a small generator supplying a local load and it was possible for
the station attendant, in an emergency, to open a switch manually and even
swat out the arc with a duster! Since these historic times the sizes of power
systems have increased enormously, the rate of increase for most countries
lying between a doubling and a quadrupling per decade. Furthermore,
industrialised countries and an increasing number of under-developed ones
have integrated their systems on a national basis and numerous cases of
substantial international connections are in evidence. With increases in the
sizes of a generating plant and inter-connection, great demands have been
made on the ingenuity of the designers of automatic switchgear. Such
apparatus must operate to interrupt very high arc energies in a small fraction
of a second if the equipment is to avoid destruction.
Fuses were the first automatic devices to be employed to isolate the faulted
equipment quickly. They were very effective and are still widely used in
2
1.2
distribution circuits, but suffer from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the power supply can be restored. This inconvenience was overcome by the automatic circuit-breaker with a built-in overload or undervoltage trip magnet. The final step was to divorce the selective function from
the breaker and to incorporate it in separate protective relays, whose contacts
controlled the trip coil of the breaker.
The first attempts to design relays which would operate in response to
short-circuit conditions involved attracted armature devices, with or without
a definite time-delay provided by a dash pot mechanism. As power systems
increased in size and complexity it was necessary to employ more precise
relay mechanism and to obtain selectivity on an inverse time-current basis,
i.e. the relay speed increasing with the current magnitude so that, since the
current is greatest in the faulted section, that section will be isolated by its
relays before those in the sound sections can operate. The only device then
available which had this required accuracy was the induction disc watthour meter which was turned into a relay by substituting contacts for the
indicating register. This resulted in the inverse time-overcurrent relay which
is still in use today, although in an improved form (fig. 1.1).
As the requirements for sensitivity and selectivity increased, a trend
emerged towards the use of high-speed differential type relays on the maio
FIG.
1.2
Protective Relays
FIG.
transmission system, time-overcurrent relays being retained only for distribution systems and for back-up purposes (reserve protection) on the main
system. Differential relays compare electrical quantities derived from each
end of the protected system (e.g. a transmission line 10 miles long) and
operation takes place if the ratio, phase angle or algebraic sum of the derived
quantities depart by a predetermined amount from some initially set value,
for example, unity in the case of a differential relay measuring numerical
ratio.
The induction disc inverse time relay was introduced in the early 1920s
and the high-speed differential type in the late 19.20s. Initially, the differential
type also employed the induction disc principle but with short contact travel
and a lighter armature; the desire for high speed led to the balanced beam
unit but this was gradually displaced by the induction cup, which was a
faster version of the induction disc unit, its inertia having been reduced by
forming the disc into a narrow cup and its torque increased by better utilisation of the available flux in a 4-pole magnetic structure (fig. 1.2) similar to
that of an induction motor. Greater sensitivity and accuracy have been
achieved, particularly since the 1939-45 War, by the use of polarised d.c.
relays energised through rectifier bridges.
Detailed explanations of the principles of the various types of relays will
be given in later chapters; more complete historical accounts of the progress
4
FIG.
1.3
in the design of protective relays over the last 35 years can be found elsewhere (1). In the present chapter it is proposed to outline briefly the nature,
function and mode of operation of relays.
1.3. DEFINITIONS
Throughout the two volumes some terms will be used which are peculiar
to protective relays; these will be explained as they are brought into use.
The following terms, however, are common to all relays and protective
schemes and will be defined before proceeding further.
The word 'normal' refers to the healthy or unfaulted condition of the
protected circuit but, when used in connection with relay contacts, it implies
that the relay is not energised. For instance, a 'normally open' contact is one
which is open when the relay is not energised; it is also referred to as a circuitclosing contact, a make contact or an 'a' contact.
Only in the case of relays designed to operate on an excess condition, such
as overcurrent or overvoltage, would 'normal' position of the contact
correspond to normal operating conditions. For instance, in an undervoltage relay, a normally open contact is one which is open when the relay
is not energised whereas, under normal conditions of full voltage, this
contact would be closed.
A 'normally closed' contact is one which is closed when the relay is not
energised. It is also known as a circuit-opening contact, a break contact or a
'b' contact.
Most relays have a resetting means such as a spring or gravity. Most
protective relays have a normally open contact which is closed when the
relay trips; the following definitions refer to such relays and exclude undervoltage, undercurrent, etc., relays.
5
1.3
Protective Relays
All diagrams will show relays in the de-energised position and will be
drawn so that, when the relay operates, its contacts move upwards (as if
against gravity). Where it is inconvenient to draw the relay with its contacts
moving upwards they will be drawn moving to the left.
Relays are shown with their coils and contacts together where convenient.
In schematic diagrams of complicated circuits, the contacts may be separated
from the coils but they will be identified by a similar letter or number.
1.3.1. Glossary of Common Relay Terms
Operating Force
or Torque
Restraining Force
or Torque
Pick-up (Level)
1.3
1.3
Protective Relays
Actually it does not matter whether this or the reverse concept of potential
vectors is used because the same result is obtained as long as the method
chosen is used consistently.
E is used for e.m.f. and V for terminal voltage. In mathematical equations
Vmax and I max are peak values and V and I are r.m.s values. Moduli are shown
thus IVI. Currents are shown in vector diagrams with a white or hollow
arrowhead. Potentials are shown with black or solid arrowheads. Figure 1.3a
shows the relative potentials in a three-phase four-wire system.
v.
I.
t
Zero or
reference
>----~.
'I,
(b) La.gging loo.d
currents
Vo.
(c) Pha.se-to -pha.se
delta. potentia.ls
]- --[--
FIG.
~ II t
c.t. and p.t. polarity will be assumed to be subtractive, i.e. with the
polarity marks at the same end of the primary and secondary windings, the
polarity will be such that the direction of the currents in the circuit will be
the same with the transformer removed (fig. 1.3b) and the circuit completed
by the dotted lines. Normal phase rotation of vectors is taken as anti-clockwise with positive sequence vectors coming up in the order a, b, c and negative
sequence a, c, b.
1.3.3. Vector Operators (141)
1.3
1.1
Vectorial Operators
Function of
Operator
Equivalent
Operator
Exponential
Equivalent
Algebraic
Equivalent
.2n
elT
a2
a2
. V3
-t+J2
V-t-j-l-
.2"
-13
eO
a3
.2"
1
a
a2
e-IT
l+a
- a2
el3
."
e - I3
1+ a2
-a
al
-a2
el3
a- l
-a
e - 13
I- a
V3 a- l
1- a2
V3 a l
v3e l 6
a - a2
V3 at
elz
.n
.n
v3e - 16
."
.n
e-
."Z
V3 at
a2 + a
- 1
[;irr
a2 + 1
-a
[; - 1:3
a+ 1
- a2
[;13
.n
.n
Sn
vt -J
. -3
2
v-
J6ijO
V3130
It +
V3130
vj-f
V3190
- j V3
V3'190
-1
1180
V3
t-j-y
160
. v:3
t+J-y
160
v-1 t +J. 2 3
V31150
-V3 at
v3 -1'6
a - a2
1
-at
V3
1
."
V3 e - l 2'
V. -3
-1 t - J
2
1
j V3
-1
- e irr
-1
1
a + a2
.Sn
J6ijO
j V3
v. 3
-JT
v1t -J. 2 3
t
v3 e l '6
a2
11200
-V3 a- l
a-I
11200
t+j~
2
t+j~
2
.n
V. 3
-J-y
V-
.n
a2
1120
100
Trigonometric
Equivalent
v31150
1 _
V3 19O
1180
1.4
Protective Relays
FIG.
Protective relays have been called sentinels and electric brains. From the
economic point of view, relays are akin to insurance; they protect the power
utility from financial loss due to damage to equipment (fig. 1.5a). From the
underwriters' point of view they prevent accidents to personnel and minimise
damage to equipment. From the customers' point of view good service
depends more upon adequate relaying than upon any other equipment. The
cost of this protection is between 1 and 2 % of the total cost of the power
system, i.e. equivalent to an insurance premium costing about 01 %per year,
assuming 15 years before replacement due to obsolescence (3).
In the dictionary, four definitions of relays will be found which deal with
foot races, post coaches, etc., but none even remotely fits this application.
A protective relay is a device which responds to abnormal conditions on an
electrical power system to contrpl a circuit breaker, so as to isolate the faulty
section of the system with the minimum interruption to service. To do this,
relays must be able to decide promptly which circuit breakers are to trip in
order to isolate only the faulted section(s). These relays must be designed,
therefore, to be responsive to electrical quantities which are different during
normal and abnormal conditions.
10
1.4
The basic electrical quantities which may change in the transition from
healthy to faulty conditions are current, voltage, direction, power factor
(phase angle) and frequency. It is generally necessary to provide relays responsive to more than one of these quantities because, for instance, the current in
a fault during minimum generation conditions may be less than the normal
load current during maximum generation. As another example, the power
FIG.
factor measured by the relay may be as low during a power swing as during a
fault. Sometimes all of the above quantities may have to be used to obtain
selectivity; furthermore, in the case of an a.c. railway, several heavy trains
starting up together may present current, voltage and power factor so similar
to that of a fault that an additional function is necessary, the rate-of-rise of
current, which is instantaneous for a fault but incremental or slower for
normal service conditions.
Whereas the main requirement of -instrumentation is sustained accuracy,
the most important requisite of protective relays is reliability since they may
supervise a circuit for years before a fault occurs; if a fault then happens,
the relay must respond instantly and correctly. For this reason the designers
should always attempt to use simple constructions and simple connections of
relays. In spite of good intentions in this respect, there is a tendency to extend
the operation of relay schemes by adding additional features until complexity
11
1.5
Protective Relays
From the foregoing it can be seen that protective relays do the work of an
untiring supervisor, continuously measuring the electrical quantities of the
protected circuit and ready to disconnect the circuit immediately when the
value of one of those quantities becomes abnormal. Actually, no human being
could approach the constant alertness of a relay, nor its speed of action, nor
its reliability and accuracy. For example, a reactance type distance relay for
a transmission line disconnects the line from the bus if a fault occurs within
its protecting zone and not if a fault occurs outside that zone. To do this it
measures the reactance of the line between itself and the fault, i.e. it measures
the current, voltage and phase angle, and computes
WI sin tP correctly to
within 2 %and closes its contacts (or not, depending upon the location of
the fault), and a modem relay (fig. 1.2) will do this in an overall time of
20-40 milliseconds. Three men reading meters and a fourth with a slide rule
could do the same thing within 5 %in about a minute, which is 3,000 times
as slow and less than half the accuracy.
In order to keep the size and cost of relays to reasonable values, the
enormous currents and voltages of the actual primary circuit are reduced to
relatively small values by current transformers (c.t's) and potential transformers (p.t's). The p.t's are often referred to as v.t.s, voltage transformers,
in British practice. The relays measure these secondary electrical quantities
and operate when the magnitude of one of them is abnormal or when the
ratio between two of them is abnormal. In electromagnetic relays, the
measurements are made by means of electromagnets which exert force on an
armature carrying contacts; static circuits using semi-conductors, thermionic
and cold-cathode tubes or magnetic amplifiers may also be used although not
all of these are equally attractive.
12
1.6
All protective relays have two positions, the normal position, usually with
their contact circuit open, and the fault position usually with their contact
circuit closed. A relay is changed to the fault position when a fault occurs by
the preponderance of abnormal operating quantities (such as overcurrent)
over normal restraining quantities (such as voltage or through-fault current).
Fig. l.Sb shows schematically the basic connections of a relay to the trip
coil of the circuit breaker which controls the power supply to the protected
circuit. When the relay contacts close, the high L/ R ratio of the trip coil delays
a ____~~------~s~~
~t~
io~
n ~b~
u .~.----------~
b --~-+----------------------~rPotential
tran,formus
(P.T:.)
>0."1"
;;:
d
~I
al'
O-+-----.J T
Current
trMsforme r
(C.T.)
S"conda.r~
potentIa l bus
FIG.
the build-up of current so that a fast breaker is tripped before the current
reaches its steady value. For this reason, and because the duration of the
trip coil current is only a few cycles, the relay contacts need have a continuous
rating of only 5 amperes and yet operate a 30 ampere trip coil SO times without needing maintenance.
After the breaker has tripped, its auxiliary switch (marked a in fig. l.Sb)
opens the highly inductive trip coil circuit and the relay can reset when deenergised by the opening of the breaker. It is important however that the
relay contacts do not chatter while the trip current is flowing, otherwise they
will be badly burned. This is ensured either by non-bounce design or by the
use of a magnetic hold-in coil on the relay or by a separate relay, known as a
seal-in relay, which is discussed in section 1.10.2 of this chapter.
1.6. IMPORTANT REQUIREMENTS
The primary requirements for relays are reliability and selectivity. How
these are achieved in the relays themselves is explained in a later chapter, but
the first step is to make these conditions possible by locating the relays in the
correct places. Referring to fig. 1.6, it will be seen that, in order to have complete protection, the zones of protection given by each relay must overlap so
as to leave no unprotected areas. Furthermore, fig. 1.8 shows that there must
13
1.6
Protective Relays
be a first and second line of defence to cope with the possibility of failure of
the relay or the circuit breaker at anyone location. This is important because,
even with the greatest care in manufacture and installation, it is never possible
entirely to eliminate the possibility of a mistake or a defect in a mechanism
such as a trip coil and linkage which has been overlooked in maintenance.
~ [SQJ1-~""-.'~-'
[~l ~
r--+i=
u,,'_
=J
t---+-++---'
r-I I II
~--f
I
FIG.
G.nero.tor tro.nslormrr
..1------, r.lo.y
Bus zonr
rrlo.y
To
line
relo.y
FIG.
To
lin.
r.lo.y
1.8
The cost of protective relays is generally extremely small (t to 2 %) compared with the cost of the equipment protected; this is particularly true in the
case of generators, transformers and high tension lines. In spite of this there
is a tendency to treat protection not as a small percentage insurance charge
but as separate item and then to pick the cheapest relay or relay scheme.
Considering the saving in repair cost afforded by high-grade, high-speed
relaying compared with cheaper slow-speed arrangements, it astonishes many
engineers that the best protection is not always chosen; the cost of one major
repair to a generator for instance would be many times the cost of the best
protective relay schemes. Similarly, the cost of one day's loss of production
in a copper mine or oil refinery may exceed the cost of adequate relaying.
On the other hand, unnecessarily expensive and complex protectitm schemes
are sometimes used for important lines so that the likelihood of an outage
due to trouble in the protective gear may be comparable with the likelihood
of an actual fault.
It is the duty of the Application Engineer to choose the most economical
scheme which will give complete protection and isolate faults selectively in the
shortest possible time. Good electrical service, i.e. continuity of supply, depends to a great extent on adequate protection. This is sometimes difficult to
achieve because of the tendency of system planners to relegate the relaying
considerations until the system arrangement has been decided on and the
equipment ordered; this often creates conditions that make it almost impossible to find anything on which the relay can base its selective measurement.
In most cases, if the Relay Engineer had been invited to attend some of the
meetings, he could have suggested some minor modifications for the layout
which would have provided much better protection with negligible increase in
cost or loss of flexibility. In short, Protection must be Considered before the
Power System Layout is Finalised.
1.8. MAIN AND BACKUP PROTECTION (106)
Fig. 1.7 shows the basic elements of an electric power system. Electric
power is usually generated at voltages between 11 kV and 33 kV since this
gives the most economical balance between the cost of copper, the cost of
insulation and the cost of mechanical strength to resist centrifugal force.
The voltage at the generator terminals is stepped up to a higher voltage, such
as 132 kV, the precise value chosen being the one to give minimum cost and
running losses dependent on the line length, power to be transmitted, etc.
At the load, there is a further transformation down to a voltage of a few kV
suitable for distribution, and again to a still lower voltage (usually 110
to 440 volts) for the ultimate consumers, i.e. industrial and residential
loads.
In order to isolate any of this equipment in case of trouble, each item
must be separated from the others on each side of it by a circuit breaker.
The relays themselves must be connected to trip only the breakers next to the
15
1.8
Protective Relays
Alterna.tor
1 unit
GenerMion
boilus etc.
Ca.ble
3'3 KV
FIG.
protected unit, and, as previously stated, the zone of protection of each relay
must overlap the zones of the adjacent relays (fig. 1.6a) to ensure that there
are no dead spots. Fig. 1.6b shows how these results can be achieved by the
proper location of each C.t.
These relays are the main relays. In addition to this first line of defence
there must be a second line of defence provided by back-up relays, which
will clear the fault if the primary relays for some reason fail to operate
(fig. l.H). This subject wIll be dealt with in detaIl in Chapter 12, but a broad
explanation is helpful at this point.
Bus B
BusC
Nci!lhbouring~:t-~~:--i
Circuit
,--
~----------~I~~~~~==~~~-------
I
Rela.y A
Rela.y I B
x = Brea.ker
I
FIG.
Back-up);
(b) those which open the next nearest breakers on the same bus in case
one of the local breakers fails to open (Breaker Back-up), or in case
there is a failure of the local secondary current or potential supplies
or the a.c. wiring;
(c) those which operate from a neighbouring station so as to back-up both
16
1.9
@H
~
.
____ _
-----FIG.
usually consists of a time-delay relay operated by the main relays and connected to trip all the other breakers on the bus if the proper breaker has not
tripped within a half second after its trip coil was energised.
Remote back-up is provided by a relay at the next station in the direction
towards the source (fig. 1.6) which trips in a delayed time if the breaker in
the faulted section is not tripped. It usually consists of an inverse time-current
relay or by the second and third zones of a distance relay. This i~ the most
widely used form of back-up protection.
1.9. RECLOSING (4) (70)
1.10
Protective Relays
On high voltage lines where most faults are caused by lightning and where
contact with trees, etc., is unlikely, a single instantaneous reclosure is used.
Tests on high-voltage systems have shown that reclosure in 12 cycles is
practical, the period depending upon the time necessary to dissipate the
ionised air at the fault. Fast reclosing limits the phase separation of synchronous machines while the breaker is open and hence reduces the power
oscillation which follows reclosure.
On low voltage systems the fault may be caused by physical objects, such
as tree branches and vines, which may require one or more reclosures to
burn them clear. The usual procedure has been to reclose three times at
intervals of between 15 to 120 seconds. If the breaker reopens after the third
reclosure, the relay equipment locks it open, and it becomes necessary to
reclose by hand. Four automatic tripouts of the breaker in succession must
certainly indicate permanent damage on the feeder, such as a broken wire, a
wire down on a tower or on the ground or other trouble which should be
cleared before again energising the circuit. This will not be considered in
detail because it is outside the subject of protection.
1.10. OTHER RELAY FUNCTIONS
Relays of the same types as those used for protection are also used for
control and regulation. For instance, a voltage relay with both normally
open and normally closed contacts can be used for progressive tap changing
to keep the voltage between desired limits. The same principle may also be
used for control of other quantities such as frequency or reactive kVA.
It is probable in the future that protection and automatic control of
power systems will be done together and that eventually power systems will
be entirely automatic and both controlled and protected by static equipment.
1.10.1. Circuit Breaker Control
Fig. 1.11 shows a typical scheme which is known in the U.S.A. as the
X-V scheme. It is 'trip-free', i.e. it permits the circuit breaker to be tripped
by the protective relay even if the manual push-button C is held closed after
the breaker is closed on a faulted circuit. It also prevents 'pumping', i.e.
alternate tripping and closing if the closing button is held closed during a
fault.
The manual push-button switch C energises the contactor X which in turn
energises the breaker closing coil CC. When the breaker has closed, the
breaker auxiliary switch 'a' closes and 'b' opens, so that the release contactor
Y short-circuits the coil of contactor X and the closing coil is de-energised.
If the breaker is tripped by the protective relay PR it cannot reclose until C
is opened and Y resets.
1.10.2. Seal-in and Flag Arrangements
1.10
/ r(a)
Remote a.la.rm
,!~-
+0
+o---~
P.R.
(b)
Aux.sw.
Trip'
coli
Aux. sw.
Trip
coil
+~)-~~llp-.R.--~------~JI-
Y.
T.C.
C.C.
the shield may be stationary and the flag may appear from behind it. The
release of the flag latch may be done mechanically by movement of the
armature of the relay or electrically by a solenoid when the relay contacts
close. It is restored manually by a station attendant after the relay operation
has been recorded, usually by a push rod in the relay case or cover.
There are a number of points in favour of an electrical operation indicator. It assists standardisation because mechanical ones cannot be used
with delicate or high-speed relays nor with relays having two units both of
19
1.11
Protective Relays
nodal potential
short-circuited terminals
constant current
(Norton's theorem)
shunt conductance
capacitance
inductance
series conductance
capacitance
inductance
relay circuits based on
tripping
relay circuits based on
circulating current
phase comparison
the surge diverter
(lightning arrestor)
20
1.12
Not all of these dual relationships are obvious but they will be explained
in the ensuing chapters. A very common case of duality in relay engineering
is that the inverse of a circular characteristic passing through the origin of an
impedance diagram is a straight line not passing through the origin on an
admittance diagram.
1.12. CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY SCHEMES
In certain equipment, such as generators, power will always flow outwards except if the generator has developed a fault or has lost its driving
source, so that it is motoring and drawing power from the network. Such a
condition is detected by a directional relay which closes its contacts for power
(or a component ofkVA at a suitable angle) flowing in an abnormal direction
(fig. 1.2).
Directional relays are also used to control time-overcurrent relays where
the power sources are so located that as much current passes through
the relay for an external fault as for an internal fault in the circuit it is
protecting.
Such relays work on the product of the circuit current and potential. If the
product is positive, let us say, the torque closes the relay contacts; if negative,
it holds them open. Thus the relay can be arranged to trip only when the
current flows out from the bus. Consequently, by connecting a directional
relay in series with each overcurrent relay only the relays at the two ends of
the faulty section will operate, thus isolating the fault without disturbing the
other lines.
Overcurrent and directional relays are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
21
1.13
Protective Relays
Where time delay is undesirable distance relays are often used. For a line
section of given impedance ZL the current flowing through the section to a
fault will produce a voltage V = IZL Hence, if the relay compares V with 1
and is arranged to trip when V < IZ, it in effect measures Z =
-r
Since Z is
proportional to the length of line (5) the relay can be set to trip only for
faults within the protected section of line (fig. 1.2).
Selectivity is much easier to obtain with distance relays than with overcurrent relays because their reach is unaffected by current variation due to
changes in generating conditions and system switching.
1.12.4. Unit Protection
Parallel circuits of the same impedance should normally carry the equal
currents. A fault in one circuit will increase the current in that circuit and
operate a relay that compares the two currents. In the case of two parallel
lines this is called 'current balance' or 'balanced current protection'. In the
case of a generator with split windings it is called transverse differential
current protection.
1.13. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RELAY SCHEMES
22
1.13
of the c.t. must be to cope with the IZ voltage across the load. Hence in the
interest of economy of C.t. cost and space requirements the lead runs must be
short and the relays must be sensitive, i.e. the power they require to close
their contacts firmly under borderline conditions must be as little as possible.
The power required to operate the relay is called the relay burden. In
the U.K. it is expressed as the volt-amperes (VA) at pick-up and this is an
index to the sensitivity of the relay and is a constant value irrespective of
the rating.
In the U.S.A. the relay burden is usually given as VA at C.t. rated current
or impedance at rated current. The latter gives no idea of the relays sensitivity
but enables the total burden on the c.t. to be calculated more easily, especially
if the relay saturates below C.t. rating.
Nowadays in all countries there is a tendency to provide a curve of relay
current circuit impedance over a range of current and this enables the C.t.
performance to be calculated at short-circuit currents that are expected in the
protected circuit. In particular it enables the c.t. secondary voltage to be
calculated at maximum fault current so that a suitable C.t. can be chosen.
Where the relays are remote from the c.t's the burden due to the leads will
be high and, in order to have a C.t. of reasonable size, it is often desirable to
use a lower secondary current rating. In the U.S.A. 5 ampere c.t's are almost
standard and sometimes they are very large; in the U.K. 1 ampere or even
t ampere c.t.s are used which is bad for standardisation of c.t's and relays
but results in a more economical design.
It is important to design test-gear and switchboard components so that
there is no risk of open-circuiting the secondary of a c.t. because in this condition it can produce an extremely high secondary voltage which may break
down the insulation and destroy the c.t. This is because, although the C.t.
iron may saturate at a sinusoidal secondary voltage of a few hundred, the rate
of change of flux near the zero points of the cycle can produce enormous
voltage peaks.
In later chapters and in volume II the subject of C.t. behaviour is considered in more detail.
1.13.2. Potential Transformers
23
2
Belay IJeSigD alUl (;oD8tructioD
Characteristics-Choice of Measuring Units-Construction of Measuring
Units-Construction of Timing Units-Details of Design-Cases-Panel
Mounting-Operation Indicative-Finishes
N the design of a protective relay, the first stage is to select the characI teristics
which will give the clearest distinction between faults in the
protected section and all other conditions. Fig. 2.1, for example, shows an
R/X diagram on which the characteristic circle of a mho relay fits around a
x
FllUlt in l~ll~n9 pha.sc
------~~----~~~---,
FIG.
shaded area which includes the impedances (including arc resistance) for all
positions of fault within the protected zone; with such a characteristic the
relay will not trip during power swings, or on faults other than those in the
protected section and involving the phase with which the relay is associated
(47) (58),
The second stage is to choose a suitable relay construction; the third is
to design the movement for the utmost reliability so that it will operate
correctly even under the most adverse conditions. These three stages will be
considered first of all in the light of general requirements, and then in terms
of practical execution. The industrial trend is towards standardised designs
24
2.1
FIG.
the type of fault which it is intended to protect against, and not for
any other conditions.
(b) The relay must have a range of adjustment to permit it to operate
selectively with other relays.
(c) It should meet the specifications of the country where it is to be used.
(d) A relay must be immune from transient effects, e.g. drop in voltage,
peak currents, d.c. signals and harmonics. This applies particularly to
high-speed relays.
(e) The construction should be simple and accessible, so as to facilitate
maintenance.
(f) The wiring and terminal arrangement should facilitate testing and the
tracing of faults.
(g) The construction should facilitate the making of minor modifications
to meet unusual conditions of temperature, humidity, corrosive
atmospheres, vibration, mechanical shock, etc.
2.1.2. Reliability
25
2.2
Protective Relays
effectively and correctly, even under adverse conditions and in the event of
inadequate maintenance having been carried out (l05).
It must be remembered that a relay spends at least 99999% of its life
stationary, during which time there is a tendency for contacts and bearings to
deteriorate so that, when a fault does occur, the relay may not be able to
respond properly unless it is designed with these conditions in mind.
80me of the general rules which are followed by most responsible
manufacturers are:
(a) The use of wire not less than 0002 in. diameter; the proper support
and wrapping of the beginning and end wires and their junctions to
the external leads (see Coil Design, section 2.6.9).
(b) Design for maximum torque/friction ratio in order to promote
accuracy and avoid 'sticking' after long periods of non-operation (see
Bearings and Backstops, sections 2.6.1 and 2.6.2) or failure to trip
due to contact corrosion.
(c) Design for minimum contact maintenance; for this the contacts should
be bounce-proof since otherwise arcing, with consequent pitting of the
silver, will ensue (see Bounce-proof Contacts, section 2.6.4).
2.2. RELAY CHARACTERISTICS
I~I
cos tP and
26
2.3
The equation (2.1) represents all the circular and straight-line characteristics which can be obtained from any two-input relay.
This equation is applicable to most of the common types of relay and
simplifies the explanation of their operation and characteristic curves (as
shown in fig. 2.4).
K" is finite only in single quantity relays where it is used as a level indicator; it is made substantially zero in relays that compare two input quantities
and in this case the equation represents a circle or a straight line on a complex plane (polar diagram). This can be demonstrated by rewriting equation
(2.1), making K" = 0 and dividing throughout by K'A2:
K
K'
_1~12
A
I~ICOS(</>-(}) = 0
A
(2.2)
K'
(2.3)
IBI
. 'I'""
A sm
(2.3) represents a circle on a complex plane having I~I cos </> and
as co-ordmates, th e ra dIUS b
emg
JK + 11 12 J1+4KK'
K'
2K' =
2K'
axis, as in fig. 2.2. The axes of the steady state characteristic diagram have
been designated
I~I p and j I~I q for I~I cos </> and j I~I sin </> respectively.
in other words
R andjX.
2.3. CHOICE OF MEASURING UNIT
27
Protective Relays
2.3
-a
00
Pol(1t1sc:d
Ba.la.nccd
P lung e r
b~a.m
A. i",lIy
moving coli
Roto..ry
moving c.oil
DynQJl'lom e tcr
~
2
pol~
~
8 pol e
po l ~
Induction
dyno.momctc.f"
m
Sp lit cup
E.M
EM.
P M.
THERMAL RELAYS
Unimcta.lli c
Bil1'l c\o.lI i e
FIG.
28
P.'"
2.3
Low Cost
Accuracy
Speed
Output Quality
Sensitivity
Stability
Robustness
Simplicity
Experience
Total
5
2
5
5
8
6
37
7
3
2
4
2
4
4
6
8
40
4
5
4
3
3
2
6
5
7
39
8
1
1
2
1
3
3
7
5
31
1
8
8
7
8
6
1
2
2
43
2
7
7
6
7
7
1
45
3
6
6
8
6
8
2
4
4
47
6
4
3
5
5
5
8
3
3
42
for anyone class does not necessarily represent the view of industry or its
acceptance by it; anyone class may be precluded by poor performance, or
attainment in anyone quality, or for reasons which are not entirely technical.
Reliability is not listed because it is covered under stability, simplicity,
robustness, etc. Stability includes overtravel and transient overreach.
Experience is confined to their use in protective relays. In the column
headed 'Quality' the fourth item 'output quality' refers to the steadiness of
the torque or force in the case of electromagnetic relays and to the smoothness and range limitation of the output voltage or current in the case of
static relays.
2.3.1. Attracted Armature Relays
29
sepa.ra. c
SO no VI
term
wlndln~
Va.nd I
8-75
1(-/(#-0
8-90
/('1( 1i _0
K-K'-O
-K"
<
/K'
z<jf,
K'
co.(~-8)
1'sln ~<K
I.C. X<K
FIG.
.!: vce
xce
COO
--
Q!.sl
1
--::,us-$~
--
Polcv dla.gra.ms
Admltto.ncc or current Impeda.nec or potentia.l
~~~~.
j
~' ~9".
~~
-=
/~
/I
=~
.J
.J
~
.J
.J
'll
.J
:r
"0
'll
~ .. 'o~~~ ".
[(I i ~
~'k\? I
."eo -GH ~
:::o--t--a
voe
v<jf{
-K'
VI COl (~-6KN
~
coe
Rcla.y
1>$
K/ 2K'V'
-Vlsin
VlcO'(~-6)-K'"
-K~V~
K/2.V/COs~-/l)
Itnpcda.nc)
(Ohm unit
Otrect,ona.J
Impcdcu>ec
(mho unit)
Rea.cta.nce
(ohm unit)
Oireetiona.J
wind ings
hcncc no I'
or VI terms
No current
KI'-K"
No potcntla.1
windings
hence no V'
or Vlterm.
Oyereurrent
UndtrYOlta.ge
Result ing
equa.tlon
Conditions
Type rda.y
It>
<II
Qj
:tJ
~.
~.....
'"tJ
2.3
shot to move in the axial magnet field with considerable force after a time
interval depending on the current magnitude, during which they align their
magnetic axes.
2.3.2. Induction Disc Relays
The induction principle is one of the most widely used throughout the
world. Fig. 2.4 shows some of its many applications to disc and cup relays.
It has been applied to the great majority of relay functions and is backed by
30 years of experience. Its most attractive features are its steady, nonvibrating torque and its simple armature which requires no flexible connection. Figs. 2.5 and 2.6 show typical relays using the induction principle.
With a cup-shaped armature, the induction relay can be made for fast
operation with reasonable immunity from system transients and, properly
designed, it can be given a very large operating range. Its drop-out is within
a few percent of its pick-up, so that it can be used where normal and abnormal
conditions are very close together.
These relays can be 2- or 4-pole, single phase or 8-pole, three-phase.
This class of relay includes a split-cup 4-pole unit which is similar to the
4-pole induction dynamometer relay; there are shaded-pole arrangements
also.
2.3.4. Thermal Relays
The thermal types include bimetallic strips or spirals, unimetal strips and
thermometric devices such as sylphons. In some early German relays they
were used as comparators; the thermal movement acted as a current operated
tripping unit and an electromagnetic or second thermal unit energised by the
restraining quantity was arranged to control the position of a contact and
hence the operating time. In motor protection, three thermal spirals energised
with current from the three phases control differential contacts in a similar
manner; this is described more fully in Chapter 9, section 9.2.3.
Their advantages are simplicity and smooth consistent operation. Their
principal disadvantage is low torque per VA input.
2.3.5. Electronic Relays
The high ratings of the relays based on electronic valves arises from the
form of assessment adopted, and should not overshadow the fact that these
relays have failed, over a period of 30 years, to obtain acceptance in the
powerindustry (2) (26) (60) (131), This is notwithstanding the absence ofcontacts
or bearings, with ensuing ease of maintenance and very fast operation, even
when close to pick-up level. The reasons for non-acceptance are not hard to
find (11); in spite of a number of excellent operating features these relays
31
2.3
Protective Relays
FlG.
2.Sa. Exploded view of induction disc relay unit with C-type magnet core
FIG.
32
o
(a)
(b)
(c)
flO.
26.
33
2.3
Protective Relays
2.3
failed, other than for special purposes, on grounds of complexity and the
short life of vacuum tubes.
The basic arrangements of two electronic relays are shown in fig. 2.7.
--u-
Transactor
Tro'p'
cool
Rect,f,er
(a)
POlorls lng tube
,...---.....-- +
v~ll\
Peak,ng
tranSformer
00__----...,
1~ "
11
o~ 11
Thyratron
"
(b)
34
Input
(a)
2.3
Collector
00
Emitter
(b)
Trip
relay
A
~--------L-
ee)
________
~~
________________L---Q+
FIG.
35
2.3
Protective Relays
Input
~
A
Operate level
'1\ ~~ Reset level
I IV i
'"
-~-~-~---~ ~ Z.OI~~
I . I
.
I .
I
21
Output
-.IlLL
(d)
Output
...rLn..I1..
Input
(I)
FIG.
36
2.3
FIG.
37
2.3
Protective Relays
The relay units will not be described here in detail since such descriptions
appear in the literature (17) (20) (22), including manufacturers' publications;
modern improvements in design will, however, be mentioned.
38
FIG.
FIG.
39
2.4
2.4
Protective Relays
40
2.4
breakers may open. In modern relays the operating torque is high and they
must have a correspondingly high damping torque to meet a given time
current curve; this heavy damping serves to stop the disc very promptly.
At twenty times tap setting the contacts of such relays would not close if the
current should be shut off 004 second before the moment at which they
would have closed if the current had continued.
2.4.2. Induction Cup Relay
2.4
Protective Relays
The two magnetic fluxes ~1 and ~2' which together create the torque,
each generate eddy currents in the disc or cup; each flux reacts with the eddy
current produced by the other flux to produce two torques, the sum of which
is a steady, unidirectional torque. To produce torque, the induction relay or
instrument must have its two working fluxes displaced in time-phase. In the
bi-polar type of magnet core, illustrated in fig. 2.12, there are two separate
exciting windings which give two out-of-phase fluxes in two separate magnetic
circuits. In the case of relay cores of the type shown in fig. 2.11, there is
only one exciting m.m.f. and the necessary pair of two out-of-phase fluxes
are produced by shading action.
The principle involved is illustrated in iig. 2.13. The flux ~ is shown
divided into two components, ~1 and ~2' in the shaded and unshaded portions of the pole respectively. ~1 acts as the mutual flux of a transformer of
which the shading ring or band is the secondary. The e.m.f. elf induced in the
shading band produces therein a circulating current (an eddy current in the
case of a flux passing through an induction disc) i,,; the m.m.f. of the singleturn shading band is clearly F"t = i" amp-turns. The difference between F. t
and F., the effective m.m.f. of the shading band, is the m.m.f. responsible
for leakage flux. The total m.m.f. of the pole is F1 = F2 + F". It should be
noted that F. has a component F2 cos
(~- A.)
to Flo and thus has a demagnetising effect. The disc, itself a shading element,
thus also has a demagnetising effect which must be considered in deriving
the steady-state torque equation of an induction relay (fig. 2.l3c).
The air-gap fluxes ~1 and ~2 and the eddy currents i1 and i2 they produce
in the induction disc or cup are shown vectorially in fig. 2.13b. Torque is
produced by the interaction of each flux with the disc current induced by the
other flux and is of the form 't' = ~li2-~2i1'
In the Appendix 2.11 it is shown that the torque works out to
(2.4)
where K is a design constant, 11 and 12 are the r.m.s. coil currents producing
the magnet air-gap fluxes, (J is the angle between 11 and 12 and A. is the phase
angle of the disc impedance.
In the shaded-pole magnet the fluxes are produced by the same coil
current so the torque is
't' = Kro12 sin (J cos A.
(2.S)
42
Nonshad.d
pol.
(a)
2.4
Ii
/'i,'
Ii
I'
I
I
I ,
,4>E ,i
, ''
,, :, ,
,,
,,
"',1
.'
(b)
43
(b)
<PEt</>, .. - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------
---------
ta)
.----. ----~
<l>T
iii
(1)
:0;'
~....
."
F;--------------------(b)
(a)
~~~------------,_--------~~~2
(c)
(d)
45
2.4
Protective Relays
K'wIII2 sin 0
(2.6)
(2.7)
(2.8)
1...
I,..
(b)
~
I
b'
/
................. .{
~r~
'
'f.
I.J
Ill'r
......
/..'~----- -~~ /
S .....
'..... ..........
..... ,
.-/
'1z
flO.
2.4
leakage. Their cross-sectional area is usually about one-third of the pole face
area but has to be compromised with the dimensions required for minimum
frequency error. The mathematics governing the design of shading rings are
very complicated and a certain amount of trial and error is necessary.
2.4.4. Attracted Armature Relay
2n(NI) 2
A(Ro+~r
(2.9)
where N is the coil turns, I the coil current, A the pole face gap area, Ro is
the reluctance of the iron circuit, x the air gap at the pole centre. In the open
position Ro is small compared with
i:
F = 21t(N~2A
(2.10)
47
Protective Relays
2.4
approaches the pole-piece (20) (21); referring to fig. 2.15, this increase in
attractive force tends to give a snap action and a drop-out value at a low level
of energisation unless the pressure built up by the contact springs is approximately matched. Line S shows the build-up of pressure of the restraining
spring. Line C is the additional pressure due to the contact brushes, and CR
is the pressure between the contacts when closed; this should be at least 15 gm.
Curve R is the force on the armature; this force may tend to level off as the
relay core saturates in spite of the decreasing magnetic reluctance of the
armature gap as it closes.
The ratio of pick-up to drop-out current is OC/OR. To obtain a high value
of drop-out current, C must be close to R; it is not possible to make C lie
R
EFFECT
0,.
SATVRATION
OC
t:
OROP OFF
o R = PICK-
YP.
CONTACT
PRESSURE.
-Wipe
o
FIG.
G.... P
-TRAVEL. .
2.4
DROP' OUT
100,%
FlO.
turns; a less efficient arrangement for the same purpose is an air-gap in the
iron circuit or a brass pin in the pole face, which prevents the armature from
touching the pole and limits the flux value at point B.
2.4.5. Balanced Beam Relay
Protective Relays
2.4
(a)
(b)
Tonlon hca.d
Inntl~
diScs
Fixed conl"cl
Air
-."po
(c)
50
2.4
Q( =
a:) is required.
The polarised d.c. moving-coil relays (fig. 2.1S) are the most sensitive
electromagnetic relay units available, but they are generally more expensive
than induction cup or moving iron relays. They are adapted to a.c. measurement and comparison by using tHem in conjunction with rectifier bridge
comparators.
Two kinds of these relays are available, those with a rotary moving coil,
and those with an axially moving coil. The rotary moving coil type has
jewelled bearings and is cheaper since it uses standard d.c. instrument construction, which is easy to assemble and align (62). Furthermore, it is unaffected by tilting. Its arrangement is after the fashion of a moving coil
ammeter with contacts (fig. 2.1Sa).
The axially moving coil type is twice as sensitive from an electromagnetic
viewpoint since it has only one radial air gap in its magnetic structure; it
has, however, to be mounted within a few degrees of vertical and encounters
the problem of coil supports. Early types had six connection ligaments (22)
and two suspension ligaments (fig. 2.1Sb) to support the two ends of the coil.
Fig. 2.1Sc shows a construction in which the spiral diaphragms support the
moving coil and also act as electrical connections; in this type the coil has
only axial movement, so that the air gap can be made small; this enables the
same sensitivity to be obtained with a smaller device.
The attractive force of the relay is directly proportional to the coil current.
Typical sensitivity figures are 02 to 05 mW for just closing the contacts.
The speed of operation depends upon the damping; two cycles minimum
time is possible with a properly damped coil with an aluminium former.
Copper can be used for heavier damping and slower operation. Insufficient
damping reduces the capacity of the relay to withstand shock and vibration.
In cases where there is only one coil, such as in the parallel rectifier bridge
circuit of fig. 2.21a, the aluminium former can be eliminated since damping
is supplied by the coil itself, and the rectifier bridges provide a path for the
51
2.4
Protective Relays
lC<1d-in.
Cont4cts
Yoke
Plrma.nlnt
ma.gnlt
Moving call
{al
52
L..ca.f ,uspenslon
Loca.ting tong
(b)
3 conta.cU on
Pcrspu cowr
ruihQnt disc
Pcrma.ncnt magnet
Coil winding
(c)
FIG. 2.18. Moving coil relays
(a) Arrangement of rotary moving coil relay
(b) Constructional details of axially moving coil relay
(c) Constructional details with spiral diaphragm coil supports
53
2.4
Protective Relays
2.4
damping current induced in the coil by its own movement. Where the relay
has separate operating and restraining windings, the metal former is necessary
for damping (22).
Recent improvements in permanent magnet materials have increased the
sensitivity of moving coil relays so that the rotary moving type can now be
made with 01 milliwatt sensitivity and yet be mechanically stable (50 g) and
employ wire of 0002 inch diameter or larger; units with such powerful
magnets must be sealed against the ingress of iron filings.
2.4.7. Polarised Moving Iron Relays
This type of relay is the inverse of the moving coil because the iron armature moves. The stationary coil results in a much more robust relay and permits a remarkably high ratio of continuous rating to pick-up. It is shown in
figs. 2.19. and 2.20d. The normal pick-up is 1 milliwatt for shock-proof opera-
flO.
2.19. Sensitive polarised d.c. moving iron relay with plug-in transistor
amplifier
tion (30 g) but the coil will stand 5 watts continuou~ly. In fig. 2.19 the relay is
fitted with a plug-in transistor amplifier which increases its sensitivity to I
microwatt for pick-up.
Figs. 2.20a, b, c, d and e show five typical polarised moving iron relays
employing the flux shifting principle. The choice between them depends on the
characteristic considered most important, such as speed, sensitivity, robustness, contact pressure, etc. Most relays of this type use leaf spring supported
armatures, but the one shown in fig. 2.20a uses jewel bearings.
The type shown in fig. 2.20b is highly resistant to mechanical shock because
normally it is held strongly in position by its permanent magnet; when the
armature flux is diverted through the small electromagnet E, the armature is
54
2.4
4 RadiomctaJ o=--i+--tt"ir.
pote pteces """,:::.r--w.._ ,
- . ,.........d"\
Radiomda.l
bridge pieces
(a)
(b)
A-B
(d)
(c)
~~
B
Hingcd <1I"mClturc
(f)
released and it is moved to the operating position by the very strong spring.
This relay is capable of tripping in two milliseconds.
Fig. 2.2Oc shows an adaptation of the telephone type relay (20) (21);
when energised it diverts flux into the armature instead of away from it.
It is self-resetting. Fig. 2.20d shows an improved version of fig. 2.2Oc with a
balanced armature. It is a very practical combination of speed, sensitivity,
55
Protective Relays
2.4
low cost and resistance to shock; it has contacts of 5 ampere rating and will
stand a shock of 30 g when adjusted for a sensitivity of 1 milliwatt.
Fig. 2.20e is the well-known Carpenter type in which the polarity of the
lower poles is controlled by the direction of the current in the coil. It will
pick up on 02 milliwatt but it has a very short contact travel and is suitable
for only low voltage circuits.
Fig. 2.20f is a remanence type relay which is inexpensive to manufacture
and extremely sensitive (15). It operates when m.m.f. ofthe operating coil (A)
"vercomes that of the restraining coil (B), which is normally energised, and
kills the remanent flux. The relay operates quickly enough for the armature
to open under the influence of the spring before the surplus of operating
m.m.f. can build up the flux in the opposite direction and hold in the
armature.
TABLE
2.2
2.20f
2.20b
2.20c
2.20d
2.20e
lOmW
1W
10mW
SW
1mW
7SW
003 mW
1W
003 mW
2W
2mS
lOOO gm.
004 in.
003 in.
10 g
2500 V
lOA
Hand
ISmS
8gm.
0'025 in.
0025 in.
sg
2500 V
1A
Self
ISmS
1 gm.
005 in.
O04in.
40g
2S00 V
SA
Self
2'smS
3gm.
2mS
4Ogm.
003 in.
0'02 in.
30g
1500 V
SA
Electrical
0002 in.
0003 in.
sg
SOO V
002 A
Electrical
2.4
Another way of expressing this is to say that output of the circuit to the
tripping relay increases rapidly (fig. 2.21e) near the threshold of operation
but the rate of increase diminishes at higher currents, so that the relay sensitivity is greatest near pick-up.
The reason for this characteristic can be appreciated by reference to
figs. 2.21a to 2.21e. Normally the restraining current preponderates and
current flows in the winding of the polarised relay in the blocking direction.
VOLTS
API'>UEO TO
~Ew\Y.
Or---,-.--,-----k~~-------
.(,o,A.t-
-~
FIG.
i o i1'
(!)~ 1i!E:r1"'1E'Ii!-BIlIClGE
Lo-lr
--.
C~I2ISTIC,
Small values of ir will cause a current to flow in the relay, as in fig. 2.21b,
the voltage drop across the slave relay being - V volts; this voltage - V
serves as a bias in the forward direction of bridge 1. If ir is increased further
the voltage drop across the relay will rise to a value - V, the threshold of
bridge 1 and it will conduct, the current distribution being as shown in
fig. 2.21c; the current through the relay consists of fairly flat-topped halfwaves corresponding to the case of io < ir as in fig. 2.21d.
57
2.4
Protective Relays
The reverse is true if bridge 1 only is .energised; the voltage drop across
the relay will now be V, in the reverse direction from formerly, and this will
bias the restraint rectifier in its forward direction. When the voltage drop
across the relay attains a value V" corresponding to the threshold voltage of
two rectifiers in series, the surplus current from bridge 1 is spilled through
bridge 2. This corresponds to the case of io > i, in fig. 2.21d.
When both bridges are energised simultaneously, the complete relay
arrangement is acutely sensitive to small differences between io and i, without
a delicate setting for the slave relay or a high thermal rating for its coil.
The composite characteristic for the relay is shown ideally in fig. 2.21e.
The current in the relay is a function of the difference between io and i"
shown in fig. 2.21a. The current circulating between the bridges is the smaller
of the two input currents plus some of their difference which appears as reverse
current in the bridge with the larger current. The voltage V across the
comparator cannot exceed twice the forward drop (toe voltage) in one of the
rectifiers and is usually around 1 volt. The maximum current that can flow
in the relay is the saturating voltage of the rectifier Vs divided by the relay
coil resistance. With three inputs and three parallel rectifier bridges, elliptical
and hyperbolic characteristics can be obtained. This subject is discussed in
Vol. II, Chapter 12.
(b) Phase Comparator Rectifier Bridge. This bridge is shown in fig. 2.22a
and its operation can be followed from fig. 2.22c and 2.22f. It is a circulating
58
2.4
I,
1,-i2
2"
2',
(d)'2>I,jboth +
12(q+q)- '2 R2
tt
Output-
2l,!J = '1R
21,
Block
Block
21,
2~
(~)i2>i1;
'1 is-
Output
-2;,
:2.1',
(t)(,>i 2 ;i,io-
-1- -',R
Output
2i,
2/,
(h)'2>i,; bot~
Output- 2i,
= - i2(~+~) = -i 2R
~ i2(~+~)
2<,
(j)
(k)l, >;2 j i2
i 2 >i,i 12 "Output'"
-2(,.q =-i , R
FIG.
59
',R
2i,
i.-
Out.put:.
~-
-i2(~+~J= -' 2 R
2.4
Protective Relays
current bridge whose output current is equal to the smaller of the two currents
inputs. The path of the current through the bridge is established by the larger
of the two currents and depends upon their relative instantaneous polarity. If
11 > 12 the current will flow in the top and bottom rectifiers if 11 is positive
(fig. 2.22c) and in the diagonal rectifiers (fig. 2.22d) if 11 is negative. If 12 > 11
the current flows in rectifiers I and 3 if 12 is positive (fig. 2.22e) and rectifiers
2 and 4 if negative (fig. 2.22f). If 11 and 12 have the same polarity the current
in the pol~rised relay R flows in the tripping direction, if opposite polarity it
will be in the blocking direction.
The limiting action of this bridge is less pronounced than in the amplitude
bridge comparator and a non-linear resistor, such as thyrite, is usually connected across the polarising input so that the sensitivity at minimum fault
conditions can be raised to a satisfactory level, by increasing the polarising
current i1 without exceeding the rating of the rectifiers at maximum fault
conditions. This bridge produces more circular characteristics than the
amplitude comparator bridges and hence is preferable for mho and directional relays. It is limited to two inputs.
2.4.. Magnetic Amplifier Relays
60
(a)
Trip winding
Block winding
A
Opcr<lt~
Rt.stra.i n
Pol<lri.~
(b)
RutroJnt
(c)
r--_t-.::f::=;-_~Trl p rola.y
1_J:~====~
D.C.
output 1.
N.twork
(d)
(e)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
61
2.4
2.4
Protective Relays
are polarised by the other input quantity. In fig. 2.23b the relay compares the
phase relationship of the two input quantities regardless of their amplitude.
The original magnetic amplifier (fig. 2.23d) developed in Sweden (23) and
the U.K. and known by various trade names, such as magamp and amplistat,
etc., has been used by a French manufacturer in a static distance relay as an
amplifier to minimise the burden on supply c.t.s and to miniaturise components. The amplifier is supplied by a 500 cycle transistor oscillator energised
from the station battery.
In distance relays, where accurate measurement is required over an
extremely wide range, it is necessary to have an output device which operates
with less than a milliwatt. This means either an extremely sensitive relay or
the provision of an amplifier, which can be a magnetic amplifier. Fig.2.23e
shows an attracted armature relay which has a transductor built into it,
making a compact device which is well suited as a low cost impedance fault
detector.
2.4.10. Thermal Relays
Thermal relays will receive only brief treatment here since they are not
generally used for protection of transmission systems, although they are
widely used for protection of motors against overloads and unbalanced
currents (25). The actuating elements are generally bimetallic strips (fig.
2.24a) which are often wound into a spiral to increase their length and thereby
increase their sensitivity. An alternative design which, although less sensitive,
Microswltch
Bi -motoJhc
strip
(a)
Adjusta.bltt
thttrma.1
insula.tor
(b)
FlO. 2.24. Thermal relays
(a) Three-phase bimetallic strip thermal relay
(b) Single-phase unimetallic strip thermal relay
62
2.4
(b) The provision of a minimum d.c. voltage of 120 V, for plate (anode)
circuits, which necessitates a battery voltage of at least 180 V to allow
for negative grid bias supplies and a suitable margin for voltage drop
during the closing of a circuit breaker.
63
Protective Relays
2.4
relays, are more complicated in electronic design than their electromagnetic counterparts; the basic arrangement is shown in fig. 2.7a.
(d) Limited output capacity which necessitates a mechanical relay for
tripping the circuit breaker (attempts to use a thyratron for this
purpose were not overly successful).
(e) Greater problems in ensuring correct operation under transient conditions than with electromagnetic relays. The main difficulty here, as
with transistor relays and other relays based on semiconductors, is
that the inherent times of operation of electronic relays is well within
the time-constants of the power system and associated current and
voltage transformers.
(f) Uncertain life of the electronic tubes.
2.4.12. Transistor.
Transistors have similar limitations. Items (c), (d) and (e) above apply
directly. Item (f) does not apply but, in some transistors now available, some
change in characteristics can be expected during their life. Transistors do not
impose a constant drain on the station battery but they do require a
separate low voltage d.c. supply. The present solutions to this problem
are either to provide a small nickel-cadmium storage battery with a trickle
charger and a relay to disconnect the battery from the transistor circuit
while charging or to rectify the output of a saturating auxiliary C.t. and
stabilise it with a limiting device.
The circuitry of transistors has some similarity to that of electronic tubes;
those at present available differ in having low input impedance and are
current-fed devices. A phase comparator can be made either by connecting
two transistors back-to-back (13) (14), as in fig. 2.8c, or by applying the input
signals in parallel through diodes (fig. 2.8b) so that the transistor acts as an
'and' device (12) causing the transistor to cut off if either of the input quantities is positive.
In either of the above circuits, current of constant magnitude will flow in
the collector circuit only when the input a.c. quantities are simultaneously
negative; a relay in the collector circuit will pick up when the overlap angle
exceeds a certain value, i.e. when the mean d.c. level in the collector circuit
exceed the relay pick-up level as a result of phase coincidence.
Inserting inductance in the collector circuit causes the collector current to
rise exponentially, instead of being constant, during the period of phase
coincidence; this enables a trigger circuit to be added, which operates on the
basis of current level. Alternatively, capacitance can be used and the voltage
level measured; either method has the following virtues:
(a) Permits a single tripping device to be used for all phases and zones.
(b) Makes the pick-up level independent of voltage.
(c) Permits instantaneous resetting using an integrating circuit.
64
2.4
So far, no relays have appeared on the market using the Hall Effect for
vectorial and scalar multiplication, probably because of the small output
and the high temperature error; however, at the time of writing this book,
it has been found that Indium Arsenide has a practicable level of Hall Effect
1'--- - V - - --9
Trip ,ola.y
G.rmC1llium cryst<1i
FIG.
2.5
Protective Relays
germanium and R is the Hall coefficient then the Hall Effect voltage is
RIH
Eh = =
w
=
=
K<1>1
(2.11 )
(2.12)
It will be noted that the first term is a d.c. voltage proportional to the
vectorial product of <f) and I and the second term is an a.c. voltage of double
frequency proportional to the scalar product of <f) and 1. If the flux q) is
produced by a voltage V across the magnet coil the first term can be arranged
to be a measure of watts or reactive VA and the second a measure of VA.
Either term can be suppressed by suitable circuitry.
In equations 2.11 and 2.12, if the field flux density is expressed in maxwells/
sq. cm., H in oersteds, 1 in amperes and w in cm. then the Hall coefficient can
be expressed in volt/cm. 3/amp. maxwell and has a value of about 8.10-5 for
germanium. In current applications to instruments H is usually about 450
oersteds and w is about Olcm.
Further information is given in Vol. II, Chapter 4.
2.5. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION FOR TIMING UNITS
66
2.5
Range of
Adjustment
Max. Time
Setting
Accuracy
(Fig. 2.26)
20-1
100-1
10-1
15-1
10-1
None
None
10-1
5 min.
10 min.
120 sec.
120 sec.
10 sec.
50 sec.
500 sec.
No liIDit
5-10%
5-10%
5%
5%
5%
10%
5%
1 cycle
a
b
c
d
g
e
f
h
(Fig. 2.27)
a
b
Filament Lamp
Resonance
Thermionic
Semiconductor Diode
Transistor
(Fig. 2.28)
a
b
c
Flux Decay
Capacitor (d.c.)
Capacitor (a.c.)
c
d
e
67
Protective Relays
2.5
-(c) E SCQ.pt.m.~nl
t
(~) Mc.rcuty tube
FIG.
(h)
~olor
(t) ~"C Ut y
dorllpot
opcrc.lcd
68
2.5
magnetic flux, as shown in fig. 2.26d. This device is more reliable in starting
than one depending upon the escapement principle because it provides no
retardation until the cup is in motion. With modem high coercive force
magnets, time delays up to 120 seconds can be obtained.
(e) Friction governor; an adaption from the phonograph. It consists oftwo
weights located at the ends of two resilient arms which are parallel to the
shaft when the mechanism is at rest. As the speed increases the centrifugal
force makes the weights fly outwards until, at the rated speed, the weights
rub on a conical surface which prevents them from going any faster
(fig.2.26e).
2.5.2. Mercury Delay
Mercury is prone to corrosion and hence must be used in closed containers. The most common use is in a tube which, when tilted, causes the
mercury to flow through an orifice to a new position, bridging the contacts.
Recently it has been used successfully in the form of a dashpot.
(a) Tilting Tubes. In this type the mercury not only provides the delay by
the time taken to flow to a new position under gravity but also acts as the
moving contact, by bridging the terminals which pass through the walls of
the glass tube (fig. 2.26e). Great care must be taken in the design of the
tubes to avoid leaks which would admit air.
Existing tubes are unsatisfactory for short delays because the mercury
may splash and break the circuit. High-speed designs have been developed,
however, in which the glass tube with its stationary contacts are moved and
the mercury stays still.
(b) Mercury Dashpot. Fig. 2.26f shows a typical arrangement with
hermetically sealed contacts in a metal or glass shell. A hollow magnetic
plunger floats in the mercury and is pulled downwards by a solenoid, displacing the mercury which in turn displaces some inert gas from an inverted
thimble. After sufficient gas has been expelled from the thimble through the
porous ceramic plug, the mercury in the main pool completes the circuit to a
small pool which forms the other contact. De-energising the solenoid releases
the plunger which then floats up to its original position and allows the inert
gas to return between the contacts.
This is a fairly accurate device but it is difficult to provide any adjustment
of the operating time; hence it is usually provided for a fixed time delay.
2.5.3. Thermal Delay
Protective Relays
2.5
2.5.4. Motor Operated
R+r
v,.
(2.13)
where r is the resistance of the relay coil, and v is its pick-up voltage. The
70
(a l
2.5
(h )
(d)
(e)
(e)
FIG.
71
2.5
Protective Relays
operation of the relay can be made more positive and the timing more consistent by connecting a neon lamp in series with the trip coil.
On a.c. applications a rectifier is used to produce delay on drop-out, a
capacitor being across the relay winding, as shown in fig. 2.27c.
(c) Ballistic Resistance. Time delay on pick-up can be obtained by
connecting a metal filament lamp across the relay coil and a rheostat in
series with it. The lamp short-circuits the winding and reduces the magnetic
flux to zero for a short time until its filament becomes incandescent; the
lamp filament then has ten times its cold resistance and permits pick-up
(fig. 2.27d). Alternatively a carbon filament lamp or a thermistor can be connected in series with the coil. At room temperature the thermistor resistance
is high which limits the coil current. As the current heats the thermistor
its resistance falls until the coil current is sufficient for pick-up.
(d) Resonance. With a.c. instantaneous overcurrent relays a time delay
of up to 3 cycles can be obtained on pick-up by providing a secondary winding
which is connected to a high-Q series tuned circuit. The delay is caused by
the resonant circuit current building up to its steady value (fig. 2.27e).
(e) Remanence. About 1930 a remarkable timing device was developed
as an inverse time-current relay but never used commercially. It consisted
basically of a test-tube 20% filled with steel balls about 01 in. diameter and
surrounded at the upper end by a solenoid coil. When a.c. potential was
applied to the coil, the balls would rotate for a certain time and then suddenly
rise en masse to the middle of the coil. The balls arrived in the new position
with considerable speed and force, sufficient to operate a breaker trip latch
directly. The time of repeated operations was consistent but its VA burden
was high.
2.5.8. Electronic Devices
The principle of the R-C charging circuit can also be used with semiconductor diodes (rectifiers) or triodes (transistors), as explained below.
(a) Rectifier-type Timing Unit. When the starting contact closes (fig.
2.28b) the current 11 rises to a value below the pick-up value of the relay.
The capacitor voltage VB rises exponentially from zero at a rate determined
by CR. When VB exceeds VA. a current 13 flows in the second relay coil and
72
2.5
raises the relay operating force above pick-Up. Variation in R (or C) changes
the time between start and operate.
(b) Transistor Timing Unit. A simple circuit for a static timing unit using
a transistor is shown in fig. 2.28c. A constant direct voltage is applied to an
R-C network. The capacitor C is charged through the resistor R and, when it
I o.c.
+
~s\art
con\QC\
I,
(b)
(c)
Two winding
rela.y
L
FIG.
-.,:e
I
O.C.volts
"'ux.r~lQ,y
.J..
2.6
Protective Relays
2.6.1. Bearings
The most common type of bearing for precision relays, such as in the
induction type, is the pivot and jewel bearing similar to that used in watthour meters; the modem types have spring-mounted jewels and are designed
so that shocks are taken on a shoulder and not on a jewel (fig. 2.29). For
special applications requiring high sensitivity and low friction, a single ball
bearing running between two cup-shaped sapphire jewels has been used.
Endstone
~-~-:-~I-- bedr i ng
FIG.
In cases where a relay has a strong resetting torque under nornial conditions but has been given a very sensitive pick-up setting, there may be
trouble from sticking against the backstop. This may be due to the use of
normally non-magnetic materials which have become magnetic due to
74
2.6
75
2.6
Protective Relays
n-
where p is the resistivity of the metal (1'7 microhm. em for silver) and a
is the radius of the contact area. a
= 111
;j~ where
= contact
76
2.6
3/Pr
!tJ
E as before (64). The actual contact area is very
small compared with the contact surface; it consists of the total area of the
tops of the irregularities in the contact surface. With round contacts the
contact area is theoretically a point and the actual area is finite only because
of plastic yield of the silver.
The voltage at which a corroded silver contact becomes conductive is of
K'(J)
the form: V =. - P where K' depends on the nature of the corrosion and
(J) is the thickness; this applies to oxide and sulphide coatings. P is the
pressure in grams. The breakdown voltage for silver sulphide is 08 to 15
volts per 100 A, or 106 volts/cm. The thickness of the coating is in,dicated by
the colour. Up to 50 A the bright silver appearance is retained; a brown
tarnish indicates roughly 250 A; a blue colour the 500 A region and violet
l,oooA.
77
2.6
Protective Relays
sealed relays. High resistance polymers can appear on the contacts due to
organic emanations from coil insulation, especially where traces of iron or
copper are rubbed into the surface during manufacture (75). Contacts containing palladium are the most affected and gold plated contacts the least.
Phenolic resin varnish impregnation is the worst offender but all insulation
gives off organic vapour to a certain degree except PTFE (Teflon). Ventilated
relay cases with dust filters minimise the effect but the ideal solution is separately encapsulated contacts, i.e. like reed relays.
(c) Making and Breaking Capacity. The short-time carrying capacity of
contacts depends upon their weight, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and surface resistance. The last two items control the heat produced ([2R) and the first two control the heat absorbable.
The continuous carrying capacity of contacts depends upon their surface
area, the volume and thermal coefficients of the contacts and their supporting members, their electrical conductivity and their surface resistance.
For modern silver contact designs with cylindrical contacting surfaces,
the relationship between the short-time (tripping) and continuous capacity
is shown in Table 2.4. The contacts are mounted so that their cylinders or
ridges meet at right angles.
TABLE 2.4
Contact Capacity
Contact Class
.05"
O~A6"
A. Auxiliary relay
. +
04"
> 110
:;j>
c:::l
13/16 1
C. Sensitive relay
> 110
:;j>
15
14 x;os
75
110
> 110
Continuous
Carrying
Capacity
Amps.
7
13'~
110
Ya"
B. Protective relay
.04'~
15
X;04
Table 2.4 assumes that the contacts will be operated not more than 5,000
times before maintenance; there is an inverse relationship between the
contact duty and the number of operations that can be done before the relay
goes outside the performance specification pertaining to the relay. The number of operations is drastically reduced if the bouncing period of the contacts
exceeds the time constant of the circuit; it can be significantly increased if a
seal-in relay is used.
78
2.6
In Table 2.4 the current values given refer to linear inductive circuits such
as the trip coils of circuit breakers and the coils of auxiliary relays. In such
circuits the current starts from zero at the moment of contact closure and
builds up exponentially. In a resistance circuit the continuous rating would
be the same but the 200 mS values should be halved. In a circuit dominated
by a capacitance or a metal filament lamp the values would be much less
because the initial inrush current could be many times the steady value.
Protective relays (Class B in Table 2.4) are not normally expected to
interrupt any power because the circuits they set up are usually interrupted
by an auxiliary switch on the circuit breaker. In some cases, however, they
have to interrupt the coil circuit of an auxiliary relay or a timer. Modern
protective relays will interrupt 100 VA a.c. up to 120 volts or 10 watts d.c.
inductive. With a spark-quenching circuit they should interrupt 50 watts
d.c. up to 250 volts. The corresponding values for sensitive protective relays
are less, depending on the design.
Auxiliary relays (Class A in Table 2.4) will interrupt about 500 VA a.c. or
50 watts d.c. inductive. Such a relay is illustrated in fig. 2.l0a but, when
equipped with blow-out magnets (fig. 2.10b) it will interrupt 3 kW in a
highly inductive circuit (LjR = 005).
Further data is given in Vol. II, section 2.4.1.
In a.c. tripping (see Chapter 4, section 4.6) the current is transferred to
the trip coil by opening a contact which normally short-circuits it, so that the
contact does not actually interrupt any current. This transfer is done by an
auxiliary tripping relay (Class A in Table 2.4), and the transfer capacity of
these contacts expressed as the product of the current before opening times
the voltage across the trip coil after opening, is about 3,750 VA for silver
contacts, assuming a maximum of 3 seconds for the current to be flowing
through the contacts. This can be raised to 15,000 VA by using elkonite
contacts.
2.6.4. Bounce-proof Contacts
The pmblem of contact bouncing arises particularly in the case of a highspeed relay in which the armature and contacts have to be accelerated to a
relatively high speed in about 20 milliseconds and then stopped abruptly
against the stationary contact without any rebound. This requires some means
of absorbing the kinetic energy of the moving parts, such as a miniature
friction-type shock absorber, or an inclined tube containing a ball, as shown
in fig. 2.30b.
The method most commonly used employs flexible contact brushes
which slide against each other at their contacting tips; this method can be
made much more effective if twin contacts are used which have different
spring rates so that their bouncing periods do not coincide. The most ingenious and effective solution is a tiny capsule on the moving contact which
is half-filled with tungsten powder and which 'sandbags' the contact closed
by the powder flying up to the other end of the capsule when the contact is
79
2.6
Protective Relays
stopped suddenly (fig. 2.30a). A friction clutch between the armature shaft
and the moving contact gives as good results when properly designed (fig.
2.30d) and has the additional advantage of reducing the tendency of the
relay to operate undesirably under the influence of circuit transients.
b)
(0)
~hln
flexible
"striP
Ie)
Stationary
contact
MOVing
(d )
contact
Ie)
80
2.6
For the best action, i.e. sparkless interruption of an inductive circuit and
no contact welding on closure, the parameters of the spark-quenching circuit
are given by Re = 02 VCO. 2 , where V is the circuit voltage and Rand C
=-
<>---------1-1
(b)
FIG.
R~
P. R.
00>__----0
are in ohms and mfd respectively. In the case of a highly inductive load,
L
ReC = - where Land RL refer to the load. Values of C and R can be
RL
03~.
RL
2.6
Protective Relays
with silver contacts. Even with the highest contact pressures, silver contacts
would rapidly deteriorate if they had to handle currents above SA, especially
if they bounced at all. However, if a fast seal-in relay is used to protect the
contact, by paralleling them with its own contacts, these relays can handle
quite heavy currents, provided that the seal-in relay operates within 0010
second and has at least 25 gm. pressure on cylindrical contacts which do not
bounce. Fig. 2.35 shows the contacts of an induction disc relay with a
shaded pole electromagnet and a fast seal-in relay; the illustration indicates
negligible contact deterioration after 500 closures of a 40 amp, 250 volt
trip coil.
Seal-in relays or augmentation of the operating coil current, as is practised
in some foreign relays, is not a complete solution for this problem because
they do not work unless electrical contact is made in the first place. On the
other hand, such methods are valuable for making the contact action more
positive if the contacts are inclined to chatter or if they are of small capacity.
--
C.S. t rip
coil
+o----o~
I
I
I
,....
S
Fig. 2.32b shows a circuit which makes the action of a polarised d.c.
relay more positive. When the contacts close the capacitor discharges through
the transformer, producing a circuit-closing impulse in the operating coil of
the polarised d.c. relay; this causes firm closure and then decays exponentially
to cause no contact rebound. On opening, the charging of the capacitor produces an impulse in the reverse direction causing a clean break of the contacts.
In the case of ultra-sensitive relays, used with some static relays, the contact pressure can be very small and, in order to ensure intial contact, non-
82
2.6
-0. .t
c
+0--0
l!J
-0
(a) Circuit for a.ccc.lcro.ti ng p ci k.up
"O--O-f
-0
',I
R
V\IWIIII\
l"'
''"0'
.,
Go
i3
~
u
Tim e
:::0
.
c
...
~
Time
'0
U
FIG.
:::o
ij
.
c
Go
temporarily increases the relay coil current while the capacitor is charging and
thus accelerates the pick-up.
Fig. 2.33b shows a means of accelerating drop-out of an auxiliary relay
by using the inductive inertia of a parallel inductor to reverse the coil current
and hence suppress the core flux rapidly. Fig. 2.33c shows both principles
used to obtain fast action on both pick-up and reset.
83
Protective Relays
2.6
_~
30+---+
20+----+---++
o+-~~~==~==t=~c==t===c===~
234567
e
9
_ - L_ _
FIG.
LI_o~p~crLa.~tl~n~g~cu~r ~c~nt~a.~s~m~U~lt~iP~IC~O~fs~ct~ti~ng~I ~j
__
The importance of excluding dust from a protective relay cannot be overemphasised. The most common cause of contact failure is lint or grit,
especially in humid atmospheres, or where there is a sticky deposit on the
contacts from manufacturing processes in the neighbourhood, or an overheated coil in the relay.
Modern relays have dustproof cases of pressed steel, cast aluminium or
moulded plastic. Some can be made dust-tight by sealing their joints with
an adhesive filler. Such cases must then be provided with a dust filter (fig.
2.37) so that breathing can take place without building up a pressure which
would force air past the cover gasket. Modern cover gaskets are usually of
neoprene rubber, since this is resistant to tropical conditions and insects.
If a dust-tight relay leaves the factory in a clean condition and if it has
a high torque it can be left in service for many years without maintenance.
This may be a method of solving the difficulty of obtaining sufficient staff to
cope with the relay maintenance of an expanding system.
2.6.8. Mechanical Stability
Increasing demands for sensitivity and speed have encouraged the use of
light movements and very short contact travels. This has made modem relays
more susceptible to undesirable operation due to mechanical shock or vibration; where these conditions cannot be avoided there is a danger of incorrect
relay operation.
84
2.6
Relay windings must stand a high potential or flash-over test of 2,500 volts
for I second. Actually, their insulation must be designed to withstand at least
4 kV because:
(a) It is customary to measure voltage on the supply side of the test
Protective Relays
2.6
control, which causes wires to cross each other and the insulation to break
down between turns. An external wrapper improves the appearance of the
coil and protects it against accidental blows, such as from a screwdriver
slipping off a screw head; such a wrapper is a trap for moisture and bacteria
in tropical climates, however.
Corrosion is prevented by the avoidance of acid-forming insulating
materials or soldering fluxes and taking precautions against hand perspiration; in the case of d.c. coils it is important to connect one end of the coil
directly to the negative pole in order to avoid electrolysis.
The larger the wire, the more mechanical abuse it will stand and the
longer it will take for corrosion to cause an open-circuit. It is considered
unwise to use wire of less than 0002 in. diameter, even if all the foregoing
precautions are taken; this is because of the risk of a kink in the wire which,
although not noticed in winding the coil, might break later in service after
a few hundred daily temperature cycles. It is considered good practice to use
not less than 0 004 in. diameter wherever possible and especially on coils
directly concerned with tripping the circuit-breaker.
Where fine wires are unavoidable, a precision governor for the wire
tension should be used and encapsulation is recommended, i.e. 'potting' in
a sealing compound such as epoxide or polyester resin. The heat dissipation
of a relay coil in watts is about 02 A, where A is the superficial area in
square inches for 50C rise.
Encapsulation makes the coil practically impervious to subsequent
external conditions.
Flaws in the enamel and imperfect winding can be detected by an induced
voltage tester, described in Chapter 13, section 13.11.1. The use of this device
greatly reduces the possibility of subsequent failure of the coil in service.
For relays with tapped coils or for air-gap transformer reactors requiring
a constant
~ ratio,
in this technique many wires are wound in parallel in the form of a tape whose
strands are connected in series with taps brought out at the junctions. Such
X
a winding has constant magnetic leakage and R ratio for all taps because all
the turns traverse the same path. This technique is particularly valuable for
eliminating tap error on time-overcurrent relays
2.6.10. Electrical Connections
2.7
Brazing is superior to soldering for wires above 001 in. diameter. Crimping and wire wrapping are still better for wires above 001 in. diameter because
they use a cold-welding technique and the high pressure (over 1,000 Ib/sq. in.)
at the contact eliminates failure due to imperfect cleaning. Here again,
twisting the conductors around each other before crimping tends to make
failure almost impossible.
Stranded wires are preferable to single wires for relay connections because
a single wire can break due to vibration, especially if it has a nick due to
stripping or a crack due to sharp bending. Furthermore, stranded wire makes
a more reliable soldered or brazed joint.
The type of connection that is considered reliable in a conventional
relay circuit may not be acceptable for static comparator circuits which
operate with milliampere currents at less than one volt. At the time of
writing this book, a great deal of research is being conducted in this field.
Of the permanent forms of connections, the wire-wrapped type appears
to have ten times the reliability of soldered connections, assuming that
skilled operators and correct tools are employed in each case. A bolted
connection using a flexible nickel-plated device like a "Speed Nut" has been
approved for connections to printed circuit modules in some telephone
equipment.
Pressure connectors with gold-plated contacts are used in important
equipment such as guided missiles but are relatively expensive. A technique
liable to replace them in protective relays is to gold plate the printed circuit
conductors at the edge of the module; on the assumption that the module
wi.11 be removed and re-inserted not more than 500 times in its life, a gold
flash on top of 00002 in. of nickel is satisfactory provided that the method of
depositing the gold leaves a non-porous layer so that the nickel and copper
will be sealed off from the atmosphere and thus prevent corrosion. The
nickel is used primarily for ensuring good bonding; if it is not used. a thicker
layer of gold is necessary to protect the copper. The contact pressure required
is about 60 gm.
2.7. CASES
Modem relay cases have the same width and depth. Only the length
varies with the number of relay units in a case. This enables the width of the
switchboard panels to be standardised, makes it possible to use pressing
tools for blanking out the panel, facilitates the layout of relays on the panel
and gives an improved appearance. In the U.S.A. the tendency in recent
years has been towards the flush mounting of relays to improve the appearance of the panel and minimise the effect of dust. This necessitated a relay
unit withdrawable from the front, so that the American manufacturers have
standardised on drawout relays. The main advantage of this construction,
however, is that it also permits the use of a test plug; this speeds up testing
time by a factor of about 5 and tends to eliminate the possibility of a wrong
87
2.7
Protective Relays
FIG.
FIG.
FIG.
89
2.7
Protective Relays
FIG.
sealing and to provide means for either detecting or removing them if they
occur during service.
A limited amount of moisture can be absorbed by a silicagel unit (shown
just above the nameplate in fig. 2.38). The moisture changes the silicagel
crystals from blue to red; the unit also acts as a leak detector if the relay is
intially dry.
Most volatile organic materials can be minimised by an activated carbon
'getter' in a porous container. Proper baking of the whole relay before
sealing the case avoids the risk of overloading the getter.
90
FIG.
FIG.
91
2.8
2.8
Protective Relays
92
FIG.
93
2.9
2.10
Protective Relays
Mechanical flags are the cheapest (fig. 2.40) but they may not be as
visible because they must be mounted on the relay armature. Two electrically
separate contacts are required on the protective relay if the remote alarm is on
a supply of different voltage from the trip circuit. The work done to trip the
flag, though small, affects the pick-up of a relay and prevents mechanical
flags from being used on very sensitive relays or those with short armature
travel. The absence of electrical connections on the flag simplifies stocking of
relays where the trip current does not exceed 5 A. The worst shortcoming
of mechanical flags is the difficulty of setting them so that they are released
exactly when the relay contacts make; if this is not assured a flag may fail to
operate, or may operate erroneously when an induction disc relay resets
before making contact.
Shunt electrical flags are easier to apply than series flags in a complex
control or trip scheme; tripping is delayed, however, by their operating time
and may be prevented if, for instance, the fine wire coil of the shunt coil is
open-circuited by corrosion. The shunt flag cannot be sealed in except by an
extra wire to an auxiliary switch on the circuit breaker and requires three
contacts on the protective relay. The most common arrangement is 'shunt
reinforcing' (fig. 1. lOb ) where the protective relay opens the flag coil circuit
when it resets after the fault is cleared.
Series flags are used in most countries and offer the most practical
solution. It introduces no delay in tripping and there is negligible risk of
failure to trip because of an open-circuited coil, because the coil wire is of
heavy gauge. Its only limitation is imposed by the very wide range of current
over which it has to operate; some trip coils take 30 A while some tripping
relays take only 01 A. This situation normally requires a choice of three
coils, each having a tap, but a sensitive polarised flag has recently been
developed in England which will pick up at 01 A and has a resistance of
only 1 ohm full coil and 01 ohm on its tap, so that it is applicable to trip
currents up to 30 A.
2.10. FINISHES
94
2.10
2.10.1. Tropicalisation
2.10.2. Corrosion
Unless proper precautions are taken at the factory, fine wire coils are
liable to subsequent failure on open-circuit, usually near one of the leads but
sometimes at a kink or crossed turns, due to the fine wire having been eaten
through by corrosion.
The primary cause of this corrosion is the condensation of moisture on the
coil surface when its temperature is lower than that of the surrounding air.
The condensed moisture rapidly absorbs CO 2 , fatty acids from handling at
the factory and other acid-forming impurities, including bacteria, so that a
weak acid is formed which acts as an electrolyte; this results in electrolysis,
the acid radical combining with the copper to form an acid salt. In the case
of CO 2 , which is absorbed from the air, the salt is CuC0 3 , a green deliquescent powder of low resistance, which attracts more moisture and tends to
spread, accelerating the corrosion. Failures from this cause were much more
common when coils were connected to the positive end of the d.c. circuit,
because the coil became the electrode to which the acid ions were attracted.
There is statistical evidence that coils wound with 0006 in. wire are no
less liable to failure than those wound with 0002 in. wire, although they may
take somewhat longer to fail.
Experience has shown that corrosion does not. occur on coils that are
continuously energised since a rise in temperature, even as low as 10C above
ambient, prevents the deposit of moisture. For this reason trouble is very
seldom experienced with a.c. coils; on the other hand, d.c. auxiliary coils and
95
2.11
Protective Relays
trip coils which are not normally energised will corrode if not properly manufactured, unless they are connected to the negative pole of the battery and
are separated from the positive pole by the contacts of a relay or switch.
It has been found that condensed moisture or dew starts depositing at the
bottom of cracks in the coil rather than on the surface, whereas rain water
deposits on the surface and tends to bridge over the microscopic cracks.
The formation of the dew at the bottom of the cracks is, of course, the worst
place as regards corrosion, but it can be prevented by encapsulation or by
proper impregnation of the coil or the application of a hard wax over an
existing coil.
Corrosion of other parts of the relay can arise from the same causes and
is accelerated at stress points or where two components made of dissimilar
metals, or having dissimilar finishes, are in contact, promoting galvanic
action. This is especially common in tropical countries where excretions of
bacteria provide a source of acid which, in a damp atmosphere, forms the
electrolyte. Astonishingly large and brightly coloured growths of metal
salts sometimes form during the periods between maintenance, especially
in certain factories in-the tropics such as rubber refineries. For the relays to
operate reliably in such localities it is essential to house them in a sealed case.
2.10.3. Metal Whiskers
Metal whiskers are hairlike single crystals of the order of 00001 in.
diameter and up to 0'25 in. long, occurring mostly on electronic parts plated
with cadmium, tin, zinc, tin-zinc or tin-cadmium. They are flexible but of
immense strength and can puncture solid insulation so that they are dangerous to miniaturised equipment. A tin whisker t in. long and 00001 in.
thick has a resistance of 50 ohms and will carry 10 mAo
They grow most readily in warm, humid air and on thinly electro-plated
brass or copper parts, especially if they are subject to mechanical stress or
high frequency vibration. The ideal conditions appear to be 63C and high
humidity.
They can be prevented by the use of plating other than tin, cadmium pr
zinc or by avoiding plating. Humidity can be excluded in some cases by
varnishing or encapsulation. On the other hand, silver contacts are also
susceptible to metal whiskers in the presence of a suitable catalyst such as
sulphur and certain volatile components of phenolic varnish.
APPENDIX
2.11. CALCULATION OF INDUCTION RELAY TORQUE
Consider a moving element made of thin conducting material and prevented from rotating about its axis.
Let two alternating magnetic fluxes Cl>1 and Cl>2 be applied to the element
in such a way that their normal components <PI and <P2 within the element
96
2.11
= klIll s~n(wt+1X1)}
CP2 = klI21 s1O(wt+ 1X2)
CPl
(2.11.1)
where 1111 and 1121 are the amplitudes of the respective input currents and k
is a constant, characteristic of the magnetic system producing the fluxes.
If the effective impedances presented by the element to currents induced
by the two fluxes are equal and given by Z j A, the total currents are given by:
-~l
)
(2.11.2)
I
i2 = ZjA = - Z 12 coS(Wt+1X2- A)
-~2
wk l
and the currents i12 and i21 reacting with the resultant fluxes within the
element by:
.
112
.
121
)
(2.11.3)
= kl12. = - rokkl
-Z I12IcoS(rot+1X2- A)
where kl is a constant assumed equal for both currents and defined by:
(2.11.4)
Neglecting the effect of the induced currents upon the applied fluxes, the
torque developed within the element is then given by:
(2.11.5)
where k2 is a constant.
Thus:
'T
wkk ll 12 I . coS(Wt+1X2-,1.).
= k2{k I11 I s1O(wt+lXl)-Z
-k1I21 sin (rot + 1X2) . ro~klllli Cos(rot+a 1-A)}
2
.
~ 2-A)= rok Zk1k 21 11 I 12 I{sm(wt+al)'
cOS(Wt+1X
-sin (wt+a2) . cos(rot+al-A)}
=
:. 'T
I I.
= rok2kl
Z k21 11 12 s1O(al- a2) COSA
97
(2.11.6)
2.11
Protective Relays
22klk2
12 in a time-current relay:
sin () COSA.
98
(2.11.7)
(2.11.8)
3
TIw Main Cha,.trete,.istics of
p,.otective Belays
Phase and Amplitude Comparators-Relay Characteristics-General
Equation for Characteristics-Inversion Chart-Resonance-Appendix
3.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EQUATIONS OF PROTECTIVE
RELAYS
99
Protective Relays
3.1
FIG.
Restra.in
Rutra.in
(a)
(b)
An example of phase comparison is the power directional relay which compares the direction of current flow relative to the bus potential (see fig. 2.4,
third row).
The comparison is usually made in relays by turning the electrical quantities into forces, torques, m.m.f.s or e.mJ.s proportional to the two quantities compared. This physical aspect of relays was considered in Chapter 2
in connection with different types of relay movements. In the present chapter
we will consider the different types of characteristics which those movements
can be used to produce. The movements are divided into two groups:
(a) Relay Movements or Circuit Arrangements which inherently make
Amplitude Comparisons.
Balanced beam relay (fig. 2.17a)
Induction disc element with shaded pole driving magnets (fig. 2.5a)
Opposed rectifier bridges (fig. 2.21a)
Transductor relay (fig. 2.23a).
(b) Relay Movements or Circuit Arrangements which inherently make
Phase Comparisons.
Induction cup relay (fig. 2.6)
Induction disc element with wattmetric type of driving magnet (fig. 2.12a)
Induction dynamometer (fig. 2.3b)
Polarised rectifier bridge (fig. 2.22)
Hall effect crystal (fig. 2.25)
Magnetic amplifier relay using Ramey circuit (fig. 2.23b).
In inherent amplitude comparators the two quantities are opposed and
the relay operates when the operating quantity exceeds the restraining
quantity in magnitude, irrespective of phase relation.
100
3.1
FIG.
----JM~~
__~~~ _ L__
__
. ~~~~
(a.)
Opcta.t.ing
coil
________--:-'______ Pi lot
!i~
_____ ____'________
TcrminoJ
(a)
Opna.ting
T
Opera.ling
co il
coil
~-:}II
II
........._ _ _ _.1...- _ _ ..../
\I
1\
(b)
FIG.
3.3. (a) Circulating current pilot wire protection showing alternative positions
of restraining coil (a and b). (b) Balanced voltage pilot wire protection
Protective Relays
3.1
The above is only part of the matter, however, since an inherent amplitude
comparator becomes a phase comparator and vice versa if the input quantities are changed to the sum and difference of the original two input quantities ..
Consider a relay which operates when IA I > IBI, i.e. an amplitude comparator. If the input quantities are changed so that it operates when
A-B
~------~~------~
(a)
A
\
,
,
t,
':v, ,
'''',,
'l.
to/
I
I
tfJ
B
(b)
. FIG.
(c)
)A - B) )A B)
FIG.
(c)
(b)
(a)
3.5. Vector diagrams of phase comparator relay used for amplitude comparison
(a) A < B when A > 90
(b) A = B when A = 90
(c) A > B when ..t < 90
(A +B) and (A - B), as in fig. 3.5, the relay becomes an amplitude comparator because (A + B) and (A - B) have the same polarity only if IAI > IB I
This can also be proved algebraically by taking specific cases of relays.
For instance, a balanced beam relay operates when the pull of the operating
magnet at one end of the beam exceeds that of the restraining magnet at the
102
3.1
other end, i.e. when IAI2 > IBI2. If we change the input quantities, as discussed above, the relay operates when IA+BI2 > IA-BI 2,
Le. when
IA2+B2+2AB cos (4)-8)1 > IA2+B2_2AB cos (4)-8)1
-where 4> is the angle between A and Band 8 is a design angle, or when
4AB cos (4)-8) > 0
Le. when
(0+90) > cP > (0-90)
Similarly, in an induction cup relay, the torque is proportional to the
vector product IAIIBI cos (4)-0) and the relay operates when
(0+90) > 4> > (0-90).
If we change the input quantities as before, the torque oc IA +BIIA - BI sin ex
where ex is the angle between (A + B) and (A - B) which must be 90 for
maximum torque. Thus the torque oc IA 12 -IBI2 and the phase comparator
has become an amplitude comparator.
3.1.3. Graphical Representation of Threshold Conditions
WI cos 4> =
Rand j
WI sin 4> =
X.
Clearly this same idea can be applied to other relays comparing the two
quantities vectorially. For instance, fig. 3.14b shows the characteristics of a
current differential relay with axes
and j
this diagram
tells a great deal more about the performance of the relay than some present
manufacturers' bulletins, which use the amplitude comparison diagram of'
fig. 3.14a.
It has already been shown, in Chapter 2, that the characteristics of all
relays comparing two quantities A and B are circles in a diagram whose coordinates are the real and imaginary or quadrature components of (~), viz.
and j
103
(3.1)
3.1
Protective Relays
FIG.
\
\. Oi rection of I for mQJC. torque
(a)
.x
(b)
FIG.
104
3.2
where A and B are the two quantities compared. As A and B can be either
currents or voltages, points in the diagram then indicate either current ratios,
impedance or admittance. The advantage of such a diagram is that the phase
and magnitude relations are clearly indicated, but it is not applicable to relays
with non-linear characteristics except as a series of graphs at different levels
of the quantities compared. Phase angles are considered positive when the
numerator quantity leads the denominator quantity, i.e. when A leads B
where
where; is plotted, j
1;/ =
X is positive
I~t
I~t is resistance
I~\ is
admittance diagram. Other names are the Z-plane and the Y-plane characteristics (see figs. 3.9 and 3.10).
Unfortunately, there are no words like impedance and admittance that
apply to the ratio of two currents or to the general case of
-#-+ B where
m -1
m is the multiple of pick-up current and A and B are constants. For I.D.M.T.
relays, A is of the order of 2 and B is of the order of 0 '1. A is of the order of
6 for very inverse relays. n is 0 for a definite time relay, 1 for a very inverse
and 2 for an extremely inverse relay.
In comparator relays the relay cha:racteristic is the locus of zero torque
conditions; the relay operates for conditions on one side of the locus and
resets for conditions on the other side. This locus is the result of plotting the
equation of balance (zero torque) in terms of the two quantities compared.
We will now consider various well-known types of comparator relays,
comparing currents and voltages in magnitude or phase or both.
105
3.2
Protective Relays
/-T
(3.2)
(3.2a)
~
11
= a + jb we obtain
= ~ 11+a+jbl which is
c=
I~I
~p
and j
1-
(S~) '
1+(~y
1-
~)
106
3.2
In the case of a circuit with more than two ends, such as a three-winding
transformer or a multi-circuit bus, the c.t's are polarised with respect to the
direction of power flow from the bus or transformer so that the operating
quantity is now the vector sum of the currents which, by Kirchhoff's Law,
should be zero under normal conditions (this method of polarisation makes
the expression for c positive). In the protection for such multi-ended circuits
the operating coil receives the vector sum of the currents and the restraining
coil or coils the scalar sum of the currents or the squares of the currents.
The equation for marginal operation is
111
(3.3)
r-ll1111zl
I 1- I z
coS'r
(3.4)
S I
where l' is the angle between 11 and 12 , This arrangement permits S to be
non-linear and large at high currents so that there is a very high restraining
torque (high stability) for heavy external faults. It also gives very fast action
on internal faults because 1111 1121 cos T then becomes negative and hence
adds to operating torque.
c=
J + (~)
1
I~I
11
and centre at
j
I~I.
It is also
12
and j
p
I~I.
This is
11
q
3.2
Protective Relays
ItI
3.2
conditions of operation occur at high currents where P.U. is negligible. ')I is the
propagation constant and ~~ is a, a vectorial quantity of the form a+jb.
(3.6)
where m is the attenuation constant and n is the phase shift constant. Z is the
series impedance and y the shunt admittance per mile of pilot.
It is more usual to use the symbols ')I = a+jp (151), but they have been
avoided here to prevent confusion with the a- and p-planes.
For zero attenuation and phase shift ')I = 1/0.
')I
= ..)Z". y = m+jn
(a
(3.7)
In Appendix 3.7.3 this is shown to be the equation of circle of radius
gives
(3.8)
Following a similar procedure, which is given in Appendix 3.7.4, this
gives the equation of a circle whose radius is
=
!(1+K2 )
l-K2 .
This is the same circle as for the characteristic of the relay at terminal
B plotted on the a-plane.
These results can be summarised as follows:
')I
3.1
Circulating Current Relay Characteristics
TABLE
Radius
2K
1- K21l'1
2K 111
1 - K2 l'
Centre
1 +K2
,'I-K2
Plane Quantity
109
! (1 + K2)
l' 1- K2
3.2
Protective Relays
II~
(. )
-..L
c , r-~
l-/I(Z ,
, - 1 _/1(2
}I!.!I
CA -
C, =~ . 0
I, '{
r, = ~
II~
~---+-4-4------1I+---+-- I~lp
FIG.
centre at 1'21/. This is the middle circle of fig. 3.8a. This circle cuts the
.
I-K
I+K
real aXIs at op = - - and OP' = - ---.
I+K
l-K
For the relay to be stable on load and external faults it must not trip when
IA. = IB' i.e. the point 1,0 must be well within the circle. To do this and allow
for modification of the circle due to 1', the relay constant K and the phase angle
110
3.2
of the operating coil circuit must be related to y. To permit the use of a constant value of K, the impedance of the operating coil circuit can be made
equal to the characteristic impedance Zo of the pilot wires. This is explained
in Chapter 8, section 8.4.1 (a).
(ii) Restraining Coil on C.t. Side. For long lines and G.P.O. pilot schemes,
the restraining coil is usually connected in position (b). Here the relay at the
end A is at the threshold of operation when
1r,.-yIBI = KIIAI
(3.9)
~IYI
and centre at y - 1
1 2'
l-K
-K
Zo in series with the operating coil in fig. 3.3a is adjusted so that the
operating coil currents in the relays at the two terminals, t(IA - sIB) and
t(IB- SIA)' are in phase with each other for single-end feed, i.e. with I B = O.
This compensates for the phase shift in the pilot so that y can be taken as
scalar and equal to s (fig. 3.8b).
The equation for balance then becomes
(3.10)
This results in a circle in the a-plane whose radius is
sK 2 and whose
l-K
centre is at _s_ /0. The characteristic for the relay at terminal B is a circle
l-K-
of radius ~ whose centre is at ! /0. The circles for terminals A and Bare
s
sinterchanged when plotted in the p-plane. The effect of pilot wire voltage
limiters is to make the circle bulge to the right.
(b) Balanced Voltage Scheme. In this system (fig. 3.3b) the currents at the
two ends are turned into voltages by passing them through reactors with
secondary windings (transactors). The transactors are connected so that their
output voltages are opposed during normal conditions and no current flows
in the pilot wire, neglecting pilot capacitance. During an internal fault the
voltages are nearly in phase and current flows in the pilot wires and in the
relay operating coils which are in series with them. The relays compare the
pilot wire current with the current in the local restraint circuits and operate
when K 1/01 > 1/,1
Now, 10 is effectively proportional to VA - VB and IR to VA; since VA
and VB are proportional to the currents producing them, the relay at terminal
A operates when K IIA-yIBI > IIAI, which is the same basic equation (3.9)
as that of the Circulating current pilot scheme for long lines (restraining coil
on the c.t. side).
Hence it will be seen that circulating current and balanced voltage pilot
schemes have similar equations and hence similar characteristics.
Balanced voltage schemes are more difficult to apply to multiterminallines
111
/I:)
III ;121
KIIA\
KIIB + )'IAI
Ditto
KIIA + )'IBI
\IA - )'IBI
lIB - )'IAI
Ditto
IIA - )'IBI
-S-
Ih;hl
Equation
Current differential
System
3.2
(~r
11~1
KI~I
1- KI!I
I+K)'
Cl-K2
+K2)!.
)'
1
l-K I)'I
1 +KI!\
l-K)'
1 +K II
l-K )'
c+r
1-~
1+~
OP'
3.2.1
3.2.1
Section
1
1 +K I)'\
l-K
1 +KI)'I
1 +K2
l-K2)'
1
l-K2)'
:XK2) +
c-r
S;)/oo
(1 +
1+~
(~rW
1- 2
K
l-K2 1)'\
(1
2K
1- K2 1)'1
SJ1 + (~r
1-
1-~
(~r
S
1+
OP
Both
Both
Terminal
TABLE
3.7.4
3.7.4
3.7.3
3.7.3
3.7.2
3.7.1
Appendix
3.Sb
3.Sb
3.Sa
3.Sa
3.14b
3.14b
Fig.
No.
'"
iii
Cb
::0
Cb
.....
Cb
0
-.
'b
a
....
3.2
due to the fact that the voltage limiting devices upset the voltage balance that
is required to prevent tripping on external faults.
(c) Criterion for Stability. Table 3.2 summarises the values for the radii
and centre locations for the various applications of differential current relays.
As previously explained, the point 1,0 must be well within the characteristic
to ensure stability. This will be the case if 1,0 is well between the points P
and P' where the circle cuts the real axis. Where the centre of the circle lies
in the real axis, as in the case of differential current relays, OP = c-r and
OP' = c+r, but, in the case of the pilot wire relays, the data apply only
where compensation is provided for 'Y so that the centre of the characteristic
circle lies on the real axis. In the Appendix, section 3.7, the cases are considered of relays not having this compensation and which are treated as
follows.
Referring to fig. 3.21c, if the centre of the circle is located at ao, bo, the
points P and P' where the circle cuts the real axis are given by
a1 = ao-(r2-b 2)t and a2 = ao+(r2-b 2)t,
(3.11)
respectively.
3.2.4. Impedance Relays (58)
Where the length of the line makes pilot wire protection expensive and
where the importance of the line does not justify carrier protection, distance
relays are used. These relays compare the local current with the local potential
in a given phase or phase pair.
In relays of the electromagnetic type, such as the balanced beam, the
current magnet exerts a force K 1112 tending to close the contacts and is
opposed by the potential magnet whose force is K'1V12, where K and K'
are constants corresponding to those in equation (2.1) in the previous chapter. Operation occurs when K 1112 > K' 1V12, i.e. when
< Kor
IV/2
I
K'
IZI
<
JKK"
J~,
Such a relay is set to operate when the impedance measured by the relay
is less than that of the protected section of line AB, i.e. the relay is adjusted
so that
J:,
3.2
Protective Relays
The torque of the relay is IVIIII cos (4)-9) where 4> is the angle between
V and I and 9 is the value of 4> for which the relay has maximum torque.
This is the third term in equation 2.1 in the previous chapter.
3.2.6. Ohm Relays
This term has been used by the author to define a relay which measures
a particular component of impedance JZII!!. In the U.S.A. it has been called
an angle-impedance relay. The threshold characteristic is a straight line on
,1
/I
II
:12K-zl
(a)
(b)
-8
Ref V
-G--~7-r-.---~---G
Trip
Trip
(d)
(c)
FIG .
114
3.2
This is again a term used to define, in this case, a relay which measures a
component of admittance IYI /0. Angle impedance is the alternative name,
used in the U.S.A.
The characteristic has an inverse relation to the ohm relay as would be
expected from the relation terms 'ohm' and 'mho'. It is a circle in an
impedance diagram (fig. 3.lOb) and a straight line in an admittance diagram
(fig. 3.10d). It will be seen that it is an inherently directional impedance relay.
In a mho relay of the phase comparator type the quantities V and
r:t.
> 90,
with that of the vectorial difference (2K'V-/), as shown in fig. 3.lOc. Here
again it will be seen that this relationship results in the same characteristics.
The circuitry of these relays is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Further dualities can be seen by comparing the four diagrams of fig. 3.9
with the four of fig. 3.10. The admittance and impedance circles have radii
1
1
-1
1
2K and 2K' and centres at 2K /0 and 2K' /0. The straight lines are distant
3.2
Protective Relays
A
""'
I
"
I,
I I
I
v'
V~AD
"
12V_1,
I
X
I
Zt' :2Z-x'1
I
I"
,'v_l~
(b)
(a)
-8
--~-r------~~ G
(c)
FIG.
(d)
This is the term given to a relay whose circular characteristic in an impedapce diagram does not pass through the origin (fig. 3.lla). This characteristic can be obtained by adding current bias to a mho relay; the bias provides an extra 1/12 term which results in an equation of the general form
KI/12 - K'1V12 + IVII/I cos (-e) = 0 and represents a circle of radius
.. b
r = .JI+4KK'
2K'
and centre dIstant f rom t h e ongm
y cI
=l
2K'e
~
3.3
, '"
....... - ......
... , , ,
\.
\
I
I
I
I
'v'"
"
(a)
'"
'--
-..-;
",/
(b)
(c)
In order to compare the design constants of phase and amplitude comparators and also to produce a characteristic equation which directly fits
any sort of relay, including static relays, a more general approach is necessary.
The treatment here is given for two inputs under threshold conditions; a
treatment extending to multiple inputs and characteristics other than straight
lines and circles is given in Vol. II.
The two quantities A and B can be supplied to the relay in any combination (Kl A +K2B) and (K3A +K4B). If A is used as the vector of reference
they can be written:
(3.12)
KlIAI+K2IBI [cos (c/>-O)+j sin (C/>-O)]
and
(3.13)
3.3
Protective Relays
A
B
FIG.
the equations for the amplitude comparator and for the phase comparator
are of the same form (equation 2.2) but with different values for K 1 , K 2 , K3
and K 4 On the other hand, if the same values of K are used for both comparators their characteristic circles will be orthogonal.
3.3.1. Amplitude Comparator
In this case the two quantities are opposed and their moduli will be equal
at the threshold of operation for any phase angle between them, the locus
of which is the relay characteristic. Equating the moduli of expressions
(3.l2) and (3.l3) we have
[KlIAI+K2IBI cos (ljJ-8)Y
= [K3IAI+K4IBI cos (ljJ_8)]2
IBlz
I~r + 2cl~ICOS(ljJ-8)+C2 = r2
(3.15
c=
-K 1K z -K 3 K 4
K~-K~
C 2 must be ( K 1K 2 -K 3 K)2
4
K~-Ki
118
3.3
-2KIK2K3K4 +K~K~+KiK~
(K~-K~)2
= (KIK4-K2 K 3)2
K~-Ki
(3.16)
Ki-Kl
Amplitude
compara.tor
j~lq
FIG.
K1K -/(.
K,K~-K(!
K
K
K.
J(.
-K
C/B,
Pha.se
com a.ra.tor
K1K~-K2K'}
2)(, K
K1K~+K2:K3
21(.
In order to obtain the radius and centre of the circle plotted in the ex-plane
we have to return to equation (3.14) and divide it through by (Ki-K~)
instead of (K~-Kl)
and this gives
IBI2
IAI2
KIK4-K2 K 3
Ki-K~
whose centre is at
3.3
Protective Relays
tanct =
AI
= (K;'K4-K1K3)2
2K~K4
'
. 1 f d'
K;'K4-K1K;
This IS
a CITe eo ra lUS r =
2K;K4
and centre at
2K 1K 4
In order to obtain the radius and centre of the circle plotted in the
120
3.4
When this is rearranged in the form of the circle equation (2.3), the
equation represents a circle of radius
K1K~-K2K;
2K1X;
_ K1K~+K2K~ 10
2K1K;
-
whose centre is at
Since the same characteristic (fig. 3.13) is to be produced by both comparators rand c must be the same and, if equated, should give the relations'
between the constants for the two comparators. Considering the values for
the p-plane:
TA.!JLE
3.3
Amplitude Comparator
r=
K,K4 - K2K3
K22 - K42
(3.20)
(3.21)
Phase Comparator
r=
K{K4-K2K3
2K2K4
c = - K{K4+K2K~ /(J
2K2K4 -
(3.22)
(3.23)
11 ;1
Such a relay operates when one current is 10% greater than the other
and is said to have a 10% bias and, when plotted on a graph (fig. 3.14a), the
characteristic has a 10% slope. Fig. 3.14b shows the same characteristic
plotted on the preferred diagram with axes
(11 -1
2)
exceeds S
The operating winding is supplied with currents (Il - 12) and has N turns.
121
Protective Relays
3.4
s;
The restraining winding is supplied with currents (II +12 ) and has
turns. The common term N can be included in the relay constants K t
I,+h
-2-
(a)
-+-------t---:--t----I*l
r=O1004
(b)
FIG.
The restraining quantity is (/1 +/2) ~ = K31/11 +K41I21(cos I{>+j sin I{where
c/> is the angle between 11 and 12 () is the angle of 12 from a reference axis and
can be made zero and hence neglected.
S S
-+2 2
K 1 K 4 -K 2 K 3
r =
K~-K~
(S)2
1- -
122
(S)2
1--
(3.24)
c= -
K1K2- K 3 K 4
K2 K2
2-
1+(~r = (1 +!2)
1-
3.4
(S)2
1-
S2
(3.25)
This checks the results given in section 3.2.1 and Appendix 3.7.1. If the
slope Sis 10 %we can substitute S = 01 in the above equations, which gives
r = 01004 and c = 1004.
This is the characteristic shown in fig. 3.14b which has the general
equation
(3.26)
It is evident from equations (3.24) and (3.25) that, if S is small, C = 1 and
r = S. Therefore the approximate equation for the characteristic of a
differential current relay can be taken as
(3.27)
S2
(b) Phase Comparator. In order to find the constants for 11 and]2 in the
quantities that must be supplied to a phase comparator to give the same
differential current characteristic, i.e. a circle of the same rand c, we must use
the same values as in equations (3.24) and (3.25).
and
= _
c-r = -
K~K~+K;K;
(1 + !2)
2K' K'
S2
=
2K~K~
2-K-;-K-~
K~
=-
K;
=-
K;
-K4 =
1-4
S2
S
1-1+ 4 -S
2
S2 = --S-
1- 4
S2
and
c+r = -
2K;K;
-2K-;-K-~
1+"4 +S
S2
1-4
Kl K~ 2- 1
-=-=-K2 K; S
2+1
123
1+2
S
1+2
=--
1-~
3.4
Protective Relays
Kl =K:"=~-l
2
(3.28)
Ki=K3 = 2-+ 1
Therefore the quantities supplied to be compared in a phase comparator to
give the same characteristic as the amplitude comparator considered in
section 3.4.1 (a) are the vectorial sums
[11(~-1)+/2(~+1)]
and
[11(~+1)+12(~-1)]
(3.30)
(11 -/
2)
and
biassed current differential relays used for the protection of generators and
power transformers.
The approximate equation of the characteristic on
again
fig.3.13b.
(c) Other examples o/Comparison o/Constants. The same method can be
applied to any other type of relay. In fact it is a good exercise for students
to work out this method with different types of relays. Table 3.3 shows the
summarised results for the common types of relays comparing one current
with a voltage or another current. It will be seen that there are never more
than two constants, so that the general equation (2.2) given in Chapter 2
fits all the normal types of protective relays.
Consideration of the constants calculated in this manner will indicate
which type of comparator is preferable for a given relay characteristic. In
general an inherent comparator is better than the converted type because,
if one quantity is large compared with the other, a small error in the large
quantity may cause an incorrect comparison when their sum and difference
are supplied as inputs to the relay.
124
ti
-0.
(I
+ ~)h
-
(1 - K)IA - )lIB
IIA - )lIBI
Amplitude
Phase
~)Il -
Ditto Scheme B
and balanced
voltase scheme
(1-
III-hi
l)h
(1
1-
K
K-I
K
K
2K
K
K
K
K
K
Kl
KIIAI
)lIB
1
I-K
0
-1
-1
0
0
-1
0
-1
K2
-)I
-y
-y
(I + K)I
I+~
-I
-K
- (K+ 1)
(1 - K)lIB 1 - K -
+ )lIBI
+ K)IA -
KIIA
+ K)IA -
(I + ~)h + (1 - ~)12
i lh + hl
+ (K -
Ih +121
(K + 1)11
Amplitude
IIA - )lIBI
Phase
(1 - K)IA - (1 + K)yIB (1
Phase
Amplitude
Amplitude
Klh-hl
(K - 1)11 - (K + l)h
Phase
+ 12
Ihl
KIIll
K1l-h
K1l
IVI
VI
Circulating
current
Pilot Scheme A
Percentage
differential
current
(Slope = S)
Differential
current
12K1KI
Amplitude
Phase
Ohm
KI- V
1- K1+2VI
V
IKiI
Amplitude
Phase
Mho
K1-V
IKiI
IVI
KI+ V
K1-V
Amplitude
Phase
Impedance
Relay
3.4
TABLE
(1
+ K)
K
1 +K
- (I +~)
S
2
1
K+I
0
K
0
K
-K
0
0
K
K3
(~r
1-
1+
(~r
(~r
K2+ 1
K2-1
00
K
2
0
-)I
K~I
II~/- )I
K)I
2K \1\1 + K21111
- (1 - K)y 1 - K2 Y 1 - K2 Y -)I
I-~
1-
S
2
2K
K2-1
00
K
2
1
- (K-I)
1
1
1
-1
14
3.5
Protective Relays
The diagrams in figs. 3.9b, 3.10b and 3.lla can be inverted to the diagrams 3.9d, 3.10d and 3.l1c respectively by vector algebra or they can be
plotted from the chart (fig. 3.15).
The chart has axes
the corresponding form
To convert a value of
eX),
1~lp + j I~t to
~ is admittance (Y).
007
008
,,
0 ,09
,,
,,I
' ,0
U~~::lii~0~'~4~0~'=3~0;;:'2~5=0~';: 2::I0='18=l-:lO':-:'16~~-:--tJ::-~::--:0~'1-1% Ip
o
FIG.
I
4
5
Va.lu~ of
lA/al..,
126
10
3.6
J(
1-
~Z)
3.6
Protective Relays
Period of
Oscillation
Kind of
Resonance
(T)
21CVLC
I. Natural
2. Phase
J 1
LC
R2
4L2
Amplitude of
Oscillation
(Q)
Amplitude of
Oscillation
(I)
tan '"
E"v'LC
1R'C
!i /
4L
4L -1
J1 - R2C RJ1- 3R2C R" I _ 3R2C - 2)R2C
4L
16L
16L
21CVLC
VLC
3 Amplitude ) - 1 - -R2
.
LC
2L2
3.6
21CVLC
)1 _ R2C
2L
EVLC
R
EVLC
RJ1- R2C
4L
E
R
E
R
ct:)
- )4L _ 2
R2C
3.6
(a)
I
~f-o
s C
(c)
(b)
FIG.
.!;.L
.~~L~
R
00
V'"
I-
...~...
~'"
'h'.U
Cf
Ls
mw
I'"
FIG.
(a)
J~:
(b)
(or V)
FIG.
129
3.7
Protective Relays
parallel circuit of fig. 3.17b and the unbracketted ones for the series circuit
(fig. 3.17a). The arrows show the curves followed in increasing and decreasing
the voltage or current.
This phenomenon is useful in the design of a regulating device to make it
more sensitive over a small change in voltage or frequency. In a relay the
pick-up and drop-out can be closely controlled in the region x - y of fig. 3.18.
~ Ilnll"~
Dorltctoona.l
rcla.y
FIG.
The distance between x and y decreases with resistance. The associated analysis is very complicated and is dealt with in references (6), (7) and (145).
This principle has also been used in the potential restraining coil of a
distance relay starting unit to obtain a high pick-up under normal conditions and a low pick-up under fault conditions. It has also been used to
v.
I
I
I
v
( a.)
FIG.
(b)
maintain the torque of a directional relay at low voltages. Fig. 3.19 shows the
circuit of the polarising potential coil. The non-linear resistor N limits the
coil voltage and the coil current is maintained (fig. 3.20a) down to 10% of
normal voltage while the phase relation of the coil current relative to the
system potential is kept constant (fig. 3.20b) and hence the maximum torque
angle of the relay is constant.
3.7. APPENDIX 1
3.7
(3.7-1)
where II and 12 are the two currents fed into the relay and s is a design
parameter.
(c)
(b)
(I -
P= 12
-=a+Jb
(3.7-3)
II
Consider the characteristic in the
131
3.7
Protective Relays
2
2
1+K2
a +b -2--a+1 =0
1-K2
(3.7-4)
_1}t
2K
1-K
2'
c = 1+K2
1-K2
(3.7-6) (3.7-7)
The threshold equation of the relay in terms of the two input currents
11 and 12 and the design parameter s is
III ~/212
1/1/1/21 cou
(3.7-8)
II
a=-==a+J'b
(3.7-2)
12
:. arga == 't'
(3.7-9)
Equation (3.7-8) can be expressed in terms of a and transformed as
follows:
a2+b2-2a(1+~)+1==0
(3.7-10)
where:
K == S2
(3.7-11)
It can be shown that the threshold characteristic of the relay in the p-plane
is also represented by equation (3.7-10).
Thus in both the a-plane and the p-plane the threshold characteristic of
the relay is a circle of radius r and centre defined by vector c, where:
r = {( 1 +
IY - r
1
K
2
and K is defined by equation (3.7-11).
c=I+-
132
= { K (1
+ ~)
(3.7-12)
(3.7-13)
3.7
3.7.3. Circulating Current Pilot Scheme with the Restraining Coil on the Pilot
Side
The two relays situated at the two ends A and B of a pilot are on the
threshold of operation when:
(3.7-14)
and
(3.7-15)
respectively, where IA and IB are the two currents fed into each relay and K
is a design parameter; y is the propagation constant of the pilot.
Consider the threshold characteristic of relay A in the a-plane.
IA
'b
a=-=a+J
(3.7-16)
y = m+jn
(3.7-17)
18
(3.7-18)
+2n(1
1
2)b + - 2- 2 = 0
m +n
m +n
I+K2
K2)( 2
(3.7-19)
It can be shown that equations (3.7-18) and (3.7-19) also represent the
threshold characteristics of relays A and B in the p-plane respectively,
where:
P=IB- =
IA
a+J"b
(3.7-20)
{(m2+n2)G~~:r -
2K
= lyll_K2
)Y
(m 2+n 2
(3.7-21)
133
3.7
and
Protective Relays
I+K2
= m l-K2
. I+K2
+ Jn l _ K2
I+K 2
= y I-X2
(3.7-22)
l}t
(m 2+n 2)(I+K2)2
(m 2+ n2)2(1- K2)2 - m2 + n2
2K
(3.7-23)
= 1Yl (I-K2)
and
I+K2
I+K2
1 (I+K2)
= y(I-K2)
(3.7-24)
3.7.4. Circulating Current Pilot Scheme with the Restraining Coil on the c.t. Side
The threshold equations of the two relays situated at the two ends A
and B of a pilot are
(3.7-25)
I/A-IBI = KIIAI
(3.7-26)
and
IIB-IAI = KIIBI
where, as before, IA and IB are the two currents fed into each relay, K is a
design parameter and y is the propagation constant of the pilot.
Consider the threshold characteristic of relay A in the DC-plane.
IA
'b
DC=-=a+J
IB
y = m+jn
(3.7-16)
(3.7-17)
Equation (3.7-25) can be expressed in terms of DC and transformed as
follows:
IIaCa+jb)-(m+jn)IBI = KllaCa+jb)1
(a_m)2+(b_n)2_K 2a2_K 2b2 = 0
m
n
m 2+n 2
a 2+ b2 - 2 (1- K2) a - 2 (1- K2) b + 1- K2 = 0
(3.7-27)
IIB-(m+jn)IaCa+jb)1 = KIIBI
1(I-am+bn)-j(bm+an)1 = K
(l-am+bn)2+(bm+an)2-K2 = 0
22
m
11
l-K2
a +b - 2 2b+
2
2=0
2 - 2 a+2 2
m +n
m +n
m +n
134
(3.7-28)
3.8
It can be shown that equations (3.7-27) and (3.7-28) also represent the
threshold characteristics of relays B and A in the p-plane respectively, where:
'b
P= I- B
= a+j
(3.7-20)
IA
= lyl 1 _ K2
and
(3.7-29)
= m 1 _ K2 + jn 1 _ K2
1
(3.7-30)
= Y 1-K2
}t
IYI
and
(3.7-31)
c=----j---
m 2+n 2
m 2+n 2
(3.7-32
Y
3.7.5. Some Special Values of a and
The two points at, 2 at which any of the threshold characteristics discussed in this appendix intersects the real axis can be determined from the
already known values of rand c, as shown in fig. 3.2lc.
at,2
= ao(r2-b~)t
(3.7-33)
where ao and bo are the moduli of the real and imaginary parts of c
respectively.
3.B. APPENDIX 2
135
3.8
Protective Relays
motive force applied to the circuit, the current in the circuit and the charge
in the capacitor, referred to its current facing terminal, respectively.
At every instant
1'R
di q
+ L --+-=e
dt
where:
dq
dt
1=-
(3.8-1)
(3.8-2)
Equations (3.8-1) and (3.8-2) can be restated using the Laplace transformation
iR+L{pi-i(o)} +!I= e
c
(3.8-3)
i = pq-q(o)
pq{R+LP +
:c}
= e+(R+Lp)q(o)+Li(o)
(3.8-4)
where e, i, and q are the transforms of e, i, and q respectively and i(o), q(o)
are the corresponding initial values.
Assuming initial quiescence
(3.8-5)
i(o) = 0
q(o)
=0
(3.8-6)
(3.8-7)
q=
where:
Ero
1
L [(p+oc)z+pZ] [pz+ro Z]
R
oc=2L
Z 1 RZj
fJ = LC- 4Lz
(3.8-8)
(3.8-9)
(3.8-10)
where:
(3.8-11)
and
(3.8-12)
q = Q sin (rot+cP1)
136
(3.8-13)
Q= L-J
where:
41X 2 C0 2
3.8
+ (1X2 + p2 _ C( 2)2
E
LJR 2 co 2 + (~_
L2
LC
(3.8-14)
C(
2)2
co
(3.8-15)
co=P=J~-fu
I_ R2C
4L
=
T
RJl- 3R
(3.8-16)
(3.8-17)
2
C
16L
21t
21tJLC
= - = ---;====:;:=
P Jl- R 2 C
(3.8-18)
4L
CP1 =
arc tan
4LJLc
1
R2)
( -"R
- 4L2
=a.rctan(
-2J;~c-l)
(3.8-19)
Phase res.onance occurs when the frequency at which the circuit is energised is adjusted so that its power factor becomes unity:
1
coC
coL-- =0
1
co = -JLC
137
(3.8-20)
Protective Relays
3.8
Q=
L
R2 1
L2' LC
(1
LC - LC
)2
1-
(3.8-21)
=-yLC
R
2n
I-
= -ro = 2nyLC
(3.8-22)
2~
_1_
2L' JLC
(3.8-23)
Amplitude resonance occurs when the frequency at which the circuit is
energised is adjusted so that the steady state amplitude Q of charge q
becomes a maximum. Differentiating Q, equation (3.8-14), with respect to ro
and equating the derivative to zero
/
dQ
E {R2
- = - -2L
-ro 2 + ( - 1 _ro 2 )2}-3 2{R2
-2ro+2 ( - 1 _ro 2 )( -2ro)} = 0
dro
L2
LC
L2
LC
Leads to:
ro=
J/;C-ffi
l - R2C
2L
= ----,-0=-
(3.8-24)
JLC
The amplitude, period and phase shift, characteristic of the oscillation
under such conditions, are obtained using equations (3.8-14), (3.8-15) and
(3.8-11).
(3.8-25)
=--;=====
R2C
T = 2n =
ro
1-4L
2nJLc
Jl- RC
2
2L
138
(3.8-26)
3.8
(3.8-27)
3.8.2. Series Re.onance In Term. of Current
EJl- R 2 C
1=
4L
(3.8-30)
RJI_ 3R2C
16L
The period T and phase shift tPl are given by equations (3.8-18) and
(3.8-19) respectively.
Consider phase resonance. Q and ware given by equations (3.8-21) and
(3.8-20) respectively. Thus
1 __1_ EJLc_~
-..[Lc
R -R
(3.8-31)
The period T and phase shift tPl are given by equations (3.8-22) and
(3.8-23) respectively.
Consider amplitude resonance. Differentiating 1, equation (3.8-29),
with respect to wand equating the derivative to zero
dI
dw
= Q+ w dQ = 0
dw
2) ( -
2W)} = 0
leads to
1
w = .../LC
139
(3.8-32)
3.8
Protective Relays
(3.8-31)
and the period T and phase shift lPl are given by equations (3.8-22) and
(3.8-23) respectively.
3.8.3. Linear Resonance in More Complex Circuits
The method of treating linear resonance, used in sections 3.8.1 and 3.8.2,
can be used with more complex circuits. As the complexity of the circuit
increases, however, it may become difficult to solve the resulting differential
equations rigorously. In such cases, suitable numerical or analogue methods
can be used to obtain the required information. In some cases of existing
circuits empirical methods are the simplest.
140
4
Overcurrent Protection
Time-Current Characteristics-Application-Limits of ErrorRatings-Directional Overcurrent Protection-A.C. TrippingSchemes for Radial Feeders-Construction-Application-Problem
4.1. TIMECURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
Fault current can be used as a basis for selectivity only where there is an
abrupt difference between its magnitude for a fault within the protected section
and a fault outside it, and these magnitudes are almost constant. Where this is
so, a current magnitude device can be used, such as a fuse or an instantaneous
relay or trip device and selectivity can be obtained by grading current. A
typical case where current grading can be used is shown in fig. 4.1, where there
~SUPPIY
'I~
Tra.nsformer
O.C.trip device
FIG.
is a high impedance unit such as a transformer which makes the fault much
less for faults beyond the transformer.
In fig. 4.2 the fuses are current magnitude devices but, although they are
considered instantaneous, they have an inverse time-current characteristic,
i.e. the higher the fault current the faster they blow. In the diagram which
may represent the electrical circuit of a hotel or a factory, a fault on one of the
circuits at the right-hand end of the diagram may draw 50 amperes which
will be ten times the rating of the end fuses, five times that of the next group
141
4.1
Protective Relays
InIWta.ncOUI
--C1--1
FU5C5
FIG.
(]3 t
= K)
In radial or loop circuits, where there are several line sections in series,
there is no difference in current between a fault at the end of one section
and a fault at the beginning of the next one; consequently, it is necessary to
FIG.
4.3. Lack of current selectivity where Z./Z. is high (Current similar for faults at
X and Y)
add time discrimination, as shown in fig. 4.3, with the time settings increased
towards the source.
Where there are many sections in series the tripping time for a fault near
the power source may be dangerously high (fig. 4.4). This is obviously unTime
2scc.
11scc.
lscc.
~SUb.l
~
Sub. 2
flO.
Sub.3
lsce.
Sub.4
desirable because such faults involve large currents and are very destructive
if not removed quicldy. In fact, the fundamental weakness of time-graded
overcurrent relays is the fact that the heaviest faults are cleared slowest.
In the next paragraphs methods of dealing with this problem will be discussed.
4.1.2. Inverse Time-Current Relays
Where Za (the impedance between the relay and the power source e.mJ.)
is small compared with that of the protected section Zl' there will be an
appreciable difference between the current for a fault at the far end of the
section (] =
z.! z)
142
:J
4.1
Overcurrent Protection
~.
Z.+Z/
The resultant time-distance characteristics, compared with those of
definite time relays, are shown in fig. 4.5, and it will be seen that the inverse
,../
----
I
I
t--_D::...:~""fin",-it:..::.~-----1- _ -:;...-_~~___________ ....J
__ -
~
\!\~~rsr;
~_:::
___ /
____ -
II
I
_
--________
...JI
I===_i-r---'-:~:::
Sub.2
FIG.
Sub.3
Sub.4
time relay can provide faster clearing times than the definite time relay,
assuming the same selective intervals, S. The tripping time can be still further
reduced by using e. more inverse characteristic, such as Ilt = K.
On systems solidly grounded at each station Z. is small so that excellent
selectivity on ground faults can be obtained with inverse time current relays.
4.1.3. Definite versus Inverse Time Relays
There are two conditions however which can reduce the advantage of the
inverse time characteristic. First Z. can be so high on impedance grounded
systems that the ratio
4.1
Protective Relays
10
"-
1\ :-...:
1\ ~~
1\
I-
i'''~
T....S.
~ 62
~ gie-.
05
3
02
~ 0'
.,
0 ,
FIO.
10
MU'ltlpru 01 r1lJ9 lIttlin.9 currc.n.l
100
travel) so that, if the times for a given current were divided by the time
multiplier setting (T.M.S.), all the curves should be coincident. Unfortunately, the inertia of the disc makes this impossible at low current values
because it takes a little time for the disc to accelerate from standstill to its
steady speed.
This is taken care of by publishing a family of curves such as is shown in
fig. 4.6a. In the U.K. the curves are coincident within B.S. tolerances down
to 01 T.M.S. at ten times the tap value and the nameplate shows a single
144
4.1
Overcurrent Protection
curve (fig. 4.15) or logarithmic scale (fig. 4.6b) which gives the time at full
travel (10 T.M.S.). The actual time is given by multiplying the time given
on the scale by the T.M.S. At low currents the time is given by the curves of
fig. 4.15 which are part of the national specification B.S.S. 142.
Plug setting multiplier
10
25
I
FIG.
I I
3
I
4
I
5
I
6
I
5
4
Time in seconds
II
3,5
9 10
I, I
I,
12
II,
28
14 16 18 20
I' , II
26
24
I I
2,2
Log!
FIG.
be varied (118) to suit the application and the value of Z8/Z" Furthermore,
combinations of definite, true inverse and instantaneous units (fig. 4.1) are
much easier to apply than the present I.D.M.T. curves.
4.1.5. Voltage Monitoring
It is obvious that overcurrent relays can be used only where the minimum
fault current exceeds the maximum load current. Where there is a wide
variation in generating conditions and the minimum fault current is below
maximum load current it is possible still to use overcurrent relays if they are
monitored by undervoltage re1ays, since the voltage does not fall appreciably
during load.
In most cases of this type, however, it is preferable to use distance relays
which are described in the next chapter.
F
145
4.1
Protective Relays
Another tool for reducing the tripping time for faults near the source is
the high-set instantaneous relay which reduces the overall tripping times to a
minimum because each relay, whether definite or inverse, can be given the
same time-multiplier setting, since it has only to be selective with the instantaneous relay in the next section (fig. 4.8). Like the inverse relay the
instantaneous relay is effective only where Z, is large compared with ZS'
Fortunately this is true near the power source so that it provides tripping at a
place where the fault currents are heaviest and where the longest tripping
times would otherwise have to be accepted.
In order that these instantaneous units shall be' selective with each other,
each one is set to pick up at a progressively higher value towards the source
so that no relay can operate on the lower current value of a fault in the next
section away from the source.
Instantaneous relays cannot be applied where difference in current
between faults at the two ends of the protected section is exceeded by the
difference in current for a fault at the far end of the section for maximum and
. .
. cond'ltions,
.
. were
h
Zs+
Z, < --ZZs+ Z, were
hZ"
mlD1mUm
generating
I.e.
-s IS
ZS
Zs+,
Z;-Zs>
Z, (1 + ::).
An example of this is the short section 1-2 in fig. 4.8. In such cases fast
.
II
.::
----
Power
source
FIG.
_ ...... ......
...
---- .........
Sui>-stG.tion Sub-sta.tion
No.1
No.2
Sub-sta.tion
No.3
clearing of faults can be obtained by the use of one-step distance relay described in Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, which cuts off at the same distance from the
relay regardless of the magnitude of the fault current.
Assuming, however, that conditions are suitable for the application of the
instantaneous unit, it should be set to pick up at a current value for a fault
near the end of the protected section under maximum generating conditions.
The percentage of the section that can thus be protected depends upon the
146
4.1
Overcurrent Protection
Zs
K = 2+(4.1)
Z,
hence with 100% offset current wave a truly instantaneous overcurrent relay
would overreach to more than twice the length of the protected section.
Actually the overreach will be reduced by the operating time of the
relay because the d.c. component of the fault current will be decaying
exponentially, so that
i.e.
R
- -t
e L sin(l/I-t/
../R 2+(Lw)2
Emax
(4.2)
~t]
(4.3)
The first expression is the steady symmetrical component and the second
is the decaying d.c.; where t/> is the phase angle of the circuit (tan -1 ~),
if; is the time in radians after voltage zero at which the fault occurs and t is
the time after the inception of the fault. Lw = X (see fig. 5.12).
On a system with high XI R ratio- the operating time of the relay would
have to be increased by several cycles to avoid overreach; the delay can be
calculated from the time constant. A preferable alternative is to use a d.c.
filter. In the U.S.A. induction cup instantaneous units are used because they
are less sensitive to the d.c. offset component. A less expensive solution is to
1J~k
I71
(a)
FIO.
(b)
147
4.1
Protective Relays
use the arrangement of fig. 4.9 which not only eliminates the overreach but
also provides a drop-out to pick-up ratio of over 90 %.
In systems such as are described in section 4.7, where the instantaneous
unit is given a relatively low setting, it is important that the relay reset upon
the return of normal load conditions, i.e. the reset value of current should
be as close to the operating value as possible. The normal drop-out/pick-up
ratio of attracted armature relays is SO % or less because of the change in
reluctance as the armature gap closes but a ratio of 90 % can be achieved
by matching the pull to the mechanical load over the range of travel of the
armature. This can be done mechanically by auxiliary spring arrangements,
as explained in Chapter 2, section 2.4.4, fig. 2.1S, or by non-linear resonance,
as illustrated in fig. 4.9 of this chapter, or by an adjustable air-gap inside the
solenoid.
4.1.7. Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (/2t = K)
148
oIloo
CO
.....
"
10
20
fIG.
I-
...
..i
""u~
.. SO
100
200
500
1,000
\\
\\
"-
,\
r\.
r><
Jrc.n$lormtr
in"..... relo.y
20
10
TImC$ ful"oc.d
'"
I \ ; !r COOlld
E~mcly
\l\
1'\1\
i"\..
SO
I:
I
II
o.rnc.t~r
100
~\
\\
::
N:t.m.
I \
1\1\ T,me
SB.
H{I ~
E)(tremcly
~~:~~:..
Typical
\ ~ Fun 75}'
I. O.M .T .
C. B. ffi--+-+-+-+-~++
11
i~
<
"
........
1 \
1\
~----~-~~~~~~~ ~ g _~--~I~
\ ~~~~
f..--TYl'ical
2S0AFu04I
In..... re illY
' ~~~~~~~j,~~~~~~~\~~~tj~tt
~'\
T.S.M.-O'
I----v---I \~ t--..
\ f'\"
1\
t\.
"-
'\oJ
440
1,000/5 C.T.
J
VI ff i
I
fIG.
0 0 1.~__~~-i__L-~-LLL~__~L--L~~-L~~
50,000 100,000
5,000 10,000 20,000
1,000
2,000
Secondary amps
t=
..
.5
.g
10
l\c~~~t:~:
i\.E>
CB .
1 11
5"1-
Tro.n.lormor
500 "Y.A.
1\ \
II K.V. ~l-
75 A fun
SC52S0A
f---_I\--\--II--+-+-+-+-H-~j-.....:..:.1t:..::...
KY./440V
\
,
rrr-
10
oIloo
:...
[
g.
(3
""tJ
....:::J
c:
"tb
4.1
Protective Relays
relays which are still more inverse, i.e. those with a time-current characteristic I"t = K where n > 2. Fig. 4.11 shows that the characteristics of
enclosed fuses approximate to the law [H t = K, so that the [2t = K
relay characteristic is not too good a match, but it is the best that can be done
with electromagnetic relays (35). With static relays, however, it is easy to
obtain an [HI = K curve, using a circuit of the form shown in fig. 4.12.
FIG.
4.12. Circuit of
rt relay for n up to 35
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ <Currri
FIG.
FIG.
4.14. Circuit of
r1= K
8
The shape of the time-current curve can be changed so as to increase the value
of n at higher currents by interchanging the positions of the resistor S and the
capacitor C. Other variations can be obtained by interchanging S or C with
the position of the output V2
150
Overcurrent Protection
4.2
4.2
Protective Relays
(a) The relay must reach at least up to the end of the next protected zone.
For example, in fig. 4.16, relay Rl must operate for a fault at R3 with minimum fault current (for phase relays this is a phase-to-phase fault at minimum
generation).
(b) The current setting must not be less than maximum load, usually
15 x c.t. rating, unless monitored by an undervoltage relay.
(c) In estimating the current setting, allowance must be made for the
fact that in England the B.S.S. until now permitted the relay pick-up to vary
from 105 to 13 times tap value (see fig. 4.15). B.S.S. is quoted here because
other countries do not have exact specifications for time-current relays.
(cl) Where the generation varies widely, a low pick-up is preferable so as
to allow most faults to operate on the definite time part of the curve; on the
other hand, where the generation is sufficiently constant, higher pick-ups
should be used so as to operate on the inverse part of the curve and thereby
obtain the lowest overall operating times and the easiest discrimination, see
fig. 4.5.
(e) The time multiplier must be chosen to give the lowest possible time
for the relays at the end of the system most remote from the source, but the
contact gap employed should not be so small as to permit accidental tripping
due to mechanical shock. In the following sections of line the time multiplier
should be chosen to give the desired selective interval from the previous relay
at maximum fault conditions (for phase relays this a 3-phase fault just beyond
the next bus with maximum generation). The time multiplier setting should
allow not only for the time of the next breaker but also for overshoot and
errors in the relays, as will be discussed in the next section.
(/) Directional control should be used at places where there is not
sufficient difference between the currents in the faulted and unfaulted incoming feeders on a given substation bus to permit current grading. This may
be at a substation at the receiving end of two parallel lines or it may be at a
substation in the middle of a loop remote from the power source.
Setting I.D.M.T. Relays on Ground Faults. The setting of ground relays
to provide discrimination between breakers is much easier than with phase
relays, because they are energised with residual current which is zero under
normal conditions. Furthermore, the zero sequence impedance of the
system is larger than the positive or negative and is terminated in the nearest
grounded transformer. This means that the residual current varies chiefly
with distance to the fault and is less affected by generating conditions
(34).
The same rules apply as for setting phase relays, except item (b) can be
ignored. Faster tripping times can be achieved because (a) the pick-up
settings can be below load values, (b) there will be a greater difference in
current for faults at the near and far ends of the protected section, so that the
time for a fault at the far end will tend to be high enough for discrimination,
even if it is set low for a fault at the near end.
152
4.2
Overcurrent Protection
(a) The quickest and most effective way of obtaining time-current relay
settings is to use log-log paper and a plastic monogram corresponding to the
time-current curve. The current tap value moves the monogram along the
time axis so that, by moving the monogram to the pick-up and time values
required, the current and time settings are immediately given. With U.S.
relays the family of T.L.S. curves on a transparent tracing is used instead of a
plastic curve.
4.2.2. Typical Application of I.D.M.T. Relays
Fig. 4.15 shows the errors permissible by B.S.S. and 4.16 shows the
effect of these tolerances on the discriminative interval required to ensure
selectivity between successive relays. It will be seen that a fault drawing
100
tiL,
PICk.t 1.0Ll' J
50
40
..
30
"\ ,
."
12"0
Time
Irron
.=
glO
c
'"
~ 5
~Lr.
7Lo
Time errol'll
l~ ~
4
3
FIG.
utting
~20
2
3 4 5
10
Mult iple. of plug tlttlng
20
1000 amperes will cause the I.D.M.T. relay R 2 , which operates in 28 seconds
and is set at 10 T.M.S., to have an error of 007 x 3 = 021 second; relay R3
operates in just over 2 seconds and has a permissible error of 014 second.
These errors can be and must therefore be added so that the total selective
interval required is 035 second for error plus 005 second for overshoot and
01 second fol' the breaker time, making a total of 05 second, assuming the
breaker never exceeds its clearing time of 01 second even for low current
faults.
For the Rl relay (38 seconds at 1000 amperes) a selective interval of 06
153
4.2
Protective Relays
second is required but for the lower time settings the selective interval can be
smaller because the errors are a percentage and therefore less.
Actually, it is common practice to use a fixed selective interval of 04
second but it would be much better to use an interval of 02+01t where t
is the operating time of the next relay away from the source at maximum
fault conditions, assuming five cycle breakers. The 02 second allows for
breaker time plus relay overshoot and the 01 t is the sum of the errors on
two neighbouring relays.
4.2.3. Improvement of Selectivity
4.2
Overcurrent Protection
4.2.4. Application of Instantaneous Unit
The last solution (d) mentioned above, is the use of instantaneous units
(fig. 4.8) set to cover as much of the line as possible so that the time setting
of the next relay towards the source need only be about 03 second with five
cycle breakers (fig. 4.17) instead of the time setting of the previous I.D.M.T.
relay plus the errors and the breaker time (fig. 4.16). By using these instantaneous units in every section all faults are cleared instantaneously except
R,
at 2,000 A
0'19+0'14-0'33 ."C.
0 '14 0 105
- 0 ' 245
0 04
0 04
0 04
0'15
T,m. brtwlm R, &R,
R,
TIm.
~....en
=-0.36
R,'R,
0 '04
0 '15
0 '445
50r-~~r--'--'-'-----'-----r--r-'-'-----'
10tlmcs
20tlmcs
0 ' 21 c.
015 c.
0 '13
"
t-----+---!f--t-''k-----''o.,----'''''oR---d----k7 %T,mrror
I I
2 1-----+----1I--I-+-__......::::~~~~.,.3II-~\II"'oot
ev...hoot
I
CircuIt brc<1k.r
110
~0~--20
~0
---L~~0
----~----~---L~~~---J
50
1,000
2,000
5,000 10,000
F<lUlt current in <1mp.
FIG.
those in the end zone which would be cleared in most cases in less than
! second. This is particularly important for the relays near the source because
(a) this is where the most severe faults can occur, (b) the time settings of these
relays must be less than those of the relays at the power source, (c) this
is generally the easiest place to apply them, because the difference in fault
currents at the two ends of the line section is greatest near the source.
155
4.2
Protective Relays
Unfortunately there are many cases where there is not sufficient impedance
in the line sections of the distribution system to provide a reasonable difference
in current at the two ends of each protected section. In such cases the instantaneous overcurrent unit can be replaced by a single-step impedance
unit, or mho unit (directional impedance).
An impedance unit or a mho unit has the advantages that its reach is
unaffected by current magnitude and, if of proper design, it is not affected by
transient conditions, such as offset current waves, so that it can be set to
10,000
5,000
2/)00
F~1t
1,000
500
200
100
current In C1IIIpa
4.2
Overcurrent Protection
power source increases. The characteristics of this relay are such that its
operating time is approximately doubled for a reduction in current from
seven to four times the relay plug setting multiplier. This permits the use of
the same time setting multiplier for several relays in series.
In the example shown in fig. 4.18 it has been assumed that the maximum
fault current at substations C, B and A is 1225, 700 and 400 amperes respectively, i.e. in the ratio of the 7 to 4 between successive substations. It is seen
-- -c
r---R1
R2
--
.....--
Ie
J
)
10
.
~
..
.,..e
u
~4M'
\ \
.5
............
.....
JA
~
B,7'
I -R,
2-
\ \ \ \ 1\ \
\\
f',
! ~\ ~ i\~ '\~
\
.[
1l
,,-
1'0
"-
"-
os
"-
'\
."-
"
1\
< - f-~
u
j
.2
100
200
..
.!!
.2
soo
"'-
r---.'. , "1',
~
.!!
0"
1\
"'-1\
.........
'\
i"-- i'-
...
0
'\
"
2,000
>
r"I~]
S,OOO
10,000
that with the stated relay settings a difference of 03 second in the tripping
times of adjacent circuit-breakers is obtained although all relays have the
same time multiplier setting of 015.
A comparison is given in the same figure to show the impossibility of
obtaining the same time settings using a standard LD.M.T. relay.
This very inverse relay not only reduces the tripping time between the
157
4.2
Protective Relays
Currcnlla.ppings
fIG.
158
Overcurrent Protection
4.2
e
c
'"
E
'"
'"t::
01)
I':
'p."
;g
]
i
....
'p."
-=
.~
:su
ell
'"
p::
'0
.ci
",'
.f
i;:
159
4.2
Protective Relays
seconds, this value being often below twice the generator's continuous current
rating, depending upon the value of excitation, and whether it has manual
or automatic control.
In the past, difficulties have arisen in the correct selection of suitable
relay settings when using the standard I.D.M.T. relay, as it is necessary to
select a setting which not only discriminates with other overcurrent relays
on the system and is inoperative on momentary overloads, but is operative
on the sustained short-circuit current of the generator, or at least operates
before it reaches the sustained value. The problem is further complicated by
the damping effect of offset currents on the relay itself.
An extremely inverse relay applied to a generator-transformer equipment
is shown in fig. 4.10. It will be apparent that the characteristics are such that
the relay gives adequate protection at the lower values of overload at a time
corresponding to the safe thermal rating of both the generator and the
20
10
~\
,\'-,
50
"
4 ,0
" 3,0
'0
8::2-0
..
r\
.5
.;l
0>
,,
1\
I-a
,,
8-
Inve.r.se tlmr.
(l.o.M.T.)~
0-4
'\
0-3
"
0-2
'Extremely Inverse
time -
a-I
0 '05,
10
20
fiG.
160
4.3
Overcurrent Protection
transformer, while leaving ample time for discrimination with other overcurrent relays on the system. Fig. 4.21 compares the characteristics of the
extremely inverse relay with those of the I.D.M.T. and the very inverse type.
Another use for extremely inverse time-current relays is load restoration
(40) (49). After an outage long enough to permit the motors of refrigerators,
factory equipment, etc., to stop, the impedance of the dead load is about onetenth of normal and when the breaker is reclosed the inrush current is comparable to fault current. With ordinary I.D.M.T. relays the faulted feeder
would be tripped out again after reclosing but, with the extremely inverse
relay, the square law time gradient is steep enough in most cases to distinguish between the persistent high current of a fault and the rapidly
decaying inrush current of the load, as light filaments become incandescent
and motors increase in speed.
4.3. PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF ERROR
r.t
161
4.3
Protective Relays
This implies that, for n < 1, the error shall be defined in terms of percent
time error for any particular current and that, for n > 1, the error shall be
defined in terms of percent current error for any particular time.
Normally, for the purpose of any test or measurements, I is the independent variable and t the dependent variable; it may therefore be preferable to have all the errors tabulated in terms of time errors for the chosen
values of current.
For any particular characteristic the maximum permitted percent current
error may easily be converted into the maximum permitted percent time error
for chosen values of current.
An example of this is shown on each of the two curves (shown at figs.
4.22 and 4.23) when the Time Multiplier Setting is equal to 10. For this purpose the curves should preferably be drawn on log-log graph paper as the
law In. t = K is then a straight line.
(i) Draw a tangent to the curve such that the law for the tangent is
I.t = K.
(ii) Note the value of current 10 at which the tangent touches the
curve.
(iii) For all values of current in excess of 10 and less than Imax the permitted percent time error for any given current will equal the class
index C.
(iv) For all values of current less than 10 , down to and including pick-up,
the permitted percent current error for any given time will be equal
to the class index C.
(v) At any selected current less than 10 and more than pick-up, draw a
tangent to the curve at this point.
(vi) The law for this tangent will be r. t = K. Determine n.
(This is conveniently determined by reading from graph any two
points on the tangent and equating thus
(12)n
= !!..)
II
t2
(vii) The maximum permitted time error at the chosen current is now
given by n. C where C is the class index.
(viii) If v to vii are repeated for values of current over the required range, a
table of permissible percent time errors can be constructed.
This has been done for B.S.S. 3 sec. characteristic and also the extremely
inverse characteristic; the tables are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.
Consideration ofthese tables will show that, for values of current diminishing towards pick-up, the maximum permitted percent time error increases
according to the steepness of the time-current characteristic and in this way
the permissible time error is made to correspond with the requirements of the
characteristic, even to points on the characteristic fractionally above pick-up
and also for characteristics approaching a definite time.
In this way errors may be quoted from and including pick-up, up to the
upper limit of the effective range Imax' This is because the permissible pick-up
162
....
oI
00 I
0-0 !
0<>55
Q..
..
o
.5
)-5
~O12
'"
;:
.5
..
e
"'0
..
.80
'0)
FIG.
!"t'\.
'\
r\
f"\
t\
~~
0'
5
.-
'"
j\,.
p,
........
.......
"---
~ ~ ~ t::::: '0
~~
_,,1
" ~~
~ t::::
1\
I\.
r'\
I\~ ~~~
NI ~ ~
1\ \\' ~
I\W ~
\\\\
\\\'l
'"
'"
10
00
V1t~K
r--..
t'-
~=--- g:~
0.6
- - - - - 0 1 \
'\
i\.
1'\
['.
--"":::::.
"
O T"
it",k
........... ' \ ,
J
0 2
t'\.
t---...
FIG.
0. 1
,00
IL--l-+-4JLlli~~-L-~I\~
50
2
10
5
10
20
0'
r--
i'!\
Mu lt iples
"
"-.
"",
'"
f\" ~~~f:::
~~~~~-~-W~--~~II~
~"K~~
I""
I
0.:
"
I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
'
o,
10
a..
~ 2
z.
~_
" ",m,
)~~''''E",
10
E
'"c
c;:
""
'~
20
1t==t=+=l=J-H+H----t--rrttD
50
tOO
~
W
o
:;,
~
R.
."
~
:;,
c::
o
...
4.3
Protective Relays
error is equal to the class index and the permitted time error fractionally
above pick-up corresponds with nx the class index. If the time approaches
infinity at pick-up so does n, and hence the permissible percent time error
also approaches infinity.
To summarise, th,is is a very simple and most effective way of defining
errors because:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
4.1
B.S.S. 3 sec. Characteristic
TABLE
I
Multiples of
Tap Value
13
15
2
25
3
3-S
4
5
10
20
(Sees.)
326
18-4
10
746
622
547
4-97
43
22
Max. permitted
percent
time error
5-94 C
2-95 C
137 C
H2C
C
C
C
C
C.
C
4.2
Extremely Inverse Characteristic
TABLE
Multiples of
Tap Value
13
15
2
3
4
5
10
14
18
20
t
(Sees.)
Max. permitted
percent
time error
166
435
145
5-13
276
179
06
0404
033
0308
1272 C
6125 C
2-82 C
2-33C
203 C
1-818 C
1307 C
C
C
C
164
> 1.
4.3
Overcurrent Protection
Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show the percent time errors obtained with this
formula for the B.S.S. characteristic and the extremely inverse characteristic.
An alternative method considered in the U.S.A. is to measure the error
in a direction normal to the time-current curve, i.e. to express the permissible
error as 8 = C sin A. (4.4), where A. is the slope angle and is calculated in the
same manner as before, i.e. by taking two points on the tangent and calculating
'1 -12
"
(4.6)
4.4
Protective Relays
It should be noted in conjunction with these laws that n can never be less
than 1, which is an argument in favour of the method of defining errors
= K.)
given in section 4.3.1. (n is the index of I in the relationship
r.t
The standard range of current taps for phase fault relays in the U.K. is:
Percent
5 amp c.t.
1 amp c.t.
50
2t
0'5
75
3'75
075
100
5
1'0
125
6'25
1'25
150
7'5
1'5
175
8'75
1'75
200
10
20
amps
amps
Residual current relays (fig. 4.28) can be set much more sensitively than
phase relays because the residual current is normally zero except for phase
unbalance.
In most countries a popular range of taps is 1/1t:ll;;/2/lt/3/4 amperes
for a 5 ampere c.t. which is 20 %to 80 %of c.t. rating. A more sensitive range
sometimes used is 10% to 40%. Where 1 ampere C.t. secondaries are used the
ampere ratings will of course be correspondingly reduced where marked in
amperes.
4.4.3. Geometrical versus Arithmetical Tap Progression
166
4.5
Overcurrent Protection
50
25
05
60
30
0'6
75
375
075
100
50
1'0
120
60
12
150
75
15
200
10
20
amps
amps
It will be seen that, with preferred taps, there is an almost constant ratio
between consecutive tap values so that settings can be made within the same
accuracy anywhere in the range. With the standard taps given in the previous
table there is an increment of 50 % between the lowest two taps and only
13 % between the highest two.
4.5. DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT PROTECTION (33) (38) (39)
It is obvious that the relays on a single radial line need not be directional
but, in the case of parallel lines or loop lines, the current magnitude may be
the same in two feeders on the same bus except for the relative direction of
the fault current; furthermore, the direction may change with the location of
the fault.
Fig. 4.24 shows a typical network where the direction of the current
depends upon the location of the fault and where, apart from direction, the
current may be the same in two relays at a station near the middle of the
loop.
For instance, a fault at X would produce similar fault currents in relays
D and E, except that the current in D is incoming and that in E outgoing.
Similarly a fault at Y causes similar currents in relays G and H. Directional
control of these relays would prevent the relays D and G from disconnecting
their sound lines.
Fig. 4.24 shows no loads or power infeeds. Where these exist they have
the effect of increasing the current in the faulted section and, in some cases,
reducing that in the sound sections so that directional control of timeovercurrent relays is seldom necessary, especially where those relays have
inverse time characteristics or are on the inverse part of an I.D.M.T. curve.
In general, directional control should be used with instantaneous-overcurrent or definite time relays where the maximum fault current flowing
through the relay into the bus for a fault on another feeder exceeds 80 %of
the minimum current outgoing for a fault at the far end of the protected
section.
167
4.5
Protective Relays
FIG.
The decision must obviously depend upon the application in question but a
figure of 25 % is safe for general application with inverse time or LD.M.T.
relays.
Directional control is also required where the load current is flowing
towards the bus normally and a low pick-up current setting is required. This,
of course, does not apply to ground fault relays.
4.5.1. Phase Faults
Overcurrent Protection
4.5
thereby eliminating the risk of wrong tripping if the current direction reverses
after the fault is cleared.
Fig. 4.2Sa shows how an overcurrent relay with a split-pole magnet is
directionally controlled. Fig. 4.2Sb shows the method used for the older
wattmetric type overcurrent magnet. In the case of attracted armature relays,
such as are used for instantaneous overcurrent units, directional control is
more difficult because there is seldom a convenient coil across which the contacts of the directional unit can be connected to effect control.
(a)
Directiona.l
unit
(b)
FIG.
Protective Relays
4.5
The directional unit uses current from the same phase as the overcurrent
relay and is polarised by one of the line-to-line potentials, usually the one in
quadrature with the current, i.e. Vbc with current la' because (a) this gives
maximum torque with current lagging the unity power factor position by
60, using an induction cup unit having no phase shifting means; (b) this
connection is less affected by phase shifts that occur when there is a wyedelta connected power transformer between the relay and a fault.
In the early days, induction disc watt-hour meter units were used for
directional purposes. Since this unit had maximum torque at unity power
--~--------------~~--~R
FIG.
factor it was necessary to use the adjacent delta voltage to polarise it, i.e. to
use Vca with la and this gave maximum torque at 30 lagging the unity p.f.
position on three-phase faults or 60 lagging on phase-to-phase faults.
The subject of the connections of single-phase directional units has been
discussed at length by various authors (33) (38).
(a) Voltage Restraint. On many systems the connected generating
capacity varies with load conditions to such an extent that the minimum
fault current at one timc may be less than maximum load current at another
time. This of course makes it dfficuIt to set overcurrent relays unless the
directional unit is provided with voltage restraint.
Under even the heaviest load or power swing conditions the potential
will be near normal, preventing the directional unit from operating but,
during a fault in the protected section, it will fall to a value permitting the
operation. The directional unit becomes, in effect, a mho type fault detector,
such as is described in Chapter 5, with an impedance pick-up between the
load and fault values, which fortunately are widely different.
The directional unit associated with the overcurrent relay in the a phase
also has a phase current fa; it is polarised by the quadrature potential Vbc
and restrained by the voltage Vab
170
Overcurrent Protection
4.5
171
4.5
Protective Relays
leading the voltage applied to its potential coils; hence the quadrature connection was the most suitable for it. With this arrangement M.T.A. was 600
lagging for all faults. The constant M.T.A. makes this arrangement the most
reliable one because the relay is never near the threshold conditions due to
voltage phase-shifts caused by the fault and opposite current phase-shifts
due to an intervening power transformer or during leading load conditions
(33) (38).
The torque of a single-phase directional unit is proportional to 1111
cos (-O) where is the angle by which the potential leads the current for
a particular fault condition and 0 is the M.T.A.
Fig. 4.29 shows a condition which can cause wrong operation of a single-
Vi
c~--~--------~b
FIO.
4.27. Currents ani" potentials used in directional relays for phase faults
phase directional relay using wye current but not one using delta current
nor a polyphase unit. At both ends the wye currents in the three phases are
in phase and, since the potentials polarising the single phase directional
relays are 1200 apart, at least one of them will operate in the wrong direction
if wye currents are used.
Single-phase directional units are much more used at the present time than
polyphase directional units because, until now, there has been a tendency to
consider all protection phase to phase. However, polyphase relays offer
economy of equipment and panel space and immunity to certain fault conditions associated with Y -!1 power transformers which can cause wrong
operation of single-phase directional relays (32) (104).
(d) Polyphase Directional Units. Tables 4.3 and 4.4 show the various
possible connections for single-phase directional units and the sum of the
torques of three such units, one of which is connected this way and the other
two with corresponding connections in the other two phases, to form a
polyphase unit.
The torque of a polyphase directional unit is of the form
(4.8)
where Ct is the phase angle of the chosen potential V relative to the current I
172
-'"
......
(0)
be
ab
ab
ab
ab
60
- ea
30
- ea
be
Quadrature
ab
/60
/120
/30
/90
/30
/60
-e
/120
/60
/60
0
Pt!120 + P2/12O
PI/& + P2/6O
/30
/30
/90
-/60
/60
)I
PI +P2
PI/120
+ P2/120
+ Po
PI/60 + P2/6O - Po
PI/30 + P2/30
PI/90 + P2/90
PI/30 + P2/30
PI +P2+PO
3 Phase Torque
ex
Adjacent
Connection
TABLE 4.3
Wattmetric Unit (() = 0)
/)1
+ Po/60
PI/60 + P2/6O + Po/60
PI/60 + P2/6O - Po
PI/60 + P2/6O
PI/60 + P2/6O
PI/60 + P2/6O
Pt!6O + P2/6O
PI/60 + P2/6O
PI/60 + P2/6O
PI/60 + P2/6O
...ill
(I)
(")
....
g.
"\)
::J
....
(I)
c:::
0
~
.....
/30
+ P2/3O
- ea
/60
/120
PI/30
/30
PI/90 + P2/90
be
ab
ab
/90
PI/30 + P2/30
ab
ab
60
/60
PI +P2
/30
- ea
+ P2/60
PI/60 + P2/60
+ P2/60
PI/60 + P2/60
PI/60
PI/60
PI/60 + P2/60
0
/90
30
be
PI/60 + P2/60
+ P2/60 -
Po
+ P2/60
- + Po/60
PI/60
PI/60
/120
/30
/30
/90
"I
Quadrature
/30
+ Po/30
PI/90 + P2/9O + Po/30
PI/30 + P2/30 - Po/30
PI/60 + P2/60
PI/60 + P2/60
PI/30 + P2/30
3 Phase Torque
ab
/60
/120
-c
IX
A~jacent
Connection
4.4
TABLE
".
'"
"0;
Qj-
::0
II)
II)
..;:
II)
2.
."
UI
4.5
Overcurrent Protection
with balanced unity power factor conditions, 9 is the angle of the current
relative to the potential applied to the directional unit for maximum torque,
i.e. the M.T.A. of the unit alone without phase shifting devices.
Polyphase units are not recommended for single-phase ground faults, it
being the practice to use separate residual directional relays with a torque
Po cos (cfJ-9). It will be seen that the Po components in the expression for
polyphase torque are either missing or at undesirable phase angles. In
evaluating actual torques it must be remembered that P2 and Po flow in the
opposite direction from PI because V2 and Vo originate at the fault whereas
VI originates at the generator.
Using one of the connections of Table 4.4 giving no zero sequence
torque a polyphase directional relay would not work wrongly in the above
case of fig. 4.29 which deceived the single-phase directional relay. This is
because it would work correctly at terminal s and not work at all at terminal
L where there is only zero sequence current.
A polyphase directional relay can be used to control three overcurrent
relays, through a multi-contact auxiliary relay, with a saving of cost and panel
space; there is also the advantage that it will not operate incorrectly on certain
conditions that would deceive a single-phase directional relay (33) (104).
4.5.2. Ground Faults (34) (37)
a----T-------------------------------b----+-~----------------------------c----+--4---r------------------------C.Ts
Phc.se
relc.ys
FIG.
The zero sequence current 10 can flow only from a grounded neutral to the
E Z where Z1>
Z1+ Z 2+ 0
Z2 and Zo are the total system impedances viewed from the fault. Zero
sequence current cannot pass through a wye-delta transformer because,
175
Protective Relays
4.5
even if the neutral of the wye side is grounded, the residual current can only
circulate around the delta.
Fig. 4.29 illustrates this point. Only positive and negative sequence
currents are supplied from the ungrounded power source at the left and only
zero sequence current from the grounding transformer at the right.
Zero sequence current can pass through a wye-delta-wye transformer
from one wye winding to the other if both are grounded.
Residual current relays (fig. 4.28) can operate erroneously due to spurious
zero sequence current caused by c.t. inequalities or by non-simultaneous
rm~-------------r~
ttII t
I'
,~~~:X,~
FIG.
[IE,
abc
jjj
10
4.5
Overcurrent Protection
sequence potential is the IoZo drop between the relay and the nearest grounding point and will be very low if the grounding point is at the station; on the
other hand, current polarisation will not work when the local ground is not
available.
(b) Residual Current, Potential and Power Relays. Fig. 4.30a shows the
zero sequence current distribution in a system grounded solidly at each substation. It is clear that excellent discrimination is provided by zero sequence
1 f A---tl
(a)
(b)
FIG.
directional current relays because of the fact that most of the zero sequence
current comes from the neutrals at the two ends of the protected section and
very little from the other sources.
An alternative to a directional overcurrent relay is a zero sequence timepower or time-VA relay. Fig. 4.30b shows the distribution of zero sequence
kW and kVar in a multiple grounded system. This relay is more selective on a
single grounded system but it is more difficult to calculate its settings.
Currant
(a)
FIG.
(b)
4.5
Protective Relays
the time T is inversely proportional to the current I which is inversely proportional to Zoo Hence TocZo and the relay operating time increases with
the distance to the fault. Fig. 4.32 illustrates this on a multiple grounded
system and fig. 4.33 on a single grounded system.
Time
./
,I
-'
Distance
FIG.
The addition of an instantaneous zero sequence overcurrent relay provides the same benefits as in phase relaying, but it is equally important to use
one with negligible transient overreach on offset fault current waves.
Tlm~
FIG.
!
(a)
)A
(b)
FIG.
178
4.5
Overcurrent Protection
----~-+--------------------------------_r_t---b
--~~-4--------------------------------,--r-t---c
P.T!,
C T.5 '1--+--+----i
FIG.
R~Ia.y
i>O l~ri $ing
coil
(a)
ConnectlOl1s of otMr
(b)
FIG
179
Protective Relays
4.5
(a)
(b)
FIG. 4.37. (a) Polarising with auto-transformer wi~h delta terti~ry
(b) Polarising with wye-wye power transformer With delta tertiary
windings must be paralleled if load is taken from the tertiary. A c.t. in the
neutral can be used if Z
~t
t+ ,+
l'I
Overcurrent Protection
4.5
Potential polarisation is not possible with two open-delta high side p.t's
unless the neutral is located by deriving the third phase from the Lt. side and
compensating for the transformer drop. High side zero sequence potential
can be obtained, however, even if there is only one high side p.t., by subtracting from the high side wye potential the corresponding low side delta
potential; allowing for the transformer ratio these should be the same except
for Vo. An alternative is to use a negative sequence power relay; this relay is
also effective where mutual coupling between power lines prevents the use of
a zero sequence power relay.
(d) Restricted Earth Protection. This is an English term which may be misunderstood in other countries. It refers to the differential protection of
generators or transformers against ground faults. It is called 'restricted'
because the relays operate only for ground faults within the protected windings (fig. 4.38).
Kirchhoff's law can be applied to grounded neutral circuits in the same
way as it is applied to bus protection, i.e. the sum of the neutral currents and
residual currents should be zero at a given location.
Fig. 4.38 shows restricted earth protection of the grounded wye windings
of a generator or transformer. The neutral current In will normally be equal
flO.
to the residual current of three phases, which is the sum of the current in the
three phases, and no current will flow in the relay unless there is a ground fault
in the protected equipment which will upset the balance.
For the same reason, no current should flow in the relay in an external
ground or phase fault but in practice it is possible in a heavy through fault to
saturate the c.t's unequally due to fault current asymmetry or to remanence
flux in their iron cores and hence to cause the spurious difference current
long enough to operate the relay. This subject will be dealt with in more detail
in Chapter lIon Bus Protection. For the moment it is sufficient to say that
this spurious spill current can be prevented from causing undesirable tripping
in the following manner.
In fig. 4.38 the choke and capacitor in the relay circuit are tuned to system
frequency so that harmonics (the spurious spill current has a very distorted
wave) and the d.c. components are rejected and a short time delay (1 to 2
cycles) will be introduced, by which time the effect of the remanence flux will
have largely disappeared. Finally, a stabilising resistor can be connected in
series with the relay, as shown in fig. 4.38, which makes the c.t's saturate on
181
Protective Relays
4.5
These relays are of the wattmetric type with two co-operating windings,
one (the operatinKwinding) in the residual circuit of the c.t's of the protected
line and the other (the polarising winding) which can be energised by either
Ineut or Vres ' depending upon whether there is a transformer on the local bus
which has a solidly grounded neutral (34).
Usually, only the operating coil is tapped for adjusting the relay pick-up;
consequently in these relays the pick-up is a square-root function of the tap
turns. With neutral current In polarisation, the time is inversely proportional
to the current product 10 , In. With v;.es polarisation it is proportional to the
VA plus product Vo. 10 , The setting of these relays for time discrimination is
rather complicated and directional overcurrent relays are usually preferred
for protection against ground faults, except where low cost or minimum
panel space is considered important.
Furtherm ore, it is possible to have incorrect tripping on parallel lines
with current product relays polarised by neutral current. Referring to fig.
4.39 a fault near bus A with breaker 4 open will cause a current I in the unfaulted line 12 and a current I+kIin the faulted line 2, so that the relay at
I_
FIG.
breaker 1 receives the current product 12 and the relay at 3 gets kI(J + kI).
If the relay 1 in the unfaulted line is not to trip the good line 12 unnecessarily,
it must be slower than relay 3, i.e.
12 < 12(k+k 2)
k2+k-l > 0
k > 064
In other words, to avoid wrong operation, Ib must not exceed 64 % of I"
if instantaneous overcurrent relays are used which will open breaker 4 at once
leaving a race between relays 1 and 3. This condition will not occur on
single lines and is less likely to happen where instantaneous high set overcurrent units are not used.
182
Overcurrent Protection
4.6
Where a d.c. source is not available for tripping the circuit breaker (such
as at a small unattended station) the energy must come from the a.c. power
system itself. This can be derived either from the c.t's or the p.t's. If c.t's are
used they must have enough output to trip the breaker at low currents. If
p.t's are used their potential output may not be available during a fault so it is
necessary to rectify the energy output to store it in a capacitor.
The early schemes for a.c. tripping from c.t's used a tripping reactor
connected in series with each relay and c.t. secondary; when the relay contacts
closed each reactor was paralleled by. an individual trip coil on the breaker,
as shown in fig. 4.40. The reactor should then have been removed so as to
have the maximum energy available for the trip coil, but this required a
transfer contact which was capable of transferring twenty or more times
normal current and which was not available.
Fig. 4.40b shows how this has been done in an English relay. In the case
of protective relays with at least 3 VA burden at c. t. rating the transactor
can be eliminated and the voltage for the auxiliary relay can be taken from
across the coil of the protective relay. The burden of the switching relay is
zero normally, so that the timing characteristic of the protective relay is not
affected; the burden during tripping is only 1 VA at c.t. rating.
The contents of the tripping relay must be capable of transferring at least
100 amperes at 1 ohm or 150 volts. Silver contacts would stick and weld
even if their operation were sparkless. Most alloys of silver which resist
welding have too high a resistance; the one exception is an elkonite, silver
cadmium oxide.
Potential or 'capacitor' tripping, of course, imposes no burden on the
c.t's and has no limit of fault current. It also requires only one trip coil and is
applicable to any kind of protective relay. Its main disadvantage is that it
gives only one short tripping impulse instead of a sustained pull on the trip
latch and requires much more careful adjustment and maintenance of the
trip mechanism.
183
4.7
Protective Relays
sta.lion bus
C.T.'s
H~I~y
'uuu u-
A-~I__~____________cO_'I_s~~~,-__~~=~~~~~~~~
~~
2OVA.
-vvv
~p
(a)
Stenion bus.
Prol~ct ivc
r~IQy
Protected
lin&
(b)
flO.
Rural lines in the U.S.A. are generally protected by fuses but, in order
to minimise the patrolling of the lines and the replacement of fuses, faults on
the lines are initially cleared by a low-set instantaneous overcurrent relay
at the source (fig. 4.41) and reclosed. This prevents unnecessary blowing and
replacement of fuses. If a permanent fault occurs the fuse blows because the
instantaneous relay is cut out after the first trip long enough for the fuse
to blow and thus locate the faulty feeder or tap-off line. An I.D.M.T. overcurrent relay provides back-up protection if the fuse does not blow.
184
Overcurrent Protection
4.8
FIO.
4.8
Protective Relays
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 4.42. Electromagnet constructions
(a) Wattmetric. (b) Shaded pole. (c) E-type
186
Overcurrent Protection
FIG.
4.8
Fig. 4.42c shows a hybrid construction used in Germany and the U.S.A.
which is reputed to be as efficient as the shaded-pole magnet and easier for
adjusting time-current curves (17) (18).
The efficiency of an induction disc relay with even the best electromagnet
design does not exceed 005 %, which is extremely poor. Figs. 4.43 and 4.44
show a printed disc dynamometer type which has 50 to 100 times the efficiency
and very much more accurate time-current characteristics.
The printed disc relay has inherently a pure inverse time-current characteristic. Other characteristics are obtained by non-linear resistance networks
connected between the disc printed circuit and the rectified current input (141).
FIG.
187
Protective Relays
4.9
rv
F.L.C.- 440A
S.C.C.= 2,900A
8
6' 6KV
WOM"
(a,700A)
If
10 *
200/5
*I *I
Rtk1y
I
2
6'6KV
7S MVA - --'-"""T1- -
(6,550 A)
66KV/415V
I,OOOKVA
>:<
Typo
Sttting
Thermal Thtrma.ll05
with H.S. H.S.-IOX F. L.
I.D.M .T. o/e
with H.S.
I.D.M.ToIe
Volta.gt
FontrOlltd
I.D.M .T. o/e
41SV
10MVA
(eeOA)
x-WB
150/5
300.1. FU'2
FIG.
The reactance of the 1000 kVA transformer may be taken as 7 %, and the
motor starting current as six times full load (assume full load of the motor
to be 150 amperes).
HRC Fuse. The time-current characteristic of the 300 ampere fuse is
shown in fig. 4.46.
Relay (1) Type 'Mn' Thermal Relay for protection of the motor at M;
current settings 105 %and 125 %of 5 amperes; there is no provision
for adjusting the operating time with this type of relay. Its timecurrent characteristics are shown in fig. 4.47.
It has an instantaneous (high-set) overcurrent unit continuously
adjustable between 400% and 1600% of 5 amperes.
188
.....
FIG.
0'10
8-,.
.,.,
:;:;
..
..
..,c..
10I
20
50
100
1\
1\
50
100
200
Prlma.ry current In a.mps. (6 6 KV.)
500
1,000
20
.\
50
, 1
10
... 20
.~
.S
::
100
200
500
1,000
\.
\\
FIG.
\.
"
\.
"-
.......
.....
r---
-....
.....
.......
"
--....
.......
:.: r--
5
3
4
Multiples of ra.ted currcnt
- -- - -- _, A
'"
'-,
" ',"
\ \
,
\ I"
7
6
5
II)
'E
Co
g'
(j;
...c::
.0::
.. ....:;,
l=
."
a
....
~
....
!l
:I
16
4.'
Protective Relays
Relay (2) Type CDGll. I.D.M.T. Overcurrent Relay with current tap
settings 50%, 75%,100%,125%,150%, 175%,200%of5amperes.
Its time-current characteristics are shown in fig. 4.6a.
Its operating time is continuously adjustable between 10 and 08
seconds at two times the current setting.
Its instantaneous high-set overcurrent unit is continuously adjustable between 400 % and 1600 % of 5 amperes.
Relay (3) Same as relay (2) except no instantaneous unit.
Relay (4) Type CDV22 I.D.M.T. Overcurrent Relay, voltage controlled.
Current tap settings 50%, 75%,100%, 125%, 150%, 175%,200%
of5 amps.
Its operating time is continuously adjustable between 20 and 2
seconds at two times the current setting.
100
80
60
40
...c
820
1\
.s
l~crIOC1d characteristic
Normal voltf
-="'" I.....
I"'t"
FaU~cn.tIC
f"""..
fiG.
8 10
Current,CllllpS
20
i'
40
6080100
190
5
Bistance Belalls
General Principles-Special Characteristics-Limitations-Application to Lines-Settings-Multi-terminal Lines-ConstructionA.C. Potential Supply-Simultaneous Ground Faults-Autoreclosing Zero Sequence Compensation
5.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
5.1.1. Distance Measurement
As has been previously stated the most positive and reliable type of protection compares the current entering the circuit with the current leaving it;
on transmission lines and feeders the length, voltage or arrangement of the
line very often make this principle uneconomical so, in a distance relay,
instead of comparing the local line current with the current at the far end of
the line, the relay compares the local current with the local voltage in the
corresponding phase, or suitable components of them.
For a fault at the far end of the line the local relay voltage will be the
IZ drop of the line. It follows that the current to voltage ratio for a fault at
the far end will be VII = Z where Z is the impedance of the line, fig. 5.1.
For a fault internal to the protected section of line VII < Z. For a fault
beyond the next section, VII> Z. Since Z is proportional to the line length
between the relay and the fault it is also a measure of the distance to the
fault; hence the term distance relay.
Thus it can be seen that comparing the local current with the local voltage
is an alternative to comparing it with the far end current. It is not as accurate,
however, because the voltage changes gradually with the location of the
fault whereas the far end current reverses for a fault beyond the C.t. at the
far end of the line, thus providing an abrupt discontinuity which makes
selectivity easy and automatic. On the other hand, we shall see that the distance relay has other advantages which outweigh this consideration, such as
back-up protection and the elimination of the pilot channel (47).
Meanwhile-in order to measure the same distance on all faults involving
more than one phase (fig. 5.tb) the distance relay compares the potential
between the two faulted phases with the vectorial difference of their currents,
e.g. for a b-c fault the relay measures VbcI = Z1> the positive sequence
Ib-
impedance of the line between the relay and the fault (57).
191
5.1
Protective Relays
Intc;'n~
fa.ult
(a)
Ja.~
vab{ :
lb-
RCIa.y
setting
Externa.l
fa.ult
a.-------
Fault
(b)
FIG.
(c)
Similarly, for phase to ground faults, the relay measures the impedance
of a similar kind of loop, this time along the faulted line conductor to the
fault and back via the ground return path to the neutral of the system.
Hence for a phase c-to-ground fault the relay measures
Yc-..
Ie-I..
= Zl but,
since the current I" in the ground return path is inaccessible, the relay is
given the equivalent current which is a function of the C.t. residual current
and the phase c relay measures I
-~I
res
5.1
Distance Relays
(fig. 5.2a). The time taken by the current magnet to wind up the spring until
it dislodged the potential magnet causing tripping was thus roughly proportional to potential and roughly inversely proportional to current. The
operating time was thus roughly proportional to
~ oc Z,
I
relays were inaccurate for the simple reason that the torque of an induction
~.~~~_ Pctcnt.ia..t
holdil"l9
fIIaqnc.t
(al
01
l s-+U-b-1 ------Sur-b-2---Sut-b-3------0,.ta+-nce
(b)
5.2. (a) Principle of time distance relay
(b) Application of time distance relay
FIG.
5.1
Protective Relays
wave by a filter and the voltage restraint was smoothed to give a circular
impedance characteristic by rectification or by phase-splitting (117).
Three such units, one tripping directly and two others tripping through
time-delay relays, produced the stepped time-distance characteristic of
Stop aer e-
Voltag-c. COIl
(a)
FIG.
fig. 5.3b, which gave faster clearing times than the time-distance relay of
fig. 5.2.
(b) Reactance. In 1928, the,author of this book designed an induction
disc type distance relay for an American company, which had a reactive
VA magnet instead of the usual potential restraining magnet. Slots in the
disc caused the relay to balance at a position on a graduated scale proportional to VI sin cfJ1I 2 , i.e. to X. A three-step time-distance characteristic was
obtained by connecting stationary contacts on the reactance scale to a timing
unit, as shown in fig. 5.4a. The time-distance characteristic was stepped as
194
5.1
Distance Relays
in fig. 5.3b. The impedance (R - X) diagram for the three time zones is shown
in fig. 5.4b.
In 1934 the author designed the first high-speed reactance relay, using a
4-pole induction cup instead of an induction disc. Two opposite poles had
l~~~~
I
}o,.lIlftlt~1-
(a)
oI1m~s
___
__--\-Zone3
Contact
Q{- ---+-----''f------1<-.:....-------4- - - - --
Reactn.nco
unit
Contact P
- -- - f -Zonc 2
-- - --\-----1--1--------+
-'~-:Zoncl
(b)
FIG.
current windings and the other two had opposed current and potential windings; the torque was proportional to J(Kl- V sin tP) and the relay operated
when V s~n tP < K, i.e. when X < K, the ohmic setting of the relay.
Figs. 5.Sa, band c show the advantage of the reactance relay over the
impedance relay in its immunity to the effect of fault resistance. Fig. S.Sb
shows the ordinary directional unit characteristic DD' used with impedance
relays. Fig. 5.4b shows the closed directional characteristic required for
reactance relays to prevent them from tripping on load current. This feature
195
5.1
Protective Relays
was obtained by adding a voltage restraining magnet to an ordinary directional relay. At low voltage the characteristic still passes through the origin
on an impedance diagram but as the voltage increases the current required to
operate the unit 'increases which in turn increases the impedance value of
x
0 L-------------~1
x
x-----,+----T'----=.:~+---x ,
Rela.y
setting
----~~--------------R
(c)
FIO. 5.5 (a) Additional voltage drop in fault resistance
(b) Reduction of impedance relay reach by fault resistance
(c) Reactance relay unaffected by fault resistance
(d) Fault area and tripping area of reactance relay
pick-up so that the straight line VI characteristic is bent around into a circle
as shown for the starting unit in fig. 5.4b.
Another way of expressing this is to say that the unit balances when
KVI cos (<jJ-e) = V 2 or when Z = K cos (<jJ-e) where <jJ is the angle
between V and I and () is the value of <jJ for maximum operating torque.
This gives the maximum value of Z when <jJ = e.
(c) Admittance. The impedance relay was prevented from operating on
faults on other feeders on the same bus by a simple directional relay with a
straight line characteristic on an impedance diagram. The admittance relay
is a combined directional-impedance relay which was developed by the
author in 1932 for the protection of extremely long lines (45).
In this relay a 4-pole induction cup unit had potential windings on two
opposite poles and an opposed current and potential windings on the other
196
Distance Relays
5.1
two poles. The torque equation at balance was V{KI cos (cf>-9)- V} = 0
so that Z = K cos (cf>-9) which is the impedance characteristic shown in
fig. 5.6a.
The torque of this relay would theoretically be zero for a fault close
enough to the bus to make the voltage zero. This was overcome by using a
Arcing fa.u lt
10n&
(b)
FIO.
resonant circuit in the polarising potential winding so that the voltage across
this winding is maintained by 'memory action' long enough to ensure operation. This matter will be discussed further in section 5.1.3. (b).
On extremely long lines the impedance measured by the relay during
power swings can be as low as for a fault and may cause an impedance relay
to trip undesirably. Fig. 5.6b shows how the mho relay is relatively immune
to tripping on power swings,
5.1.2. Time Steps
The very fact that the relay measures the ratio VII means that its cut-off
point is accurate only within the accuracy of the measurement by the relay.
197
5.1
Protective Relays
Five per cent accuracy would mean I mile on a 20-mile line. For this reason
it is necessary to make the relay cut-off at a point 5 % to 25 % short of the
end of the section, depending on the accuracy of the relay. Faults in the end
zone must be cleared by a second distance measuring unit which will reach
beyond the next bus and will have enough time delay to prevent it from tripping on a fault in the next section, which should normally be cleared by the
relay in that section. This delay is not serious (0'25 second) with modern
relays and breakers.
This second zone of protection also provides back-up for the relay in the
next section for faults close to the bus (fig. 5.3b). A third relay with still more
delay will give complete back-up for all faults at all locations. Consequently,
most modern relays are 3-step relays with three time-distance zones, as shown
in fig. 5.3b. Such a relay provides fast selective tripping for faults over most
of the protected section and close back-up protection for the next section.
In continental Europe, one or two additional time steps are provided,
making a total of five (63). The fourth step is controlled by the overcurrent
or impedance fault detectors through the directional unit, and the fifth step
by the fault detectors alone. In distance relays where the fault detectors are
directional, only the fourth step is provided.
5.1.3. Distance Measurement Problems
The heart of the distance relay is the measuring unit, which compares the
current and voltage in each of the phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground
circuits. This unit must not only compare] with V accurately but also must
ignore fault resistance and transient line conditions which may cause] and V
temporarily to have incorrect values. This appears to be impossible in fast
relays but it has been achieved, as will be explained in section 5.1.4. The
various methods for measuring distance are discussed in the following
sections and their circuitry is shown in Tables 5.9 and 5.10 (47).
(a) Fault Resistance. One source of error is shown in fig. 5.5c, where the
relay measures the voltage OB instead of OA because of the additional
component contributed by the voltage drop in the fault itself, due to arcing
at the fault or to a high tower footing resistance; this shortens the reach of
the impedance relay from OA to OA' (fig. 5.5b).
Fault resistance has two components, the resistance of the arc (54) and
the resistance of the ground (55); in a fault between phases only the arc is
involved. Fault arc resistance is given by the Warrington formula (41)
R arc = 87501
]1-4
(5.1)
where 1 is the length of the arc in feet in still air and] is the fault current.
I will initially be equal to the conductor spacing but it will increase in the
presence of a cross wind (which generally accompanies a lightning storm)
because the arc has no inertia. A 15 m.p.h. wind, for instance, will increase
I up to 11 ft. each side in t second (see figs. 5.7a and 5.7b). For this reason it is
198
5.1
Distance Relays
Wind
l+
Arc
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 5.7. Stretching of arc by wind
(a) With cross wind. (b) With wind along line
(c) Typical power arc
generally assumed that arc resistance will have little effect on the accuracy
of the Zone 1 unit of a high-speed impedance or mho relay (except on very
short lines) but a fault at the end of the section (Zone 2) may not clear if the
time setting is too long (see section 5.3.1 (b)).
Where time is involved the formula becomes
(5.2)
R arc = 8750(S+3ut)
1 1 '4
where S is the conductor spacing and u is the wind velocity in miles per hour
and t the duration in seconds.
199
5.1
Protective Relays
The formula allows for a certain amount of deionisation of the arc due to
the cooling effect of the wind, in addition to the lengthening of the arc
(fig. 5.7a).
This arc formula has been confirmed by tests in Russia, France and the
U.S.A. Lower values have been claimed on various occasions but each one
investigated has used improper methods of starting the arc or improper
electrodes. The electrodes should be smooth and the arc should be started by
a fuse consisting of the finest iron wire that will support its own weight.
Lead or copper fuses form a metallic vapour which gives an arc resistance
which is much lower than that of an arc started by lightning, a van de Graaff
generator or the fine iron wire (41).
The most effective way of preventing the fault resistance from making
the distance relay underreach is to design the measuring unit to measure the
reactance rather than the impedance of the faulted circuit. Reactance relays
are therefore used for short lines where the fault resistance may be comparable with that of the protected section and also for ground faults where
the ground resistance may be very high.
There is considerable confusion concerning the effect of double end fed
arcing faults (48). It has been erroneously stated by some manufacturers that
there can be considerable error in a reactance relay due to the fictitious
reactive component of the arc impedance during double end feeds of different
phase angle.
The reactance error is Yare sin a where IA is the current fed in from one
fA
end and a is the angle between that current and the total fault current (see
fig. 5.8b). The larger the current IB fed in from the other end, the more a
approaches the angle between the two currents and the greater the fictitious
reactance but, on the other hand, (a) a+ f3 is a small angle because it is the
angle between the bus voltages at the ends of the protected section, and (b)
the larger f B is the smaller the arc voltage is because it decreases as the 14
power with current magnitude.
For example, if Yare is 4500 volts on a 30 mile 132 kV line, IA = 600
Oh fi ..
. 4500 sin 50
h Th
600
0290 m.
e
amperes an d a = 5 , t e ctItlOUS reactance IS
reactance of the line is about 18 ohms and the error is therefore 16 %which
is negligible compared with the errors in impedance relays due to arc
resistance.
(b) Direction. Impedance type distance relays generally contain a directional unit which prevents them from operating on faults behind the bus
(characteristic DD' in fig. 5.5b). The reactance relay requires a directional
unit with a voltage restraint which gives the circular characteristic shown in
fig. 5.4b and prevents the reactance relay from tripping on overloads which
represent a vector near the R axis. Admittance (mho) type distance relays
are inherently directional because their RjX characteristic passes through
the origin (fig. 5.6).
200
5.1
Distance Relays
Error
(c)
1A=:t
+~
1=IB
If
(a)
L-----------------------
volts per kV or 3'2%. The spacing may, however, be momentarily less due to
a bird flying into the line so a directional sensitivity of I % of normal volts is
usually provided. Any lower value would be beyond the accuracy of the
p.ts.
On cables, due to the smaller spacing, the minimum fault voltage can be as
low as 01 % but these faults are invariably to the grounded sheath so that
the ground relay can be polarized by zero sequence potential or current or
alternatively part of the zero sequence potential (which has a negative value)
can be subtracted from the faulted phase potential.
Memory action has been successfully used but sometimes causes inaccurate measurement in high-speed relays in faults that involve another
phase during operation. Polarisation with potential from another phase is
popular in Europe but it reduces the accuracy of the distance measurement.
Neither of these methods is effective when closing in on a line with a solid
three-phase fault caused by leaving ground clamps on after maintenance if
the p.ts. are on the line side of the circuit-breaker.
In such a case a high-set instaneous overcurrent relay can be used to
open the breaker. Alternatively, the mho relay can be given a slight current
201
5.1
Protective Relays
bias to do the same thing. In cases where the minimum fault current is
comparable with maximum load current the instantaneous overcurrent
relays can be monitored by an 'a' switch on the breaker and can clear the
fault through an auxiliary relay which has 4-cycle delay in pick-up. The circuit
is shown in fig. 5.9. When closing in on a fault, the trip circuit is closed for 4
cycles and thereafter is open-circuited to prevent tripping on overcurrent
during normal conditions.
The ideal scheme would appear to have the following features:
(a) Employ the fault voltage for directional polarisation as well as
restraint, but add to the polarising voltage 5 %of the voltage from one
of the sound phases, shifted in angle to be in phase with the fault
voltage during fault conditions.
O.C
O.C.
O.C.
a.
-~ po~
Trip
4'" P;ck.up
+
FIO.
relay which seals-in the contacts of the directional fault detector for
4 cyles after it has operated.
(c) Provide an overcurrent relay in each phase with contacts in series with
an 'a' auxiliary switch on the breaker for tripping only during the
4 cycles after reclosure (fig. 5.9).
Distance Relays
5.1
angle as that of the protected line, so that it is insensitive to high powerfactor current conditions such as loads and power swings. The characteristic
of the mho relay is shown in fig. 5.6. It can be shown that the mho relay will
not trip on any overload or power swing from which the power system can
recover without going out-of-step.
Another virtue of the mho relay is that its characteristic fits so snugly
around the fault area (fig. 5.6a) that it will not operate for faults in other
phases (marked x), and of course it is inherently directional. (See Appendix
5.10.3).
This subject has been dealt with much more fully in reference (58) and
in Volume II.
5.1.4. Transient Conditions
203
Protective Relays
5.1
----~
'A.pllca. ""pedant'
PotcntiaJ coil
Currcfllt co jl
Rcla.y
FIG.
the d.c. component. As more sensitive relays become available, WIth lower
burdens. the ordinary iron-cored c.t. will be. replaced by linear couplers which
minimise the d.c. component and hence eliminate this source of transient
error. Meanwhile, such a shunt is necessary with impedance relays supplied
from iron-cored c.t's.
Primary voltage transients can be blocked by a filter which permits only
the system frequency to reach the relay potential coils. Transient voltages
FIG.
sin(wt+I/J-cf
Emax sin (I/J-cf
-!!,
.jR2+(WL)2
+ .jR2+(wL)2 . e L
Emax
i=
(5.3)
where cf> is the phase angle of the primary circuit (tan -1~). I/J is the time
after voltage zero at which the fault occurs and t is the time after inception
of the fault.
204
5.1
Distance Relays
From the second term it can be seen that (a) the duration of the offset
increases with L/R, (b) the maximum value of the offset occurs when
if! = cP
(i.e. at current zero); see fig. 5.12. Since flashovers occur when the voltage
approaches the maximum value, i.e. when rot = ~, the offset is usually small
because, on lines where it can be appreciable, cP tends towards ~ and hence
rot tends towards cP, the condition for zero offset.
cp
y
I
irf- cp HI
I
'" "
/
~ -.....
'"
\
t=O
FIG.
(
'\
1\
~'i',-:..
r\
\.
.I.
'I'
+ 11:2"
5.1
Protective Relays
~'
1\
",iiV'"
~l\
VmQ- 1075
L
A
r--
c
FIO.
~r- t-
~r.--I4>
1/
~, r---..,
~
r-- r- ~
1f1z-
r-
r-
'"
~,
~
the rate of change of voltage in the quarter cycle after voltage maximum
(tan A'BC), i.e. it must exceed
../2
,'. '!:: =
cp = 86
5.1
Distance Relays
potential and is large compared with the fault. Since neither of these conditions can occur to an appreciable extent in practice the effect of current
flowing prior to the fault is generally to reduce the offset component.
(c) Transients on Loss of Potential. On a radial line, if a breaker is opened
between the relay and the power source, the line voltage will not immediately
go to zero but will decay exponentially due to the stored energy in the capacitance of the line and will also have some low frequency oscillations due to
resonance between the line capacitance and the self-inductance of the
potential transformers. The energy discharged through the relay is very
considerable in this case because, viewed from the relay terminals, the line
capacitance is of the order of one farad for a 30-mile 132 kV line. Where
capacitors are used in phase-shifting circuits in the relay the currents in the
restraining and polarising potential circuits will be affected differently, causing
erroneous transient response.
For this reason the induction cup mho relay is most affected and may trip
wrongly upon loss of primary voltage. A reactance relay using an amplitude
+
\1"
]'"
yL..1o_,c___.....
yIT..,.2_ _--'y IT3
Trip
FIG.
5.2
Protective Relays
only opens the trip circuit when a fuse blows but also sounds an alarm, calling
attention to the fact. An alternative to the overcurrent relay is the rate-ofrise-of-current relay which can be used where fault currents are extremely low.
Both these relays are described in Chapter 12, section 12.4.4.
Where capacitance p.ts are used no remedy is necessary because (a) the
tuned circuit of the device excludes most of the d.c. component, (b) it is
customary to provide a I! cycles delay to prevent wrong tripping on transient
oscillations between the capacitance of the potential device and the inductive
reactance in the primary circuit such as power transformers ..
(d) Summary. Overreaching by distance relays for electrical causes (not
mechanical causes such as shaft resilience and catapult action) can give
very little trouble in service because (a) the fault must be initiated near zero
on the voltage wave, (b) it must be located just outside the protected section;
this combination of circumstances very seldom occurs.
On lines of above 132 kV, supplied by very large generator-transformer
units, the XI R ratio of lines can exceed 7 and that of the source can exceed
20 so that there is a risk of transient overreach due to offset fault current
waves, especially when closing in with very fast breakers on a solid fault with
only a short line between the fault and the source, giving a high ZslZL ratio.
For this reason the latest distance relays are designed for the elimination
of current and voltage transient components and parasitic oscillations so
that they will not overreach appreciably even on a fault initiated at voltage
zero in a circuit of
208
Distance Relays
5.2
Z2+2Zr cos-K2+r2 = 0
(5.4)
which can be shown to be a circle passing through the origin with its centre
on the R axis and r from the origin if r = K ohms.
In the phase comparator this method would be unecolJ.omical; better
results can be obtained from a mho relay, making () = o.
FIG.
Such schemes are not as effective or accurate as the reactance relay mentioned in section 5.1.3 (a) and they also have the disadvantage that the more
bias is given the more liable is the relay to trip on power swings (fig. 5.15).
5.2.2. Admittance and Conductance
5.2
Protective Relays
value of 600 but the ohmic setting of the relay has to be multiplied by
Z,J..
cos 'f'
so that the impedance cycle will still pass through the ohmic value Z/4>.
Chapter 3 explains how the mho characteristic can also be obtained by
)(
(c)
FIG.
5.16. Phase angle biassing of mho relay (IP - 8) to increase tolerance to fault
resistance
(a) 20. (b) 40. (c) 55
IZp + I -
amplitude comparator where the suffix p refers to polarising and the suffix r
to restraining.
5.2.3. Reactance and Angle Impedance (Z/j)
Distance Relays
5.2
Line Impcdancc-7
'---_ _-LJ
---
----
FIG.
Modified
rC<lc;ta.ncc
characteristic ___
Ra.rc
--------+---------~~~---R
----
FIG.
in
the phase comparator, by the phase relation between I and I-V cos (cjJ - 0).
5.2.4. Offset Mho
5.2
Protective Relays
The offset characteristic can also be reversed for starting carrier in the
carrier-blocking scheme (see Chapter 7, section 7.3.1.) In this case memory
action (see section 5.1.3.2) is used to make the unit operate quickly for lowvoltage faults near the relay bus and the offset increases the steady torque.
The offset is caused by biassing the mho relay to have torque on current
alone. The introduction of this current torque puts the [(]2 term back into
the equation of the mho unit, thus making it the general equation,
K[2-K'V2+ VI cos (t/>-(J)
=0
The offset of the impedance circle is secured by adding to the line potential a biassing potential, IZb , proportional to the current, which has the effect
of moving the characteristic impedance circle bodily by an amount Zb.
Substituting V + IZb for V in the equation for the mho relay, we get
-K'(V +IZb)2+(V +IZb)1 cos (t/>-(J) = 0
or
Z = cos (t/>-(J) - Zb
(5.5)
K'
This shows the characteristic circle is the same as before except moved
through an impedance Zb (see fig. 5.19b). Fig. 5.19c shows how the offset of
the mho unit is obtained by introducing, in series with the supply potential,
a biassing potential that is obtained from a reactor in the current circuit.
Every point on the impedance characteristic of the unit thereby is moved
through an impedanCe equal to that of the reactor. In order to reduce the
burden imposed on the current transformers by the reactor, it is provided
with two windings. The primary winding has few turns and is in the current
circuit; the secondary has many turns and is in the potential circuit. It is
thus a combination of a transformer and a reactor and is called a transactor.
The bodily shifting of the characteristic circle necessitates resetting
the ohmic reach. This can be avoided by applying the bias to the polarising
circuit only, which has the effect of keeping the ohmic setting fixed and moving
only the part normally going through the origin.
It is obvious that an offset mho circle enclosing the origin can be obtained
equally well by shifting the mho circle towards the origin or shifting the impedance circle in the opposite direction. In the amplitude comparator of the
circulating current rectifier bridge type, it is easier to shift the impedance
circle than the mho circle, this can be done by introducing current bias into
the potential circuit so that the relay operates when
I;, -kII
<
III where Zr is
~' the relay operates when IZ - kZ, I < IZ, Iwhich is a circle on the impedance
diagram with its centre offset by Zr from the origin.
212
5.2
Distance Relays
x
(a)
Rela.y
(c)
FIG. 5.19. Offset mho characteristic
(a) Diameter increased. (b) Circle shifted
(c) Transactor used for circle (b)
------.--------------r-----------o+
B
Timing
unit
RI.I.tor
Trip
FIG.
213
5.3
Protective Relays
When a fault occurs the current increases and the potential decreases
from normal. Since the current and the potential balance at the cut-off point
it follows that the potential torque cannot decrease below a certain limit
without impairing the accuracy of the measurement. Since the potential is
proportional to the length of the line to the fault the shortest line that can be
protected by the distance relay is a function of the minimum voltage down to
which the relay can remain accurate. It is also limited by fault resistance
which may be comparable with the impedance of a short line, as explained in
section 5.3.1 (b) of this chapter.
(a) Limitations Due to Relay Sensitivity. This can be expressed as a percentage of normal voltage or conversely as the ratio of Zs/ZL where Z. is
the impedance from the relay to the power source and ZL is the impedance
of the protected line section.
The reactance relay can operate down to a lower voltage than the mho
relay because it is polarised by current whereas the mho relay is potential
polarised. Induction cup mho relays can usually measure within 5 %
accuracy down to 8 volts or Zs/ZL = 14, which is sufficient for all normal
overhead lines. Modem induction cup reactance relays measure accurately
down to 3 volts or Zs/ZL = 37 and are immune to fault resistance.
Replacing the induction cup unit by a rectifier bridge circuit feeding a
very sensitive polarised relay increases the voltage range, because of its
limiting action, and enables a mho relay to be designed with a Zs/ZL ratio of
30 or more which can be used to protect cable feeders where fault resistance
is generally very low. However, on most overhead lines fault resistance prevents the use of a ratio higher than 12 (see section 5.3.1 (b) ).
It is difficult to make rectifier bridge relays as accurate as the induction
cup relay without resorting to rather complicated compensation by nonlinear resistors. This is because the rectifier bridge circuit is very sensitive to
burden and even the small burden of a d.c. polarised moving coil relay upsets
it. The European solution is to use a contact-making micro ammeter as the
relay because its burden is extremely low. A better solution is to use a more
robust relay and to reduce the burden on the rectifier bridge by interposing a
transistor amplifier.
The minimum length of line can also be estimated directly in miles as
follows:
If V is the minimum secondary voltage for accurate measurement, therefore 2IZ = VRp in primary volts (phase-to-phase) where I is the minimum
214
Distance Relays
5.3
fault current, Z is the minimum ohmic length of line that can be protected
and Rp is the potential transformer ratio,
2 / 0.9 0.631
...
= V. k V. 10 3
115
I =7V kV'
1
T mles
(5.6)
where 1 is the minimum length of line, 063 ohm is the impedance per line
mile, 09 is the fraction of the protected section covered by Zone 1 and kV
is the system kilovolts (47).
Assuming V = 8 volts for mho and impedance relays and 3 volts for
reactance relays, both relays being of the induction cup type,
kV
from equation (5.6) I = 56
. / miles corresponding to Z./ZL = 14
(mho and impedance)
= 21
k;
(5.7)
.
. JX 2 +(R+R arc)2
2
2
where X and
the reach of an lffipedance relay by the ratio
X +R
R are the reactance and the resistance of the line between the relay and the
fault, see fig. 5.2Ia. The effect on a mho relay is slightly greater because of its
smaller impedance circle but, by making the mho characteristic angle 0 less
lagging than cp, the line impedance angle (tan -1 ~), the effect can be reduced
to less than that on the impedance relay (see fig. 5.16) but, for the sake of
simplicity, they will be assumed equal.
215
5.3
Protective Relays
Fig. 5.21b shows the error due to arc resistance for various secondary
values of X and I, assuming 5 ampere c.t. secondaries. The values of X must
be multiplied by 5 and the values of I divided by 5 for 1 ampere c.t.S. The
(al
50
40
10
5
OL---~--~2~--=3----4~--=5--~6~--7~--~8~~9~--1~0
Secondary ohm rca.ctanc:c
FIG.
values of X are those of the fault loop, i.e. twice the positive sequence or
phase to neutral values. The values of R are also secondary values.
The %error is
= 100 JX 2+(R+R arc)2
(5.9)
Il
X2+R2
If X
26'4
1 + (IX)2
46
+ IX
5.3
Distance Relays
based on an assumed arc resistance of 500 volts per foot of arc length, i.e.
5 % of system voltage. The error can be much greater at lower currents
where the arc voltage exceeds 500 volts per foot or during a cross wind. This
applies obviously to overhead lines and not to cables.
Fig. 5.21b shows that fault conditions involving not more than 20% of
system voltage at the relay (Z./ZL > 5) should be checked for the effect of
arc resistance. In general, if the arc resistance exceeds one third of the im-
'-----(a)
r--.------'"
Zone 3
outside
eire'"
(b)
FIG. 5.22. Effect of arc resistance on Zone 1
(a) Upon Zone 1 reach. (b) Upon Zone 2 reach
pedance of the protected section (see fig. 5.22a), the reach of a relay set to
cover 85 % of the section can shrink to 60 % of the section so that only faults
in the middle 20 % can be cleared instantaneously from both ends.
It is further supported by the facts that 132 kV overhead lines are seldom
less than 10 miles long and the minimum short-circuit power is seldom less
than 200 mVA, which gives Z,/ZL = 12. Similar minimum values for a 275 kV
system are 25 miles and 500 mVA which gives Z./ZL = 115.
217
Protective Relays
5.3
In the rare cases where Zs/ZL > 12, reactance relays are required in any
case to avoid the error due to arc resistance. Cables have lower impedance
than overhead lines so that ZL values are smaller but the Zs values are also
smaller for the same reason and because Z. tends to be smaller on lower
voltage systems.
Fault resistance adds to the impedance measured by a mho relay and
hence shortens its reach.
(ii) EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON ZONE 2. A small reduction of the
instantaneous zone due to fault resistance is acceptable, but the intermediate
zone always must reach beyond the next bus, that is, faults within the section
must be cleared in Zone 2 time or less and not in Zone 3 time, or selectivity
between stations will not be possible.
In fig. 5.22b RII is the arc resistance, ZL is the impedance of the protected
section, t/J is its phase angle (tan -1 X/ R) and K is the fraction of ZL which the
second mho unit Y2 reaches beyond the end of the section. It is assumed that
the mho unit characteristic is given the same angle t/J as the line.
The circle in fig. 5.22b is the characteristic of a mho unit for the second
distance step and is assumed to reach a short distance KZL beyond the end
of the protected section ZL'
It is to be noted that a2 + b2 = diameter 2 and hence
(R!+K 2Zi-2KZLR Il cos r!J) + (R!+zi+2Z LR Il cost/J) = Zi(1+K)2
:.
2R!-2KZi+2RaZL(1-K) cost/J = 0
= K'ZL
(5.10)
which equals maximum arc resistance to permit Zone 2 time, or less, for all
faults within the section.
A similar formula covers the reduction in reach of Zone 1 from 80 % or
90 % to the point where insufficient faults are cleared instantaneously from
both ends.
If the adjacent line sections are approximately equal Y2 will be set for
50% beyond the next bus, i.e. K = 05. Assuming = 60, then, from the
formula (1), RII = 06Z or ZL = 168R.
If the adjacent line section is shorter the Zone 2 setting will be reduced to
perhaps 20% beyond the next bus, i.e. K = 02 which gives RII = 0'29ZL
or ZL = 345Ra.
Since we are considering Zone 2, the arc resistance can easily treble its
initial flashover value, given by the above formula, if there is much wind
(section 5.1.3 (a because of its stretching and deionising effect. Because of
this and because line sections are seldom equal, it is better to take the value
of K = 02 to be on the safe side so that Ra > 0'29ZL (maximum permissible
value).
I. l'
'11'
Now
(5.1)
Ra = 8750
~ lor an arc lD s11 air
218
5.3
Distance Relays
where Is is the conductor spacing,
1=
and
for a phase-to-phase fault.
:.
kV.10 3
2(Zs+ZL +R,,)
(5.11)
)1.4
z +Z +R
Actual R" = 1481. ( k~ "
(5.12)
5.3
Protective Relays
z +Z )1.4
(5.15)
(see Table 5.1). In equation (5.15) the Ra term was omitted from inside the
brackets of equation (5.12) because, for maximum values of Z., Ra is negligible especially as it is added almost at 90.
Permissible !Ra = K'ZL where K' is calculated from equation (5.10).
The application of mho relays for interphase faults is limited to the
Z./ZL value at which the actual arc resistance exceeds the resistance derived
from equation (5.12).
i.e. when
0.741
S
(ZS+ZL)1.4
> K'Z
kV
(5.16)
This can be found graphically by plotting the two expressions and noting
the value of Z./ZL for which the two curves intersect or it can be calculated
from
Z
kV(KZ
(5.17)
Z::} ZL 1.48t
)0.7
The minimum length of line that can be protected by a mho relay without
loss of selectivity due to arc resistance can be deduced roughly from the
preceding formulae.
Because this is the minimum length of line, the adjacent line sections
must be at least as long, consequently K can be taken as 05 and ZL = 168Ra
8750
kV
kV
(5.18)
220
Distance Relays
5.3
5.1
TABLE
-~I~
...
~
"I
----r:-
Permissible tRa
...::
'<t
Line
Source
System
MVA
Zs
Miles
ZL
Actual (} - 75 (} = 60
Z./ZL tRa K'= 035 K'= 05
5000 15-15
2000 3778
275 kV
1000 7575
500 1515
'" = 75
1515
L. = 24' 5000
2000 37-78
1000 7575
500 151'5
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
53
53
5-3
53
106
106
106
106
2-86
7-13
1428
28'6
143
3'56
7-14
14'3
042
122
2-96
2000
1000
132kV
500
250
'" = 75
L. = 12' 2000
1000
500
250
5
5
5
5
10
10
10
10
3-5
35
35
35
70
70
70
70
249
497
995
1990
1'24
2-49
497
995
035
067
157
3-89
046
084
1'77
4-19
33kV
'" = 60
L.=6'
11 kV
'" =45
L, = 25'
750
500
250
100
50
750
500
250
100
50
750
500
250
100
50
750
500
250
100
50
870
17041
34-81
69'62
870
1741
34'81
6962
1'45
2-18
436
109
218
145
2-18
436
109
218
016
024
048
121
2-42
016
024
048
121
2'42
15
15
15
15
1'5
3
3
3
3
3
0'5
05
0'5
05
05
1
1
1
1
1
1'27
127
127
1'27
127
255
2'55
255
255
2'55
042
042
042
042
042
085
085
0'85
085
085
Without
Temp. Rise
1-14
171
3-42
855
17-1
057
085
172
427
855
With
Temp. Rise
75 (} = 60
K'= 035 K'= 0'5
(} =
1'86
2'66
1'6
2-16
372
5'31
32
4'3
123
175
1-06
1'42
2-46
3'51
212
2-84
7-44
0'59
1'44
321
7-89
012
019
037
11
269
024
029
0'5
125
291
0'38
057
114
2-85
5-69
0'19
028
0'57
142
2-84
221
002
004
005
012
027
0'06
007
010
016
034
(} = 60 (} = 30
K'= 029 K'= 0'56
() =
60 (} = 30
037
071
025
0'5
074
143
0'50
1'01
() = 45 () = 30 () = 45
K'= 023 K'= 040
() = 30
010
0'17
0043
010
019
034
007
020
Protective Relays
5.3
mho relays, although the permissible value of Z.lZL for a particular application may be much less. Consequently, reactance relays should be used for
short lines, i.e. less than 12 miles at 66 kV, 35 miles at 132 kV and 50 miles
at 275 kV. Reactance relays should also be used for ground faults on any
5.2
Maximum Z./ZLfor MHO Relay Permitted by Arc Resistance
TABLE
SystemkV
.p
Line Length
(Miles)
()=.p
275
275
132
132
33
33
11
11
75
75
75
75
60
60
45
45
20
10
10
5
3
15
10
05
7-95
10'0
645
815
262
3-45
174
2'25
Z./ZL Limit
.p
()'
106
132
865
]085
48
605
2-85
37
60
60
60
60
30
30
30
30
()'<
-----_.-
length of line because the fault resistance includes ground and tower footing
resistance as"Well as arc resistance. Exceptions can be made where there are
excellent ground wires or where the ground resistance is known to be low.
Another factor which reduces the permissible source/line _ratio is the
increase in conductor resistance due to temperature. In overhead lines, unlike
iron-cored electrical equipment, the effective a.c. resistance is only 10 to
15 % more than the d.c. resistance and hence is directly affected by temperature.
Most overhead lines are designed for a maximum temperature of 85C
during maximum load in the summer (B.S. 159) with permissible conductor
sag and the conductor resistance is given at 20C. The increase in d.c. resis. 65 x 100
tance from 20C to 85C IS 234'5 = 27'7%
The corresponding increase in a.c. resistance is 194 %.
5.3
Permissible Zs/ZL Ratio Including Temperature Effect
TABLE
Z,/ZLLimit
8' <
SystemkV
.p
Line Length
(Miles)
()=.p
275
275
132
132
33
33
75
75
75
75
60
60
45
45
20
10
10
5
3
15
10
0'5
70
88
575
725
1'75
24
0'25
0-8
11
11
222
.p
90
112
725
92
3'5
4'45
1'8
2'25
f}'
60
60
60
60
30
30
30
30
Distance Relays
5.3
This increase in conductor resistance must be subtracted from the permissible value of -iRa in Table 5.1, which will reduce the permissible value of
Z./ZL
In Table 5.1 the resistance values of permissible -iRa w!11 have to be reduced
by 19'4% of ZL cos cp. For example, in the 10 mile 275 kV line at the top of
the Table, the permissible !Ra values will be reduced by
0194 x 53 cos 75 = 0266 ohm
so that they become 159 for K' = 035 and 239 for K' = 05. In Table 5.2
this reduces the permissible Z./ZL values for a 275 kV 10 mile line to 88 for
9 = 75 and 112 for 9 = 60. Table 5.3 is similar to Table 5.2 except with
the increase in conductor resistance/temperature taken into account.
5.3.2. Choice of Measuring Unit
The factors affecting the choice are Z./ZL ratio, fault resistance and
economy. From the previous section it was clear that reactance relays should
be used for short lines but, owing to the high resistance component often
found in ground faults (41) (55), the reactance type measuring unit has also
become the standard preference in most countries for ground distance
relays.
With cables, it is the sensitivity of the relay rather than the fault resistance
that determines the minimum length of cable that can be protected (63) (117).
The minimum length of cable that can be protected by mho and reactance
relays was given in section 5.3.1 (a) in the formulae (5.7) and (5.8).
The conductance relay (fig. 5.16c) is a specialised type promoted by a
German company (63) (see section 5.2.2), more tolerant to fault resistance
than mho or impedance units but more economical than the reactance unit
because it needs no directional unit. It is applicable to distribution lines both
overhead and cable.
Distance relays are used for both phase and ground faults on resistancegrounded distribution lines and on important high-voltage interconnections.
On solidly grounded systems adeq~ate protection can be obtained from
directional inverse time-overcurrent relays with instantaneous overcurrent
attachments. The cost of one time-overcurrent relay in the residual circuit
of the line c.t's is only one tenth of the cost of three ground distance relays
and their auxiliaries. The occasional slower clearing time with overcurrent
relays is unimportant because single-phase ground faults have negligible
effect on system stability. Furthermore, the direct trip of a high-set instantaneous overcurrent unit is faster than the tripping of ground distance
relays through blocking auxiliaries.
Where there is a solid ground at each substation the selectivity is excellent
because the zero sequence current in the faulted section is mostly supplied
from the ground neutrals at the two ends of the section; hence the zero
sequence current in the faulted section is therefore much higher than in the
adjoining line sections and discrimination is sharp so that most ground faults
223
Protective Relays
5.3
FlO.
than 90 apart and hence the power system would be unstable. Conversely it
can be argued that, within the limits of stability, no line section could be long
enough to require a Zone 1 mho relay setting capable of causing tripping on
overload or power swing conditions.
Reactance, conductance and impeddnce relays however have impedance
characteristics which can be crossed more easily during power swing conditions (42). It can be estimated that the longest line section to which a
reactance or conductance relay should be applied is 500
k;
k;
miles where
mho relay.
5.3.4. Effect of Faults on Relays in Unfaulted Phases
With high ohmic settings that may be necessary on mho units for back-up
on long lines, it is always possible for wrong flagging or even wrong tripping
224
Distance Relays
5.3
to occur due to the effect of load, charging current or zero sequence current
on the relays in the unfaulted phases. Similar improper operation may occur
in reactance relays where the starting unit has a very high ohmic setting in
order to permit the reactance unit to operate on an extremely high resistance
fault.
Where such conditions occur it is advisable to make vector diagrams
similar to those given in reference (58) so as to determine whether a calculated risk of wrong operation can be taken or whether relay operation for
extreme conditions must be sacrificed.
This subject is analysed in an A.LE.E. paper by the author (58) and is
further considered in the Appendix 5.10.3 of this chapter and in more detail
in Vol. II of this book.
In the case of a short section of a long transmission line of high X/ R
ratio, the charging current may cause inaccurate reactance measurement in
a relay near the power source. This can occur in the c-a relay during a
b - c fault because the phase c will have fault current and the phase a charging current, so that the relay current fe - fa will tend to become in phase with
the voltage Vea (fig. 5.25b) and the c-a relay will tend to measure zero distance. This can be prevented by overcurrent units in the lagging of the two
phases associated with the reactance unit.
In section 5.5.9, it is shown that the same arrangement of overcurrent
units can be used to block ground reactance relays from wrong tripping on
interphase faults. An alternative for short lines is to adjust the reactance unit
to measure impedance at 80 leading the current instead of 90.
Wrong operation can also occur in a reactance relay protecting a short
line section on a long transmission line where the potential triangle has
collapsed and the relay is located between the power source and the neutral
grounding point. For example, during a b - c fault the starting unit of the
a-b relay may be operated by lagging zero sequence and/or load current in
phase a (fig. 5.25c) and the ohm unit current fa - fb can tend to be in phase
with the potential Vab causing overreaching. Fortunately, this condition is
difficult to produce and can usually be remedied by either making the 10
compensation K < t in the starting unit or by making the ohm unit measure
Z/80.
Reactance relays which have starting units using phase-to-neutral potential can operate on faults in the reverse direction, unless the currents in
restraining and polarising windings of the starting unit have a phase relation
such that a slight restraint is produced during complete collapse of the
potential triangle where the two voltages are in phase.
Finally, wrong tripping can occur due to a race between the starting and
ohm unit contacts at the inception or clearing of a fault, due to the fact that
the reactance unit may measure negligible or even negative reactance during
load and may not open its contacts before the starting unit contacts close on
a Zone 2 fault.
This trouble can be avoided at the inception of the fault by connecting
225
5.4
Protective Relays
the starting unit to control the torque of the ohm unit (directional control)
but this adds time delay during tripping; a better method is to use very little
wipe on the contacts of the two units and to prevent contact bounce by other
means (discussed in Chapter 2), such as a contact back-stop of glyptal
succinate or vinyl-acetate chloride co-polymer.
If the ohm unit has too little travel, the contact race may be lost in the
other direction. When a fault occurs in the neighbouring section of line the
starting unit closes and the ohm unit does not at first close. If the fault is
promptly cleared by the relays in the faulted section, load will be restored
and the starting unit will reset while the ohm unit may close its contacts.
Unless the starting unit can open its contacts before the ohm unit contacts
close, wrong tripping will occur.
Normally, this race is always won by the starting unit and no undesirable
tripping occurs, but it is possible for a starting unit to have been wrongly
adjusted so that its contacts have too much wipe, while the ohm unit may
have too little travel. To avoid this, an auxiliary contact T can be provided
on the timing unit which opens the Zone 1 trip circuit four cycles after the
starting unit operates, by which time the ohm unit should have tripped if it
is a Zone 1 fault, and the circuit is now set up for faults in Zones 2 or 3 only
(fig. 5.29).
If a second fault should occur in Zone 1 of the protected section another
relay, S, will reclose the Zone 1 trip circuit a cycle after the ohm unit closes
its contacts, i.e. tripping will occur for a subsequent Zone I fault but not for
a load condition that may cause the starting unit and the ohm unit contacts
to be closed simultaneously for an instant while taking up their normal load
positions.
5.4. APPLICATION OF DISTANCE RELAYS
226
5.4
Distance Relays
I
I
I
Time
I
I
I
I
I
_____ 1
t:=:===::::::.---!--------+----Dista.ncc
Sub.l
Sub.3
Sub.2
FIG.
227
5.4
Protective Relays
Crou pola.riaing
tra.nla.ctor ~
(a)
\VQb
r"
Ie
-r,'{
lc
IQ
-If!.
Ib
Ib
VeQ
(c)
(b)
FIG.
FIG.
brea.ker A
72
7; A
7;
T2
---~-------------
FIG.
brea.kcr B
228
5.4
Distance Relays
The first zone unit is used for instantaneous faults up to 10 % from the
remote end of the protected section. The second zone unit clears faults in the
neighbourhood of the next bus in a delayed time, and the third zone provides
back-up protection for the relays and breaker in the next section beyond.
The overall characteristic is shown in fig. 5.27
(a) Mho Distance Protection. Fig. 5.28a shows the basic d.c. connection
for one phase of a three-step mho relay having separate mho units for each
phase and time-step. Series flags indicate the time-step in which the relay has
Seal in (S.I.)
and phase flag
'I
II
5.1.
lr------------jo+
Y, I
OY31
T31
O.C
To similar circuits
~in the other two
phases
Trip
alarm
L------oTrip
(a)
j~IF-ox---~~---F-o~~I,-F~ob~FO-'---O+
15.1.
Trip
(b)
FIG.
5.4
Protective Relays
unit can be used for out-of-step detection as well as for time delay back-up
protection of lines in which the electrical centre of the system is located.
Alternatively the OY3 can be reversed in direction so that it can provide
improved back-up protection (see section 5.5.3) and can at the same time
start the carrier signal (Chapter 7) when used for directional carrier protection.
(b) Reactance Distance Protection. As explained previously (5.1.3 (a
the directional unit of a reactance relay must be of the mho type in order to
prevent it from tripping on loads which may have negligible or negative
reactance. This directional unit is generally known as a starting unit or fault
r-----------------~O+
1 1
5eaJ-in
5.1.1 5.11
Alarm
Timer
Trip
FIG.
detector. Fig. 5.29 shows the basic d.c. connections for one phase of a threestep reactance relay.
In modem 3-step reactance relays one pair of contacts of the starting unit
are in series with those of the reactance unit of the same phase and the other
controls a timing unit (fig. 5.28). The normal setting of the reactance unit
controls the first zone reach. If the fault is beyond the reach of the first zone
the timing unit changes the ohmic setting of the reactance unit after a time
delay so that it can reach past the next bus. If the fault is too far away for the
second step the timer again resets, the reactance unit providing a third timedistance step.
In some reactance relays the third step is provided by the starting unit
through the timer because, although the distance measurement of the starting
unit varies with the type of fault, it is sufficiently accurate for the third step
because it varies in any case due to the effect of power infeeds. For instance,
in fig. 5.36 the distance relay at A measures too much impedance for a fault
at F because the voltage drop in section BF is increased by the current fed
in at D which does not appear in the relay A.
On the other hand, where fault resistance may be high, a third reactance
step is provided instead of relying on the starting unit which has less tolerance
to fault resistance. This latter arrangement is the most flexible and effective one.
230
5.4
Distance Relays
5.4.4. Extended First Zone
B -=- F
flO.
in the next section Be, close to the bus B, would cause breakers at both A
and B to trip.
To preserve service continuity the tripping of breaker A operates a relay
which resets the Zone 1 ohm unit from 110% to 90% of section AB so that,
when reclosing occurs, if the fault is permanent, only breaker B operates the
second time.
In other words instantaneous clearing of all faults in the protected section
is obtained for the price of a very occasional extra trip and reclose of the
breaker and the momentary loss of voltage on one substation bus.
Fig. 5.31 shows how the main d.c. connections of a distance relay can be
modified to achieve this result merely by adding the auxiliary relay RX
which is controlled by an auxiliary switch 'b' on the circuit breaker which
opens when the breaker closes. The auxiliary relay RX has instantaneous
yb
Va \
II T2
IIr
11o,
\IRX
Ib
F2
a
T.C.
flO.
OX
231
RX
Protective Relays
5.4
pick-up and 1- second reset time to permit only the relay in the faulted section
to clear the fault when the breaker recloses. The Zone I jZone 2 transfer
relay OX has contacts in the a.c. circuit which increase the ohmic reach.
5.4.5. Bus Protection
FIG.
A fault in a generator will be cleared immediately because its ohm unit will
measure reactance in the reversed direction. A fault on the bus will disconnect all the generators because it will be within the ohmic settings of their
ohm units (47).
Tripping is delayed 05 second in order to permit the line relays to clear
a fault in a feeder reactor.
The main difficulty of conventional differential bus protection is the
balancing of the current transformers in all the circuits around the bus to
ensure that there is no differential current to operate the relay during an
external fault. This difficulty does not appear with the ohm units because
they are connected only to the one set of current transformers in the generator
leads.
This form of protection has also been used for bus-tie reactors. Each
reactor is protected by two reactance ohm units (fig. 5.33) with their contacts
in series. The ohm units are polarised away from the reactor so that a fault in
the reactor is in the reverse direction for both of them and causes them to
trip and isolate the reactor. Both ohm units are set to operate up to half
way through the feeder reactors so that a fault on the bus causes both ohm
units to operate, one because it is within its ohmic setting and the other
because the fault appears to it in the reverse direction (47).
232
5.4
Distance Relays
Bus-tie
reactor
Brea.ker C.T.
C.T. Breaker
Trip
r=:-+-----+------t------i--'~_coil
o---t----+
Rtla.ctance
rela.ys
FIG.
An alternative that has been used in the U.K. is two mho relays each set
to reach 75 %through the bus-tie reactor and connected so as either can trip
both breakers. This arrangement will clear faults in the reactor only, and is
applicable to stations without feeder reactors.
5.4.6. Out-of-Step Blocking (42) (58)
When a short-circuit occurs for which the relay should operate, its voltage,
current, and the phase angle between them, instantly change from their
normal values to the value capable of operating the relay (fig. 5.l9a). But,
during a power swing, the voltage, current and phase angle change more
slowly from values incapable of operating the relay to the necessary operating
values. This fact enables tripping to be blocked on power swings without holding up tripping under fault conditions.
The out-of-step condition is detected by making the OY3 impedance
characteristic concentric with the Y 2 characteristic, as shown in fig. 19, and
somewhat larger, so that the changing impedance seen by the relays during a
power swing will always operate the OY 3 unit before the Y 2 unit. The OY3
unit then is arranged (fig. 5.20) to pick up a blocking relay B with a small time
delay; blocking is prevented on faults because the Y 2 unit de-energises the
blocking relay on drop-out if the OY 3 does not operate first by the margin of
the pick-up time of the auxiliary relay. The auxiliary relay is generally connected to prevent automatic reclosing after a trip on out-of-step conditions
but can also be used to prevent tripping. It should be remembered, however,
that this is necessary only if the relay characteristic circle includes the
electrical centre of the system, because a mho unit will not trip on out-ofstep unless its characteristic is out by the power swing locus.
Zone 3 is not blocked because a fault may conceivably occur during a
swing and must be cleared. A better alternative is to reset the blocking circuit
by means of a negative sequence current relay.
With high-speed distance relays the out-of-step blocking relay B is required in only one phase because a power swing is a three-phase condition
and, even if caused by a single-phase fault, the fault should be cleared and the
233
5.4
Protective Relays
One application of the ohm unit is-to extremely long lines where distance
relays other than mho relays are liable to tripping on power swings because
their impedance characteristic has to be large in order to cover the long line.
In such a case the straight line characteristic of the ohm unit may be arranged
in parallel with the line impedance vector so as to cut off one or both sides
of the tripping characteristic (figs. 5.17 and 5.35) and confine the tripping
zone to a strip wide enough to permit tripping on arc resistance.
This scheme was the first attack on the problem of relaying long or heavily
loaded lines (45) and is applicable to any form of relay including overcurrent
relays. In most applications only one blinder is necessary because the major
flow of power generally is in one direction. It is only on interconnections
where the maximum power flows are the same in either direction that two
blinders are necessary.
5.4.8. Out-of-Step Tripping (47) (56)
08
FIG.
Trip
234
5.5
Distance Relays
The advantages of this form of out-of-step relay are:
(i) Its operation is not affected by variation in the location of the electrical centre of the system.
(ii) It will not trip under any fault conditions.
(iii) It trips instantly after the first half cycle of system oscillation. Existing
relays require the machine to slip several poles before they will
operate.
(iv) Distinction can be made between speeding up and slowing down of
the local generation.
-R
-x
FIG.
The ohmic setting or reach of the relay may be controlled either from the
current operating circuit or the potential restraining circuit or both. Since
potential decreases from normal during a fault while the current increases,
it follows that a high torque level can be obtained by tapping the current
circuit and leaving the potential circuit alone. An elegant arrangement is to
provide coarse taps in the current circuit and fine taps in the potential circuit
(or a rheostat if the potential circuit is at unity p.f.).
The following information is needed in order to determine distance
relay settings for phase-to-phase and double-ground faults.
(i) Voltage and frequency of the line.
(ii) d.c. control voltage.
(iii) Trip coil current at normal voltage.
235
5.5
Protective Relays
(v) State whether a.c. potential is supplied from the line or the bus side
of the breaker and advise whether magnetic potential transformers,
coupling capacitors or bushing potential devices will be used.
(vi) Transient reactance and resistance of line (phase-to-neutral). If in
percentage or per unit, give the kVA or MVA base.
(vii) If potential supplied from low side of power transformer bank, give
connections of transformer (Y-L\, Y-Y, etc.).
(viii) Maximum three-phase short-circuit current for a fault at the near
end of the protected section, and the minimum current for a phaseto-phase fault at the far end of the section, or complete information
from which this data can be calculated.
The following additional information is required for setting ground distance relay settings. The same information is required for setting directional
residual time-overcurrent relays.
(ix) Will ground relays be polarised by current transformers connected
in neutral of power transformer or by Y-open-delta connected
potential transformers 1
(x) Maximum phase and residual current for a single-phase ground
fault at near end of the protected section, and the minimum current
for a single-phase ground fault at the far end of the section (or
positive and zero phase sequence diagram of the system).
(xi) Ratio of zero to positive sequence reactance of protected section of
line.
(xii) Mutual coupling with any parallel lines.
5.5.1. Setting of Zones 1 and 2
236
5.5
Distance Relays
TABLE 5.4
Phase Angle of Overhead Lines
kV
11
50 cycles
60 cycles
45
33
132
275
400
55
70
72
75
76
81
82
60
50
are rare. For cables between 11 kV and 33 kV, <p = 7 if all the current
returns via the sheath or 75 if it all returns via the earth.
The division of the -current depends upon the kind of terrain. In dry,
sandy soil <p = 10 or 15. In moist, acid soil <p is about 50. An average value
would be 30.
The usual angle 0 for the impedance circle of mho relays protecting cables
is 30, i.e. 0 = <p. There is nothing to be gained by making the mho characteristic less lagging than the cable because arc resistance is negligible on account
of the small spacing. Because of the varying angle, impedance relays are the
~siest to apply.
If Z is not known it can be calculated from L, the length of the protected
section in miles and z, the ohms per mile, since Z = Lz, assuming a homogeneous line. If z is not known it can be obtained from tables and curves
available to power company engineers, which are based on the equivalent
spacing of the conductors. Approximate values are shown in fig. 5.43.
For lines Zl = Z,. = rl +jXl where rl and Xl are respectively the resistance and reactance of the conductor in ohms per mile. r 1 can be obtained
from standard tables and Xl can be obtained from tables or from the graph
of fig. 5.43 or from the formula
G.M.D.
Xl = 000466flogloG.M.R.
(5.19)
where f is the system frequency, G.M.D. is the geometric mean spacing
{I dllb.d"c.dca and G.M.R. is the geometric mean radius.
Another formula commonly used is
X
237
5.5
Protective Relays
if
leading)
(}c = Phase-angle error of the current transformer (positive if leading).
The subject of c.t. and p.t. errors will be discussed in detail in Vol. II.
Sometimes Z is known as a percentage impedance or reactance and the
ohmic impedance is then calculated from
Z= 10kV2 Z%
kVA
(5.20)
where kVis the line-to-line system voltage in kV and kVA is the base of Z%.
The values of line impedance so obtained must then be converted to secondary
..
c.t. ratio
o hms b y m u1tiplymg by
. .
p.t. ratio
Zone 2 must not reach as far as the Zone 1 setting of the relay in the
following line section (see fig. 5.3b), i.e. it must not be set to reach farther
than 75 %of the next section. If there is an infeed Ip at the next bus this will
reduce the reach of Zone 2, because the extra current will not be included in
the relay current I R , although the extra voltage drop will increase the
apparent ohms seen by the relay. In other words, the infeed at B of fig. 5.3
will decrease the Zone 2 reach of the relay at A from AD to AB, where
AE = ZL
+ BD .IR
IR+lp
This cannot ever cause serious trouble because however much infeed there
is at the next section, it can never cause Zone 2 to fail to cover the next bus B,
which is its chief duty.
5.5.2. Zone 3 Setting
The third zone is essentially back-up and, whereas Zones 1 and 2 are for
preserving continuity of service, Zone 3 is for preventing the destruction of
equipment and danger to personnel.
Zone 3 is set to cover the whole of the neighbouring section and, whereas
Zones 1 and 2 cannot overreach without upsetting selectivity, Zone 3 cannot
underreach without giving inadequate back-up protection. Whereas Zones 1
and 2 are set for the actual impedance of the line sections, ignoring infeed,
Zone 3 must be set for maximum infeed conditions.
Zone 3 must be set for at least Z1 + WZ{ ohms, where Z1 is the impedance
of the protected section, Z{ is the impedance of the next section and W is the
.
. IR+IF
' the next section
. to t h e
maxnnum
ratio
- 0 f th
e tot a
currentl
entenng
IR
238
5.5
Distance Relays
(a)
I
I
I
I
I
---------_/
I>'
(b)
FIO.
FIO.
time delays, one of non-directional overcurrent and then a final step controlled by a pure directional unit.
5.5.3. Reversed Third Zone
Referring to fig. 5.38, the relay at A normally provides the third zone
back-up protection for the section Be but there is no reason why it should not
be provided by the relay at B; in other words, by reversing all the third zone
relay units so that they will cover the next section behind them instead of the
239
5.5
Protective Relays
next section in front of them. The same protection will be provided but
the ohmic setting of each third zone unit will be reduced by the impedance
of the protected section, e.g. the relay at A has to reach a distance Be which
is less by AB and may thereby eliminate the risk of operating on overload.
Ta.p
line
Fa.ult
TQjJ
lin~
FIG.
Furthermore, with back-up provided by the relay nearest the fault, tap lines
on the unfaulted section AB will remain in service whereas they would be
l~st without the conventional arrangement of back-up. On the other hand,
the reversed back-up relay has the same a.c. and d.c. supplies as the relays
it is backing up so that it may fail for the same cause.
5.5.4. Transformer Feeders
Where there is a transformer in series with the line between two buses,
the ohmic setting of the distance relay includes the impedance of the transformer. At the end remote from the transformer this enables 100% of the
line to be covered by Zone 1, i.e. instantaneous tripping for all line faults,
provided that ZL < 1.lZe where ZL is the line impedance and Ze the transformer impedance (see fig. 5.40) but, at the transformer end, Zone 1 is reduced
240
Distance Relays
5.5
phase relay uses line-to-line potential and delta current to measure the ohms
in line-to-line faults and, when these are viewed through a Y -Ll or Ll- Y
transformer, the delta quantities look like wye quantities. In the case of
ground distance relays, special zero sequence current compensation would be
necessary because the zero sequence components of current and potential
are blocked on the delta side of the power transformer.
The current compensation for a Y - Ll or Ll- Y shift in the power transformer is very simple. A distance relay having Ia- Ib from line side c.t's (fa
in one winding and - Ib in the other) would have - Ib in both windings in
series from c.t's on the low side (Table 5.5). The proper ohmic setting is
then obtained by taking a c.t. ratio of
is the turn ratio of the power transformer. The turn ratio is the voltage ratio
of the line-to-line ratio on the delta side to the line-to-neutral voltage on the
wye side. The reason for taking only half the turn ratio is that the two coils
are in series, which doubles the ampere-turns.
The potential compensation for a Y - Ll or Ll- Y shift in the power transformer in the case of distance relays for interphase faults is similar to current
compensation. Either the wye potential on the low-side is used or the equivalent of high-side potential by means of an auxiliary Ll- Y p. t. to compensate
for a Y - Ll power transformer and vice versa.
The second method is preferred because the wye potential is not affected
by ground faults in the low tension system. No correction factor is necessary
'f h
11
..
'd d high-side line-to-line potential
1 t e overa p. t. ratio IS consl ere as
.
relay volts
Sometimes it is necessary to check the reach of Zones 2 and 3 through a
transformer on the bus at the end of the protected section in order to coordinate their time settings with those on the lines (generally a distribution
system) beyond the transformer bank. If the transformers are in wye-wye
or delta-delta this will present no difficulty for phase relays since it is only
necessary to add their reactance to that of the line. If the transformers are in
Y - Ll or Ll- Y the phase-shift complicates matters and makes a tedious calculation necessary. The result of this calculation is given in Table 5.5.
The reach of the ground relays terminates in the transformer bank if
either of the windings through which the current passes is in delta, because the
zero sequence currents circulate in the delta and do not emerge from it. In
the case of wye-wye transformers their impedance to phase faults is taken as
their phase-to-neutral or positive-sequence-reactance. Their impedance to
gt;ound faults is the same for phase faults if the neutrals of both are grounded,
but it is infinite if either side is not grounded.
A wye-connected auto-transformer presents the same impedance to phase
and ground faults if its neutral is grounded, but it presents a much higher
impedance to ground faults if its neutral is not grounded, since its windings
then act like series reactors.
241
STANDARD
COfm'CTION
SECONDARY
FAULT
RELAY
LOCATION
(PRIMAR.Y)
Fig. B
I agrou~bcl
"""-
Fig.C
~ --~---
,T
ar.;ound
ALTERNATIVE
CONNECTION
SECONDAR.Y
FAULT
RELAY
LOCATION
(PRIMARV)
Fig.D
--~- --
~.
-.
Ib
0
....
'"::0
UI
i.II
iii
Ib
Ib
cl ....a"'tI
:5
I r.grOUnd I
n.
b
Figs. A and B are the standard power transfonner connections with the l.t. side or secondary 30 deg.lagging the h.t. side or primary. Figs. C and D
are the opposite connections which make the secondary 30 deg. leading the primary.
LEGEND: R = Fault resistance.
p, n, 0 subscripts denote positive, negative and zero sequence components.
C = Fraction of the positive and negative sequence fault currents that flows through the relay.
Z~ = Impedance of line and transfonner between the relay and the fault.
Rn is the total negative sequence resistance between the fault and the ends of the system in parallel. Ro is the corresponding zero sequence
resistance.
Note 1: The ground relay measures the same whether it has zero sequence current compensation or not.
Note 2: The reactance terms are always positive, but the resistance terms, due to the phase shift, can create negative reactance terms in some phases,
thus causing the relay to overreach. In such cases, however, the starting unit pick-up is raised so as to prevent operation.
Fig.A
5.5
Effect of Grounded Neutral 11- Yor Y-11 Power Transformer Between Distance Relay and A.rcing Fault
TABLE
5.5
Distance Relays
TABLE
Protection
Sec.
Fault
5.5 (conI.)
Relay Excitation
Fig. A
Fig. C Secondary
&B
&D
Zmeasured
Phase
be
V12
h-lz
lz-I)
Vb
10
Phase
be
V23
lz-I)
V31
I)-h
V.
I.
Phase
be
I)-h
VI2
h-12
Va
la
00
Phase
a-Grd
VI2
h -12
V23
lz-I)
Vb
Ib
Z'p
Phase
a-Grd
Phase
21CZo
+ ;[(2R.. + Ro + 3R,)
12- I)
I)-h
V..
I..
Z'P+2C
1 Zo - Y3(2
2C R.. +Ro+3R,)
a-Grd
V31
I)-II
VI2
h -/2
Va
la
Z'p
Ground
be
VI
II
V2
Ground
be
V2
lz
Ground
be
Ground
V.. b
la-lb
z'p - C
V3 (R .. + R,)
I)
Vb.
Ib-i.
Z'p
I)
VI
II
V...
I. -Ia
Z'p
+ ~3 (R .. + R,)
a-Grd
VI
II
V2
lz
Va.
la -Ib
Z'p
+ Zo + 2R.. + Ro + R,
Ground
a-Grd
V2
12
V3
I)
Vb.
h-l.
00
Ground
a-Grd
VI
11
Veil
le-Ia
Z'l'
V3
V3
I)
lz
V3
2C
+Zo 2C
2Y3C
2R..
+ Ro -
R,
2Y3C
243
Protective Relays
5.5
(see fig. 5.39). They are supplied with power transformer current and produce a
drop which is added vectorially to the Lt. potential to obtain the correct h.t.
potential for the distance relays.
The compensators used are transactors, i.e. reactors energised by current
transformers in either the high or the low side, and equipped with secondary
windings which add vectorially a potential proportional to the reactance of
the power transformer and the current flowing through it.
lt is unnecessary to provide a resistance unit because the XI R ratio of a
transactor is similar to that of a power transformer. The secondary winding
of the transactor not only avoids sneak circuits between the c.t. and p.t.
circuits but reduces the burden on the c.t's to a minimum because the
FIG.
5.5
Distance Relays
Sta.tHion
1
(a)
(b)
g
~g
--------11
Sta.tion 2
r-T---*+(-----L--+l-7~1
Error = (R( T +L)
(c)
IEC~~~-L---'7~'1
Error =ER(L +EcT)
Potential
Nine 10')10 taps
T.n
I%taps~
FlO.
FlG.
5.42. Correction of mho relay setting with mho circle less lagging than line
impedance Zr = ZL!COS (r/> -8)
245
5.5
Protective Relays
or
8r
i.e.
IS
Be
-Be
5%, then Br =
(5.21)
1
1-c
1
20 and Be = 20 or 8e = 21 per
unit, i.e. 4'9% accuracy. This means that a transformer drop compensator
is a disadvantage unless its accuracy is at least equal to that of the relay. To
be of tangible benefit the compensator should be at least 5 times as accurate
as the relay, say 1 %. Alternatively, not more than 85% of the transformer
impedance should be compensated for (in order to avoid overreach) with a
compensator of the same accuracy as the relay.
5.5.8. Magnetising Inrush
Example 1: A 60 mile, 60 c.p.s 154 kV line with 300/5 c.t.s and 4/0 copper
conductors spaced 15 ft. in a horizontal row. Calculate the
Zone 1 ohmic setting of the phase relay.
Solution:
246
Distance Relays
5.5
09
V
08
/v
07
1/
./
eO'6
i/
.c
0'5
bO
(j
,l'/
V.,-:;0")/
0'4
--
1/
0'3
V/
V/ V
02
/./
v ...
V
01
V
0'1
0'2
0'5
2'"
G'i~-----
1'0
10
20
50
FIG.
From the graph in fig. 5.43 the reactance is 086 ohm per
mile and the relay setting is 09 x 60 x 086 = 464 ohms.
The secondary relay ohms
300
115
= 464 x 5 x 154000 = 208 ohms phase to neutral.
=06 ohm.
247
154
154000
(!)2
Protective Relays
5.5
fi
rans ormer reactance
10xkV2xX%
k VA
10x115 2 x9'1
40000
= 30 ohms phase-to-neutral
= 30+24 = 54 ohms.
Total reactance
Assuming the first zone to cover 90 % of the section
Overall c.t. ratio x 09
X I = 2X
x --::---:.,----::-re ay
pnmary
Overall p.t. ratio
If wye current is used for the phase relays on the Lt. side
and the relay current coils are connected in series, the overall
. will be 2000
. IS
.
ratio
- x -138 x -J3 = 41 '6/1
. The p. t. ratiO
5
115
2
1000/1.
Assuming a 90% setting for Zone 1,
416
Zrelay = 54 x 09 x 1000 = 22 ohms.
:~ x 24 = 09 ohm.
5.5.8. Commissioning
Distance Relays
5.5
W [X =
sin (cos -1
;:)].
Whereas the distance relays for interphase faults are set directly in terms
of the positive sequence impedance of the protected line section, the distance
relays for ground faults have an extra adjustment to consider, viz. the zero
sequence current compensation.
As explained in section 5.1.1 and Table 5.13 of this chapter, the ground
relays are supplied" with line-to-neutral voltage and the current from the
same phase plus a fraction of the residual current, so that the relay measures
Vwye
f'
d
Zo-Z~
,
,
--~-=----. I K IS ma e equal to
Z' ,where Zo and Zl are the zero
I wye - KIresidual
and positive sequence impedances of the protected section, the relay then
measures Zl, as do the interphase relays. The mathematical proof of this is
given in the Appendix 5.10.1.
249
Protective Relays
5.5
It has been explained in section 5.5.1 how to calculate Zl, and Zo can be
obtained from Zl by using the ratios given in the following Table, 5.6, or it
can be calculated from zo = ro+jxo ohms/mile, where
ro =
'1 +0'00477/
(5.23)
De
xo = 0'00466/log 10 G.M.R.
(5.24)
J$
feet
(5.25)
Values
5.6
Conductor Arrangement
Min.
Max.
Average
28
1'8
1'5
42
20
4
30
25
65
40
35
2-3
20
5:5
30
250
5.5
Distance Relays
100
I
90
BO
JI
..
!:
a.
a60
I
1
.. 1
'0"
...
.;I
.~I
&1
.}: I
"1
50
it
:;
....
d
.~I
.."
".
~30
S40
c:
d
20
10
1
1
I
1
I
1
"'I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
~ 70
1
1
1
1
1 I
1
.2
.-~
---- ...
x~
II
0--i
0-1--
~/
I
I
r
!
1
1
1
o 0L---2..l.0---4LO--6...J.0-~-B.J..0--l..J00
Fo.ult Icco.tien
FIG.
The same reactance relay may be used for either phase or ground protection but, as a ground relay, it requires an auxiliary relay to prevent it from
working on phase faults, since the current in the leading phase may be
almost in phase with the wye potential and hence measure zero reactance.
This is illustrated in fig. 5.45.
Fa.
--
sx~x
Fe
~l
Trip
251
5.6
Protective Relays
Where the protected section has more than two terminals (fig. 5.36b),
the distance relays at one terminal can measure the correct distance up to the
junction J of the lines to the other two terminals, but from there on their
reach along one of them is affected by the magnitude and direction of the
current in the other.
For exalJlple, the relay at A, for a fault at F, measures
IA.+IC)
ZA. = ZA.J+ZJF ( ~
This may be considerably more or less than the line impedance ZAP and
may interfere with selectivity; if there is much generation at C the relay at A
will underreach, causing sequential tripping; if there is no generation at
C but there is a low impedance path (dotted) from C to B, fault current will
leave the section at C and cause the relay at A to overreach, because its value
is negative in the above expression for Z A.; this may cause unnecessary tripping
and disruption of the system.
This is one of the penalties for economising in circuit-breakers. If there
were an extra breaker at C so that direct connections were made with A and B
this difficulty would not occur. In fact, this is the only solution in cases where
the variation in Z. at one of the terminals is sufficient to prevent discrimination between internal and external faults.
5.6. CONSTRUCTION OF DISTANCE RELAYS
Distance Relays
5.6
5.7
Amplitude and Phase Comparisons for Distance Relays
TABLB
Amplitude Comparator
Operating
Restraining
Directional
II + :'1
Impedance
III
Reactance
11 - :'1
Mho
II/
Offset Mho
III
1/ -
~I
Zr,
IfI
IfI
/1 -
~I
Zr,
Phase Comparator
Operating
Polarising
IZr
IZr - V
IZr + V
IZr
+ kIZr
The advantages of the balanced beam unit are simplicity and speed. The
disadvantages are high reset impedance, overreach due to offset current waves
or currents of high XjR ratio, elliptical impedance characteristics and a
tendency to chatter. Very little can be done about the high reset impedance
except to use the minimum beam travel. The overreach on offset waves can be
controlled by a d.c. transient trap having a low resistance high-Q choke
across the current source and a small non-inductive resistance in series with
the relay current coil.
253
C7I
I\:)
Serio r.cllfi.,
bridge
(VOlta.ge comparison)
Tran.d uc tor
with rectified re.tra.int
(Ma.gndic comparison)
Parallel reciltier
bridge
(Current compa.rison)
E I.ctro-mechanlcal
ba.la.nccd beam
(Torque comparison)
Type
00
[J
Trip
~M
~'
o
o
!I
Impeda.nce
01
lp
00
':u
{illl
:l"Mt
II.
~TriP
TABLE 5.9
AMPLITUDE COMPARATORS
Admittance
~M
XR
~
~
~- a
~TriP
Reactance
Uneconomical
~c
@J@I'
\L~
TriP
ry = fi
ro--
D,rectional
UI
iii
~.
o
.....
."
en
Distance Relays
5.6
The induction cup is slower than the beam but has nearly perfect impedance characteristics, no vibration, almost equal operate and reset values
and small effect on offset waves. It was described in more detail in Chapter 2.
Its construction is compact and robust and it is the most popular high
......-- v --~
c,
Operating
<tj
Polarising
(c)
Note: For simplicity only one phase of the current
circuit is shown. The circuit not shown is
l'Uin, ph.se.
I'
(0)
v=
I
rPv
;, =
l' =
1m =
ZI =
Izi =
ICI =
IRI =
VRC =
Z2
2
IZ2
'2
=
=
=
Line potential
Line current
Potential flux
Current flux
Current in dephasing coil of current.
pole
Component of I which corresponds
toh
Magnetising component of I
Potential coil impedance
Current through coil ZI
Current through CI
Current through Rl
Potential across Rand Cl
Phase shifting coil
e.m.f. in Z2
Volts drop in Z2
Potential across Z2
FIG.
V90 0
:::..
.pI
>9t
'0
:::..
'0
VI
:l
...J
v
(d)
255
~
Polarising potentia.l wdgs.
~
Restraint potcntia.1 wdgs.
~currcnt
~wdg.
(a)
(b)
= Fault current
= Faulted (restraint) potential
V, = Directional (polarising) potential
I
Vr
Rcstra.int
fJ
ex =
Angl~tween
I and i p
=P-8+6O
(c)
~::r--o
PolClrising circuit
.~
~--------~c-----~v
RCltra.int circuit
Current circuit
v=
If.
=
=
Ire =
10 =
r
'I
Line voltage
Current in polarising potential coil
Current in restraining potential coil
Fault current at maxim.um torque angle
Current in parallel RC circuit
Current in operating coil
FIG.
256
Distance Relays
5.6
257
5.6
Protective Relays
5 4. Magnetic Amplifiers
Like all other comparators these can also be used for phase or for amplitude comparison. The amplitude comparator (transductor) was first used in
Sweden and later in England (16). It is most effective as an impedance relay;
when used as a directional, admittance or reactance relay it has a tendency
to transient inaccuracy which can be overcome only by introducing a time
delay through the damping winding D.
The phase comparator (Ramey half-wave type) is an excellent device but
so far has not been used by the major protective relay manufacturers; it is
uneconomical as an impedance relay but very effective as a directional,
admittance or reactance relay. Table 5.10 shows circuits employing a polarised relay with operating and blocking windings. The two windings have
equal currents when the two circuits to be compared are in phase. The output
relay need not be as sensitive as is required for the other circuits in Tables
5.9 and 5.10 because the milliwatts in the control circuit are magnified about
1000 times in the relay windings. The differentially connected transformers
should be as efficient as possible using mu-metal or HCR clock-spring cores
saturating at low voltage (about 10 volts).
5.6.5. Sensitive Tripping Devices (24) (50) (63) (117)
258
co
C1I
....,
Ma.gnt.llC a.mplil,c,
(Amplitud~ comparison)
(Curnnt cOincidence)
Compara.tor
TrCln.i.tor pa.ra.llel
Rectifier bfldge
CompClrCltor a.nd limilor (L)
(Phase comparison)
Elf.ctro -mocha.nlca.1
Induction cup
(Torque. compa-rlson)
Type
Unc:c.of"lomica'
Zr
polarised relay.
TranSductor
Relay
~'
CT
~.,
I-V
(I+V) "
,ill~-0
Zr
Impeda.nce
,dt.tcctar V
Levr~
Zr
PC
PC
'/
PC
1';1
Lucl
~~
'=8~
Rcacta.nc.e.
= operating coil.
r;'l
V
B = bias restraint coil.
tij)~ ~'
'"''';~
c.lrc. ..ut
~~nIlJt
Aux .
C .T.
,~@,
TABLE 5.10
PHASE COMPARATORS
Adm;tla.nco
cD?
Aux C.T.
o&[J
T~PC
---hQ-
LJ L J
V
L.... I
td.. tector....
Zr
':::JI~
Directiona.l
c"
UI
iii'"
Cb
::0
Cb
(")
~
::;,
I:)
5.6
Protective Relays
~.
"VA
In the case of the induction cup relay, the polarising circuit co-operates
1
where
VA. (VA)p
V=
K
Imax
(R
+ Rleads +
et .
;,~) Kt
(5.26)
where VA is the relay burden at its rated current Ir and Kt is the d.c. offset
ratio which is a function of the time constant (LI R) of the primary circuit.
K= (1 + X)
R 2!!...
te
t
(5 27)
fact that the time of energisation of the relay at a given level need not be
more than half the time taken to close the contacts.
Kt
Now
:r.
(1+ :)~ tr
(5.28)
=(~+co)~
is small compared with co and can be neglected. Hence
K, =
co
"2
tr = nf.lr
260
(5.29)
5.6
Distance Relays
110
f//,
f/I
f/I
f/I
f/I
'I'.'
90
80
5"0)
40
30
20
,0
10
20
FIG.
30
40
so
60
Few It vo Ita.qc
70
80
90
100
110
ohms for a fault at the relay setting Zn (fig. 5.49). Operating time can be
shown best on a curve of time to the base of distance so that the slowi~g
up of the relay near the cut-off point can be clearly seen.
The complete performance of the relay can be shown on a contour
diagram (50), plottingZ//Zr against a base ofZ./Zr whereZ/ is the impedance
between the relay and the fault and Zr is the relay setting; this is equivalent to
plotting the accuracy along the Y axis against a base of the reciprocal of the
voltage along the Y axis (see fig. 5.50).
261
5.7
Protective Relays
x - Y curves are plotted for several relay operating times so that there is
a family of such curves and contours. This method is a good way of evaluating
the performance of one relay against another but it takes much longer to
make the necessary tests and is somewhat more difficult for the user who is
I
I
T -
100
- r---
.'"
'--
If,
~.
........ r-
.......... .......
60
'r--. i'.
n :J.)rM
I --,--
--
SlIa.dcd orca
on boundary
CUI"IIICI
//
;t.,
~ '~fo i - .. ( 8ClJ<1ncc)
--I"- ........
3~~.00lScc, r'\
o0,
02
0 '5
1\
FIG.
~\
-...:...
",,-
Q.
20
. ;,;;
10
20
50
100
rQtlO
more interested usually in the operating times for faults at different points
along a given section, i.e. for a given value of Z,/Z". To do this he plots a
vertical line and notes where it intersects the various contour curves.
5.7. A.C. POTENTIAL
For accurate measurement a distance relay must be supplied with a secondary voltage linearly proportional to and in phase with the primary voltage
of the circuit it is protecting.
5.7.1. Sources of a.c. Potential
One of the principal difficulties with the use of distance relays is the
availability of a suitable voltage supply. On low voltage systems a suitable
supply is generally available and the cost of potential transformers is not
great, but on high voltage lines they are a costly item and must be considered
in the overall comparison of the cost of different protective schemes.
For protection against phase faults only, two single-phase p.t's are used
in many countries and are connected in open delta to provide the three lineto-line voltages. For ground distance relays three p.t's are required to provide
262
Distance Relays
5.7
the three wye voltages and small auxiliary p.t's in wye-broken delta for providing the residual voltage, an alternative being double windings on the
main p.t's.
Potential for all the distance relays on a busbar can be obtained from a
singl(1 three-phase p.t. of the magnetic type connected to the bus. Magnetic
p.t's are preferable to those of the capacitance type (65) because they have a
greater VA capacity and are more reliable for high speed (1 cycle) relays
because they do not have parasitic oscillations when the potential is suddenly
changed in value, such as by a fault. The use of a common p.t. on the bus bars
reduces the total cost of distance protection considerably and is common
practice in the U.S.A. and Canada.
Potential can also be taken from the 1.t. side of power transformers, a
voltage drop compensator being provided where necessary. This subject has
been discussed previously in this chapter, section 5.5.5.
Compensators are seldom more accurate than the relays so that they
should be avoided where the fault current passes directly through the power
transformer. Furthermore, complicated bus systems sometimes make low
tension potential impractical. Tap-changing transformers present another
problem.
5.7.2. Loss of a.c. Potential
Accidental loss of a.c. potential can cause undesirable tripping of distance relays. In section 5.1.4 (c) it was explained how loss of primary voltage
due to the opening of a breaker can cause heavy transient torques from the
decaying potential. Wrong tripping on load current can be caused by loss of
secondary voltage due to the blowing of a secondary fuse or accidental
opening of the circuit during testing. The following methods are used to
avoid this undesirable tripping.
(a) In the U.S.A. it is claimed that the use of heavy (60 ampere) potential
fuses in the distance relay circuits and light (1 ampere) fuses for other
switchboard devices prevents blowing of the secondary fuses due to
transient short-Circuits, such as a falling tool or a stray strand of wire.
(b) The trip circuit can be opened in 7 or 8 milliseconds and an alarm
given by a relay connected to measure the potential across each fuse.
Fig. 5.51 shows such a relay with three operating magnets, one across
each fuse, so that only one contact is inserted in the trip circuit.
(c) A rate-of-rise-of-current relay is the most effective arrangement. It
completes the trip circuit only when there is a sudden increment of
fault current equal to 20 % of the c.t. rating. This prevents tripping on
loss of potential due to accidents or power swings, and permits
tripping only on a fault. The rate-of-rise relay shown in fig. 5.52
uses a transistor as a switch.
(d) A cheaper protection against tripping on loss of a.c. potential, but
which does not include power swings, is the use of an instantaneous
263
5.7
Protective Relays
FIG.
'V1:bllEf
O
Sens!ti
ve
polarosed
d .c relay
(.)
FIG.
264
Distance Relays
5.8
FIG.
unlikely to operate the phase relays at Band C but it appears to the ground
distance relay at B as a phase b-to-ground fault and to the ground relay at C
as a c-to-ground fault. The ground relays tend to overreach because the
interphase current flowing from phase b to phase c through the earth is much
larger than the ordinary ground current. Another way of looking at it is that
their residual compensating current Klres is the sum of the c-phase current
from end R and the b-phase current from end P.
Under these circumstances the least that can happen is that the breakers
at A, B, C and D all trip and service is lost to station Q in fig. 5.53.
In Europe, where Petersen Coil grounding is common for systems below
100 kV, the isolation of station Q is avoided by the fact that switched impedance or mho relays are use'd on these systems and they select wye potential
and current for all faults involving ground. In the fault shown in fig. 5.53,
all the relays would receive phase c current and voltage and only breakers
C and D would open, with D probably not tripping until C had tripped.
The reason is that the fault appears to the relays at A and D as a phase-tophase fanlt so that they underreach when given c-phase current and potential;
265
5.9
Protective Relays
the c-phase current is flowing in the reverse direction for the relay at B, so it
stays open also.
After C and D have tripped, the ground fault in section AB still remains
but is extinguished by the Petersen Coil. On solidly grounded systems it is
necessary to trip all four terminals because there is no Petersen Coil to
extinguish the remaining fault. With separate distance relays for phase -and
ground faults, breakers A and D would be tripped by their phase relays for
the fault in fig. 5.53, breakers Band C by their ground relays. In switched
distance relays providing delta current and voltage for double ground faults
only, breakers A and D would open.
5.9. AUTORECLOSING
The large majority of faults on overhead lines are transient, i.e. they
disappear when the line is de-energised by opening the circuit-breakers at
both ends of the line. This fact permits immediate resumption of service by
reclosing the breakers.
Obviously, this does not apply to a cable because the breakdown of insulation is permanent whereas, in an overhead line, the insulating value of the
air is restored as soon as the fault current stops and the arc disappears.
Radial circuits are the most benefited by automatic reclosing because
there is only one source of power and the quicker it is restored the better.
Furthermore, there is no problem of synchronising on radial lines.
On tie lines or interconnections in a network there is more than one source
per bus, so that the loss of a line is not so serious and auto-reclosing is less
necessary. Furthermore, on tie lines there is sometimes a problem of connecting the two sections of the system after the source and load ends have drifted
apart in phase relationship. On the other hand, where there is only one tieline which must be kept in at all costs, single-pole switching is necessary, i.e.
separate circuit-breakers and reclosing relays for each phase; with this
system transient single-phase-ground faults (which are the most common)
cause no real interruption because, while the reclosing is taking place, the
load current formerly in the interrupted phase makes its way back to the
neutral through the ground and grounding wires (64).
5.9.1. MultiShot Reclosing
On low voltage lines (33 kV and below) the fault may have been caused
by something across the conductors, such as a vine or a tree branch, and it
may not be burned clear at the first reclosure. On such radial lines an instantaneous reclosure is provided, followed by two or three more delayed
reclosures if necessary (70). Statistics in the U.S.A. show that over 80% of
the faults are cleared after the first trip, so that the instantaneous reclosure
stays in and the reclosing relay resets. About 10 % stay in after the second
reclosure which is made after a time delay, usually between 15 and 45 seconds.
Less than 2 % require the third reclosure, which is made after 60 to 120
266
5.9
Distance Relays
seconds. About 5 %are permanent faults which are not cleared and result in
lock-out of the reclosing relay.
Most auto-reclosing relays are of the synchronous motor type with a
circular cam or drum having adjustable pegs or equivalent means for
operating the reclosing contacts after the desired intervals. Blocking relays
are provided to prevent the breaker from reclosing until the reclosing circuit
has been re-established.
5.9.2. Single-Shot Reclosing
5.8
22
4
33
5
66
6
110
8'5
132
10
220
17
300
24
kV
cycles
267
5.9
Protective Relays
(a) Intertripping Channel: Of these methods, the carrier or pilot wire
channel is the most expensive and is suitable only for single lines of
great importance or when the channel is necessary for communication.
Microwave or radio link is cheaper where repeaters or reflectors are
not necessary to circumvent geographical obstructions. Space radio
is the cheapest channel and can be used where Government allocations
of radio wave-length band permit. The channel can be used for the
fast end to signal the slow end and thus to clear both ends instantaneously, even if the fault is close to one end and hence otherwise in
the second time zone of the relay at the other end.
(b) Extension of Instantaneous Zone: The instantaneous zone, normally
set 10 % short of the next bus, is in this case 5 %beyond the bus into
the next section, so that all faults in the protected section are tripped
instantaneously. A fault just beyond the next bus will cause the local
breaker to trip as well as the one in the faulted line. When they reclose
the relays are reset so that the instantaneous zone covers only 90 %
of the section and, if the fault is still there, only the nearest breaker
trips. The other time distance zones operate normally.
It should be pointed out that, although the overlap of the section by the
instantaneous zone in ohms impedance is 5 %, the overlap in actual distance is
generally only 1 % or 2 % because the relay only measures a fraction of the
total current fed into the fault through the intermediate bus. The likelihood
of a fault occurring in this small length of line is correspondingly remote.
On the other hand, it is obvious that this scheme is practical only with very
accurate relays, i.e. those with an error of less than ~ % over the possible
range of fault currents.
The effect again is to clear all faults instantaneously at both ends of the
protected section.
The subject of reclosing has not been discussed in detail because it is outside the scope of a book on protective relays.
Single pole reclosing was first introduced in the U.S.A. in the early 1930's.
Instead of a common closing and tripping mechanism for all three phases,
each pole of the circuit-breakers was provided with its own mechanism. The
relays were connected to control the three mechanisms so that, when a singlephase to ground fault occurred, only the phase involved was interrupted and
reclosed. For any multi-phase fault all three phases would be simultaneously
tripped and reclosed.
With single-phase distance relays of the mho type the selection of the
faulted phase is not difficult but, with polyphase relays, such as phase comparison carrier or pilot wire protection, phase selectors are necessary. Where
potential transformers are available the phase selectors compare each wye
268
Distance Relays
5.10
potential in amplitude with the delta potential that is in quadrature with it;
for instance, a ground fault on phase a will be detected by the fact that
Va < 05 Vbc ' Where a.c. potential is not available the negative sequence
component of current is compared in each phase with the zero sequence
component; in the faulted phase the two components are substantially in
phase; in the unfaulted phases they are substantially 120 out of phase and
hence have a negative product.
The advantage claimed for single pole reclosing is that, on a system with
transformer neutrals grounded solidly at each substation or line terminal,
the interruption of one phase to clear a ground fault causes negligible interference with the load because the interrupted phase current now flows in the
ground between neutral points until the fault is cleared and the open phase
reclosed.
This technique has become popular in France and Sweden especially
where there are no parallel low impedance paths in the network through
which the load can flow while a faulted line is interrupted. Meanwhile, it has
lost favour in the U.S.A. and been replaced by three-phase reclosing for the
following reasons:
(a) phase selectors cannot always select only the faulted phase;
(b) the protection and control circuits are more expensive and complicated with single-pole switching;
(c) most systems will maintain the load on two phases long enough to
permit instantaneous three-pole reclosing;
(d) the real problem is not to eliminate a brief dissymmetry of the load
current but to avoid system instability and this is associated with
multi-phase faults which require three-phase tripping and reclosing;
(e) owing to the more complex relay circuit and to the longer dead time
required,' single-pole reclosure cannot be as fast as three-pole reclosure; this is not only undesirable in itself but can cause trouble
with telephone interference and with wrong tripping of the residual
relays on a sound line in parallel with the faulted line due to mutual
induction.
5.10. APPENDIX
5.10.1. Zero Sequence Current Compensation
During a phase fault to ground the wye potential Va at the relay consists
of the following drops in the sequence networks and fault resistance
5.10
Protective Relays
Va
(Zo -
+1
Zrelay = I
a
i ;-)-
Z1
Zl
Hence the relay measures correctly except for the error due to fault resistance which is negligible in the case of a reactance relay, unless IF is appreciably out of phase with la and 10 ,
5.10.2. Zero Sequence Potential Compensation
An alternative to measuring the Z~ of the protected section is to measure
Z~. This method has an advantage in accuracy for lines carrying appreciable
reactive current but this is offset by the higher c.t. burdens and a somewhat
more complicated circuit. It is advantageous for a switched ground distance
relay because no switching is necessary in the current circuit.
Since only residual current (Ires) appears in the current circuit, the I1Z~
and 12Z; drops in the line voltage must be removed from the relay potential.
In phase a the potential supplied to the relay is Vre1ay = Va-(la-/o)Z~
where Z~ is the impedance of the protected section.
Vrelay = I 1Z 1 +12Z 2+/oZ o+IFRF -(I1 +12)Z;,
For a fault at the balance point Zl = Z2
Vrelay
= 10Zo +IFRF
;es = 10
Zrelay = ZO+RF
e:)
Again, the relay measures correctly except for the fault resistance which
will be ignored by a reactance relay if the angle between IF and 10 is small.
5.10.3. Impedances seen by Distance Relays
If one substitutes
5.13, the expressions for the impedance measured by the relays in the different
phases appear as shown in Table 5.14. These expressions are vectors that are
easy to draw on an R - X diagram. For example, in Fig. 5.54 the impedances
'seen' by the measuring relays in the three phase-pairs for a 2-3 fault are
AF310 AF23 and AF12 whereas Fig. 5.55 shows how the same fault appears to
the three ground relays.
270
Distance Relays
5.10
5.14
Impedance measured by relays in addition to true Impedance
TABLE
-----
Relay
Three
Phase
Z'12
RF
C
Z'23
RF
C
Z'31
RF
C
Z'l
Z'2
Z'3
Phase 2-Phase 3
RF
2C
MV3Znl90 +
RF
00
RFI600 )
3
2CnRF
oo
CRF
+ RFI60
v3Z"W
Phase I-Ground
c~j(Znl90 + RF[3O")
RF
C
C 3
~-(Znl90
+ RFI300)
-
A..
-x
FIG.
J!C z2190
(which is the line FM) and adding the arc
-
resistance component
~ 160.
5.10
Protective Relays
Reference (58) shows how to draw all fault conditions, with and without
power swings, and how to determine what any relay in any phase measures
during these conditions.
The impedance seen by a relay during a power swing can be derived even
more simply (Fig. 5.56). First simplify the system to the equivalent single
R,
ife
...
. R ______~~~~~---------R
..
FIG.
-x
FIG.
locus ISOL is the angle of separation of the generator e.m.fs and the impedance seen by a relay at any location A is AO.
If the relay characteristic be drawn on this diagram and it intersects the
power swing locus at 0' then ISO'L is the angle up to which the system can
swing apart without operating the relay.
A fuller treatment of this subject is given in Vol. II.
272
Co - C
Co- C
Z2 +Zo +CZ'I +3RF
CZ'2 - Z2
Col'o - Zo
(a2- a)C
(a - a2)C
Z2 + CZ'I + RF
Z2 - CZ'2
a2C
aC
cZ' +RF
Klb
KI,
KVI
KV2
IXCZ'I +RF)
KV..
KVc,
1
(ZI HF)
(a -
(1 - a2XCZ'1
KV.c
1
(ZI +Z2 +Zo +RF)
IXZo +3RF)
2(a2- a) (CZ'I + )
(a2-
a(CZ'J +RF)
KV,
(a - a2)Z2 -
(a - a2)CZ,! +aRF - Z2
a2(CZ'1 + RF)
KVb
+RF)
(a2- a)Z2 -
+a2RF - Z2
(al - a)CZ'1
CZ'I +RF
KV.
KVo
2CZ'1 + Col'o + 3RF
2C+ Co
KI.
2(Zd)
c[a2(Z2 + )
Co
Klo
Kl2
a) (Zo
+ +3RG)]- Co (Z2 +)
Uacl/W p. 272
1[
R
F
3RF2]
E
ZIZ2+
Z2Z0+ZOZI
+ "Z (ZI +Z2 +Zo) + 3RG(ZI +Z2 +RF) +4
. ,[(a - I) (RF)
CZ
Zzt"Z
Rp
3
+(a - a2)(ZoR
+"ZF
+3RG) 1+3ZOZ2 +(1-a2)RF(ZO +3RG)t(4-a')Z2"Zt9Z2RG+4(I-a2)Rpl
(a2- a) [CZ'I{(Z2 + )
RF) +3RG(aRF-Zz)t(a-a2)"ZZo+(a-I)TZ2+3aT
RF
RF
RF2
CZI,[a(RF)
ZdT +(a-a2)(Rp
ZO+T+3RG )] -CoZo'(Zzt"Z
(Z2
+ 3RG)
(Z2 + ) (Zo - CoZ'o)
RF)(Zo +2"
RF + 3RG ) +"Z
RF (Zd Zo +Rd 3RG)
cz 'I(Zzt Rd Zo + 3RG)t (Zd T
+ (a2-
(C - C~ (Zzt )
.
- COjZ2
+R)
' +RF
- C(Zo
"Z + 3RG )
C
C
C
-C
Kh
Phase a-Ground
Phase b-Phase c
Three-phase
5.11
Fault
TABLE
I)(CZ'I + R,)
Z'I +~
2C
Z'I+~C
Z'I+~C
Z..
+(a-al)z al
I -c- Z-c R'
Z'I +(al-a)z
-c- Z-ca RF
Z'I+~C
z'
1
E(ZItZ2+RF)
1
E(ZI HF)
(a -
t')
KV..
2(aZ- a) (CZ'I +
KV
CZ'I[(1- al)(Zz +
KV
I)(Zo +3RF)
C(a - al)
C(a-I)
K(I. -1.)
I)(Zo +3RF)
It)
3C
I)(Zo + 3RF)
Z'
Z'
a2)Zz +(a -
- JCZ'I +(a -
CZ,I[(a - 1) (RF)
Zz +"'2
al) (ZoR
+ "2F+)
lRG] -
Z'
I-
ZIt
Z' I +~
2C
, a) ( Zo + RF)
C[(a2" +3RG +(1
- a) (RF)]
Z2+ 2"
RF
[3Zz +(1 - a)RFl (Zo + RF)
2" +lRG +(I - a) (RF)
Z2+ 2" T
1[
p
1ZI ]
E
ZIZ2R
+Z2Z0 +Zoll
+ "2 (ZI +Zz +Zo) +lRG(ZI +Zz + RF) +4
+(a -
t') +(a- al) (zo +1' +3RG)] +(1- al) (Zl +~) i +[3Zz +(I -al)RFl (zo +1' +lRG)
(al - a) (CZ'I +~) {(ZZ + t') + 2(Zo +t + lRG)}
2C(al - a)
C(a2 - a)
K(I. - Ie)
-3C
~.-+c-Ground
3C
-;,
C(a - a2)
~.
C(I- al)
3~
K(I. -1.)
Quantity
5.12
Currents and Potentials Supplied to Phase Distance Relays
TABLE
+ CoZ/o
2CZ'I
+ CoI/o
- CZ' I
+ CoZ'o + 3RF
Z' l
Zi l
+ CoI/o
Z\
- CZ' I
2CZ' I
+ Zz + Zo + 3RF)
Z'
+ (aZ I
a)Zo - 3aRF
Zo
Z'I
+ (l c- C
a)Zz
2C
CoZ'O
Z'I
Z'I+~
1
E(ZI
i)
Z' I ( Zz
Co Z'
+ 3 (Zo + ~F + 2RG)]
+ RF
"2 + 3RG)] -
[CZII - CoZ'o
aZ.~(
) Zo
+ RF)
"2
+ RF)
"2
Z'I
,RF
1) -
Zz
+ -3 a2RFz
+ (a -
RF
RF
3
aZ) - Zo + (a - I) - Zz + - aRFz
2
2
4
)
Z'
R )
+ (a -"aZ) (Zo -I- R
,; + 3RG ] - Co Z/~ (ZZ + 2F
R)] Z' ( R.
a) (Zo + ,; + 3RG - Co Z/~ Zz + ;
RF
a) - Zo -I- (a2
Z' I
+ ~F + 2RG)
Z'
C-Co~
3 (Zo
+ (a2 +R
-{) +(aZ -
3RG(aRF - Z2)
c[az (ZZ
3RG(a2RF - Z2)
+ C[
R
Cl (Z2 + -f-)
Z'I+
R
F
E1 [
ZIZz +
ZzZo -+- ZoIl
+ 2" (ZI + Zz + Zo) -I- 3RG(ZI + Z2 + RF) + 43 RF2]
[facing p. 272
R F ) -+-(a-a2) (
R F ) ] -CoIo
' (ZZ+"2
RF) -+-3RG(aRF-ZZ>+(a-a2)"2Zo+(a-l)"2Zz+"4RF
RF
RF
3a 2
CZI,[a (Z2+"2
ZO+-i-+-3RG
RF) + (a +"2
Z' oI ( Zz
a) (
ZoR
+ "2F
+)
3RG] - Co Z'
~:~)(Zz + i)
oPb-4>c-Ground
(C - Co
RF) + (a2 +"2
(Zz
C [ a ( Zz
C [ a2 ( Zz
- CZ'I
5.13
Currents and Potentials Supplied to Ground Distance Relays
TABLE
6
S'fJitehed "lUI Polyphase lJistaDf!e
Bel"ys
Reduction of Measuring Units-Automatic Switching SchemesPolyphase Distance Relay-Phase and Amplitude ComparatorsAnalysis of Polyphase Comparators
6.1. REDUCTION OF MEASURING UNITS
The early time-distance schemes had the merit of simplicity. Since the
operating time was proportional to the distance of the fault from the relay
only one relay was necessary per phase, but the clearing time was high for
faults near the end of the protected section (fig. 6.1). The stepped timedistance scheme was introduced in Canada in 1925 by Paul Ackerman. It
Time
FIG.
had the advantage of reducing the overall clearing time by the shaded areas
in fig. 6.1 and is now universally used.
The normal stepped time-distance scheme consists of fault detectors,
distance measuring units and logic units; the latter include timing units,
auxiliary relay units and flag indicators.
Theoretically, four fault detectors and 18 measuring units are required for
providing three time-distance steps for the ten varieties of phase-to-phase and
phase-to-ground faults. Because of the cost and panel space so many units
would require, their number is reduced in practice by using each measuring
unit for more than one purpose. In almost all modern distance relays the
K
273
6.1
Protective Relays
which results in a minimum tripping time of at least 01 second compared with 002 second with non-switched relays;
(b) complete loss of protection if the single ohmic unit or any of the
switching contacts fail;
(c) possible wrong tripping if the type of fault changes during operation
of the relay (effect of wind on arcing faults);
(d) inaccuracy due to differing phase impedance (effect of unsymmetrical
transposition of conductors);
(e) possible reduction in reliability due to dependence upon a number of
contacts in series in the a.c. switching circuits.
The effect of these considerations is that schemes with six measuring
units are generally used for important lines of 100 kY and above, with
solidly grounded neutrals, because they require fast tripping and maximum
reliability.
For distribution lines, switched distance relays with a single measuring
unit can be economically applied as a substitute for the normal time-overcurrent relays where high speed is required. For medium voltage lines, below
100 kY, a number of different switched relay schemes are in use, including
the A - Y switched scheme and the interphase scheme in which separate
single unit switched schemes are used for phase faults and ground faults.
274
b c
(a)
..
!I,o.\'OI\ but bOon
' ,",'
p .TI
"'-
"''''
~,
-"""'"
.-.,
-"""""
V,
i~
cl:
c .TI,
e
~
Hr
L.!&.
...!I..
...l&.
Ie
.!S..
' W '"
t ~ -l-.L +
Hf
0.- ~
'I G
~ \MN '
"-
+-~
n1
$" ,.,62e
""iF"
...
g... I
I
HtJ
(b)
x---f.-
(1
--0
-X
(1
(c)
275
6.1
6.3
Protective Relays
(b)
6.3. One distance relay for all faults
(a) Basic switching circuit. (b) Typical European circuit
FIG.
The first switched schemes appeared in the late 'twenties and early 'thirties;
they were simple but less accurate than modern schemes. Because of their not
always employing the particular currents and potentials necessary for precise
measurement in each type of fault, they were used only with impedance
relays (where phase relation is unimportant) and accepted a certain variation
in distance measurement. Most early schemes used wye current for all types
of faults, wye potential for three-phase and phase-to-ground faults and half
the line-to-line potential for phase-to-phase faults. For double ground
faults some schemes used wye potential and some used half the line-to-line
potential, as shown in fig. 6.2a. Overcurrent starting units, Sa' Sb' Sc and Sg
determined the type of fault and applied the appropriate potential to the
measuring relays. Zg is a compensating impedance whose value depended
upon the Zo/Z 1 ratio of the protected line.
6.3. DEL TA-WYE SWITCHING
The simple scheme shown in fig. 6.2b can be used for distance relays of the
impedance or the admittance type and the timing unit can be started by a
polyphase overcurrent or mho type fault detector on phase faults, and by a
residual current or power relay on ground faults.
With reactance relays, the switching to wye voltage must only be permitted on single phase ground faults and the delta connections must be retained for double ground faults. This is because, on a double ground fault, the
current in the leading of the two phases involved in the fault may be almost
in phase with the corresponding wye voltage and the relay may measure zero
or negative reactance and hence trip inadvertently. This is prevented by connecting the contacts of the fault detector auxiliary relays so that the switch
to wye voltage is prevented if more than one of them operates (fig. 6.2c).
This scheme has been used in Europe but the rather large number of
contacts required tends to offset the saving of three measuring units; in fact,
276
6.4
for this reason, most manufacturers use six reactance units where high speed
(003 second) is necessary and a single reactance unit switched for all faults
where 015 second operating time is acceptable.
6.4. INTERPHASE SWITCHING
This consists of one measuring unit for phase faults and one for ground
faults, these units being switched to the appropriate phase or phase pair by
the fault detectors.
The phase and ground protection are two separate schemes, fig. 6.4 for
phase faults and fig. 6.5 for ground faults. A cheaper alternative is to use the
switched distance relay only for phase faults and to use residual current relays
for ground faults. This in fact is preferable for solidly grounded systems
where the fault current magnitude varies sufficiently with the fault location
to provide selectivity (see Chapter 4, section 4.1.2), especially on multiple
grounded systems where most of the zero sequence current comes from the
nearest grounding point, thus ensuring that the current for an internal fault
is always much greater than for an external fault. A residual time-current
relay with a very inverse time characteristic and an instantaneous unit is
commonly used for this purpose and it not only provides economical protection against ground faults but also considerably simplifies the circuitry
of the switched distance relay, as is shown in fig. 6.4.
Another argument in favour of residual inverse time current relays
is the fact that at stations where there is an ungrounded power source or a
solidly grounded neutral and no power source enough fault current can return
via the healthy phases to cause additional fault detectors to operate and
hence cause wrong switching.
In fig. 6.4 lop is the current (operating) coil of the mho type distance
measuring unit, Vrest is its restraining potential coil and Vpo1 js its polarising
potential coil. The fault detectors a and c are instantaneous overcurrent
relays in phases a and c with a drop-out current about 60 % of pick-up. This
is satisfactory on lines of 33 kV and below where the minimum phase fault
current is at least tMce the maximum load current. Where lower phase fault
currents are possible the fault detectors require a high drop-out/pick-up
ratio and hence can only carry one contact; this necessitates auxiliary relays
to provide the extra contacts necessary for current and potential switching.
Similarly, in fig. 6.5, the fault detectors a, band care undervoltage relays.
On resistance grounded systems the phase-to-neutral voltage drops to 50 %
or less during a single-phase to ground fault, permitting the relay to carry
the necessary switching contacts. On solidly grounded systems the voltage
on the faulted phase may not drop to less than 80 %of normal and auxiliary
relays must be interposed to do the switching.
In fig. 6.5, lop is the current (operating) coil, 10 is the zero sequence
compensating winding, To is the compensating transformer, Vrest is the
restraining potential coil of the reactance unit and the directional starting
unit and VpOI is the polarising potential coil of the starting unit. Vpol is shown
277
Protective Relays
6.4
Pot~ntiClI
Au .C.T. lor
ohmic a.diu.tmtnt
(a)
(b)
FIG.
278
6.4
ben
To
C.Ts.
FIG .
one NO and one NC contact per fault detector so that auxiliary switching
relays can be eliminated and the scheme is a very simple one from the point
of view of contacts. For this reason it is also applicable to static relays.
In fig. 6.5, compensation for the zero sequence voltage drop between the
relay and the fault is accomplished by adding a portion of the residual current
to the phase current.
It was proved in Appendix 5.10.1 of the previous chapter that the relay
would measure Zl if KIo were added to the phase current supplied to the
Z/O-Z/ I
relay, where K =
where Z/ 1 and Z/ o were the positive and zero
Zl
sequence impedances of the protected section of line.
The alternative to current compensation is potential compensation. The
relay can be supplied only with 10 in the current circuit and the phase-toneutral potential can have the positive and negative sequence voltage components removed. Since IIZ I = 12 Z 2 on transmission lines the compensa.
Va- 2/ 1 Z I 10Zo
tlon can be 2/1Z I The relay then measures
= - - = Zoo
(6.1)
10
10
In order to measure Xo instead of Zo either a phase or an amplitude
I
279
6.5
Protective Relays
Op~ra.t&
FIG.
with the vectorial difference of the compensated voltage and 2l0Xo where
X' 0 is the replica reactance for the protected section.
Balance then occurs when
(6.2)
-21 1 Z 1 -21 0 Xo = 1V-2ltZ~
from(6.1)
i.e. when
11oZo- 2/ 0Xol = I/oZ.o1
R02+(Xo-2XO)2 = R~+X~
or
i.e. when
Xo=Xo
IV
280
6.5
To
en.
DireetlonC1l
unit
ReSistors
(a)
Q.
Induetlon cup
MHO rCIa.y
r-----Q.
b
To
P.Ts.
(b)
flO.
operation. It will be seen that a phase fault to ground causes no relay operation; this is permissible on a Petersen coil grounded system because singlephase ground faults are self-extinguishing but, on other systems, an additional
fault detector is necessary.
One advantage of the scheme in fig. 6.7a is the fact that the current and
potential switching can be similar but the use of the voltage drop across
TABLE 6.1
Operation of European Switching Scheme
Fault
a-b b-c c-a a-g b-g
Current la-lb Ib-Ic la-Ie la-Klo
Potential fab
Vbc
Vac
Va
281
6.5
Protective Relays
the resistors in the c.t. secondaries for supplying the current circuit necessitates
an extremely sensitive comparator circuit and relay unless the output of the
comparator bridge is amplified before it is fed to the output relay.
Where less sensitive relays are used, such as the induction cup, the C.t.
secondary current must be supplied directly or through an auxiliary C.t.
This means that the current switching circuit must be different from the
potential switching circuit because the main c.t. secondaries must be shortcircuited when not connected to the relay; this is illustrated in fig. 6.7b
which shows the connections of another German relay giving the same
switching of current and potential, except that on a c-a fault the ground
relay is connected to phase a instead of phase c.
A compromise between these two methods is to replace the resistors in the
current circuit by transactors and compare the transactor output voltages
with the line secondary potentials in a voltage comparator. This scheme
permits the use of an induction cup relay and yet allows the current and
potential circuits to be the same.
Fig. 6.8 shows the simplified circuitry of an English switched reactance
relay. In England, France and the U.S.A., reactance relays are preferred for
Phnst
o-----r-----<>n
<>----+--r----o b
To
e...+":':::::"h~ITtll-oc
P.T~,
To
C,TS.
L--...L...+-H-r-o n
FIG.
ground faults because of the risk of high fault resistance which could prevent
a mho or impedance relay from operating; for this reason the use of a single
measuri.ng unit for phase and ground faults requires that it should be of the
reactance type.
The scheme shown in fig. 6.8 gives accurate measurement for all types of
faults since it provides the correct currents and potentials, as shown in
Table 5.7 of Chapter 5. The current circuit is very simple, having only one
282
6.6
transfer contact per phase. In spite of the extra switching needed for the
polarising potential circuit of the starting unit, the total number of contacts is
no more than for the simplest switched impedance scheme.
The directional polarising coil uses the same voltage as the restraining
coils, i.e. the faulted voltage. In order to ensure correct directional action for
an interphase fault very close to the bus, the directional polarising voltage is
augmented by 5 % of the voltage from the phase or phase pair leading the
faulted phase or phase pair. Memory action is ineffective in switched schemes
because it cannot be sustained for more than 2 cycles after the inception of
the fault.
6.2
TABLE
Scheme
Units
Normal (unswitched)
Delta-wye
Interphase
Complete switching
Polyphase relays
1
1
5
5
1
6
3
2
1
1
cycle
cycle
cycles
cycles
cycle
1
5
5
5
1
cycle
cycles
cycles
cycles
cycle
Overcurrent fault detectors are used for phase selection in low and medium
voltage systems for interphase faults because the minimum fault current
exceeds the maximum load current magnitude. They are also used for singlephase ground faults on such systems when they are solidly grounded. The
a.
d.
~/
va
/ Vc
c~-----+------~b
/1
Vpol.= 3Vo
IVc
(a.)
(c)
FIG.
283
6.7
Protective Relays
resetting current of such fault detectors should be at least 90 %of their operating current value in order to ensure that they reset during an overload condition that may exist after the fault is cleared.
Medium voltage networks, however, are often grounded through resistance so that the minimum fault current does not necessarily exceed the
maximum load current. In such cases undervoltage relays are used for detecting single-phase ground faults and their contacts are sometimes connected in
parallel with those of the overcurrent fault detectors. Fig. 6.9 shows how the
wye voltage of the faulted phase is reduced by a single-phase ground fault
while the other two wye voltages are actually increased.
A more reliable phase selector than the overcurrent unit for single-phase
ground faults, which can be used on both grounded and ungrounded systems,
measures the phase angle between the residual potential and each of the lineto-line potentials. In the faulted phase the line-to-line potential lags the zero
sequence potential by about 90; in the other two phases the angles are about
210 and 330.
Other alternatives are (a) to compare the magnitudes of each pair of wye
potentials, (b) to measure the phase angle between the negative and zero
sequence components of current in each phase, (c) to compare the wye
potential to ground with the corresponding wye potentials to a floating
neutral.
8.7. POLYPHASE DISTANCE RELAYS
phase faults.
(b) VI = V2 for all interphase faults.
(c) VI = V2 + Vo for single-phase ground faults.
This indicates that polyphase distance relays (both phase and amplitude
comparator types) can be made, using potentials at the relay location and
compensating for the IZ drops in the line between the relay and the fault.
The nearest approach to a practical solution is a phase comparator compensated for line drops and zero sequence components, to give the phase-toneutral potentials at the fault which give a zero sine product for a fault at the
284
6.8
Volt<1g<>
Pas.
uro
Ntg.
Ph<1n
lora
Ntg.
Po .
PhQ
<1
</l-</l
</l - </l -G
#-'
J..
...",
A -, .. ~
A
<1
J.. '
o.b c
a.
<1-0
<1
~b
0.=0
<1
c-
a.
c
' y'"
Q_O
.,r-.....
+
a.
Qbc
<1
<1be
..I.
b=c=O
c.,r-.....b
e~b
~ C" y ..t'
- "'y"'" +
e b
a.
</l-G
<1
<1
ebb
Ph<1se
a.
<1
btl'
'
..
<1
b~c=O
285
6.8
Protective Relays
c:r.'f-__. , J
Aux.c:rr a
Sta.tion bus
StQtion bus
P.T.
P.T.
R~pljca.
ImpedQnc.,Z.
IZ
ce
n.
."
e=
v"
...,
~
v ..
Ole
e-=
a..
(b)
(a)
__________________
~
St
_Q._lio
_
n
_b
_
u
_s
____________
_ _ _ _ _ _ a.
~--~----------------------------------~~-------b
R~plica.
im p_dane.:
P.TS<:._-=_...".....
.,
i"
...,~
"
b======:---------~-~--~]
(a)
(c)
(b)
FIG.
6.11. (a) Polyphase mho relay (phase comparator) for phase faults
(b) Induction cup phase comparator
(c) Static (Hall effect) phase comparator
286
6.8
the replica impedance. Here again the connections are shown only for one
phase; the other is similar.
Fig. 6.11 shows schematically the three-phase connections of a potential
phase comparator for phase faults only. The torque of the relay is the sine
product
(6.4)
which is zero when the two quantities are in phase or when either quantity is
zero. Fig. 6.12 shows the effect of a b - c fault on the wye and delta potentials.
a.
/1 ~
/1 1\\
// f I
II'I~
I
\
/ I
/ I
II
\Y
\ \
Fa.ulted
/ ,I \ \
/
Ie
,"
FIG.
,I
, ,,,
/
'/
, I
'
\
/Norma.1
\v
1
\\
I
\ \
HI
\\
\\
6.8
Protective Relays
Sine
F4
----1
~ P~~~~f~~d
rea.ch~
rJ..,-;
--1)>f-f----1~ 1~Ia.y
:
ia.ult
behini relay
product
rz
Rela.y
loca.tion :
Fa.ult within
bala.ncf point
'7
)1
rela.y
FI
ofof---:)(~I- -
:
Fa.ult a.t
bala.ncf point
:
Fa.ult beyond
bala.ncr point
FIG.
The relay of fig. 6.11 does not operate on three-phase faults because the
three-phase fault affects both compensators equally and for an internal fault
two of the potentials are reversed so that the phase sequence is reversed by
one and corrected by the other, hence the phase sequence remains normal.
Consequently, balanced three-phase faults must either be taken as a calculated
improbability or must be covered by an additional single-phase distance
relay.
Fig. 6.14 shows the connections .of a current comparator for protection
against both phase and ground faults. It uses wye instead of delta potentials
and employs zero sequence current compensation to ensure correct operation
on phase-to-ground faults. Fig. 6.12 shows that, in a phase-to-phase fault,
compensated wye voltages are also in phase for a fault at the balance point
and hence the operation is equally reliable with wye or delta potentials. On
ground faults, however (fig. 6.15) the wye potentials are not in phase at the
fault location and the relay has zero torque for a single phase-to-ground
fault on two of the phases but not on the third. For example, in fig. 6.15, if
the relay is energised from phases a and b it will not trip for a fault between
phase c and ground.
An extra single-phase distance relay is shown in fig. 6.14 which takes
care of phase c-to-ground faults and balanced three-phase faults.
The foregoing phase comparators are based on 4-pole induction cup relays
because they are sine product devices. It would be impractical to use dynamometer relays or any form of static relay now available because they are cosine
product devices, and the use of a phase-shifting circuit for one phase would
give a tendency to transient overreach.
It is impractical to use phase sequence components, either singly or in
groups, for phase comparison because the positive and negative sequence
components have opposite phase rotation and such a relay would operate
differently, depending upon which phases were involved.
288
6.8
~~~--------------------------------~~~ c
P.Ts.
c:r.
ncb
~,
S.cond~y
-------
pountlar
abc
bu.
Prouct."
line
FIG.
Rclo.y torque
R.lo.y torque
a.
I
T-
lZ~\
IZr
Va
\\
\
_/'
I/'/'
ct.::::..- - - - - - - - -
\
\
IZ~\
,,
/'
,,
/ /'/'
1IC:..
________ _ \
(a.)
FIG.
289
6.9
Protective Relays
Amplitude comparators are best adapted to static circuits. They can use
either wye or phase sequence quantities; but neither gives much economy
over single-phase relays and the use of phase sequence quantities introduces
some loss in accuracy due to the use of sequence filters.
Where wye quantities are used the operating quantities can be paralleled
on one side and opposed to the paralleled restraining quantities so that the
strongest operating quantity is matched against the weakest restraining
quantity. A preferable arrangement, however, is to parallel the outputs of
three single-phase comparators as listed below. The sign is used to denote
the summation of the outputs of the three phases in the following equations.
Tripping occurs when:
Impedance
LI{l-K'/o)Z'1 > LIVI
Reactance
L12(1 - K' I o)X' - Vi > LIVI
LI(I -K'/o)Z'1 > LIV -2(l-K'/o)Z'IAdmittance
(6.5)
(6.6)
(6.7)
Fig. 6.16 shows the basic circuit for the polyphase admittance relay; the
others are self-evident. These circuits are advantageous with rectifier bridge
circuits but uneconomical to apply to electromechanical relays. With the
former, only three comparators are needed for phase and ground faults
instead of the normal six.
In the case of the polyphase reactance relay a polyphase admittance
starting relay is needed to prevent it from tripping on load. This was explained
with single phase reactance relays in Chapter 5.
Fig. 6.17 shows a circuit using phase sequence components. In these
circuits all the rectified potentials are added except the positive sequence
voltage V 1 , which is reversed for providing restraint. They are less accurate
than the circuits using wye quantities because (a) sequence filters introduce
an error which increases with the load on them and (b) when a number of
large quantities are combined, producing a small resultant near the balance
point, small errors in the large quantities produce large errors in the
output.
Fig. 6.16 is based on the fact that 1V11-1V21 = 0 at the fault location
for all faults except single-phase-to-ground faults where IV11-1 V21-1 Vo 1= O.
The fault values of potentials are obtained by compensating the phase potentials at the relay before they are applied to the sequence filters. The underreach of the relay on single-phase ground faults is remedied by a monitoring
relay which cuts in the component IVo - 10Zo I on the operating side when
Vo > KV2 where K > 1 and depends upon the ratio of Zo to Z1' An alternative is to start with 1V1 - I1Z' 1-1V2 + 12Z' 1-lVo +10Zo I and either cut out
the 1V0 +/oZo I component or double the 1V2+12Z'1 component when a
double ground fault occurs. This alternative is less beneficial because it
involves a race to prevent overreaching, whereas the first method merely
involves a slight delay in tripping single-phase ground faults.
290
Q.
~
u
~
..,
C.T.
FIG.
faZa
(a)
V"
Vc
N
Va
( Iv)
4>-G Fa..u lt
( III)
~-4K1 Fa.ult E
( ii)
4>- 4> Fa..ul t E
( I)
34> Fa.ult
V,
(b)
I't-V~=O
--------------------1
V;'=V2+V~
!,~
!'Zi
J.'I=~
I,Z,
ft~
6.16. (a) Amplitude comparator polyphase mho relay for all faults. (b) Phase sequence voltage distribution during faults
Tra.nsa.clors
R
lZ
Sta.llon bus
[J
6.10
Protective Relays
, -________________~S~~~ij~~~b~u~s~b~~r~s_______________r----~
+-r-----------------------------------~~---b
SenSl!,ve differen!".1
POlo.rl:~ rela.y
. - -- t i c-/ - - ---,
Rtttificr
bridgcs
Sequence
potentia.l t--+-t--l
filhr. t--+--f-+--!
Scconda.ry
potentia.!
bus
Protected
lin'
Singlc-phcuc-ground
1a.ult detector
FIG.
Y.lo---+-==::::::...J
Vao--+-./
FIG.
6'11
L{/(I -
V sin cP)} but such a unit would cost about the same as three separate
units and could be used only for interphase faults because the operating
torque ex: I: + I~ + K/~, ex: I~ + I~ + K' I~ and the II component due to load
could cause serious inaccuracy during light single-phase ground faults
The two windings of the sine product relay are energised with currents of
the form (I + K'I 0
:)
where K' =
Z~~Zi; Z;
pedance of the protected section and is made equal to the positive sequence
impedance Z 1of the protected section; Zo is the zero sequence impedance of
the protected section. Alternatively, potentials of the form {(/+K'/o)Z; - V}
can be impressed on the windings. Both are equivalent mathematically.
Referring to the latter, in phase a we have (Ia + K'/o) Z'l - Va which, during a
phase-a-to-ground fault at the relay balance point, becomes
i{(2C+Co)Zi +Co(Z~-ZD-2CZ1-CoZ~-3R,}
(6.8)
This expression was obtained by substituting the values for la, 10 and Va
given in the Table 5.7 at the end of Chapter 5. K =
where R, is the fault resistance and Zh Zz and Zo are total system impedances. It will be seen that all the terms in (6.8) cancel out except -3R,/K,
i.e. the expression is zero for a solid fault at the reach setting of the relay.
For the same fault the expression for phase b is
(Ib + K'Io)Zi - Vi,
r.
1
Z-1)Zo-3a Z}
= K{",3JZz-(a
R,
(6.9)
(Ic-K'/o)Zi -
=-
v;,
1 ~-3jZz+(a-1)Zo+3aR,}
K{
CoZ~ -
3aR,}
(6.10)
It is clear that the product of the phase a quantity with either of the others
293
6.11
Protective Relays
(6.11
(6.12)
~(j~3CZ1-jJ3czl-aR,+z2) = ~(Z2-aR,)
(6.13)
Obviously, the sine product of any two of these quantities is zero at the
balance point, except for the error due to arc resistance which is present in
all mho and impedance relays; hence the relay works correctly for a phase
fault between any phase pair. It can be demonstrated that it works correctly
also on double-ground faults but it will not trip at all on balanced threephase faults because the compensation effects all phases equally and their
product is positive (restraining) whether the compensated voltages are
positive or negative.
6.11.2. Polyphase Amplitude Comparator
The relay measures the sum of the compensated voltages of the there
phases, viz.
(6.14)
II2(I+K'Io)ZlFor a phase a-to-ground fault the expressions for the phases are:
For Phase a
VI-IVI
~ 12CZl +CoZo+3R,I
6.11
For Phase c
1
/K
12(C o-C)Zi +2Co(Z~-ZJ.)-v 3jZ 2 + CZi-(a -1)Zo- CoZ~-3aRfl-
-kl-jZn-CZi-(a-l)Zo-CoZ~-3aRfl
1
r
K
I-CZ 1+CoZ~-v 3jZ 2 -(a-l)Zo-3aR f l-
(6.17)
The sum of the moduli in expressions (6.15), (6.16) and (6.17) is zero for a
fault at the balance point only if all the impedances are homogeneous in
phase angle and Rf = O. This can be demonstrated by drawing the vectors
(first changing the a operators to j operators with the help of Table 1.1,
column 4).
Similarly, for a fault between phases band c, the relay outputs are as
follows:
Phase a
(6.18)
Phase b
/-
1- K1 /-.J3jCZ
1+a2~f-Z2/
(6.19)
Phase c
(6.20)
Here again the moduli of (6.18) (6.19) and (6.20) sum to zero for a fault
at the balance point with homogenous impedances.
For a three-phase fault the expressions are
Phase a
(6.21)
295
co
0)
I':)
2EZ2
Z1 +Z2
(a 2 - a)CZ'1 - Z2
E
Zl +Z2
(a - a2)CZ't - Z2 E
Zl +Z2
3Z2 + (a - a2)CZ'1 E
Zl +Z2
2(a2 - a)CZ'1 E
Zt +Z2
(a - a2)CZ'1 - 3Z2 E
Zt +Z2
C Z '1 E
Z1
a2C Z '1 E
Z1
aCZ'l E
Z1
Z'l
(1 - a2)C-E
Zt
Z't
(a2 - a)C-E
Zl
Z'
(a - I)C --.! E
Zt
Vea
VbC
Vab
Ve
Vb
Va
(Co - C)E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
Z2 +Zo + CZ't E
Z1 +Z2 +Zo
(CZ'2 -Z2)E
Zl +Z2 +ZO
~CoZ'O - Zo)E
Z1 +Z2 +ZO
2CZ'1 + CoZ'O E
Z1 +Z2 +ZO
(a2 - a)Z2 - CZ'1 + (a2 - l)Zo + CoZ'O E
Zl +Z2 +ZO
(a - a2 )Z2 - CZ't + (a - l)Zo + CoZ'o E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
3CZ'1 - (a2 - a)Z2 - (a2 - l)Zo E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
(a 2 - a)(Zo + 2Z2) E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
- 3CZ'1 + (a - a2)Z2 + (a - l)Zo E
Zl + Z2 +Zo
Phase a-Ground
CE
Zl +Z2 +Zo
CE
Zl +Z2 +Zo
CoE
Zl +Z2 +Zo
(2C + Co)E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
(Co - C)E
Zl +Z2 +Zo
Phases b-c-Ground
C(Z2 +Zo)E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
CZoE
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZi
CoZ2E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
Z2(C - Co)E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
C[a2Z2 + (a 2 - a)Z01 - CoZ2 E
Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
C[aZ2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - CoZ2 E
Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
CZ't(Z2 + Zo) + Z2Z 0 E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
ZO(Z2 - CZ' 2)
E
Zt Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZOZt
Z2(ZO - CoZ'O)
E
Zt Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZoZ1
Z2(3Z0 + CZ'1 - CoZ'O) E
Z1Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZoZt
CZ't[ a2Z2 + (a 2 - a)Zo1 - CoZ'oZ2 E
ZtZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
CZ't[aZ 2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - CoZ'oZ2 E
Z,Z2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
CZ't[(l - a2)Z2 + (a - a2)Zo1 + 3Z2Z 0 E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
CZ'I(Z2 + 2Zo)(a2 - a) E
Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
CZ'l[(a - I)Z2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - 3Z2Z0 E
ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZt
Table 6.4 is similar to Table 5.11 except that the fault resistance terms have been omitted, which makes the
symmetry of the expressions more apparent and facilitates the checking of polyphase measuring units.
Vt
Ie
a2C E
Zl
Vo
C E
Zl
Ia
10
V2
lz
aCE
Zl
CZ'lE
Zl
C E
Zl
(a2 - a)CE
Zl +Z2
(a - a2)CE
Zl +Z2
Z2 + CZ'l E
Zl +Z2
Z2 - CZ'2 E
Zt +Z2
Phase b-Phase c
CE
Zl +Z2
CE
Zl +Z2
Three-phase
Fault
(I)
iii
-.;:
::0
(1)
(1)
........-.
"b
0
......
(1)
...
:..
eft
6.11
Phase b
12a2CZ~ -a2CZ~ -a2Rfl-la2CZ~ +a 2Rfl
(6.22)
Phase c
12aCZ~ -aCZ~ -aR f l-laCZ 1+aRfl
(6.23)
The moduli of these expressions also all cancel out showing the scheme
measures correctly on three-phase faults under the same conditions.
297
7
Directional Pilot Belaying
Basic Principle-Pilot Wire Schemes-Carrier Channel SchemesCarrier Signal Checking-Future Trends
7.1. BASIC PRINCIPLE
7.2
r-o
--
__of-o
B
(a)
-<I....lI
(b)
(Open
jf
(c)
Internal
-; fau It
---..
0--
_0-1-0
o
Loo.d
0--
--
Extirno.l
fo.ult
some cases the condition can be remedied only by providing the extra circuitbreaker and length of line necessary to eliminate the line junction,
7.1.2. Information Transfer Between Ends
The communicating circuit between the two ends can be either a pair of
pilot wires, or a carrier channel using the power lines themselves, or a v.h.f.
radio signal transmitted directly between the line terminals. The choice
between these channels is generally made on an economic basis. For short
lines, pilot wires are generally used; for long lines, a carrier channel is
generally more economical; where 'line of sight' exists between stations,
microwaves can be used. The choice is also influenced by the fact that power
line carrier can also provide some additional facilities for communication,
and a microwave channel can provide 30 or more sub-channels for telephone
communication, telemetering, telecontrol, etc. (76).
7.2. SCHEMES USING A PILOT WIRE CHANNEL (73)
299
7.2
Protective Relays
1-----I5l-----o~
Pilot
line section
'--_ _ _ _-0'0
Pilot
(a)
...
I
:
......L....
(b)
FIG. 7.2. Basic circuits of d.c. pilot schemes
(a) Series pilot scheme. (b) Shunt pilot scheme
(ii) In the shunt scheme, fig. 7.2b, the contacts of the directional relays
close for power flowing from the line to the bus-bar (opposite from
fig. 7.2a) and, if anyone of them closes, indicating an external fault,
all the blocking relays B are energised, thereby preventing tripping at
all terminals. None of the D relays will close for an internal fault
and the fault detector relays, F, will individually trip their breakers.
In the actual circuits shown in fig. 7.4 and 7.5 separate directional relays
are used for phase and ground faults because the requisite sensitivity on all
300
7.2
faults cannot be obtained with a single relay. The relays for protecting against
phase-faults are preferably polyphase (32) since single-phase relays cost more,
are less sensitive and involve more contacts and circuit complexity. Both
schemes use the basic principle of directional distinction between external
and internal faults but differ in the method of exchanging the information
between the directional relays.
The series pilot wire scheme is basically an interdependent tripping scheme
where open-circuit failure of the pilot wire prevents tripping, although an
alarm relay gives a warning if this should occur. The shunt pilot scheme is
basically a blocking scheme which permits incorrect tripping if the pilot wire
is open-circuited; in the shunt scheme the pilot wire can also be used for
transmitting other information. Both schemes are applicable to tapped lines
or feeders without any special engineering or any change in setting or
equipment.
'Ground preference', i.e. arranging for the ground fault tripping unit to
override the phase blocking unit in the event of a heavy incoming load preventing tripping on a light internal ground fault, (82) is not necessary with
the schemes above. This may be seen from fig. 7.4, where the tripping units
have preference and from fig. 7.5 where voltage restraint can be used to
prevent the phase directional units from operating on any load conditions,
thereby preventing them from blocking tripping on a light, internal ground
fault.
.
7.2.1. Early Difficulties with d.c. Pilot Schemes
The two main complaints which have been held against d.c. pilot relaying
are:
(i) wrong tripping due to a contact race between the directional relays at
the two terminals, either at inception or clearing of an external fault;
(ii) incorrect tripping due either to cable leakage current or to a.c. in the
relay tripping circuit caused by the IZ drop in the ground during the
external fault; in this latter case the current path is through the
battery grounding point at one station and returns through the
capacitance of the pilot cable (fig 7.3b)
The first difficulty can be avoided by time delay in the tripping relays or
by designing them so that they will keep their contacts open during normal
conditions regardless of the direction of the load current. In the series pilot
scheme this requires voltage restraint on the directional relays so that both
relays will start with contacts in the open position and one of them will stay
open during an external fault. In the shunt scheme the relays initiating tripping
are fault detectors of the overcurrent or impedance type and their setting can
be made high enough to prevent operation on load current only.
The second difficulty can be solved by using an ungrounded d.c. source.
Referring to fig. 7.3a the difference in earth potentials at the two ends, due
to the fault current (I[Z,), causes current to flow through the path shown
301
7.2
Protective Relays
in fig. 7.3b. Some station batteries are ungrounded but most are grounded
through fault detecting equipment which can pass enough current to
operate the tripping relay of the pilot scheme; this is limited to 60 rnA
by the fact that the pilot wire resistance may be as high as 2000 ohms but the
voltage across them must not exceed 120 volts. When a ground fault occurs,
the voltage drop, 10Zo, in the ground is impressed across the insulation of the
line potentia.l
I
I
Ea.rth potentia.l
--......0
I
I
I
I
Externa.l
01--.. . . -t-l-'
,_f.:..a.u:;,.lt_
(a)
T
Tripping
end
:UJJJ
I
I
Blocking
end
I
I
I
~_r--------~I------------------~~
-----------_/
co.po.cita.nce pa.th
Fa.ult beyond
this termina.l
(b)
7.3. Wrong tripping through pilot capacitance
(a) Relay current path through pilot and ground
(b) Potential dropin ground due to fault current
FIG.
pilot cable wire and may well cause 60 rnA a.c. to flow through its distributed
capacitance, as shown in fig. 7.3b. The remedy is obviously to use an ungrounded battery for the pilot wire circuit.
The maximum pilot wire resistance that can be tolerated on d.c. pilot
schemes is 2000 ohms, which limits the length of line protected to 23 miles if
it is No. 19 AWG (20 lb/mile) pilot cable.
7.2.2. Series d.c. Pilot-wire Scheme
The basic d.c. connections are shown in fig. 7.4. The meanings of the
various relay symbols are as follows:
q,D = polyphase mho relay
GD = ground directional relay
q,F = polyphase overcurrent fault detector
GF = ground overcurrent fault detector
T = tripping relay
A = alarm relay for pilot wire open-circuit indication.
302
7.2
TC
Ar---~~----------~--+---------------~C
<po
1T
A
<pF, GF
(e)
(c)
~----------,----------------~
FIG.
used for blocking and tripping, the blocking relays must be at least as
sensitive as the tripping relays for all types offaults. This is achieved in fig. 7.4
by putting the fault detector contacts rpF and GF in series with the trip relay.
rpF 2 and GF2 can be separate overcurrent relays with higher settings than
those of rpF 1 and GF 1 but this is usually an unnecessary precaution on low
and medium voltage systems, since there is ample margin for effective relay
settings, generally between the maximum load current and the minimum fault
current. The advantage of high and low set fault detectors on a tapped line
must be weighed against the possibility of preventing tripping on an internal
fault on a two-ended line if the current at one terminal lies between the pickup values of rpFl and rpF2' or GF 1 and GF 2
303
7.3
Protective Relays
Referring to fig. 7.5, in this case the fault detectors F and GF tend to
initiate tripping but the directional relays D and GD prevent tripping when
they close their contacts for power in an incoming direction, because the
pilot wire signal operates the blocking relay, B, at all stations; hence no
tripping occurs under load conditions or on an external fault. The auxiliary
relay F should be given a delay of 001 sec in order to ensure that the B
(A)
FIG.
(S)
(C)
relays will operate before the T relays on an external three-phase fault close
to one terminal where the D relays may tend to operate slowly due to low
voltage.
When an internal fault ()ccurs, the directional relays remain open and the
B relay is not energised; however, the fault detectors F and GF close and
pick up the auxiliary relay FX which then energises the tripping relay T,
since the contacts B of the unenergised blocking relay remain closed.
In this scheme there is no necessity for two sets of fault detectors because
the directional relays do not initiate tripping and hence need no fault detector
to limit their sensitivity. On unbalanced faults, the directional units will
always pick up at a lower current value than the fault detectors because the
latter must be set above full load, whereas directional relays (with quadrature
connections) should pick up at less than 2 % of c.t. rating on unbalanced
faults.
Voltage restraint is recommended for the phase directional units in order
to prevent one of them from energising the blocking relays during a light
internal fault where the power flow in the unfaulted phase, due to load, is in
the opposite direction from the fault current. Voltage restraint is not
necessary on the fault detectors unless minimum faults require settings below
maximum load current.
7.3. PILOT SCHEMES USING A CARRIER CHANNEL (8) (74)
7.3
In the blocking scheme, illustrated in figs. 7.7 and 7.8, the carrier is started
by fault detector relays which are countermanded by directional relays
only if the fault current is flowing away from the bus; under external fault
conditions this will be the case only at one terminal and carrier will still be
transmitted from the other end, so that the carrier signal thus appears on the
line and blocks tripping at both ends.
The interdependent tripping scheme is known as intertripping or transferred tripping; a carrier signal received from the other end of the line causes
local tripping, whereas, in the blocking scheme, it would prevent it. The
Zone 1 units of the directional distance relays at the end nearest to an internal
fault not only trip locally but send a carrier signal to the other terminal. This
signal causes immediate tripping at that end also, although the fault may be
beyond the Zone 1 reach of the relays at that end; this is shown in figs. 7.11
and 7.12. Failure of carrier prevents simultaneous instantaneous tripping at
the end furthest from the fault, and this results merely in delayed tripping
at that end.
An alternative to intertripping is 'carrier acceleration', wherein the
receipt of a tripping carrier signal from the other terminal increases the Zone 1
reach to Zone 2 reach, resulting in instantaneous tripping at both ends. This
is shown in figs. 7.9 and 7.10.
The carrier equipment is frequently used for communication and telemetering as well as protection so that only a portion of its high cost can be
justifiably charged against protection.
Voltage restraint directional relays are preferable in this context for the
same reason as given for the pilot wire schemes. Since back-up protection is
required for the periods when the carrier equipment is out of service for
maintenance, it is convenient to use three-step directional distance relays
of the mho or the reactance type, of which the second step is associated with
the carrier tripping and the third step with carrier blocking.
7.3.1. The Carrier Channel (74)
The signal is injected into the power line circuit, as shown in fig. 7.6a,
through coupling capacitors and is prevented from going outside the protected section by line traps, i.e. parallel resonant circuits tuned to the carrier
frequency. The carrier signal is generated by a transmitter consisting of an
electronic oscillator and amplifier with an output usually of about 15 to 20
watts at a frequency between 50 and 500 kc/s. Below 50 kc/s the size and cost
of the coupling components would be too high; above 500 kc/s the line losses,
and hence the signal attenuation, would be too great on long lines. 15 watts
output has been found sufficient to cope with the losses of lines up to 100
miles, including the effect of icing, i.e. for a maximum loss of 30 dB.
Carrier current can be used only on overhead lines because the capacitance of a cable would attenuate the carrier signal to ineffectual levels.
The coupling capacitor consists of a stack of capacitors, series connected,
inside a porcelain insulator for injection into and receipt of carrier signal from
L
305
7.3
Protective Relays
the line. The drain coil presents a high impedance to the carrier frequency
so that the transmitter can inject the carrier signal without permitting any
appreciable voltage across it at system frequency. The line trap limits the
carrier signal to its own section of line thereby preventing (a) interference
with other lines and (b) shorting of the carrIer signal by an external fault.
The carrier signal may be of fixed frequency and operate in an on-off
fashion or it may be on continuously (at a lower power) and a frequency
shift employed to operate the relays at the other end of the protected section.
The use of modulation techniques permits a number of signals at
slightly different frequencies to be used on the same circuit.
The carrier signal can be introduced between one phase and ground or
between two phases. The latter is technically better but much more expensive,
since it requires two sets of coupling capacitors (this is no problem where the
coupling capacitors are also used for a secondary potential supply) and two
sets of line traps. This is preferred in the U.K. but the single conductor
scheme is more generally used elsewhere. The single conductor scheme
requires an earth wire for consistent results and demands more careful
engineering since it has higher attenuation and has a higher interference level
and stronger coupling with other phases.
The presence of a fault on a line protected by blocking carrier causes no
trouble, because the carrier is in any case cut off for an internal fault. On the
other hand, the carrier channel must be operative for the inter-tripping and
carrier acceleration schemes and some allowance must be made for the
effect of faults, although the attenuatidn of the carrier signal is generally less
than expected. The amount of attenuation varies from about 20 to 50 dB
with single-phase ground faults and phase to ground coupling, depending
on the location of the fault; it is of course worse with multiphase faults. Frequency shift carrier is considerably better because it permits a more sensitive
setting of the receiver since the blocking frequency prevents tripping on
spurious H.F. signals from disconnecting switches and arcing external
faults. Back-up protection is necessary in either case if three-phase faults to
ground are considered a practical risk.
Fig. 7.6a is a schematic diagram of the carrier coupling circuit for coupling
to two conductors; with single conductor coupling one transformer, one
series coil and one coupling capacitor are removed. Fig. 7.6b is the simplified
equivalent circuit corresponding to either one or two conductor coupling and
shows it to be of the form of a band pass filter (see companion volume).
A third type of pilot channel uses microwave (900 to 6000 megacycles)
and the signal being beamed by parabolic antennae from one station to the
next; up to 90 miles range is possible in flat country but obviously the range
is limited by hills and buildings. This system is applicable only where there is
a clear line of sight between stations. Because of the high frequency as many
as 30 signals can be transmitted spaced about 10 kc/s apart. Each frequency
channel can be modulated by a multiplexing transmitter with sub-carrier
frequencies of about 500 kc/s. Experiments have been conducted and limited
306
7.3
Prohc'lti
hi'll!
1~-----------------+-----
Coa.a to
(oj
Series
tun, ng
Cou pi i ng
.-----'UlICOiUll"~__-i ca.pa.tl t or ,
I
I
I
OCi""~'
Shunt
tunt-r
I
I
FIG.
success claimed, for v.h.f. transmission, other than line-of-sight, using flat
reflecting surfaces mounted at convenient geographical points and without
auxiliary electric amplification.
7.3.2. Blocking Carrier Scheme
7.3
Protective Relays
the local carrier transmission and the receiver relays close their contacts,
thereby causing tripping at both ends.
The advantage of the holding coils on the receiver relays is similar to that
of voltage restraint on a directional relay; the receiver relay contacts are
:-----r.,
I.
_BA ~
-+---;--.----~
T. - - - -.....
(b)
FIG.
normally kept open so that there is no contact race when an external fault
occurs, and blocking must be applied before tripping can occur. Furthermore,
discrimination is assisted by the pick-up time of cpTX or GTX and the flux
decay time of the receiver relay.
308
7.3
(a)
O--~l----~l------~----~l~o+
GT
Yl I
I'OY3 (t/IB)
IT
t/lTX
FIG.
7.3
Protective Relays
Referring to fig. 7.7a, the reach of the carrier starting relay, cpB and GB,
must exceed that of the directional tripping relays cpT and GT, otherwise
an external fault beyond the carrier reach would not be blocked.
(a) Fault Detectors. If the carrier should fail a fault at X beyond terminal
B in fig. 7.7a would cause wrong tripping at terminal A. To prevent this the
phase relays cpT usually have voltage restraint which gives them a mho
characteristic and limits their reach to just beyond the end of the protected
section, as shown in fig. 7.7b. Similarly, cpB is usually an offset mho relay
so as to ensure positive operation for a fault close to the bus-bar; this ensures
that there will be no risk of failure to send a blocking signal for the case of
a fault just outside the protected section. In fig. 7.8 cpB and cpT are drawn as
two polyphase units but, in most present day equipment, each consists of
three single phase mho units with their contacts connected in series for
blocking and in parallel for tripping.
For ground faults an impedance characteristic is not necessary for limitation of the tripping zone; this is so because, on most high voltage systems
where carrier relaying is liable to be used, there is a grounded transformer
neutral at every substation thereby ensuring that faults beyond the next
station would draw very little zero sequence current through the protected
line section. Consequently GB and GT are usually zero sequence directional
units polarised in opposite directions. At grounded stations they are polarised
by the transformer neutral current; at ungrounded stations they are
polarised by residual voltage.
(b) Receiver Relay. The holding coil H is normally energised. Fault
current flowing into the protected section causes cpT or GT to pick-up their
auxiliary relays cpTX or GTX which then open to de-energise the holding
coil H. If the fault is internal, this sequence will occur at both ends of the
protected section and other contacts of cpTX and GTX will shut off the carrier
transmission as previously explained. With both carrier and holding coils
de-energised, the receiver relay will close its contacts, thereby permitting
tripping.
(c) Distance Relay Back-up. Three-step distance relays are generally used
in a double role, to provide independent back-up protection and to provide
the tripping and blocking functions of the carrier scheme.
In a mho relay the starting or Zone 3 unit is used as cpB for starting carrier.
For this purpose the direction of measurement is reversed as shown in
figs. 7.7a and 7.7b. It still provides Zone 3 time back-up protection as
explained in Chapter 5, section 5.4.3, but it is now located at the other end
of the protected section. Reactance carrier is not common because carrier
relaying is generally used on medium or long high-voltage lines where mho
relays are preferable. Where it is used, however, the starting unit cannot be
reversed and a separate impedance or offset mho relay is provided for starting
carrier.
In most distance relaysZone2is obtained by the timer extending the reach
of the Zone 1 measuring unit after the elapse of the time for Zone 2. In the
310
7.3
311
7.3
Protective Relays
Norma.l rca.ch of
rcla.y. a.t A
Extcnd.d rra.ch
of nldYs a.t A
(a)
fIG.
Ib
o
TrIp
fIG.
Receiver
7.3
Protective Relays
7.3
,,10.1 Clt A
by ca.rr ..~r Sl9n0..1 from B
,.,
------------~~~~-----------R~
(a)
I,
(b)
7.11. (a) Mho characteristics for carrier intertripping scheme
(b) Distance settings for carrier intertripping scheme
FIG.
<tn,
II
'PT,I
GT, I
c>--------------J
p.r
a.
Tr ip
Tro.nsmlttcr
FIG.
possibility that the sudden reduction of torque on this directional relay may
cause its contacts to rebound to the closed position, thereby causing incorrect
tripping if the carrier signal is still on. One solution is to cut off the carrier
signal after about 4 cycles, so that no tripping will occur if the directional
314
7.3
relay does not close in 4 cycles plus the operating time of the relays and the
carrier equipment at the other end.
7.3.5. Summary of Directional Comparison Carrier Schemes
7.1
TABLE
Carrier
Scheme
Separate Zone-2
Unit Required
Effect of
Carrier Failure
Ground
Faults
Blocking
Acceleration
Inter-tripping
Yes
No
No
Incorrect trip
Zone-2 trip
Zone-2 trip
Distance
Overcurrent
Overcurrent
In the right-hand column of the above table, either distance or instantaneous directional overcurrent relays can be used for ground fault for all
three schemes. However, ground distance relays are preferable for the carrier
blocking scheme; this practice ensures that, if carrier is turned on for telemetering or telephone communication, tripping will be blocked if there is a
ground fault near one end of the line section which draws insufficient current
at the other end to operate the relays to shut off carrier transmission. On the
other hand, in the absence of ground distance relays, tripping due to this
cause, which would be virtually a misapplication, cannot happen if a separate
channel is used for communication. Similarly, incorrect tripping with either
the inter-tripping or the carrier acceleration schemes can be avoided by
separate channels, or by monitoring the tripping signal through the local
directional fault detector.
Mho relays are also safer than directional overcurrent relays for phase
faults in the carrier blocking scheme; this is so for the case of a threeterminal line, where an external fault may divide the outgoing current between
two of the terminals so that neither has sufficient current to block carrier
transmission at the tripping terminal which, of course, has the total fault
current. Correct application is absolutely essential with such system configurations. The carrier acceleration and inter-tripping schemes are preferable
for three ended lines since a fault near one of the terminals may be affected
by the existence of low impedance path around to another terminal, thereby
causing outgoing current at one terminal; this condition would cause blocking
at all three terminals with the blocking scheme of directional carrier but would
only cause sequential tripping with the other schemes.
In the U.S.A. there is a growing tendency to use phase comparison carrier
for ground faults, in conjunction with mho relay directional comparison for
phase faults. This combination eliminated many such problems, including
that of the effect of mutual inductance on ground faults. The best general
solution would appear to be carrier acceleration or inter-tripping, with phase
comparison as an alternative for ground faults where mutual inductance
effects are involved.
315
7.4
Protective Relays
8
A.C. Pilot Bel"ging
Pilot Wire Schemes-Phase and Amplitude Comparators-Effect of
Load Current-Multi-terminal Lines-Pilot Wire LimitationsPilot Supervision-Phase Comparison Carrier
HEORETICALLY, unit protection provides almost perfect selectivity
Tbut,
when applied to lines and cables, it is less effective because the pilot
channel or link between the terminals, together with the coupling equipment
in the case of h.f. carrier, introduces amplitude and phase angle errors in the
quantities compared (28) (140). This link may be pilot wires or high frequency
carrier channel superimposed on the overhead power lines.
The comparison is made between the c.t. secondary currents, making
use of the fact that they should be equal under normal conditions and for a
fault outside the protected section, in an ideal system. Pilot channels are very
expensive; hence it is customary to combine the currents at each terminal into
a single current either by means of a summation c.t. or by a phase sequence
network (83), so that only one pair of wires or carrier channel is necessary.
In the case of pilot wires, errors can be caused by currents induced in the
wires by magnetic induction or by the potential gradient in the ground during
an external fault (73). Furthermore, if the pilot wires are rented from a telephone company (76), there is always the possibility of their being interfered
with in error, during maintenance of other telephone equipment at the
exchanges.
Carrier channels are affected by icing on the conductors and by high
frequency interference due to lightning and to arcing in faults and circuit
breakers.
Wired pilots are used for short lines but are uneconomical above 10 to
15 miles. The cost of carrier channels is not directly related to their length
but they are more expensive and their justification depends upon their joint
use for other purposes, such as telemetering and telecommunication (59)
(76).
Where the cost of carrier is not justifiable and available pilot wires are
not suitable for current comparison audio tone relaying is recommended (99).
The audio (voice frequency) signal is transmitted between line terminals and
used in exactly the same way as high frequency carrier is used on a power line.
317
Protective Relays
8.1
The frequencies used range between 500 and 2500 c.p.s and a different frequency is used in each direction. The signal not only blocks tripping on
external faults but provides monitoring of the pilot wire circuit. Single tone
frequencies are used without risk of wrong operation due to interference
signals because tripping is controlled by fault detector relays (see section
8.11.1).
8.t. PILOT WIRE SCHEMES
Modem schemes employ biassed relays whose restraining windings (or
signals in the case of static relays) increase the relay pick-up for high values of
through current ; this reduces the effect of c. t. inequalities and the errors due
to pilot wire series-resistance and shunt-susceptance (78) (79).
As with all comparator systems, either phase or amplitude comparison
can be employed on a current or on a voltage basis. Most present day
systems use amplitude comparison in a circulating current system since they
are easier to apply to multi-ended lines and are less affected by pilot capacitance; especially when pilot compensation is provided (see section 8.4.1).
The quantities available for comparison at each terminal are thelocal current
and the pilot wire current. Since. the latter is the difference of the currents
at the two ends, the quantities correspond to 1A and (IA-IB) in fig. 8.1.
C.T.
Prot~ct~d
Ilno soctlon
cr.
Pilot wirrs
~Rp
L-------~~r-----~----~~Ar----~
I
I
I
I
v,,=o Clt
midpoint
FIG.
318
8.2
I~~I
Ap
and
The selectivity of a unit scheme can be defined as the ratio of the relay
operating current at one terminal for an internal fault to that for an external
fault with the same primary current supplied from that terminal. This ratio is
called the discriminating factor (D) which would be infinite for a diffetential
system with the relay situated midway between perfectly matched c.ts, as
in fig. 8.1.
In pilot wire schemes, for practical reasons, the relay cannot be in the
middle of the. protected section, but must be replaced by a relay at each terminal. This difficulty was overcome in an early system by a third pilot wire,
as shown in fig. 8.2, which enables the relays at both ends to be at zero voltage
~~
______________ ________________
FIG.
t~
For proper discrimination, internal faults should be outside the characteristic circle for the particular terminal and all external fault conditions
inside the circle.
319
8.2
Protective Relays
With double-end feed, all internal fault conditions are well outside the
circle in the opposite quadrants, as shown in fig. 8.7b. With perfect C.t.
performance, loads and all external faults should be represented by the point
1,0 which should be well inside the circle.
Unfortunately, load current and c.t. errors can upset this theory of discrimination unless certain precautions are taken. The combination of a light
~~i-
_ _ _-::::;;:;;;....oo::::c.-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ RclQ.y
seUing
FIG.
Fa.ult current
Discrimina.tlng fo.ctor = ~g
fault and a heavy through load current may produce a value of ex or p which
is inside the circle and hence prevent tripping. Pilot wire attenuation or
transient C.t. saturation at one terminal (due to c.t. remanent flux or due to
the use of different types of c.ts at the two terminals) may move the external
fault value outside the circle, causing erroneous tripping.
The former is discussed in section 8.7.1 of this chapter and the latter in
section 8.4.1, and in Vol. II.
'.2.2. Multltermlnal Line.
For reasons given in Chapter 3 and elaborated in Volume II, discrimination between internal and external faults is more difficult with a voltage balance
scheme than with a circulating current scheme. However, the condition described in section 5.5.10 of Chapter 5 can also cause incorrect blocking in a
circulating current scheme. This is the case where there is generation only at
one terminal and there is a low impedance path between the other two so
that current flows outwards at one terminal for an internal fault near the
other te~al having no generation.
This condition can sometimes be overcome by the use of fault detectors
because the current at the blocking terminal is usually small. Sometimes it is
convenient to provide no relaying at the blocking terminal (which is usually
the shortest leg) and treat the line as a two-terminal line with a tap.
320
8.3
The phase comparison voltage balance scheme shown in fig. 8.4 has
been used in England for at least 25 years (80). It compares the phase angle
of the local current with that of the pilot wire current. The actual comparison
in the relay is between voltages derived from the currents, using the upper
pole of a wattmetric type induction disc relay as a transactor, as shown in
fig. 8.4. It will be seen that this pole is also used as a three-phase summation
a.
b
........
~
Prouct
C.T'
S ~ (l dong
f-L'.
~ 0L4
p:
~
~~i4 v
FIO.
011
D 1S C
transformer. The same pole carries a secondary winding across which appears
a voltage corresponding to a combination of the local currents. The voltage
is opposed to the voltage produced by a similar arrangement at the other end
of the protected line section, and the difference voltage is impressed on the
lower coil of the relay electromagnet.
Normally, because the two voltages are equal and opposed, no current
flows in the pilot wire or the lower coil and the relay has no torque. On the
other hand, when an internal fault occurs, the voltages assist each other and
current flows in the pilot wire and relay coils, thereby causing tripping.
The torque of the electrical signal is of the form J(KJ - Vp cos cf, where
cf> is the phase angle between the local current I and the voltage Vp across the
pilot wires. In effect the relay measure~ the apparent pilot wire resistance
V coscf>
.
co-ordmates
IIBI
'L p and J'IIBI
(. q'
Protective Relays
8.3
external faults the current in the pilot wire is small because the voltages from
the upper poles of the relays are opposed and the resultant voltage is shifted
almost 90 in phase because of the predominating effect of the pilot wire
capacitance.
The advantages of this relay are low cost, simplicity and relative immunity
to high pilot wire capacitance. Its limitations are slow speed and its inability
G
-t~====~~~------B
Interna.l
fa.ult
Externa.l
fa.ult
FIG.
to trip on single-end feed at the far end because the relay produces no torque
with the same current in the upper and lower poles. It will operate with pilot
loops up to 800 ohms.
Fig. 8.6 shows an American scheme (79) using a similar principle with an
induction cup relay which gives faster operation and greater sensitivity,
Rcstra.int
Pol.
II
To
sum~""~i-~io_n
Pilot
II =------'---'----'00000'---/ wrs
~
Tra.nsa.ctClr
_ _ _ _ _----",
FIG.
322
8.3
Two alternative methods are used, the circulating current method and the
balanced voltage method of comparison, both of which produce similar
operating characteristics, shown in fig. 8;7. In the former, the c.t's at the two
ends are connected so that the currents normally circulate around the pilot
I
A B
Trip
,
Trip
/ ' Block
(a)
'j'AI
lie"
ExtHno.l
fault (1,0)
Block zone
If Ip
Inter nul
fa.ults on
~d~ou~b~I.-~.-nd~~~----~------~----~------- ~
Iud
Trip zone
FIG.
(b)
8.7. Operating characteristic of amplitude comparator
(a) Scalar diagram. (b) Polar diagram
loop (fig. 8.8) but, during an internal fault, the c.t. outputs are opposed so
that current now flows in the operating coils.
In the balanced voltage system the c.t's are opposed so that no current
should flow in the pilots normally but, when an internal fault occurs, current
323
8.4
Protective Relays
Protected Iine section
a-t~====~----------~~~~~---b~-+~--~------------------------------c~-+-+&r~-------------------------------
Pilots
(a)
1IRES"RO
.[3
m
3
14-k.x
(b)
FIG.
circulates around the loop through the operating coils of the relay. The one
system is the dual of the other.
4.t. Circulating Current Scheme
8.4
~ in the
8.4
Protective Relays
TABLE
8.1
op
op
or
Pilot side
l-K
1 +K" S
1 +K S
l-K"
l-K 1
1 +K" S
C.T. side
1
1 +K' S
1
l_K' S
1 +K'
OP'
1 +K 1
l-K" S-
l-K'S
(a) Restraining Coil on c.t. Side. Since this connection is usually employed
on long lines and Post Office pilots which have appreciable resistance and
susceptance, it is necessary to compensate for "I to ensure discrimination.
As previously stated, the object of the compensation is to maintain a similar
ratio of restraining to operating coil currents in the relays at both ends' of the
pilot. It can be approached by inserting inductance in series with the pilot
wires (130) but it can be achieved by providing the correct amount of inductance in series with each operating coil.
If the impedances of the operating coil circuit at each terminal (Zo, in
fig. 8.10b) are adjusted so as to make them in phase with current fed from one
end only, this will have the effect of replacing '1 by a scalar quantity s in the
expressions for the radius and centre location of their respective characteristic
circles; hence their circles will have their centres on the real axis of the
IX- or p-plane.
Furthermore, by adjusting the bias of the relay so that K = 1- S2, the
expressions for rand c will be identical. This can be seen by substituting for
K in the expressions for rand c in Table 3.1. of Chapter 3.
This method increases the length of the pilot for which discrimination is
possible and is achieved by adjusting an inductive impedance series with each
operating coil to provide an impedance.
(8.1)
where m is the attenuation constant in nepers per mile, n is the phase shift
constant in radians per mile, ZoN is the impedance of the pilot loops and
Zo,IO is the impedance of the operating coil circuit.
Inspection of the equation will show that if Zo, is made as inductive as
possible (e.g. (I = 83) its ohmic value is reduced and the sensitivity of the
relay will be increased at the end remote from the power source during singleend feed; t/> is usually about 45 for long pilots. Zo, m and n can be found in
handbook tables (151) (152); sometimes n is given in terms ofsin n and cos n.
The derivation of equation (8.1) is given in the Appendix, section 8.12.
(b) Restraining Coil on Pilot Side. Since this arrangement is usually
associated with short lines close compensation for "I is not necessary and,
326
8.4
- JR+jWL
G+jwC
Zo -
(R:+W:L:)*
jarg.;;[tan-1 ~ _ tan-l~]
G + C
wC
wL
W
(8.2)
One cause, attenuation due to pilot wire resistance and susceptance, has
already been dealt with in section 8.4.1. Another cause is unequal C.t.
magnetic saturation.
As previously stated, the value of (X or f1 should be within the characteristic
circle for an external fault and should be represented by the point 1,0. If,
however, one or more of the c.t's at one end saturate, the currents will not be
equal during an external fault and the value of (X or f1 may be outside the circle.
This saturation may be at high currents due to abnormal lead resistance
at one end or due to the use of different kinds of c.t's, one end having c.t's
with stalloy cores and the other end C.R.O.S. or H.R.C. steel cores. Generally
it is a transient condition brought on by the d.c. component of an offset
current wave and aggravated by remanent magnetic flux in one C.t. or by
unequal lead resistance or dissimilar c.t. characteristics.
327
8.5
Protective Relays
328
Summntion
C ,T,
8.5
-----/:~>(:.'----
~] Lc;,L-----o-:
~
'0----
Pilots
iwu;tl
i
i
._.~I.~
Oper.
Rest.
(a)
..
__---------------------8
::>
u
'0
u
o scrlminnting
""
fador :
~..
a.
(b)
~1~~I::==:==__n _+2~-n~-_-_-_-_-_-_~~
~I~
I,
k------n--t-::2:----C> 14
(c)
8.9. Voltage balance scheme
(a) Basic a.c. connections
(b) Discriminating factor
(c) Vector diagram of summation C.t. output
FIG.
329
8.6
Protective Relays
c,,{ ~]
I
\
/\
,'----Pilots
(a)
a.
b
~
Zp
(c)
8.10. Compensation for pilot-wire capacitance
(a) A voltage balance scheme
(b) A circulating current scheme
(c) Automatic compensation for pilot length
FIG.
IF = 1.( _ 1 = (X _ 1. This means that the fault current to operate the relay
1B
~;.
The basic connections of the circuit are similar to that of the circulating
current scheme (fig. 8.11a) but the principle of operation is different.
The relays have no restraining coils. Half-wave rectifiers are arranged to
330
8.6
pass current through the operating coil in the tripping direction only during
an internal fault.
The resistances RA and RB are made slightly greater than that of the
pilot loop Rp- During an external fault one of the resistors RA or RB is shortcircuited by its rectifier, depending upon which half of the cycle is considered
a __~A~~__________~pr~o~t.~ct~.d~I~
ln~.~'.~Cl~'O~"__________-=~~B~_
b--~R=~--------------------------------~~~~
(0 )
(0)
G\, ,
\
./
(a)
FIG.
(figs. 8.11b and 8.llc). The alternate short-circuiting of RA and RB causes the
relays alternately to have zero or negative voltage across them so that neither
relay operates. The fact that RA and RB are slightly greater than Rp , the pilot
wire resistance, makes the relays always have a slightly negative voltage.
During an internal fault, the c.t. currents are relatively reversed so that
positive voltage appears across both relays during one half cycle and zero
331
8.7
Protective Relays
voltage during the next half cycle. An additional half-wave rectifier is connected across each relay coil to perpetuate the coil current during the dead
half cycle. Non-linear resistors protect the c.t's from overvoltage during the
dead half cycle when the two c.t's would oth;rwise be open-circuited
(fig. 8.11e).
This scheme is used in England for both private and telephone pilots.
The relay is simple and inexpensive. It can be used with pilot wires up to
1000 ohms with an ordinary telephone type relay. It is somewhat affected by
offset waves since its stability relies upon movement of the equi-potential
point from one relay to the other during alternate half cycles of an external
fault.
8.7. POLYPHASE SUMMATION OF C.T. SECONDARY CURRENTS
Figs. 8.10 and 8.11a show widely used arrangements of windings for
summation c.t's. The output current for a given fault current magnitude in
each type of fault is given in Table 8.2 in terms of c.t. rated current.
Because the characteristics of pilot wire relays are plotted in terms of
ex =
fA
fB
or
turns in the summation transformer primary except for the ratio of the tap
turns. It is customary to make the turns between the a and b taps equal to
those between band c and use a higher number ofturns (n) between c and n,
the c.t. neutral return wire, so as to provide more sensitive action on ground
faults. Consequently, the pick-up setting can be expressed in terms of combinations of n and 1 for the various faults and, in this way, add only one more
constant to the equations.
It will be obvious from fig. 8.9c that the sensitivity of the relay will vary
with the type of fault; for example, the pick-up current for a c-a fault will
be half the value for an a-b fault and the pick-up current for a phase-a-toground fault will be ~2 times the value for a c - a fault.
. n+
Fig. 8.9c shows that, owing to the 120 between phases, the output for a
balanced three-phase fault is '" 3, so that the pick-up current is ../"3 times that
for an a-b fault.
8.2
TABLE
a-G
b-G
c-G
n+2
n+l
14%
165%
20%
90 0/0/
332
90%
45%
52%
8.7
v"3 '
where Kl and Ko are adjustments in the filter. It is free from blind spots if K is
chosen to suit the parameters of the protected circuit. Unlike the summation
transformer, the pick-up current of the relay supplied by this filter network
does not depend upon which phases are involved but only upon the amount
of II and 10 in the fault, which can be calculated from the Table 5.11 in
Chapter 5.
The general problem, however, is to select a form of network which can,
with the minimum of adjustment, suit most system application conditions.
This has been studied recently (83) and it has been shown that a combination
of the form II - NIz where N > 3 is generally applicable.
I
IL
In section 8.5 and fig. 8.12c it was shown that the value of
{3 =
+ IF =
IL
IX
= ~ or
IB
depends upon which phases are involved because of their different treatment
in the summation c.t.
Fig. 8.9c shows that the output for a balanced three-phase load lags the
unity p.f. position for phase-a by 30. Consequently, for a ground fault on
The values of
,I,v3
IL
measuring their length from the point 1,0 to their intersection with the
characteristic circle. Fig. 8.12 shows the circle on the reference axis but, as
333
8.7
Protective Relays
explained in section 8.4.1, the circle may be displaced from this axis by pilot
capacitance unless it is compensated for.
Having measured these values of K, a table can be made of their values
and the actual effect of the load upon the pick-up current calculated for
L",=Argt
/
.0.
c-G
a-c
(c)
FIG.
various faults during single-end feed. As previously stated, the effect of load
current is negligible during double-end feed.
The value of IF for tripping with an
~
n+2
8.12.
1~ as a percentage of c.t.
8.7
rating. The values for other faults are given in Table 8.3. To these values must
be added the threshold value of pick-up given in Table 8.2.
TABLE 8.3
Effect of Load on Pick-up Settings
Fault
Summation
c.t. turns
Pick-up setting
a-G
b- G
n+2
n+l
bxV3
exV]
lOOn
axV3
l00(n
+ 2)
l00(n
+ 1)
100
100
100
200
..~:r
0:
Ma.ximum fa.ult
current
Fcwlt
setting
(a)
----i------------l-l---I
Common(through) component
I
I
I
Current
(b)
FIG.
335
8.8
Protective Relays
Private pilots are usually put in at the same time as the power conductors.
In cable systems, the pilot cable is laid in the same trench as the power cable
and protected from interference by twisting and sometimes screening. Overhead pilots may be on separate poles on the same right-of-way or may even
be combined with the earth wire. Fig. 8.14 shows the apparent impedance of
commonly used open and screened pilot cables. An analysis of the effect of
pilot-wire impedance and shunt admittance upon pilot relay characteristics
is given in reference (140).
Pilot wire cables are often rented from telephone companies (76) but they
involve certain difficulties which have to be recognised, such as re-routing
10,000
6,000
4,000
....
..
] 2,000
..u
c::
d
1,000
....c::
..
d
Q.
Q.
600
400
200
~ ~~~
100lL- -__
____
__
1
2
4
6
10
____
~
20
____
~ ~~.~.~.
40
__
60 80 100
FIG.
by the telephone staff causing a change in parameters, the insertion of inductive loading coils and sometimes open or short-circuiting during switchboard
maintenance. Also, the voltage across the pilots must not exceed 130 V and
the current 60 mA, compared with 200 V and 200 mA for private pilots. This
means that limiting devices have to be used in order to provide sufficient
relay sensitivity during minimum generating conditions without exceeding the
permissible voltage and current during maximum conditions. Limiting devices
employ either neon lamps (U.S.A.) which cut off sharply at about 90 V or
thyrite which has a characteristic of the order of V4 = kI, where k is a
336
8.9
constant and is controlled by series resistance. Zener diodes are now coming
into use for this purpose.
Telephone pilots are usually either 2000 or 3500 ohms with padding
resistance to make them up to the nearest value. All equipment connected
to these pilots must stand a 15 kV test to ground.
B.9. PILOT SUPERVISION
Although private pilots are very reliable, telephone pilots require supervision and in some countries overhead pilots are often stolen for their copper
sales value.
The effects of open or short-circuiting the pilot wires are as follows:
TABLE
8.4
Pilot Fault
Short-circuit
Open-circuit
Automatic supervision is usually applied in conjunction with overcurrent fault detectors which prevent wrong tripping on load. The supervision method usually consists of circulating a few milliamps d.c. in the pilot
and providing relays which give an alarm if this d.c. is drastically increased
or decreased. The alarm is delayed a few seconds so as not to operate during
faults. The d.c. has to be extremely well smoothed so as not to interfere with
telephone conversations.
Pilot
rclo.ys
10,uF
10.u F
120 V
A C.
FIG.
M
337
P,lot
rclo.ys
8.11
Protective Relays
Fig. 8.15 shows an effective supervision circuit. Relay Rl and R4 drop out
and sound the alarm if the supervisory d.c. is interrupted by an open pilot
or failure of the d.c. supply; if the pilot is short-circuited R4 again drops out
and R2 picks up on the increased current. R3 drops out if the d.c. supply fails.
R4 also drops out if the pilot wires are crossed, reversing the polarity of the
received current. Relays Rl and R2 can be combined into one relay with a
contact that assumes a central position when de-energised. The settings of
these relays are normally of the order of 15 rnA pick-up and 07 rnA
drop-out.
8.10. PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Besides affecting the operation of the relay, the high voltages that can
appear between the ends of the pilot due to a.c. potential gradients in the
ground can also damage the equipment and injure personnel.
Fig. 8.16 shows the modern methods of coping with this problem. A
15 kV insulating transformer insulates the relay from the pilot wires. A
Ga.. filled
protector tube
15 KV in.ula.ting
r - - - - - , tra.nsformer
r------,
Pilot
rela.y
Pilot wires
Dra.ina.ge
rea.ctor
FIG.
neutralising transformer cancels out induced and differential ground potentials but it is not necessary where supervision (S) is not employed. Both
transformers are wound so as to have low impedance to circulating currents.
A gas-filled protector tube and drainage reactor at each end of the pilot wire
protects the relay against longitudinally induced voltages. The drainage
reactor is also a transformer wound so as to provide a high impedance
across the pilots and a low impedance for currents flowing simultaneously
from the pilots to earth.
8.11. PHASE COMPARISON CARRIER
8.11
minimum
input
,
:
I
I
,
I
I
t
Thr~.hold
l ' ----:--..J :
: i-inttlrva.1
Fixed
interva.l
~l interva.l ~
(b)
(a)
At each terminal a high frequency carrier signal is injected into the line,
as explained for directional carrier in Chapter 7, and the signal is modulated
at each end by the squared wave of local current, so that blocks of carrier
frequency are transmitted corresponding to half-waves of system frequency
in one direction, i.e. there are alternate half cycles of carrier signal and no
signal (fig. 8.18).
During an external fault the half-waves of current are equal in magnitude
but 180 out of phase so that a continuous signal, consisting of alternate halfcycle blocks of carrier supplied from each end in turn, is provided and tripping
is prevented (fig. 8.19a). During an internal fault (fig. 8.19b) the currents at
the two ends are in phase so that both ends produce a similar block of carrier
339
Protective Relays
8.11
signals at the same time for one half cycle with nothing during the next half
cycle and this permits tripping.
Fault detectors or sequence networks ensure that carrier transmission is
started only when there is a fault because continuous transmission would be
uneconomical and might cause radio interference. The carrier signal can be
n[\ [\ /\ /\ n
FIG.
n[\ !\ [\ /\ n
(a)
FIG.
introduced between phases or between phase and ground and the basic
transmitter and receiver equipment is similar to that used for directional
comparison. The phase-to-ground method is cheaper but it requires an earth
wire and has somewhat higher attenuation, interference and coupling with
other phases. The transmitted power level is 10 to 15 watts and the receivers
are designed to permit about 30 dB attenuation.
340
8.11
8.11.2. Equipment
Fig. 8.20 shows the basic functions of the equipment. The currents from
the three c.t. secondaries are combined into one current by a summation
network based on a preferred combination of phase-sequence quantities.
The resultant current is supplied to a modulator which is associated with a
carrier frequency oscillator. The half cycle blocks of carrier frequency are
injected into the transmission line via an amplifier and a capacitor coupler
IBO O
FIG.
341
8.11
Protective Relays
should be linear over the fault range in order to avoid error due to unequal
phase shifts at the two ends. Finally, the transient response should not
produce parasitic frequencies at non-system frequency.
(b) Oscillator. The oscillator circuit produces the carrier signal. It is
usually arranged to operate continuously and, in modern equipment, its
frequency is kept constant by a piezo-crystal unit.
(c) Modulator. A continuous high-frequency carrier signal is supplied to
the modulator together with the local current at system frequency. The
Oscill<1tor
ModuI <1tor
Tr<1nsmitter
Squ<1ring
circuit
't'
Fa.ult
input
F<1ult
detector
~-~-
Low
set
Sta.rt
circuit
I
I
High
set
I
I
l _____
I
I
+I
Time
del<1y
I
IForced
Ist<1bility
I
I
Comp<1r<1tor
DemoduIa.tor
Rcf!iver
I
I
Reset
FIG.
Trip Circuit
8.11
Carrier frequencies are used for communication purposes in 4 kc/s bands but
for protective purposes, where simplicity is demanded, the frequencies used
would be much wider apart than 4 kc/s. Closer spacing and therefore better
selectivity could, if necessary, be obtained at the expense of operating
range.
The receiver input impedance is matched to that of the line and coupling
circuit in order to avoid trouble due to signal reflection. Included in the
receiver are a demodulator, a voltage amplifier and a limiter which equalises
input signals so that the phase comparator or discriminator can operate
effectively, without overloading.
(J) Phase Comparator. The phase comparator produces a tripping signal
when the interval between carrier blocks exceeds about 30 and prevents
tripping when the interval is less than this (fig. 8.21). Theoretically, the interval
between carrier blocks is 180 on an internal fault and 0 on an external fault,
but in practice the 180 interval can be reduced due to
(a) phase displacement between the generated e.m.f.s at the ends of the
system;
(b) through load current being added to the fault current at one end
l~f
8.11
Protective Relays
FIO.
8.22. (h
C.T.
FIO.
and fed to the starting relays or circuits. Each transductor is biassed by the
current from another phase so that there is no output during balanced threephase load but at least one transductor gives an output during unbalanced
con,ditions. Operation on three-phase faults is arranged by delaying the bias
344
8.12
by means of a large capacitor so that there will be a brief output during which
a sealing-in device will operate.
In order to prevent incorrect tripping on an external fault, during the
period that the fault current has ceased but the starting devices have not yet
reset, a carrier-continuing device is provided. This device is similar in action
to the relay used in directional comparison carrier for preventing incorrect
tripping due to interference signals which are generated by the arc in the nearer
breaker which is interrupting the fault in the next line section.
8.12. APPENDIX
Pilots
FIG.
the current leaving the pilot at the receiving end. Applying Thevenin's theorem
and considering one end at a time, the voltage across the C.t. at A, from
reference (152) is
(8.4)
Z
Now}' and ~ are complex ratios such that}' = m + jn and
Zop
zZo = IZo
z I{cos(4)-9)+j sin (4)-O)}
Op
Op
where 4> is the argument of Zo and 9 is the argument of Zop' Equation (8.1)
can be written
lop = IR {COSh (m +jn) +
= IR {coshm
I::J
cos n + j sinhm
(8.5)
8.12
Protective Relays
COS n .
cosh m
}
IZopl = - IZol { -.-sm(-8) + ----;+--h cos (tfo-8)
smn
sm ,m
= -IZol{cotn sin(-O)+cothmcos(--O)}
346
(8.6)
9
Proteetio" 0' A.C. MfWmnes
Generator Protection-Stator Faults-Rotor Faults-Miscellaneous
Faults-Motor Protection-Faults-Unbalanced Conditions-Power
Station Auxiliaries-Current Differential Relaying
9.1. GENERATORS
The generators are the most expensive pieces of equipment in the a.c.
power system (see fig. 1.7) and are subject to more possible types of trouble
than any other equipment. The desire to protect against all these abnormal
conditions and yet to keep the protection simple and reliable has resulted in
considerable divergence of opinion on the choice of protection.
The choice must be carefully made since inadvertent operation of the
relays is almost as serious as failure to operate. This is because the unnecessary disconnection of a large generator may overload the rest of the
system and cause power oscillations which may disrupt the system. On the
other hand, failure to clear a fault promptly may cause expensive damage
to the generator.
Another difficulty is the fact that, unlike other equipment, opening a
breaker to isolate the defective generator is not sufficient to prevent further
damage, since the generator will continue to supply power to a stator winding
fault until its field excitation has been suppressed; very few generators have
an additional three-phase circuit-breaker to disconnect the windings from
neutral to break up the fault path. It is therefore necessary to remove the
field, shut oft' the steam, water or fuel supply to the prime mover and, in
some cases, supply braking. Furthermore, carbon dioxide is pumped into
some large machines to extinguish any burning of insulation which has been
started by a fault arc and fanned by the rotor movement.
Finally, the relays must give reasonable protection and certainly not trip
undesirably during the running up of a generator. The pick-up of currentoperated relays is very little changed, whilst the pick-up of voltage-operated
relays is reduced at the low frequencies during the running up period because
their coil reactance is reduced; this latter is not important, however, since
overvoltage is not likely. On the other hand, all relays with phase-shifting
circuits or sequence networks will be affected and should be disconnected if
they cause undesirable tripping.
347
9.1
Protective Relays
Some of the abnormal conditions that must be dealt with are considered
in the following sections. The treatment is brief because this subject has been
dealt with in many previous books and articles and only the most modern
methods will be mentioned.
9.1.1. Stator Protection
348
9.1
(a)
1
~
..
:>
u
u
.,.
.~ -6
.."' .
1='4
'3
2
1
Tlmn ra.tln9
fIG.
10
fig. 9.lb; a mathematical analysis of the biassed differential type relay was
given in Chapter 3, section 3.2.1.
In machines below 10 MW time-overcurrent relays may replace the
differential relays, but they should be monitored by an instantaneous undervoltage relay. The latter is connected to control the overcurrent relay making
it faster and more sensitive if the voltage drops below 50 % indicating a
fault in the machine.
349
9.1
Protective Relays
If the c.t's were ideal and the leads from the relay to the c.t's were equal,
very sensitive settings could be obtained and the bias or restraint windings,
shown in figs. 9.1 and 9.2, would be unnecessary. Unfortunately, neither is
the case and the spurious differential current increases with current through
the windings so that, on a heavy external fault, the sensitivity of the relay
Blo.S
a.
C.Ts
~(--_--G.ntr(1tor---_~
windings
FIG.
9.1
Shc.dlng tub.
0 ..
SIc.nk pol.
1-
R..lrc.in
Opuc.t.
(a)
(b)
~ Block==
Trip
Trtp
(e)
9.3. Differential relay with product restraint
(a) Basic circuit
(b) Arrangement on an 8-pole indu<;:tion cup relay
(c) Operating characteristic
FIG.
and partly to reject the harmonics, which form a large part of the initial
spurious differential current caused by remanence in the c.t's. A combination
of the restraining winding and the bias resistor will provide stability with
somewhat smaller c.t's.
The effects upon differential relays of C.t. transients are dealt with in more
detail in Chapter 11 and in references (30) and (94). One solution is to
employ very sensitive relays which can be used with ironless c.t's (linear
couplers) (113).
Generator differential relays are'usually set to pick up at 5 %of the C.t.
rating with full load flowing and the slope of the linear characteristic is
usually about 10%. In the case of the product restraint relay, the slope is
negligible at pick-up and increases in an exponential manner to infinity at
351
0.
In sl .-clJrrcnt
rClo.y '
(a)
Gl: ncrc.tor
windings
'.
'.
So.turo.t ,n9
a.u lO
CT
(b)
Sto.b,I,.lng
nSt5tor
IA
I.
352
9.1
.T
.T.
Lnd.
Opera.llng
coli
Sta.bill s lng
resistor
C.T.
l .m.1.
f C~iTl.~.
C.T.
cC,{,. I
c.m.f.
!~--I
(c)
FIG.
six or eight times c.t. rating on through faults, but is of course negative on
internal faults.
Because of the limited ground fault current where a machine is grounded
through impedance, the ground fault relays need to be more sensitive than
the phase relays. The modem practice of generator-transformer units solves
this problem because the generator stator winding terminates in the low tension
winding of the power transformer so that a sensitive zero sequence relay can
be used to protect against all ground faults (fig. 9.15). It is usual to design the
relay to be insensitive to third harmonic currents and to have a setting of
15 %of the neutral impedor rating. When an inverse time relay is used it is
set to pick up at 5 %of the neutral impedor rating and to trip in 05 second
at 10 times the impedor rating.
Ungrounded generators are rare but, where they exist, a stator fault to
ground must be detected by an electrostatic ground detector, since the fault
currents in this case are the low value capacitance currents fed through the
healthy phases.
353
9.1
Protective Relays
Ground faults near the neutral of the generator produce less current than
c: I
. 10.p.kV where kV is the kV
. Is. The lau
t h ose near the termma
t current IS
3Z..
rating of the machine, p is the location of the fault expressed as a percentage
of the winding from the neutral, and Z .. is the impedance in the neutral.
Let Q be the relay pick-up expressed as a percentage of the c.t. rating and
Prc be the neutral c.t. primary rating; the relay pick-up current is QPrc
100
(primary) amperes.
10. p. kV
I
y3Z..
QPrc .
p=
p and Q
Q. Prc v3Z n
1000 kV
(9.1)
J3.
2050.
200 3 %
1000.11 - = 1 0
This means that 31 % of the winding from the neutral is not protected or
that l00-p = 69% of the winding from the terminals is protected.
(b) Stator Inter-Turn Faults. Longitudinal protection cannot be relied
upon to detect interturn faults except those between conductors of different
phases which are in the same slot. In lap-wound machines an interturn
fault affects only a single-pole pitch but in a wave-wound machine it
would affect the whole stator. Such faults involve very high local currents
which can cause severe damage to the core. With generators having parallel
windings separately brought out to terminals, transverse differential protection
will detect faults between turns of the same winding. The most sensitive arrangement is shown in fig. 9.4b. For generators without access to parallel windings
it is necessary to rely on the zero sequence component of voltage caused by
the reduction of e.m.f. in the faulted phase. See fig. 9.6.
Another method of detecting turn-to-turn faults (84) is based on the fact
that any dissymmetry of the stator currents creates a negative sequence component; this rotates at the same speed as the armature reaction field but in the
reverse direction and thus induces a double frequency current in the field
circuit. This can be detected by a suitably tuned a.c. relay in the field which
can be monitored by a negative sequence directional relay so that it will
detect all stator winding faults but will not operate on unbalanced faults
external to the generator. A special c.t. is connected in the field to supply the
relay; it has a tertiary winding energised from the exciter voltage to produce
ampere-turns which cancel out those produced by the field current and thus
avoid magnetic saturation.
354
9.1
Sine
product
rela.ys
RN
Genera.tor sta.tor
windings
II'
Trip :
~
(a)
::...J..::.
II!I IIiI
II
Ii]
~
(b)
FIG. 9.6. (a) Interturn fault detection
(b) Effect of delayed fault clearance in a generator
355
9.1
Protective Relays
(c) Stator Overheating. The main causes of stator overheating are ventilation failure, overloading, short-circuited laminations and failure of corebolt insulation.
Two methods are commonly used for detecting overheating; both are
used in large machines (above 2000 kVA). One method is to compare the
inlet and outlet temperatures of the ventilating medium, which may be air,
hydrogen or water. The other method uses temperature indicating devices
A.C. volta.gt: sourct:
:s...f----""d-RCIa.y
opcroiing coil
Fixcd bridgc
resistors
Volta.gt: dropping
+o---_~/ rcsista.net:
. Ca.libra.tion
pott:ntiomt:tcr _.oN.J\N....."AIVI.JVv.
Very
nnsitivc
rcla.y
Rcplica.
rcsista.ncc_
(b)
fiG.
356
9.1
357
Protective Relays
9.1
apply the biasing voltage at the mid-point of a centre tapped resistor because
it has no null point. It is also superior to methods using an a.c. biasing voltage
because this will cause current to flow through the capacitance of the rotor
:I 01
0
~--
-,
L ____ J:
FIG.
Sensitive
rclo.y
winding to its core and thence through the bearings to ground; this current,
though small, will pit the bearings unless a special collector brush is fitted to
the rotor shaft.
(b) Open"circuit. Rotor open-circuits are very rare but, if one occurs, it
Bus bo.rs
(4)
FCiult B
(b)
FIG.
must be dealt with promptly because the ensuing arc may cause damage by
burning.
The relay to detect a rotor open-circuit is the same one as is used for
detecting loss-of-field and is described in section 9.1.3 (c).
(c) Unbalanced Stator Currents. The negative sequence component of
unbalanced stator currents induces double frequency currents in the rotor
during normal synchronous running. lfthe degree of unbalance is sufficiently
large, severe overheating can be caused in the structural parts of the rotor
which tends to soften and weaken slot wedges and retaining rings; these
358
9.1
components are normally already under great stress in large turbo-alternators (120) (121).
The system conditions that would cause these harmful unbalanced conditions are:
(a) the open-circuiting of cne phase of a line or the failure of one contact
of a circuit breaker;
(b) an unbalanced fault near the station which is not cleared promptly
by the normal relays;
(c) a fault in the stator winding.
The time for which the rotor can withstand this condition is inversely
as the square of the negative sequence current, i.e. I~t = K, where K is a
constant which varies from a value of 7 in a highly rated steam set (101)
with direct cooling to 60 for a salient pole-hydro set with air-cooled stator
1,000
500
200
\' \~
100
inverse relo.y
Type COG 15
~tlrcmCIY
./
...
.. 50
\ \\ \
\\ \
...
c
\\\ l\
~~
.5
!.20
~ ~ K~
10
\\
1\
~"
1
10
20
50
2
5
Negative sequence current in multiples of full load
FIG.
359
100
9.1
Protective Relays
(see fig. 9.10). The ability of large generators to stand negative sequence
current (and hence the value of K) is becoming progressively less because
their specific rating is still increasing although their size has almost reached
the limit of present material strengths.
It is important for the protective relay to have a time-current characteristic
I~t = K which matches that of the machine as closely as possible because,
while it is important to disconnect the generator if K is exceeded, it is also
very important not to take it off the system unnecessarily. Fig. 9.11 shows a
FIG.
relay which maintains this characteristic very accurately over a time range of
02 to 2000 seconds. It has an induction disc movement with a special
electromagnet equipped with magnetic shunts, shown in fig. 9.12a. Another
way of doing this is to use non-linear resonance so that the operating coil
becomes tuned as it saturates; the latter method, however, is affected by
frequency (120).
The relay contains a negative sequence network which supplies an
instantaneous alarm unit as well as the time-current unit. The alarm unit also
starts the time unit and is adjustable from 8 to 40 %negative sequence current
360
9.1
Mu-m.tc.1 shunt
;;
W~~:~-;:~_Sha.din9
'"
Opcrc.tlnq
rongs
COil
(a)
V,
s
(b)
(c)
flO.
361
9.1
Protective Relays
9.1.3. Miscellaneous
Abnormal conditions that do not directly affect the stator or rotor alone
are overspeed, motoring, loss offield, loss of synchronism and bearing failure.
(a) Overspeed. When a circuit-breaker opens and a steam turbine therefore suddenly loses its load, the steam may be shut off immediately without
causing damage. On the other hand, when a water wheel suddenly loses its
load the water flow cannot be stopped quickly for reasons of energy and
mechanical and hydraulic inertia. This slow reduction of the water supply
following sudden loss of load is responsible for the occasional overspeeding
of water wheel generators. Under governor control, depending on the
governor adjustment, overspeeds of over 150 % of normal are possible.
Steam and hydro sets are provided with mechanical overspeed devices but,
because of the slower throttling down of the hydro and gas-turbine sets,
overspeed relays are usually provided on the latter. The setting of an overspeed relay may be 115% for steam or 140% for hydro machines.
On very large steam sets, relays are sometimes provided to anticipate
speeding up due to loss of load. In the U.S.A. an out-of-step tripping relay
(see Chapter 5, section 5.4.8) has been used which cuts off the steam when the
generator has slipped one pole and is 1800 out of synchronism. Obviously the
relay will not cope with overspeed caused by loss of load due to the opening
of a circuit-breaker. In England a quick acting relay has been used which
operates when the wattful power falls relative to the steam pressure.
(b) Motoring. In modem steam turbines the steam may be at a temperature equivalent to red heat and is difficult to envisage as a cooling medium;
nevertheless, if the steam supply is reduced sufficiently the heat caused by
turbulence of the trapped air while the generator is idling or running as a
motor can de-temper and damage turbine blades.
Motoring is prevented by a sensitive wattmetric relay (88), fig. 2.8, which
operates on about 05 % reverse power, its setting depending on the type
of steam turbine; the reverse power relay usually has a time delay which
varies from seconds to minutes, also depending on the type of turbine.
Topping turbines require faster settings than condensing turbines.
Sometimes reverse power relays are used to prevent other types of
generators from motoring. A diesel set requires a 25 % setting but a hydro
machine may require a setting as low as 02 %.
(c) Loss of Field. When a generator loses its field it speeds up slightly and
acts as an induction generator, not having amortisseur windings. Turboalternators tend to overheat the rotor and the slot wedges under these
conditions because of heavy currents induced in these parts; and sometimes
arcing occurs at metal wedges in the slots. At the same time a large machine
running out-of-step with the system may upset the system stability. Furthermore, the wattless current that the machine draws as magnetising current
from the system may overheat the stator.
On the other hand a machine equipped with a quick-acting voltage
regulator and connected to a stiff system, i.e. a system with a large amount
362
9.1
- - ... _ _
Nor;~I-~~
condit ion
-x
FIG.
field and not by any other condition, such as loss of synchronism which may
result from the loss of field.
(d) Loss of Synchronism. An out-of-step relay can be provided for detect~
ing loss of synchronism (see Chapter 5, sections 5.2.3 and 5.4.8), but is
seldom used on an individual generator because it is unlikely to run out of
synchronism with the system or the other generators unless it loses field
(which was dealt with in the previous section 9.1.3 (c or unless the governor
becomes defective (56). Automatic synchronising by an electronic relay is
common for large machines (123).
(e) Bearing Failure. The temperature of the white metal or the oil can be
monitored by an instrument with alarm contacts or a syphon device can be
located in the bearing oil chamber. Such a device would shut down the
generator only in an unattended station. Failure of the oil cooling equip363
9.1
Protective Relays
9.1
....
g
~
Ma.m br.a.ku
Hl
. ".;;.
><
.0
c:
a "w
:l .;:
"0
"
~
-;:,~
",,,
,,0
-"'0
,,~
"~"
,
...
.c
..
,..
OQ.
Q.
p.. Ec;
-II>
"
i
g g
.." UI
.0
~ -
:<
H-- -- - - ---+----,.-+_-.
PT
365
9.1
Protective Relays
With a fault at A, the tripping relay associated with the bus-bar protection
would complete the shading winding circuit to the interlocked overcurrent
relay allowing it to operate and shut down the generator.
In the case of a fault at B, the tripping relay associated with the differential
protection would complete the circuit to the shading winding of the overcurrent relay, which in turn operates the bus-bar protection tripping relay
and clears the faulty section.
9.1.4. Back-up Protection (External Faults)
Negative sequence (I~t = K) relays protect the generator against un-
balanced external faults which are near enough to the generator to cause overheating and have not been cleared by the appropriate relays in the faulted
circuit (120) (121). The likelihood of an uncleared balanced three-phase fault
is very small but it can be detected by a single reactance or impedance type
relay set to reach just beyond the bus and given sufficient time delay to give
the proper relays a chance to clear the fault. This arrangement also gives
some back-up protection on generator faults.
For smaller machines, where negative sequence relays would not be
justified (122), three such distance relays can be used, one in each phase, with
a common timing device. A cheaper alternative is a time-overcurrent relay
whose characteristic matches that of the relays beyond the station bus but
which is equipped with an instantaneous undervoltage unit; this latter reduces
the pick-up of the overcurrent relay and increases its speed if the bus voltage
drops below its setting thereby indicating a nearby fault. This scheme works
best when the relays beyond the generator have instantaneous settings for
nearby faults.
Standard time-overcurrent relays can seldom be used for this purpose
because the synchronous impedance of a turbo-generator is over 100%, i.e.
the fault current may fall to less than normal load before the time-current
relay can complete its travel and it is of course not possible to set the relay
below normal load, except with the bus voltage monitoring unit just mentioned. However, with automatic voltage regulators the voltage, and hence
the current, may be sustained so that standard overcurrent relays can be
used.
Machines without automatic voltage regulators should employ the voltage monitored time-overcurrent relays mentioned above; this also applies
to hydro and diesel machines and to small turbo alternators which do not
have differential protection.
9.1.5. Stator Protection
Fig. 9.15 shows the main protection for a large steam turbo-alternatortransformer unit. No circuit breaker is provided between the generator and
the transformer. All the fault detecting relays trip the main and field breakers,
apply braking, inject CO 2 , shut off the steam and shut down certain auxiliary
equipment. The relays protecting against overload, overheating, overvoltage,
366
9.1
9.1
Generator Protection
Rating
Below 1 MW 1 MW up
Differential
Restricted earth
Turn-to-turn fault
Time-overcurrent (voltage monitored)
Thermal overload
Temperature (thermo-detector)
Negative sequence current
Loss of load
Anti-motoring (loss of steam)
.
Loss of field
Out-of-step
Overspeed
Overvoitage
x
x
x
x
x
10 MW up 100 MW up
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
TABLE
9.2
Below 1 MW 1 MW up
10 MW up 100 MW up
Earth fault
Loss of field
Vibration indicator
Bearing temperature
Bearing insulation
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
9.3
Conditions Operating Alarms Only
TABLE
Steam
Air-cooled Hydrogencooled
Abnormal Condition
Condenser low vacuum
Hydrogen pressure, temperature or density abnormal
Bearing oil pressure low
Seal oil pressure low
Unit transformer winding temperature high
Bearing temperature high
Governor oil pressure
Cooling water failure
Stator air temperature high
Guide vane fails to open
Main or unit transformer Buchholz gas
Main or unit transformer oil temperature
H.T. V.T. Buchholz gas
Auto-voltage regulator failure
Rotor earth fault
Field failure
Battery voltage low
367
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
x
x
x
x
Hydro
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
9.1
Protective Relays
7.
- - t - . . , r - - - 132 KY.
switchg~ar
Brco.ker ~
60011
50011
Synchronising 500/1
~/
In.trument
-"""-t-~-tll.
600/-58
144 M.'l.A.
Volto.g~ tro.~or~ __
~/
Mo.in trw"formtr
132/138 K.V.
450/1
A.V.R.QQ)--/
6000120
Volto.9~ tro.n.lormcr
:"-_-ir---t'1100/1
Eo.rthlng
rulsto.nce
Ie
+-+--......7
6.6KV
~~~--.-----r-~----~4'
1----------------.. . '4
negative sequence current and overheating due to an external fault open the
main and field breakers only.
(a) Abnormal Conditions Operating Alarms and Causing Shutdown. Tables
9.3 and 9.4 indicate the practice in the U.K., which is basically the same as in
other countries.
368
9.2
9.4
Steam
Air-cooled Hydrogencooled
x
x
Hydro
FIG.
9.2
Protective Relays
giving an inverse time-current characteristic and usually provide an instantaneous trip at high current. On large motors; above 50 h.p., instantaneous
overcurrent relays supplied from c.t's are more common, two in the phases
and one in the residual circuit. The phase relays have to be set well above the
starting current and the latest type (see Chapter 4, section 4.1.6) can give a
more reasonable setting because it is not affected by the d.c. component of
the inrush current. Fuses are used for protecting smaller motors but they
involve the risk of leaving the motor connected to single phase supply.
For stator faults, thermal overload relays with instantaneous overcurrent
relays usually comprise the main protection. The thermal relays are slow
because their time-current characteristic is matched to the I 2 t capacity of the
motor; the instantaneous overcurrent relays are usually set very high because
they have to surmount the high starting current of the motor, but they are
valuable for clearing winding and terminal faults.
For motors of 1500 h.p. and above the saving in cost of repairs by the
quick clearing of faults justifies the cost of differential protection.
9.2.2. Overload and Locked Rotor (Stalling)
The ordinary I.D.M.T. time-current curve is not suitable for motor protection. The motor heats according to an [2t function and good protection
is provided by thermal overcurrent relays using bimetallic spiral movements
(fig.9.18). The slow reset of these relays prevents restarting the motor until it
has cooled. Furthermore, the heat storage property of the relay gives it
different hot and cold time current characteristics which correspond to those
of the motor (fig. 9.17). Superior characteristics can be obtained with a
thermistor bridge and a thermal replica device.
In single-phase fractional h.p. motors the thermal element usually takes
the form of a bimetallic disc which snaps into the operated position above a
certain temperature and opens the supply.
The [2t relays are set to operate on 15 % overload with continuously
rated motors and up to 40% overload with motors having overload capacity,
depending upon the service factor.
When a motor stalls, either due to trouble with the connected load or
low voltage, both the stator and rotor windings will be overheated. Some form
of protection should be provided to shut the motor down before the locked
rotor current persists long enough to cause damage, but it must not shut the
motor down during a normal start. It is not always possible to provide adequate locked rotor protection with the overload device without upsetting
the overload protection.
The best protection is provided by a thermal device which is only operable
during a stalled condition (25). An English relay provides this feature by
means of an attracted armature relay which switches a separate thermal unit
into the circuit if the current is three times the motor full load current.
Tripping will occur if the motor current fails to fall to normal value within
the time-current characteristic of the thermal unit. The characteristic curve of
370
9.2
the thermal unit is shown in fig. 9.17 for starting (cold) and running (hot) conditions. The relay can also be arranged to give restart once after a stall, and to
lock out if there is a second stall.
The thermal element also incorporates an indicating device which
integrates the' current during the starting period. The trip setting can be set
10.000
"
3
2
1,000
8
6
..9.
"3
2
.. 100
go
I!
\\
\
-"
\
"'"
10
8
6
5
"'" "-..
...........
~ r-J""-....
Hot
2
1.01
FIG.
9.17.
3
"
5
6 ..1.....-J
Opcrutill9 current =II/r,+ 3[:
]21
t-9
10X5Cttill9
at a slightly higher value than the indicated value during starting, thus
providing the maximum possible protection against a stalled condition.
Overload relays also take care of faults not heavy enough to operate the
instantaneous overcurrent relays. Larger motors use temperature detectors
(see section 9.1.1 (c) ).
9.2.3. Unbalanced Phases
9.2
Protective Relays
will not start unless all three phases are present and in the correct
sequence.
This method however does not prevent the motor from becoming overheated if an open-phase condition occurs while it is running, such as one fuse
blowing or a bad contact on a breaker. In the U.K. unbalanced current relays
are used for this purpose (25). One type, fig. 9.18, uses three bimetallic
FIG.
spirals, energised by currents from the three phases, whose contacts are
arranged so that, if either spiral moves differently from the others, due to
more than 12 % unbalance, their contacts meet and trip the supply breaker.
The same spirals also provide overload protection.
This is an important feature of motor protection. Due to the difference
between the positive and negative sequence reactance of a motor, a small
voltage unbalance causes a much higher current unbalance, which results in
overheating in one winding. A typical example would be a motor operating
at rated load with a 3 % voltage unbalance. This could result in approximately a 25 % increase of current in one line, giving 56 % overheating in one
winding. The worst case would be complete loss of one phase of the supply
due to a blown fuse or a bad contact.
9.2.4. Undervoltage and Underfrequency
372
9.2
time characteristic which will override temporary voltage drops. Underfrequency relays are sometimes used to indicate failure of the power supply
to the motor because its load will cause it to decelerate quickly.
9.2.5. Miscellaneous
FIG.
373
Protective Relays
9.2
Induction
disc
aG.mPing
~===*F===
ma.gnct
(a)
'------ob
c
R
Bc...----~y
(c)
R
y'+-------' B
FIG.
(d)
9.20. Open and reversed phase relay
374
9.4
C.T.
iR"
Z"'''
FIG.
Protected
unit
C.T.
IRa
z"'.
~,R.
~R"
9.21. Basic circuit of differential current relay
current and with impedances in series with the secondaries representing the
lead resistance and the C.t. leakage reactance and resistance. For further
simplification, giving a pessimistic error, all impedances are treated as resistances and added arithmetically.
It will be seen from fig. 9.21 that, during an external fault, the through
current should circulate between the C.t. secondaries and the only current
that can flow in the relay is that due to any difference in the C.t. outputs for
the same primary current. Magnetic saturation will reduce the output of a
C.t. and the most extreme case of error will be if one C.t. is completely saturated
and the other unaffected. This condition can be approached in bus differential
375
9.4
Protective Relays
FIG.
In this extreme case, the c.t. at one end can be considered short-circuited
as in fig. 9.23 and the one at the other end as delivering its full current which
will then divide between the relay and the saturated c.t. This division will be
--
.I-
Sa.tura.tIIi
iRA
C.T.
iRII
ti
I
z",
FIG.
Fa.ult
iRA
iRa
9.23. Effect of complete saturation of one c.t.
376
9.4
where IR is the relay pick-up and RB is the highest c.t.lead resistance; in fact,
for generators and transformers it can be about one third of this value.
N. IA = Ip-ImA and N . IB = Ip-ImB where Nis the c.t. turn ratio and
ImA and 1mB the magnetising components of the primary current Ip. Hence
1
lR = l A-I B = N(ImB-ImA)
(9.3)
i.e. the relay current is the difference between the magnetising currents
corrected for tum ratio.
As RR is increased, IR is reduced so that 1m.( and 1mB are forced towards
equality and the c.t. with the lower magnetising current will push equalising
current through the other c.t. secondary.
On the other hand, the high value of RR will not prevent the relay from
operating on an internal fault because, in that case, the c.t. secondary e.m.f.s
are additive and combine to force current through the relay. The voltage
across the relay will be its IR drop due to the current flowing through it. This
current will be shared by the c.t's after deducting the magnetising current
necessary to produce the voltage across the C.t. secondaries.
The distribution of resistance between the relay winding and its series
stabilising resistor depends upon the relay sensitivity and the pick-up setting
required on internal faults; in a very sensitive relay the pick-up can be controlled by series resistance; in a less sensitive type the pick-up would be controlled by taps on the relay coil. In determining the actual relay pick-up in
terms of primary fault current, the magnetising currents of all the c.t's
must be added to the relay current setting, i.e. the actual pick-up in (primary)
amperes is
(9.4)
where N is the c.t. ratio and L . 1m is the sum of the c.t. magnetising
currents at the relay voltage setting.
The c.t's must be chosen to produce a secondary voltage V equal to at
least twice the IR drop in the longest leads to the relay at maximum through
fault current (usually taken as the switchgear interrupting rating),
.
V = 2IR
(9.5)
I.e.
N
Also, at ~ volts, the magnetising current must not exceed ~ e~
IR) where
377
9.4
Protective Relays
RB > SRR for a relay with 20% slope or bias, the resistance would be onefifth of the value for a non-biased relay. This is an advantage in favour of the
biased relay because the operating voltages are reduced in the same ratio
and the c.t's can be correspondingly smaller and cheaper.
FIG.
same, but their secondary voltages EA and E B will not be equal unless they
have identical magnetising characteristics.
In fig. 9.21, below saturation of the c.t's, EA > EB and the voltage across
the relay
(9.6)
Below saturation, where the magnetising impedances of the two c.t's
have a constant ratio, this can be made so by inserting a suitable amount of
resistance in series with one of the c.t. secondaries. At higher currents, however, this is not possible because, with the different magnetising characteris378
9.4
tics shown in fig. 9.22, EA. > EB below their crossover point and EA. < EB
above it. Furthermore, the currents above saturation will have non-sinusoidal
wave-form so that this compensating resistance would have to vary during
the cycle.
In order to avoid instability due to this cause the c.t's. in relays without
stabilising resistances require cores large enough in cross-section not to
saturate with the maximum magnetic flux that can occur during an external
fault. The total flux <1>, allowed for should include the transient d.c. component and is theoretically
(9.7)
where X and R pertain to the primary circuit and <I>QC is the steady state a.c.
flux required to produce the secondary voltage necessary to drive the current
through the various impedances in the c.t. and relay circuit.
Since X/R can be as high as 30 in a modern generator, it is clear from
Equation (9.7) that very large c.t's would be necessary to prevent tripping
on external faults and obviously it is preferable to use the stabilising resistor
or the high impedance operating coil in the differential circuit or else to
employ linear coupler c.t's.
379
10
Power Transformer Proteetion
Types of Faults-Gas Relays-Differential Relays-Magnetising
Inrush-Methods of Reduction-Relay Solutions-Grounding Transformers-Generator Transformer Units-Transformer Feeders
10.1. GENERAL
These can be sub-divided into overload conditions and external shortcircuit conditions; the transformers must be disconnected when such faults
380
10.2
occur only after allowing a predetermined time during which other protective
gear should have operated. A sustained overload condition can be detected by
thermal relays (97) which give an alarm so that the situation can be attended
to or the supply disconnected, if necessary. For the external short-circuit
condition (bus-bar short-circuit, or short-circuit on the main supply network),
time-graded overcurrent relays or fuses are usually employed. Proper coordination of this back-up transformer protection should be made with the
primary protection of the associated power supply network. The primary
protective scheme associated with the transformer itself, however, should be
made so that the protective gear does not operate under such conditions.
10.2.2. Internal Faults
Electrical faults which cause immediate serious damage but are generally
detectable by unbalance of current or voltage such as:
(i) Phase-to-earth fault, or phase-to-phase fault on the h.v. and 1.v.
external terminals.
(ii) Phase-to-earth fault or phase-to-phase fault on h.v. and 1.v. windings.
(iii) Short-circuit between turns of h.v. and 1.v. windings.
(iv) Earth fault on a tertiary winding, or short-circuit between turns of a
tertiary winding.
Group (b)
So-called 'incipient' faults which are initially minor faults, causing slowly
developing damage. These are not detectable at the winding terminals by
unbalance; they include:
(i) A poor electrical connection of conductors or a core fault (due to
breakdown of the insulation of lamination, bolts or clamping rings)
which causes limited arcing under the oil.
(ii) Coolant failure, which will cause a rise of temperature even below
full load operation.
(iii) Related to (ii) is the possibility of low-oil content or clogged oil flow,
which can readily cause local hot-spots on windings.
(iv) Regulator faults and bad load-sharing between transformers in
parallel, which can cause over-heating due to circulating currents.
Generally, for group (a), it is important that the faulted equipment
should be isolated as quickly as possible after the fault has occurred, not
only to limit the damage to the equipment but also to minimise the length
of time that the system voltage is depressed. A prolonged period of low
381
10.3
Protective Relays
382
10.3
tage of more positive action than the float and eliminates the risk of pinhole
leaks which would cause the float to sink and give a false alarm. When the
oil level falls, due to gas accumulation, the bucket is left full of oil and the
force available to operate the contacts is greater than in the case of hollow
Insul C1.to r
bushing
Tr=sformor
tC1.nk
Trip
(a)
v.... (S
;7 'l
--
~--
(b)
FIG.
383
10.3
Protective Relays
floats. Windows are provided for indicating the amount of gas generated
through a scale marked on the windows.
Referring to fig. 10.lb, the gas can be drawn off through the petcock,
via a pipe to the ground level, and the analysis of this gas will indicate the
kind of breakdown which will occur if suitable action is not taken. The gases
caused by arcing include hydrogen, hydro-carbons and carbon monoxide.
The 'incipient' faults indicated by the Buchholz relay will include arcing
due to circulating currents, where a path has been provided by inadvertent
contact between two parts of the core supports which are normally separated.
Such arcing can cause oil 'sludging' and damage tn the iron.
When the transformer is first put into service, air trapped in the windings
may give unnecessary alarm signals but, with H.V. transformers, it is customary to remove the air by vacuum treatment during the filling of the transformer tank with oil. The gas accumulated without this treatment will, of
course, be air, which can be confirmed by seeing that it is not inflammable.
The relay is adjusted to give an alarm when the gas accumulated has
reached a volume which depends upon transformer size, as in Table 10.1.
TABLE 10.1
Gas Volume to Operate Alarm
Transformer Size
Pipe Diameter
Up to 1 MVA
1 to 10 MVA
Over 10 MVA
25 cm. (1 in.)
50 cm. (2 in.)
75 cm. (3 in.)
110 cc.
220cc.
250cc.
When a winding fault occurs in the oil, the arc generates gas so rapidly
(over 50 cm 3 jkW sec.) that it creates a surge in the oil which rapidly moves
the vane, V, and causes tripping through contacts attached to the vane. The
vane is set to operate for an oil velocity which is above that caused by the
starting and stopping of oil pumps, as shown in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2
Oil Velocity to Cause Operation
Transformer Size
Up to 1 MVA
Itol0MVA
Over 10MVA
Pipe Diameter
Setting Range
Normal Setting
25 cm.
50cm.
75 em.
75-125 em/sec.
80-135 em/sec.
95-155 cm/sec.
90 cms/sec. at 5
100 cms/sec. at 5
110 cms/sec. at 5
10.3
In fig. 10.1 b, the surge vane has a bucket similar to that in the gas detector unit. This bucket is used for tripping in the case of complete loss of oil
and also provides damping which makes operation on oil pump surges less
likely.
10.3.2. Sudden Pressure Relays
t...=::====;i - -
(a)
Upptr cho.mbtr
Piston
-1\~~~lII!3'!!bJ~_EqUo.li5.r
holts
Oil vo.lve
Bronu bellows
fb)
FIG.
Protective Relays
10.3
In the American relay (90) shown in fig. 10.2b, the diaphragm is not
directly immersed in the transformer oil but inside a metal bellows full of
silicone oil, the bellows being in the transformer oil. In other words, the
diaphragm and switch are separated from the transformer oil by a bellows
containing silicone oil which has a flat viscosity/temperature characteristic
and provides an inverse time/pressure rise characteristic which prevents
'\.
..
U5
""
~4
~"
::J
oil
~ 3
"" ~
""-
a.
'0
~2
..
'0
~ 1
a:
"
~$
--
S~conds
Op~ra.ting
FIG.
<S
time
789
10
Frequency
25 c.p.s
100 c.p.s
150 c.p.s
Amplitude
009 in. (2-3 nun.)
0023 in. (0'6 nun.)
0'015 in. (04 nun.)
386
Equivalent
Acceleration
3g.
12g.
16g.
10.4
Delta windings and ungrounded wye windings are best protected by zero
sequence overcurrent relays supplied by c.t's situated at the terminals of the
power transformers, as shown in Fig. 10.4. Such a relay can only operate for
a ground fault in the transformer since it does not have an earth connection
through which to supply an external fault. The relay is usually instantaneous
.--_....;Pow~c~rt.;.,ro.nsformcr
c:rll
Restricted
ccut.h rclo..y
Residuo.l
overeurrent
rclo..y
FIG.
387
10;4
Protective Relays
but must be of the high impedance type if supplied with the residual current
of the paralleled c.t's in the three phases; this is to prevent wrong operation
on false residual current from the c.t's during a heavy external fault between
phases, due to transient differences in the c.t. outputs (94) (see Chapter 9,
section 4). An ordinary overcurrent relay is acceptable if it is supplied from
a core balance type of c.t. which encircles the three phase conductors, since
the magnetic conditions of the c.t. are the same for all three phases.
For a wye-connected winding with the neutral grounded, the restricted
earth-fault connection offig. 10.4 is used. This differential connection provides
relay current only for a winding fault to ground, but with instantaneous relays
it is stable only if the relay circuit is of high impedance.
During a heavy external phase fault there should be no current supplied
to the residual overcurrent and restricted earth relays, referred to in Chapter 4,
section 4.5.2 (d), if the c.t's maintain their ratio; there is, however, in addition
to the effects of magnetic unbalance and transient components, which were
discussed in the Appendix 9.4, the problem of third harmonics in the exciting
current. Since the third harmonic components from each of the three phases
are in phase they behave in the same fashion as zero sequence components
and add together directly instead of cancelling out as with the fundamental
components.
Fortunately, balanced three-phase faults are very rare, and the problem
does not occur with phase-to-phase faults because both of the affected c.t's
have similar conditions. The problem can be solved by tuning the relay to
fundamental frequency, or by using a third harmonic filter.
During an external ground fault (fig. 10.5) the sensitivity of a low impedance relay is limited by the fact that the magnetising current of the neutral
ZR
FIG.
c.t. is three times that of each of the three line c.t's, so that the voltage
produced by the neutral c.t. is three times that of the line c.t's if they are of
similar design and turns. If they are of the same design the relay will have
zero voltage across it only if the leads between the relay and the neutral C.t.
have three times the resistance of the leads between the relay and the line
388
10.4
c.t's. If this resistance balance does not exist, it can theoretically be remedied
by adding resistance on the neutral c.t. side, but this is not the practice
because the balance would not hold during transient conditions or if the
neutral C.t. was saturated. The proper solution is to use a stabilising resistance
in series with the relay, or to use a high impedance relay. The value of the total
resistance necessary in the relay circuit is calculated in Appendix 9.4.
The earth-fault current in a faulted winding in a resistance-grounded
transformer depends directly on the voltage between the neutral and the
fault point on the winding, and inversely on the neutral resistance, i.e.
/ y;'"
10kV.p
hp'IS the percentage 0 f WIn
. d'Ing InVO
. Ive,
d kV'IS
V"3 R n amperes, were
V3 N
lbo /y
NrOR~V'
0..
O~~--~20---r--~40------6~O--~~B~O--~~100
P.ercenta.ge of WInding trom neutral
FIG.
the current is limited by the impedance of the winding which increases as the
square of the number of turns involved; furthermore, the voltage is not
proportional to the turns involved by faults near the neutral because of
increased magnetic leakage. Fig. 10.6 shows the current variation with fault
position for one type of transformer.
389
10.4
Protective Relays
For a fault in the delta winding the relation between the fault current and
fault position is still more complicated. The current magnitude varies less
because the voltage to ground can never be less than 50 %. The impedance
of the winding is maximum for a fault at the middle of the winding and may
be as high as six times the positive sequence impedance.
10.4.2. Biased Differential Transformer Protection (100) (102) (124)
10.4
C.T.
C.T.
Rela.y
(a)
Power tra.nsformet
(b)
(c)
10.7. Differential protection of transformers
(a) Overall differential relay
(b) Percentage differential relay
(c) Three-winding transformer differential
FlG.
generally flows in one side of the differentially connected relay only, which
will tend to operate if some form of restraint is not provided.
To make a differential relay stable because of difficulties (i) and (ii) above,
percentage differential relays have been developed and are now adopted as
the general practice in the protection of large power transformers. In the
case of difficulty (iii), early practice was to desensitise the relays for a short
391
10.4
Protective Relays
time until the magnetising inrush currents on each phase had decayed sufficiently; modern practice, however, is to provide some form of restraint to the
relays which depends on the harmonic content of the magnetising inrush
current(s) (124) (125).
These questions are quite fundamental to successful transformer unittype protection. Item (i) is a special study in itself and is not unique to transformer protection; it has already been mentioned in this volume and will be
treated separately in Vol. II. Item (ii) in so far as it concerns the general
theory of the biased differential relay has been included in Chapter 3 on the
theory of relays. Item (iii) as a feature special to transformer protection has
not been mentioned before and will be treated in section 10.5.
(c) Percentage or Biased Differential Relays and the Effect of Through
Currents. The unbalance, or difference, of the derived currents from the c.t.
secondaries due to causes (i) and (ii) above (section 10.4.2 (b)), increase with
increase of through current. Thus a relay whose operating current is an
appropriate percentage of through current will allow a sensitive setting at low
current without danger of tripping on through current.
Such a relay is shown in fig. 1O.7b. The operating coil is provided with the
vector sum of the currents in the transformer windings and the restraining
coil with the through current. The spill current required to operate the relay
is usually expressed as a percentage of the through current in the restraining
coils and the ratio is generally termed the percent slope.
In the case of a transformer with more than two windings, the restraint
is based on the scalar sum of the currents in the various windings. In early
induction disc relays this was done by providing a restraining electromagnet
for each winding and adding their torques; on more recent relays it is done
by rectifying the currents and adding the outputs of the rectifiers to supply
the restraining winding with the scalar sum of the currents (fig. 10.7c).
In the case of a three-phase power transformer, the c.t's associated with
the wye-connected windings are usually connected in delta and those for the
delta windings in wye (91). This is to correct for the phase-shift of the line
currents due to the wye-delta transformation. It also eliminates the zero
sequence component of the currents on the wye side, which might otherwise
upset the stability due to the lack of a corresponding zero sequence component on the delta side and prevent tripping on an external fault on the wye
side.
In the case of a transformer with its neutral grounded through resistance,
differential protection should be supplemented by restricted earth fault
protection, as shown in fig. 10.8, because only 41 %of the winding is protected
with a differential relay pick-up setting as low as 20 %of c.t. rating (24). This
is due primarily to the elimination of the zero sequence component from the
phase currents.
A method suggested by Matthews (147) to overcome this difficulty is
shown in fig. 10.10, in which the C.t. secondaries are connected in star on the
resistance-grounded side and in delta on the delta side of the power trans392
10.4
P OWfr
Mo.ln CT ' ,
tra ns former
ot
o.r th - fo.ul t
r.lo. y
___ J
Grou ndIn g
Im p.danet
Slo.blhSln 9
res lsta.ncr
------------,
Rt!. t rulnln q cOil s
,
Co rt-bo. l o.nC f
t r a.nsfor mer
/'
Sto.b lloSlng
L.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
...JI
FIO.
Jj
~A
In
;;
......
",- /
./
/ U NIaoQ
f 'f
J
L. H "'on//
"''' au: ..
'IV'
./
./
./
./
./
./
,;'
/
400
INCAtr.Y.
ouc.
c.t ,~~
"" u"''''"'aoo
lui
200
..
1+-
600
-...-
\J
"
,r ...
,...,
OU _ lt)C
c!'
~""'[AKuo..,.
1000
,zoo
'TO
1400
'j
1600
'-
..
-"""
'500
FIG.
10.9.
C.t.
former. Another current transformer of ratio 3 : 1, placed in the groundneutral connection, measures the zero sequence current and injects it to the
open delta of the multi-winding line-current transformers on the star side.
393
Protective Relays
10.4
It can be shown that, with this arrangement, the zero sequence current is
.added to the relaying circuit in the case of internal ground fault and subtracted from the relaying circuit in the case of external ground fault. It has
also been shown, so far as percentage of winding protected is concerned, that
M<1in multi-winding C.T.
r----------,
Tr<1nsformer
M<1in C.T.
,----------,
I
R<str<1inJng coil
Perc<nt<1ge
differenti<11
rel<1y
FIG.
St<1bdisJn9
resista.nces
394
10.5
curve of the core that, provided the flux change takes place in the linear
portion of the curve, the average flux-swing to give an output to the relay
remains almost constant with a given per-unit differential current in the c.t.
primary windings. If the through current increases, there is a consequent
increase in the cross excitation 'cl" which brings the core-flux above the
FIO.
knee of the excitation curve; the voltage output to the relay thus decreases
for the same per-unit differential current (127) as before in the primary
windings. Thus, if the relay operating voltage is properly chosen, it can be
made stable at high values of through currents.
The discussion above relates only to through fault stability, and it is
important to consider relay stability on magnetising inrush currents. In the
early days of protection, when time-lag induction disc relays were in almost
universal use, magnetising inrush currents had little affect on relays. But, with
the use of improved steels in the manufacture of power transformers, and
with the growing "application of faster relays to protective gear practice,
magnetising inrush phenomena came into prominence.
to.5. MAGNETISING INRUSH CURRENT IN A POWER TRANSFORMER
10.5.1. Factors Aftecting Magnetising Inrush Phenomena (136) (137) (138)
10.5
Protective Relays
will be in accordance with its normal value and the peak will have a value of
~maxcJ)R
The instantaneous value of the asymmetrical flux linked with the transformer winding will be limited by core saturation and the air-core inductance
of the winding under consideration. Since the air-core inductance is small,
FIG.
FIG.
phenomena in a transformer. Fig. 10.14 shows how the inrush current wave
can be derived from the excitation characteristic.
The inrush current gradually decays in successive cycles of the voltage
wave due to the resistance R in the primary, i.e. the energising circuit, and
the impressed voltage on the primary winding of the transform.er is modified
by a small amount equal to the voltage drop in the resistance R. The rate of
decay of the transient inrush phenomena will be greater during the first few
cycles because of the shorter time constant of the circuit for decreased aircore inductance of the winding with higher saturation of the core. In the
determination of this time constant, eddy current loss has some effect during
396
FIG.
10.5
the first few cycles when the rate of decay is highest, but the influence of
hysteresis loss is absent (148) for practical purposes.
10.5.2. Three-phase Transformer Banks
397
Protective Relays
10.5
(a)
_
Time in
cycle.
"
.....
4/
"2
_
Time
In
cycl ..
1_
(c)
Time In
cycle.
PIG.
in anyone cycle. For phase c, the relevant diagram is given in fig. 1O.15c.
It should be observed that the inrush currents in phases band c are of opposite
polarities and that they occur at different times in the cycle. These currents
have a return path to the supply through the ground-neutral connection.
(ii) Core-type transformer with primary winding star connected, neutra
not earthed and with a closed delta winding present.
This case is shown in fig. 10.16. Assuming the same conditions for switching as in Case (i), the exciting ampere-turns required by the core will remain
the same, since it is of no importance whether the core of the transformer
obtains its exciting ampere-turns from the primary winding or from any other
linked winding capable of supplying ampere-turns. In this case, any core-limb
demanding inrush ampere-turns during a certain part of a cycle is provided
by the other phases with an auxiliary source by virtue of the magnetic coupling of the closed delta winding. Thus, one third of the required inrush current
I, will be supplied by the closed delta winding, as shown by the arrows
in fig. 1O.16a, when only phase c is experiencing inrush. Similarly, for the
period during which only phase b is experiencing inrush, the situation will be
398
10.5
...,Ii
III
--.------,I,
III
0.
3 Ii
III
tlj
III
(b)
,~
,t
~Ii
(. )
--
"5/1
!I,
FIG.
as shown in fig. 1O.16b. It should be observed that the forced inrush current
through phase a, due to the other two phases experiencing inrushes in opposite directions during different periods in the cycle, will be double-sided.
The magnitude of this current will be zero at the instant when the inrush
magnitudes in phases band c are equal; at this particular instant the delta
circulating current will also be zero. This does, however, assume that the
inrush currents in phases band c are equal.
(iii) As for Case (ii) but with grounded neutral.
399
10.5
Protective Relays
---------;~-------
.... -
I
I
I
I
I"
>-
+'
.0;;
.,
"""
;:;:"
_--
26,
~--
I'"
/"
...... -
... - -
.... (
I
/'
I
____;_---l
/I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Working
o----+--flux deoslty
FIG.
Ma.gnetising
force H
10.17. Hysteresis loops of high-loss and low-loss transformer cores; loop (1)
for high-loss core, loop (2) for low-loss core
hot-rolled core material show the same loss per cycle; the normal working
flux densities are at different values. The attainment of these advantages
have been accompanied by an increase of the initial transient magnetising
current. It can be seen in fig. 10.17 that, if the maximum flux swings are
double the maximum value at normal working conditions in both cases, the
magnetising ampere-turns required in the case of cold-rolled steel are very
much greater than that in the other type.
400
10.5
MVARating
of Transformers
05
10
50
10'0
50'0
TABLE
27
2'7
2'5
2-3
18
10.5
4'5
16'0
140
100
100
9'0
6'0
4-8
3-9
3-2
25
9-4
70
57
3-2
2'5
Protective Relays
10.5
connected from the supply, the damped oscillation in the tuned circuit so
formed eventually eliminates any residual magnetism. This method, however,
has not proved very effective (148) in reducing the peak value of magnetising
inrushes. This may be due to the fact that modem transformers using improved silicon steel and normally working nearly at saturation flux density
may, in some cases, retain considerable residual magnetism after deenergisation. When re-energised, these transformers will tend to draw inrush
currents which, in early cycles, may cover the period of nearly a complete
voltage cycle. This type of inrush current will contain a high percentage of
d.c. component but less second harmonic component; thus any relay which
depended for its restraint solely on the second harmonic component of transformer magnetising inrush current would encounter difficulties.
10.6
value
d.c.
55%
2nd Harm. 3rd Harm. 4th Harm. 5th Harm. 6th Harm. 7th Harm.
63%
268%
H%
2'4%
10.5
(a)
(e)
1O.1S. Typical wave-form of inrush current
(a) Theoretical
(b) Actual currents in wye-connected windings
(c) Actual currents in delta-connected windings
FIG.
the transformer and the delta connected c.t's on the wye side. The d.c.
components and even harmonics can be cancelled out in the operating circuit
of a rectifier bridge relay and added in the restraint. This leaves only the
5th, 7th, etc., which can either be ignored because of their small amplitude
or blocked by a suitable filter. This has been done in a Russian relay (143).
(b) Harmonic Restraint (124) (125) (136). A popular method of making
differential relays insensitive to magnetic inrush current is to filter out the
harmonics from the differential current, rectify them and add them to the
percentage restraint, as shown in fig. 10.19. Harmonic restraint is obtained
Power
transformer
FIG.
403
Protective Relays
10.5
from the tuned circuit XCXL which permits only current of fundamental
frequency to enter the operating circuit, d.c. and harmonics being diverted
into the harmonic restraining coil. The relay is adjusted so that it will not
operate when the second harmonic (restraining) exceeds 15 % of the fundamental current (operating). The minimum pick-up is 15% of C.t. rating and
the minimum operating time is about 2, cycles.
Owing to the fact that a d.c. offset and harmonic components may also be
present in fault current, especially if the c.t's saturate, it is customary to
provide an instantaneous overcurrent unit in the differential circuit, which is
set above the maximum inrush current but will operate in less than 1 cycle
on heavy internal faults. In this way fast tripping is assured for all heavy
faults.
(c) Harmonic Blocking. An alternative to harmonic restraint is to provide
a separate blocking relay whose contacts are in series with those of a biased
differential relay and which operates when the second harmonic is less than
15 % of the fundamental.
Fig. 10.20 is a simplified diagram showing the basic principle (137).
HQ.fmon lC
blooklng
y
,/Ia.
,/
Tra.n!'QCLors
polarts.d
r~la.y
FIO.
10.5
During a fault the current will have a large fundamental component which,
when rectified, gives twice as many pulses per second and the relay operates,
thereby permitting the differential relay to trip (100).
(e) D.C. Bias Scheme. The characteristic feature of a shunt-loaded currentoperated transductor, in which the operating current increases linearly with
increasing d.c. in the control circuit for a constant voltage output, has been
FIG.
utilised in this relay (16); this feature gives a convenient way of obtaining
percentage bias on through faults by rectifying the through current and using
it to control linearly the output from the a.c. primary winding carrying the
differential current from the same phase. The output from this transductor
goes to the second conductor which controls a tripping relay. The d.c. component of the magnetising inrush current has been used as 'auto-bias' to the
relay in the same transductor element. When the magnetising inrush current
is symmetrical and does not contain a d.c. component, the relay is made
stable by a 'cross-feed' bias from the d.c. component of the inrush current
in another phase. For this purpose another transductor element has been
incorporated, as shown in fig. 10.22.
This type of protection is simpler and cheaper than harmonic restraint
but has the possibility of undesirable tripping on inrush current which may
occur in a three-phase transformer if the breaker is closed at the moment of
voltage maximum on one phase. The resulting inrush current can have no
d.c. component to block the relay. This condition can be overcome at some
405
Protective Relays
10.5
PoWf::r
tra.nsformc.r
SenSItive
difle.ent'QJ
r.la.y
FIG.
10.22. Percentage biassed and d.c. component biassed transductor relay for
transformer protection
sacrifice of speed and sensitivity when its operation on offset internal fault
current is demanded. In another similar scheme the d.c. bias has been replaced by the second hannonic current for restraining the relay on magnetising
surges.
10.5.1. Overcurrent Relays
In the case of small transformers, overcurrent relays are used for both
overload and fault protection. An extremely inverse (]2t = K) time-overcurrent characteristic is preferable for overload and light faults, with an
instantaneous overcurrent unit for heavy faults. A very inverse time residualcurrent relay with an instantaneous unit gives adequate protection for ground
faults.
Time-overcurrent protection with a very long time setting is also used for
stand-by protection of a grounding resistor or reactor to protect it against
overheating due to a sustained fault to ground. Such a relay is shown in
fig. 10.23 which shows an extra damping magnet for giving the long delay.
In regulating transformers, time-overcurrent protection is used for the
shunt exciting winding in case a short-circuit should occur in the series
winding.
Inverse time-current relays are also used for protecting transformers for
mercury arc rectifiers and arc furnaces. They are connected on the supply
side of the transformer and are set just above maximum load. They are
usually of the very inverse or extremely inverse type, because there is a narrow
margin of selectivity between peak load and minimum fault, and are usually
406
FIG.
10.5
C.T' .
Grounding
trcs.nsfor",.r
1-_+-&*-_+-__
Exl.rna.1 fa.ult
ba.c~-up r.la.y
FIG.
current, hence any positive or negative sequence currents can flow only
towards the grounding transformer and not from it.
For the above reasons, faults in the grounding transformer bank can be
detected very selectively by overcurrent relays fed by delta connected c.t's, as
shown in fig. 10.24.
407
10.7
Protective Relays
Differentia.l
rela.y
Restra.in
Restra.in
Differentia.l rela.y C.T.
't-----'
Sta.tion
scrVice
tra.nsformer
(a)
FIO.
protect the two as one unit (fig. 10.2Sa). The relay is not normally provided
with harmonic restraint because the transformer is only connected to the
bus-bar at full voltage; however, it is possible for a small inrush to occur when
a fault near the bus-bar is cleared, suddenly restoring the voltage. The relay is
usually given a 20% pick-up setting and a 20% bias.
408
10.8
An English relay of this type is shown in fig. 10.25b. It has two shadedpole electromagnets acting upon an induction disc. The operating electromagnet is supplied with the difference current and its shading winding is
tuned so that the magnet produces maximum torque at system frequency
C.T.
Circuit
brca.ker
Pow.,
ira.nsform.r
Restrain
Opera.t.
(b)
PlO.
----~~gr---------~
____~~m~--~----~/
Power
tra.nsfom.r
FIG.
409
Protective Relays
10.8
avoid a blind spot for a phase fault on the wye side ofthe power transformer,
which would give currents in the ratio 2/1/1 on the delta side, the middle tap
of the summation transformer is off-centre.
Such an arrangement is obviously less sensitive for ground faults than the
normal residual connection. The most common solution is to provide residual
relays at each terminal breaker, each of which will detect a ground fault only
on its own side of the power transformer; these residual relays are then
arranged either to send a tripping signal to the other end or to unbalance the
pilot-wire circuit or inject a tripping impulse so that tripping occurs at the
other end too. Another alternative is to close a 'fault-throwing' switch which
will create a fault on the feeder of the transformer that can be detected at
the other end.
Fig. lO.27a shows a typical case of a ground fault cleared at one end but
not detected at the transformer end; in this case the displacetnent of the voltage neutral can be used to cause local tripping, the neutral displacement
(b)
FIG.
relay being located on the line side of the transformer. This however is no
solution for a ground fault on the other side of the transformer which,
owing to the neutral grounding resistance, creates only a very small current
in the feeder, as shown in fig. 10.27b; such a fault can be detected by a
sufficiently sensitive negative sequence relay.
10.'.1. d.c. Intertripping
In order to avoid undesirable tripping due to a.c. int~rference for the case
of a potential gradient existing in the earth, the d.c. intertripping relay must
be very insensitive to a.c. but able to work rapidly on a small d.c. signal.
Such a relay is called a surge-proof intertripping relay and is usually designed
to pick up on 20 rnA d.c. and not to pick up on 5 A a.c. This assumes a
1000 ohm pilot and a maximum induced voltage of 5 kV.
410
10.8
Fig. 10.28 shows the pilot-wire intertripping circuit and fig. 10.29 shows
two typical intertripping relay circuits.
10.1.2. a.c. Intertripplng
~~--------------T-'~
Pilot
wIres
IR
~--~~~--------------~.--~~~--~
Trip
(a)
Relo.y
FIG.
TTT
Where the cost of the pilot-wires makes intertripping too expensive, the
remote relay is operated by putting a fault on the line side of the power
transformer by means of a fault-throwing switch controlled by the local relays.
These switches are designed for applying but not for interrupting the fault;
411
10.8
Protective Relays
they are usually connected between one phase and ground on grounded
neutral systems and between two phases on insulated neutral systems.
Until recently the slow operation of these switches (0'5 second) delayed
the final clearing of the fault. An American switch with its contacts in sulphur
hexafluoride is now able to apply a fault in 005 second; this is due to the
very high insulation strength of the S2F6 which permits a contact separation
of only 001 in. per kV.
412
11
Bus.Zone Protection
General Principles-Current Differential Protection-Voltage
Differential-Frame Leakage Protection-Directional Comparison-Back-up-Supervision
11.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Protective Relays
11.2
R.la.y
&us
Brea.ku$
C.T> .-----d:;-------r:I;---'
FIG.
(busbar zone) must sum vectorially to zero unless there is a fault therein.
Fig. 11.1 shows the arrangement of the c.t's so that the switchgear, as well
as the bus itself, is protected. It will be seen that the sum of the currents will
not be zero if there is a bus fault, and the relay will be energised.
11.2. CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Current differential protection depends upon the sum of the c.t. secondary
currents' being zero when the sum of the primary currents entering and
leaving the bus is zero, thus producing no differential current and making the
relay inoperative during load or an external fault.
During an external fault the c.t. in the faulted feeder has a current which is
the sum of the currents in all the other c.t's around the bus but the difference
in magnetic conditions of the c.t's may affect their outputs so that, with ironcored c.t's, their secondary currents may not sum to zero as they should.
Even with identical c.t's with iron cores large enough to avoid saturation
with maximum fault currents, d.c. transient conditions may upset the balance,
with a total current containing a decaying d.c. component.
i = I (sinwt+B-~t)
(11.1)
If v is the voltage across the C.t. secondary due to the current flowing
1~8 . dt
cPa..c = KIZr
w where Zr is the impedance of the relay circuit. For the d.c. com414
Bus-Zone Protection
ponent of current it will be of the form
l/Jd.c.
= KIRr
11.2
l/Jd.c. Rr ro.L Rr X
l/J.c. = Zr . R = Zr . R
(11.2)
where L, R and X pertain to the primary circuit. X/R will be of the order of
20 on a power station busbar. This means that the c.t. carrying the fault
current will saturate if the fault occurs at voltage zero and that balance
with the other c.t's will not be possible. This subject is discussed in more
detail in Vol. IT, Chapter 9.
In the past, attempts were made to overcome this difficulty with time
delay but nowadays power systems have become so large, and fault currents
so heavy, that high-speed relays are required.
The d.c. time constant for a fault circuit is L/R seconds. Typical time
constants for primary circuit components are as follows: Turbo-generators
01 second, Transformers 005 second, Lines 001 second.
In sections 11.2.2 and 11.2.3, protective systems are described which
now solve this problem directly, but the first step taken (in the 'thirties) was
to bias the differential relay which improved its stability considerably but
was not a complete solution.
11.2.1. Biased Percentage Differential Protection
Protective Relays
11.2
C.T's
Bus
FIG.
"_summation QUlC.C.TS.....
.....,
I
I
L...-,
.rr--
~?
..
..",
r--'
~
.<>
:>
CD
.~
A-
l~
,.......,
I--
Ii:
fl tt
,,~ill'ing
Op .. a.u ..oi,tor
.:...'-
f1
Rutrain
Rcla.y
FIG.
416
Bus-Zone Protection
11.2
they were paralleled in three groups, the basic power sources in one group,
load feeders that contribute less than 5 % of the total fault current in the
second group and other power sources in the third.
These early biassed schemes required very large c.t's because they did
not use stabilising resistors or high impedance operating coils and hence
the c.t's had to balance their secondary currents with maximum throughfault currents including the d.c. component (see previous section 11.2 and
Chapter 9, section 9.4.3), so that they theoretically had to produce a total
flux of the form <I> =
417
11.2
Protective Relays
Sensitive D,C.
polQris~d t~lay
(a)
(b)
Rtlo.y
C.Ts
(c)
Es
I relo.y
--- ..............
--------
I P;In~------------~~------------~~Is
-I
--N
harmonics make it more stable on heavy through faults which may produce
spurious residual spill current due to unequal C.t. performance. The provision of harmonic restraint is impractical because of the risk of preventing
tripping on a heavy internal fault.
Excessive voltages on internal faults are prevented by the use of nonlinear resistance (thyrite) and a relay connected in series with thyrite provides
fast operation on heavy faults, its pick-up being high enough to prevent
operation on external faults.
418
Bus-Zone Protection
11.2
(~ ratio) of modem power systems, the d.c. offset component of current may
cause prolonged spurious differential residual current on heavy external phase
faults but, fortunately, the total transient has a relatively small fundamental
frequency content. A linear stabilising resistor in series with the auxiliary
c.t. in the relay enables it to be calibrated in voltage which can be more
accurately determIned because the resistor is of the linear type.
The circuit is simpler than the previous ones and the equipment is small
enough to put complete three-phase protection in a single unit relay case,
fig. 1l.5b. The tuned circuit adds about a cycle to the operating time of the
relay but the net efficiency of the relay is higher than that of the preceding
types. The net efficiency involves the sensitivity, speed and stability of the
relay. Stability is defined as the ratio of maximum through fault current
below which the relay will not operate, to the minimum internal fault current
for which it will operate.
With both high and medium impedance relays the best results are
obtained with c.t's having lower resistance and very low leakage reactance,
419
Protective Relays
11.2
e.g. those of toroidal construction. Auxiliary c.t's for ratio correction reduce
the sensitivity and electrical stability and should not be used. All the c.t's
should have the same ratio.
(b) Setting of Voltage Differential Relays. The pick-up voltage setting is
usually made just above the maximum relay voltage for an external fault;
this voltage would approach zero if the c.t. performance were linear but, if
the c.t. in the faulted circuit is completely saturated and the others are not
L
~/O-:___~
( a)
FIG.
saturated, it can reach a value of the maximum fault current times the resistance of the c.t. secondary plus that of the leads to the junction point with the
other c.t's. Hence the relay should be set to pick up at a voltage
Vr = 11 Imax(Rsec+ Rleads)
(11.3)
V, and Imax are r.m.s. values; no account is taken of the d.c. offset component
of Imax because the relay is assumed to be designed not to respond to it;
furthermore, saturation of the c.t's due to the d.c. offset component would
reduce their output voltage.
In the relay shown in fig. 11.5a, the voltage setting is the product of the
current setting of the relay times the resistance of the stabilising resistor.
The relay has taps between 01 and 04 ampere so that, for a 50 volt setting,
the stabilising resistor would be 125 ohms on the 04 ampere tap less the relay
impedance. The corresponding resistance in the high impedance scheme
420
Bus-Zone Protection
11.2
would be 50/0008 = 6250 ohms, because the current pick-up of the relay is 8
rnA.
During an internal fault the c.t's are virtually open-circuited except for the
small current taken by the relay. The voltage assumes a value such that the
secondary spill current which would have flowed in the relay if their ratios
had been maintained is equal to the sum of their magnetising currents required
for this voltage. In other words, the primary currents are all used up as
magnetising current instead of producing proportional currents in their
secondaries and the c.t's not having power sources receive magnetising
current from those that do via their secondaries.
Hence the real operating current of the relay is 10 = I, + LIm, where I, is
the pick-up current of the relay and 1m is the magnetising current of each c.t.;
I, is very small compared with 1m. For values above pick-up an increasing
proportion of current goes through the shunt saturating circuits of the relay,
hence limiting the c.t. secondary circuit voltage and the relay current.
11.2.3. Ironless C.T's (113)
Protective Relays
11.2
Bu&
Sensitive
relay
LineCLr
couplers
(a)
Linca.r coupler secondaries.
Rela.ys
(b)
FIG.
The ratio of maximum external fault current for blocking to minimum internal
fault current for tripping is about 25 for a uniformly distributed multilayer winding.
The number of circuits on one bus that can be protected effectively is
of the order of 15 and depends only upon the sensitivity of the relay (113)
which should operate preferably on 5 mW or less. On systems grounded
through impedance, the ground relay should be more sensitive than the
phase relays (fig. 11.6b) but, in cases where the through current on an external
422
Bus-Zone Protection
11.3
fault may be very heavy, it may be necessary to block the sensitive ground
relay on multi-phase faults if this through current exceeds 25 times the relay
setting.
For maximum sensitivity the impedance Zr of the relay should be made
about the same as that of the sum of the impedance Ze of the linear couplers,
i.e. Zr = LZ(". It is not necessary to include the lead resistance because it is
usually small compared with that of the relay and the linear couplers. Ze is of
the order of 10 ohms for 132 kV linear couplers.
The current setting I, of the ground relay and its impedance Z, (from
fig. 11.5b) are related by the equation
11.4
Protective Relays
Frameworks
r---------~I 1
I---\---'~------------'
.1
I
I I
II
1
1
1 1
3 1-+1+-1- - , . . -_ _ _.,-_+-__
I
flO.
neutral check feature, then an inverse time delay relay should be used for the
main scheme. This prevents inadvertent operation of the bus bar protection
due to current flowing from the auxiliary wiring to the switchgear frame, the
auxiliary circuit fuses clearing the fault before the inverse relay operates.
11.4. DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON
During an internal fault the power will flow towards the bus in all circuits
connected to it; during an external fault the power will flow towards the bus
in all circuits except the faulted one and there the power will flow outwards.
An early scheme utilised this fact and had directional relays in all the bus
circuits with their contacts in series with a multicontact relay (fig. 11.8a)
which tripped all the breakers; the directional relays CD) closed their contacts
for incoming power so that tripping could occur only for a bus fault.
This scheme was little used because of its dependence upon a large number
of series contacts. It was superseded by a scheme in which the directional
relays had double-throw contacts; all the make contacts were paralleled
and connected to the trip relay (fig. 11.8b) and all the break contacts
were paralleled and connected to a blocking relay B which could block
tripping.
Discrimination was assured by the fact that during normal load conditions at least one circuit had outgoing power, so that the blocking relay was
normally energised and there was no contact race to prevent tripping on an
external fault. As a further precaution a 2 cycle delay in the tripping relay T
can be provided. The scheme can be simplified by the use of polyphase relays
for phase faults. The ground fault relays can be polarised by current from a
424
Bus-Zone Protection
11.4
P.T.
(a)
P.T.
current may be close to that of a bus fault to ground. However, this problem
can in most cases be solved by the use of voltage restraint because a mho
characteristic can discriminate between these conditions, as can be seen
by reference to Chapter 5. Negative sequence directional relays will be
less affected because charging current has very little negative sequence
content.
Distance units have been used in the U.S.A. for bus protection where their
reach is limited by transformers or feeder reactors, as described in Chapter 5,
section 5.4.5. The relays were of the reactance type and were set to reach a
short way into the feeder reactors; reactance units operate for currents in the
reverse direction so that they detect faults either on the bus or in the generator.
Reactance relays have also been used for protecting a bus with two sections
separated by a reactor (also described in section 5.4.5).
425
11.6
Protective Relays
This has two interpretations. It can mean no local protection at all and
dependence upon the second zone tripping of stepped distance relays at
neighbouring stations to clear local bus faults. It can also mean the clearing
of a fault on a feeder which: because the feeder breaker has failed to operate,
must be regarded as a bus fault. The latter fault can be cleared by a timer which
is controlled by the relays on the faulted feeder. This is described in more
detail in Chapter 12, section 12.4.2.
11.1. SPLIT BUS PROTECTION
Each section of the bus is protected in the same way as a single bus, using
one of the schemes described in section 2 of this chapter. A split bus permits
the use of a check feature (shown in fig. 11.9) which is not possible with
single buses, except by duplication of the c.t's and relay.
It will be seen that neither section of bus can be isolated unless the overall
bus protection relay 0 operates. In the case of a fault in the middle zone
near the bus-tie breaker, all the breakers will be tripped.
FIG.
Fig. 11.10a shows a 41ine ring bus, where bus differential protection
would be complicated and expensive because of the many bus sections and
the secondary switching necessary when one section is out. However, from
the point of view of interruption to service, a bus fault is no more serious
than a line fault because the adjoining halves of any pair of bus sections, such
as between G and F, can be relayed as part ofthe line C by arranging the c.t's
for line protection as shown in fig. 11.lOb.
The advantage of this system is that any breaker can be taken out for
maintenance without interrupting any load and without providing a spare
breaker; but it is essential to provide automatic reclosing of the breakers and
a motoroperated disconnecting switch in each line in order to obtain its full
benefit. The disconnecting switch can also ground the line.
For a transient fault on a line or a bus section the appropriate two
426
Bus-Zone Protection
11.7
breakers open and reclose. For a permanent fault on a line the breakers open
and reclose a predetermined number of times and, after the last trip, the
motor-operated line switch opens and the breakers reclose, restoring the ring
-@-Rela.YinlineA
(b)
FIG.
11.10 (a) Four section ring bus. (b) Location of c.t's and p.t's on ring-bus
bus. If the permanent fault is on a bus section the breakers trip again and lockout leaving the other lines in' but the ring bus open.
11.7. SUPERVISION
c:r~
FIG.
427
11.8
Protective Relays
the magnetising current taken by the other c.t's the actual setting of the
relay must be much lower than the 10 %value.
This sensitive relay operates. a time delay relay which sounds an alarm and
blocks the bus differential relay from tripping by short-circuiting it through a
hand-reset control. Wrong tripping during the time delay is prevented by a
checking relay. This system cannot be used where earth fault protection only
is provided because the c.t's are paralleled at their terminals and only the
residual circuit is brought back to the relay panel.
11.8. TRIPPING CHECK
428
12
Btrek-up Protection
Basic Principles-Precautions for Reliability Remote Back-upLocal Back-up-Relay Back-up-Breaker Back-up-a.c. Supplies
-d.c. Supply
12.1. BASIC PRINCIPLES
.."
Onlt pha.se
shown
al
Lin.
FIG.
429
12.3
Protective Relays
Troubles with breaker mechanisms can be minimised by adequate maintenance (106). Troubles with trip coils, their wiring and breaker auxiliary
switches become negligible if the trip coil is connected directly to the negative
pole of the d.c. supply and a trip supervision circuit is installed.
The relays should be designed for high contact pressure under all operating
conditions. Ifnecessary, it should be augmented as the contacts are approaching and almost closed. This is done in certain modern relays (68), for instance,
by a notch in the induction disc.
The relay case should be made dust-tight and provided with a filterbreather to equalise the pressure inside and outside the case without admitting
dust. Testing should be done with the cover on or, in the case of plug testing,
a temporary perspex cover to permit dust-proof entry of the test plug (see
Chapter 13, Section 13.4).
Fine wire relay coils and trip coils should have well-braced junctions
between the coil wire and the outside lead so that stress on the latter will not
cause an open-circuit. The coils should either be encapsulated in araldite or
an equivalent substance, or at least be thoroughly impregnated to exclude
moisture. Acid fluxes or acid-producing insulation should be avoided; workers
with perspiring hands should not be permitted to handle fine wire without
gloves; mechanical removal of enamel from the wire should be avoided.
In general, a.c. coils should not use wire less than 005 mm. diameter and d.c.
coils not less than 01 mm.; d.c. coils should not be connected directly to
the positive side of the d.c. supply unless all these precautions have been
taken.
Maintenance testing should be done without disturbing switchboard
wiring, see Chapter 13. With relays incorporating the foregoing precautions,
maintenance should be done infrequently (about once every five years)
except in conditions of severe humidity, new untried components, etc.
Infrequent maintenance eliminates the risk of relay failure due to improper
adjustment by inexpert personnel, which is one of the commonest causes.
Adequate maintenance can often anticipate failures due to a.c. wiring
faults, including multi-core cables and current transformers. Failure to trip
due to loss of the a.c. potential can be prevented by an over-voltage alarm
relay connected across secondary potential fuses (see fig. 12.13).
Where devices are used which are too recent for comprehensive reliability
statistics to be available, they should be connected so that their failure or
deterioration does not cause undesirable tripping or failure to trip. For
instance, transistors should be protected not only against voltage surges
but also preferably should be connected so that the selectivity of the relay
does not depend upon the transistor characteristics.
12.3. REMOTE BACK-UP
This is the cheapest and simplest form of back-up. It is entirely independent of local supplies, wiring, etc., and is essential where there is no bus
430
12.3
Back-up Protection
.e
t=
--
Dista.ncr
FlO.
common equipment is used and hence the back-up cannot fail from the same
cause as the first line of defence.
Until recent years system connections were fairly simple so that back-up
protection was effectively provided by the relays at the next station towards
the source with enough time delay to permit the relay in the faulted circuit
to clear the first fault, if operable. The increase in the number of interconnections and power-infeed points in recent years has reduced the fault
current in the circuits, other than the faulted circuit, so that remote back-up
relaying is becoming increasingly difficult; at the same time loads are
becoming more important and hence demanding better service continuity.
Where the limitation of the back-up reach of distance relays is mostly
due to line length, an improvement in their operation can be obtained by
(a)
e
i=
zon.l(A)
A
Ta.p
lin.
Ta.p lin.
FlO.
locating the Zone 3 unit at the other end of the line section and reversing its
direction. Referring to fig. 12.3a, the third step of the distance relay at A
normally provides remote back-up for faults in section BC if the breaker at
B fails to trip. This back-up can equally well be provided by reversing the
third zone unit at B so that it covers section BC.
431
12.4
Protective Relays
This arrangement not only reduces the impedance seen by the back-up
relay by the impedance of section AB but also maintains power supply to
tapped loads in section AB (fig. 12.3b) which would lose their power source
with the normal arrangement where section BC is backed-up by the relay at
A. It also prevents the back-up relay from reaching through a large transformer into a distribution circuit. The fact that the back-up impedance relay
is now located at the same station as the transformer means that a directional
relay in the transformer circuit can be used to block the impedance back-up
relay for faults fed through the transformer.
Where the limitation of back-up reach is due to power infeed at the intervening bus the excessively high impedance setting of the back-up relay may
flO.
impedance characteristic.
(b) Provide it with an elliptical characteristic which will enable it to have
a shorter -impedance reach along the R axis than along the X axis
(fig. 12.4).
(c) Where the bus is divided a fault detector relay can be connected to
split the bus during a fault and reduce the local infeed.
Where remote back-up cannot be used effectively the relay circuit and the
breaker circuit must have local back-up.
12.4. LOCAL BACK-UP
This solution (fig. 12.5) involves extra expense and complication and the
value of duplicating each component depends on its liability to failure. An
analysis of the replies to a questionnaire sent in 1958 to the members of the
C.I.G.R.E. Relay Study Committee indicates that the order of likelihood of
failure of equipment is as follows:
(a) Relays (43 %).
(b) Circuit breaker interrupters (13'5 %).
(c) a.c. wiring (chiefly multi-core cables) (12 %).
432
12.4
Back-up Protection
(d) Breaker trip mechanisms (7 %).
(e) Current transformers (7%).
(/) d.c. wiring (including trip circuits) (5 %).
(g) Potential transformers (3 %).
(h) Breaker auxiliary switches (3 %).
(j) Breaker trip coils (25 %).
(k) d.c. supply (1 %).
B
Line
Norma.l
rcla.y
::J
IQ
Line
FlO.
The following were the most common reasons given for the failures under
the different items of the questionnaire:
(a) Relays
(i) Dirty contacts (low contact pressure).
(n) Open-circuit in fine wire coils (d.c.).
(iii) Wrong setting.
(iv) Incorrect adjustment.
4~
Protective Relays
12.4
The least trouble is experienced with item (a), the a.c. current circuits,
so that some form of overcurrent relay is the best basis for back-up protection.
The grouping of the components in (b) and (c) suggests that local back-up
must be divided into two sections, relay back-up and breaker back-up, because
failure of either unit or its auxiliaries can prevent tripping.
12.4.1. Relay Back-up
Duplication of the normal relays (fig. 12.5) would provide relay back-up
without time delay because they would work in parallel, but it would involve
considerable cost and complexity; hence it would be justified only on very
important interconnections.
The best arrangement is for the back-up relays to use a different operating
principle from that of the main relays and to be supplied from separate c.t's.
For instance, on transmission lines, distance relays are used to back up pilot
(wired or carrier) protection and vice versa. Similarly transverse and longi-
434
12.4
Back-up Protection
jA
;::
I
L ___
-J
FIG.
I
I
______ J
I C~
B-"
I
I
I
-+
10 . .
I
L - -
!I________~IA
--,t1 - c------------
___ JI
B
o
B~
O~
~e
fIG.
time-overcurrent relay varies with generating conditions and may cover more
than one line section it must be given a time setting of at least 10 second, i.e.
corresponding to the third zone time of a distance relay. Faster back-up times
can be achieved with a non-directional inverse time-overcurrent relay with
an instantaneous unit (fig. 12.8) supplied from separate current transformers,
if available. The overcurrent method is inexpensive and reliable; it relies
only upon the current transformer and there is no risk of failure due to fine
wire, such as is used in a.c. and d.c. potential circuits.
The time-overcurrent relay back-up (fig. 12.7) may be slower than the
previous alternative of a single-step mho back-up relay with Zone 2 time but
this does not interfere with the selectivity. Referring to fig. 12.7 a fault at
X is normally cleared by the distance relay at B if the relay at C fails to
operate. If the back-up relay at B cannot operate because of a heavy infeed
p*
435
12.4
Protective Relays
a.tC
,'"
,,/
C
/
"..
,-- -- - -'F-------"t--,./
~~t~n!9-~~~~ ~cJ
FIG.
Without inteed
When a relay operates because of a fault but the breaker fails to trip, the
fault can be regarded as a bus fault and necessitates opening all the other
breakers on that bus. Opening the breakers nearest the fault has the advantages of (i) saving teed feeders, (ii) facilitating rec1osure, because all the
breakers are at the same station. This method is sometimes complicated to
apply where the bus is sectionalised and subject to switching.
Breaker back-up can be obtained fairly simply by paralleling all the relay
tripping contacts associated with all the circuits connected to a bus (fig. 12.9)
and connecting them to operate on a common timing unit when there is a
fault on any of the circuits. If the appropriate breaker does not clear the
fault when its relay operates then the fault should be regarded as a bus fault
and the timing unit, after a suitable delay, should trip all the breakers, clearing
the bus.
Since the timing relay can clear the bus its inadvertent operation must be
avoided; there should be an instantaneous overcurrent supervising relay
between the timing unit contacts and each breaker trip c.oil (fig. 12.10), so
that the breakers cannot be tripped unless both the timer and the individual
436
12.4
Back-up Protection
overcurrent relays close their contacts. In places where some of the unfaulted
circuits may feed in less than full load the overcurrent supervising relays
cannot be used but the paralleled contacts of the fault detectors of the relays
FIG.
II II II I!
11 11 II I
t t t t ~Trip
Protective
relays on four
feeders
Fault
~ detector
relays
FIG.
relay
12.4
Protective Relays
(b)
FIG.
breaker but the fault will remain as a bus fault, and will not be detected by
the bus zone protection which is now limited to busbar protection. With
distance relays, the fault may be cleared by remote back-up.
If both sets of current transformers are on the line side of the breaker
a fault between the breaker and the nearest current transformer (fig. 12.l1b)
will operate the bus zone protection and clear the bus, which will cause unnecessary interruption to service.
The inference is that it js better to have a set of current transformers on
each side of the circuit breaker.
12.4.4. Potential Transformers
Back-up Protection
12.5
survive most of the transient short-circuits that are liable to occur in maintenance.
Loss of potential due to a blown fuse, an open-circuit in the wiring or to
trouble in the potential transformer can either prevent tripping or cause
undesirable tripping in distance relays. Loss of potential on the restraining
coil can cause wrong tripping but, in a mho relay which is polarised by a
potential winding, loss of potential supplying this winding will cause zero
torque, i.e. failure to trip.
In order to prevent undesirable tripping due to loss of potential each
distance relay can have a supervisory relay which may be a simple instantaneous overcurrent relay in series with the Zone 1 tripping circuit. In the
Zone 1 fault current
pick-up current f
h emaximum
rare cases w
re.
>
0 the
maXImum load current
drop-out current
instantaneous overcurrent relay, a rate-of-rise of current relay can be used
as the supervisory relay. In either case, the loss of relay potential must be
signalled by an alarm relay working on undervoltage and provided with a
time-delay so that the alarm will not sound during faults.
Where miniature circuit-breakers are used instead of fuses and have an
auxiliary contact to open the trip circuit, it must open before the protective
relay trips, i.e. with modem high-speed distance relays it should open in less
than one cycle. Where fuses are used, an undervoltage relay can be connected
with its coil across the fuses and its contacts in series with the trip circuit;
this relay will open very fast when a fuse blows because the relay coil receives
the full voltage (see fig. 5.51 and refer to Chapter 5, section 5.7.2).
12.4.5. Battery
The records indicate that this is the component least likely to fail. Nevertheless, it can be included in local back-up by providing an undervoltage
delayed alarm on the load side ofthe fuses. No supervision other than the alarm
is necessary because failure of the d.c. supply can only cause failure to trip.
12.5. SUMMARY
13
HainienalWe .IUI Testing of Belays
Commissioning-Periodic Maintenance-Transfer to Test Circuit
-Tools-Safety Measures-Mechanical Tests-Electrical TestsManufacture Tests
ROTECTIVE relays are intended to protect expensive electrical equipPment.
With proper care they will perform this duty, but when neglected
they may become inoperative and could become a hazard in themselves.
Since the reliability is the most important quality of protective relays it
follows that their maintenance must be first class.
In the ordinary course of events modern relays, which have been properly
adjusted and correctly set initially, should not require subsequent adjustment
and, if periodic inspection and check tests show them to be in good condition, they should not be physically touched.
It is generally accepted that protective relays and their trip circuits should
be periodically checked in order to ensure that they will always be ready to
operate with certainty. The recommended practice is to carry out three types
oftest:
(a) Acceptance tests at the installation or commissioning of the relays.
(b) Periodic tests to check the calibration and condition of the relay.
(c) More frequent tests of a simple nature to cause movement of the parts,
and to check the continuity of the trip circuit.
Before attempting any adjustment or tests, the test engineer should
carefully read the proper instructions. He should be entirely familiar with the
relay, its application, principle of operation, design features and characteristics.
13.1. INSTALLATION OR COMMISSIONING TESTS
440
13.1
Each relay unit should be given a mechanical inspection to see that the
armature moves freely and that the contacts have the necessary travel and
wipe to ensure reliable operation, checking the manufacturer's settings, if
given, in the instruction book. An inspection light and dental mirror should
be used to see that the magnetic gaps are clean before the relay is left in
service.
Suitable electrical tests to check the performance characteristics of the
relay are usually described in some detail in the manufacturer's instruction
book accompanying the relay. Typical tests are described in section 13.10,
under the heading 'Electrical Tests'.
The contacts of each relay should be closed electrically or manually to
see that the trip circuit is complete and that the proper alarms are actuated.
In order to check the current-transformers, voltage-transformers and
wiring associated with the relays it is usual also to make overall tests from the
primary circuit. The primary current is usually supplied by a test transformer
of about 5 kVA supplied from a low voltage lighting or power source, such
Prima.ry
circuit
230.A.C.
"------;---...-
Relay
5 Kva.
as a 240 volts, 30 amperes source, and tapped for various voltages (say 1 to
10 volts) necessary to give line currents up to 1000 A depending on the impedance of the circuit; this current is sufficient to check the polarity of the
connections but not to simulate fault currents, the latter being done in the
secondary injection tests to check the relay characteristics (see fig. 13.1).
The secondary wiring can be further checked if necessary by a low reading
ohmmeter or by the ringing method using a bell and battery. A more detailed
account of the tests on each type of relay is given in section 10, 'Electrical
Tests'.
13.1.1. Primary Fault Tests
Primary tests with actual fault currents can be done, however, by applying
a fault through a portable circuit-breaker, in the case of cable circuits. In the
case of an overhead line the simplest method is to shoot an arrow over or
between the conductors, the arrow being attached to a length of very fine
iron wire, the other end of which is free, for phase faults, or earthed, for
ground faults. An alternative method is shown in fig. 13.3 wherein the iron
wire is pulled into position with insulating cords. The side view shows how
conductor burning is prevented.
441
13.1
Protective Relays
Iron wire is preferred for starting the fault arc because it breaks up into
small pieces which are expelled from the arc electromagnetically and has no
effect on the arc resistance; copper or fuse wire on the other hand forms
a cloud of metallic vapour which creates a very low resistance arc, which is
misleading for the application of impedance relays. Flashover arcs, or test
. h very t hi'
. have a reSIstance
.
8750
h
"'.
arcs started WIt
n Iron WIre,
/1.4 0 ms per loot In
still air, which has a value of about 075 ohm at 800 amperes. Alternatively,
the arc has a drop of ~~~ volts per foot which is 450 at 800 amperes. It is
most important not to underestimate the arc resistance on short lines because
selectivity can be lost if, for instance, a distance relay gives third zone time
for a fault just inside the far end of the protected section (Chapter 5, section
5.1.1).
Few companies do such field tests, however, although the chance of
trouble is much smaller with a supervised test fault than with an actual fault
which is uncontrolled and going to oCCur anyway. In the U.S.A. these field
tests are carried out by power companies whenever they install some new
protective scheme which is of fairly recent design, or if they wish to find out
something about the behaviour of relays under particular system conditions.
These tests are usually carried out in conjunction with the manufacturer and
complete records are taken by high-speed portable oscillographs. The power
company engineers then have a much better idea of ~hat both the system
and the protection will do under fault conditions.
The superiority of thin iron wire for this purpose was originally discovered by the author in 1928 during a power arc investigation, in collaboration with Mr. E. E. George, on the 154 kV system of the Tennessee Electric
Power Company. During the tests it was found that similar results were
obtained with a wet rope with the added advantage that the arc was delayed
in striking and the effect on the relay was like that of an actual fault although
it was in fact initiated by closing a breaker near the source.
13.1.2. Primary Injection Tests
For checking the polarity and correctness of the primary and secondary
wiring it is necessary to inject current into the primary circuit. This is done
usually with a distribution type transformer of 5 to 10 kVA rating (as
described in section 13.1 and shown in fig. 13.1) with its low voltage winding
connected to the primary circuit and its high voltage winding connected to the
local supply (120 or 240 volts) through a controlling impedance such as that
of a secondary test set. The primary circuit is grounded for safety through the
conductors in the desired manner to ascertain that:
(a) the current-transformers in corresponding phases are correctly connected to differential relays;
(b) their polarity is correct relative to each other (checked by zero
spurious residual current);
442
13.2
F===X=====lf===:X:===tll
\\
SIDE
VIEW
dependent on
system KV
c Ia.mp~-,_ ,
--No. 30 ,tul or
Iron wire, Len9th
Gla.ss cord-- -
cords
Hot hnrr
on
Flulbl. ca.bl.
Spa.ra.trr ground'S
FIG.
tripping contacts are relieved by a seal-in relay. For example there should
be negligible effect on the contacts of an induction disc relay with a series
seal-in unit after 100 operations tripping a 40 ampere trip coil at 250 volts
(fig. 2.35).
Relays in dirty surroundings, or having contacts with lower pressure, or
a tendency to bounce, need more frequent checking. On the other hand,
auxiliary relays with high-pressure bounce-proof contacts can be hermetically
sealed and replaced every 6 to 10 years, depending on their contact duty.
443
13.2
Protective Relays
In all tests the relay case should be dusted clean before removing the
cover. Fig. 13.2 shows a plastic cover which can be used when testing has to
be done in dirty or dusty surroundings with the cover off. It is better practice,
however, to test with the relay cover on.
FIG.
Occasional insulation tests should be made with a 1000 volt a.c. supply,
(a) between the relay case and each terminal,
(b) between a.c. and d.c. circuits,
(c) between terminals normally separated by open contacts in the relay.
For this test the earthing points of the secondary wiring should be
removed and either a 1000 volt megger or a step-up potential transformer
with a current limiting resistance should be used, the former being safer and
more convenient.
If a potential transformer is used as the high voltage source it should be
remembered that a large switchboard may have sufficient capacitance between
the wiring and ground to cause series resonance, which will increase the
voltage applied to the relays to two or three times the test voltage.
444
13.4
Most of the relays now in existence are wired through some kind of
terminal board which is provided with links for transferring the relay to a
test circuit. After locating the proper terminals with the aid of a panel wiring
diagram, current-transformers must be short-circuited, the d.c. trip and a.c.
voltage circuits disconnected and a number of connections made between
the test equipment and the relay terminal board; after completing the test
FIG.
445
13.4
Protective Relays
the above procedure must be reversed. All this takes appreciable time and
involves the possibility of a mistake or a poor connection, which may leave
a relay inoperative.
A better method of transfer to the test circuit has been available for some
years which is instantaneous and relatively foolproof; it speeds up testing
so that the same staff can maintain several times as many relays. In this
method the test terminal block is replaced by a plug-in test block on the
front of the panel so that the same man can adjust the test controls and also
watch the relay. This test block may be separate from the relays (fig. I3.4b)
FlO.
BO.
446
13.5
but, in some of the drawout types of relay, it is integral with the relay (fig.
13.5). The test plug (fig. 13.4a) is already connected to a portable test set so
that no extra connections have to be made; when the plug is inserted, the relay
is separated from the switchboard circuits and connected to the test circuit.
Withdrawing the plug instantly restores the relay to service. The transfer
of connections is automatic and there is no possibility of leaving the relay
wrongly connected. Finally, the testing can be done without disconnecting
the primary circuit and only one relay need be out of service at a time.
To avoid loss of time changing the test plug connections for different
relays, the terminal wiring should be standardised as far as possible so that the
tester can go from relay to relay without fear of opening current-transformer
circuits, etc. This, of course, applies only to a.c. protective relays. The test
plug should fit both the drawout relay contacts and the separate test block.
In these days of rapidly expanding power systems and shortage of maintenance staff, the test plug method is particularly valuable because many
times more relays can be tested per year with the same staff and less skilled
personnel are required because no circuits have to be traced behind the
board and there is no risk of the circuits being left improperly connected.
13.5. TOOLS
FIG.
447
13.5
Protective Relays
pocket, but contains the most important relay tools-a contact bender, a
dental mirror and a combination burnisher and contact pressure gauge.
If cleaning is considered desirable, a burnishing tool only should be used.
On no account should any abrasive material be used as this may result in
the scratching of contacts and the depositing of insulating particles on their
surfaces both of which will increase arcing during operation.
Fig. 13.6 shows a burnishing tool attached to the contact gauge; it consists
of a strip of metal, the surface of which is roughened by etching, so resembling,
in effect, a very fine file. It can be compressed between the contacts and thus
ensures that the actual contacting points are cleaned. Being flexible, it is
useful for cleaning contacts which are located in normally inaccessible
positions.
By means of the contact bender, contact gaps can be accurately adjusted
to the required setting. The contact springs are bent at their clamping point
so that kinking and deformation of the springs is avoided.
In addition to the tools mentioned above, a few do-it-yourself tools are
recommended, such as a needle, a feather and a feeler gauge, which are used
as follows.
13.5.1. Bearings
An ordinary needle is the best tool for exploring the surface of a jewel
bearing to detect a crack. It can also be used as a gauge to prevent overlubrication, the amount of oil applied to a meter or timing unit bearing being
the size of a drop which will stay on the point of a needle.
Most protective relay bearings are run dry and can be cleaned out with
petroleum spirits. In the field, a jewel bearing can be cleaned by inserting and
twisting a clean piece of pith or watchmaker's peg wood. The pivot can be
cleaned by pushing it into a piece of pith, or a hole drilled in watchmaker's
peg wood, and twisting it. It is exceptional, however, to find bearings dirty
enough to need cleaning unless the atmosphere is very polluted.
13.5.2. Gap Cleaners
Gaps are either blown out with a low pressure air jet or cleaned out with
a feather. A thin brass spatula has been used with a magnetic insert for
attracting and removing iron filings, but this has been discontinued in most
companies because of the risk of demagnetisation of high coercive force steel
magnets, i.e. the method is applicable to electromagnets but not to permanent
magnets.
13.5.3. Gap Gauges
The normal gap between the relay contacts is often important. Too large
a gap would cause slow operation or, in the case of an attracted armature
relay, it might cause insufficient contact pressure or failure to make contact;
too small a gap might cause inadvertent tripping due to shock and vibration.
448
13.6
Since many relays operate many more times in testing than they ever do
in service it is a good idea to use a neon lamp for checking contact closing
values. Metal filament lamps should be avoided because their initial current
can be 10 times their normal current, which may weld pure silver contacts.
Contact resistance should be determined with an ammeter and voltmeter at about normal current and not with a resistance bridge at a few
milliamps, because contact resistance is inversely proportional to the current
magnitude.
13.6. IMPROVISATIONS
A neon lamp can also be used in series with a suitable resistor (or using
a lamp having an internal resistor) to check the continuity of a circuit or the
closing of a contact. It can also be used for checking the condition of a
capacitor. For instance, a 1 mF capacitor with a leakage resistance of
approximately 300,000 ohms will cause the neon lamp to glow at about once
per second when connected to a 125 volt d.c. source supply. If the capacitor
is short-circuited the lamp will glow continuously and, if open, it will not
glow at all. Of course, care has to be used not to use a test voltage higher than
the rating of the capacitor.
13.6.3. Inductive Current Control
449
13.9
Protective Relays
taking two flat rolls of stranded wire of suitable size (such as 100 yds of 7/029)
and varying their position relative to each other to control their mutual
coupling and hence their impedance and so provide control for current
magnitude.
13.7. SAFETY MEASURES
With portable equipment and temporary test connections there is a constant danger of electric shock. Most companies avoid the use of exposed
connections and test clips by using insulated test plugs or switches (section
13.4).
13.10
and the gaps should be examined with a mirror and light to see that there are
no foreign bodies in the gaps; for instance, a hair can double the pick-up of
an induction disc relay. The moving contact should have adequate travel
and wipe. The operation indicator should not drop when the relay panel
is bumped.
13.9.1. Shock and Vibration
Although protective relays are normally treated as fairly delicate instruments, they are occasionally subjected to substantial shocks (such as during
an earthquake or if a fairly heavy piece of equipment is accidentally bumped
into the panel) and the relays should not inadvertently trip under these conditions. A few manufacturers have, in recent years, designed relays to stand
considerable shock and vibration and these relays can be mounted on circuit
breakers or electric locomotives.
No national specifications are yet available but an English manufacturer
subjects its relays to impact of 20 g. to 40 g. on the panel near the relay
contacts (50 g. for tripping relays) and also applies a sin 2 wt vibration test.
Such tests are considerably more severe than any service conditions.
13.9.2. Dust and Corrosion
The same manufacturer also provides relay cases which are dustproof
and dust-tight (Chapter 2, section 2.6.8), ordinary relay cases are dustproof
but not dust-tight. Fig. 2.37 shows a case which can be sealed to make it dusttight, the normal 'breathing' due to changes in ambient temperature being
effected through a dust filter which prevents the entry of even the finest dust
but offers negligible resistance to breathing. The dust filter is screwed into the
back of the case and contains a replacement unit of shredded nylon to stop
dust particles, while iron particles are trapped by a magnetised grating at the
outside of the filter. Such relays are suitable for use in flour mills, cement
mills, steel mills, etc., where an ordinary relay would require frequent
maintenance.
t3.10. ELECTRICAL TESTS
The instruction book on the relay should be referred to for suitable tests
on each type of relay.
The B.S. or A.S.A. recommended tests have already been carried out by
the manufacturer, since he has to meet their specifications, but when the relay
is tested on site it is only necessary to check it with the setting at which is is
to operate and at values of current, voltage, etc., which represent maximum
and minimum conditions. If this is done much time will be saved and there is
then a definite check on the behaviour of the relay for the conditions under
which it is expected to operate.
13.10.1. TimeOvercurrent Relays
13.10
Protective Relays
time on the middle tap setting, i.e. 100 % tap for phase relays and 50 % for
earth fault relays, with currents equal to twice, five and ten times the setting
current, repeating these tests with the time-multiplier set on unity and at 05.
This can be most conveniently done using the circuit of fig. 13.7 in which a
t;j
Cu"ut
control
Rc. l a.y
~ooootao.
23B:~_O_'1_0_(1m_P_ _...y,oo;l
FUlc.s
5top
Mc.tct'"ng
tra.nsforMcr
Vt.ry fast
conto.ctor
-0
-.::::r
Push button
FIG.
510.' t
Synct'lronou s
timer
(cycle COUr'ltI:r)
FIG.
452
13.10
The phase angle curve should be checked at minimum fault current and
normal voltage to make sure that there is no parasitic V2 closing torque which
may tend to give incorrect directional action at low current. The test should
be repeated at 2 %of normal voltage with maximum short-circuit current to
make sure that there is no parasitic [2 torque which will give improper
directional action at low voltage. Further testing is unnecessary because, even
if the directional characteristic departs from the usual straight line passing
through the origin, it will do no harm provided that the two conditions above
are met.
Actually, considerable tolerance can be allowed, even for these two tests,
because parasitic V 2 torque aids selectivity if it is in the resetting direction
since it gives the relay a tendency to a mho characteristic. Furthermore, a
reasonable [2 torque in the tripping direction is useful in the case of cables,
where it is possible to have almost zero voltage for a fault close to the bus,
and can be usefully employed where the current for a fault in the protected
section close to the bus is sufficiently higher than a fault on one of the other
feeders close to the bus.
The recommended test circuit is shown in fig. 13.9. An auto-transformer
is used for adjusting the voltage because, unlike a potentiometer type voltage
divider, it does not cause a phase shift at low voltages.
Q
453
13.10
Protective Relays
Fuses
CD
liZ
flO
'II
CD
230 v.
A.C.
Pha.sc rt-:t::l--;:;;l--r.JUi~h
shIfter
FIG.
the relay. The relay should then close its contacts if the load is outgoing, or
open them if it is incoming, if it is correctly connected. The test can, if desired,
be repeated for the other two phases.
13.10.3. Distance Relays
454
13.10
(a)
X R"
2'
FIG.
,,
I
''''p oda.ncc of
I
'ph,. b ...ck to
I gc.ncra.t ing IOU ree.
'mp<da.ncc of
protc.cte.d li ne.
r-~~~~~~~~
Stop
FIG.
No,,,,a.'
IOQ.d
V.,y fa..t
conta.cto r
455
Millisecond
count er
Protective Relays
13.10
impedance 02 is Z, x
ratio
~~"
1~
The test should be repeated with arc resistance and in all cases the
switch should be closed at least five times to make sure that the relay does not
overreach due to transient conditions in the line or the relay circuit.
In the test set illustrated in fig. 13.12, ZL is calibrated in ohms for different
phase angles. In test sets with separate XL and RL it is important that Ra be
non-inductive and that Rx , the a.c. resistance of X, be known accurately.
FIG.
going direction and then in the incoming direction, to make sure that the
relay is directional. These relays with memory action will, of course, have
strong directional torque even down to ZL = O. Distance relays lend themselves to preliminary tests which are an effective check on the wiring of the
switchboard. For instance, the phase sequence of the potential connections
can be verified by the fact that the contacts are held open on a mho type
relay with a strong torque when no current is flowing through the circuit.
The relative phasing of the current and voltage circuits of each relay can be
checked by observing the behaviour of the contacts for different directions
of power and reactive kVA. If both are outgoing, a reactance unit should
open its contacts and a mho unit should close its contacts when the voltage
restraint is removed. The reactance unit should also open its contacts when
the reactive kVA is outgoing and the power is incoming, and close them
when the reactive kVA is incoming.
456
13.10
Adjusta.blc ra.tlo
'-a.uxllia.ry C.T.
Diffcrcntla.1
rela.y windings
...-FIG.
The only tests important to ensuring correct operation are to see that the
pick-up of the relay agrees with the manufacturer's data and that the percentage slope of the characteristic at maximum fault current is sufficient
to be in excess of the current transformer errors at that current. The connections of the current transformers supplying the differential relays should
first be checked by inserting an ammeter in series with the operating coils of
the differential relays and seeing that the spill current is negligible when
simulated load current is passing through the circuit. In the case of a balanced
current relay the polarity is unimportant because the windings supplied from
the two circuits compared are on separate magnets.
13.10.5. Restricted Earth Fault Relays
13.10
Protective Relays
power
transformer
~~~--~~
rW~~----
".,"
.'
.:"
Altcrna.tivc
position for
short-circuit
AC.
sourc.
'III
FIG
Rela.y
tra.nsformcr
,-ANWI/',------
centre zero
instruments
FIG.
d.c. pulses are passed through the line C.t. and the neutral c.t.; the direction of
the two instrument deflections should be noted. The meters should be so
connected that the deflections are in opposite directions, in which case the
terminals of the c.t's, to which the positive terminals of the instruments are
connected, should be joined together to give the correct relative polarities.
When these tests have been completed, be sure that all C.t. connections
are replaced.
458
13.11
::-Li_----Jpv,,,.,,.,
High frequencf
source
Sphere
ga.p
FIG.
coupling as shown in fig. 13.16. In the case oftapped coils the voltage can be
induced across the whole coil by applying a lower voltage between taps.
For coils with less than 2000 turns a lower frequency can be used or a
minimum of 2000 volts at 3000 cycles be maintained.
Relays have more extensive testing to check their calibrations over their
range of adjustment. Slow-speed relays have static tests. High-speed relays
have dynamic tests. Relay schemes have dynamic tests to check both their
calibration and their overall performance.
Static tests confirm the accuracy of the relay calibration. Dynamic tests
check this calibration during the transient changes in current and voltage that
occur when a fault is suddenly applied, as happens on an actual power
system. These transients may occur on the power system or in the relay or
in the c.t's and p. t's supplying it.
459
13.11
Protective Relays
Experience has shown that the relays most affected are differential current
relays, distance relays and instantaneous overcurrent relays.
(a) Heavy Current Tests. All forms of differential relays, including pilot
wire, are tested on very heavy currents to make sure (a) that they do not
operate on faults external to the protected circuit, (b) that they do not fail to
operate on heavy internal faults due to C.t. saturation.
The equipment is large and expensive (fig. 13.2Ia, b) beca,use, in order to
simulate actual fault conditions, the heavy current primary circuit must have
an X/R ratio similar to that of the actual system, which may be as high as
30, i.e. a d.c. time constant of about 01. The primary current is limited by
air-cored reactors and, although they can be built with X/ R > 30, it is
difficult to maintain the ratio in the whole circuit because of the resistance
of the cables and bolted connections.
(b) Artificial Transmission Line. Fig. 13.17a shows the arrangement of a
typical three-phase artificial transmission line and fig. 13.l7b shows the
Sta.tion
A
Paralltlline
PoTS
Sta.tion
B
Source
impeda.nce
Zs
Line
impeda.nce
ZL 2 r-TlrTT,----,
} To loa.d
a.nd A.Co
generator
100A
fuses
'---y----' '-y---'
To rela.ys on test
(a)
13.11
FIG.
(a)
(b)
FIG.
C.t.
referred to primary
13.11
Protective Relays
A= Auxllia.ry
t ra.ns former
~11:11L
R':(Ci::+CS)
1.r-R'2---1
~
RA = Ra.tlo of a.uxilla.ry
tra.nsformer, A
.....
---~
FIG.
(c) Test Benches. Fig. 13.23 shows a modern production test bench for
miscellaneous a.c. relays. Current is controlled by reactance in a circuit
similar to fig. 13.7. Potential is controlled in angle by a phase-shifter and in
magnitude by a tapped auto-transformer. Operating time is measured by a
synchronous timer for slow-speed relays and a Chronotron or a decatron
device for high-speed relays.
The equipment for each control circuit is mounted on a sub-panel so that
a test bench can be changed, for instance, from single-phase current and
potential to three-phase current by exchanging the sub-panel.
13.11.2. Mechanical Tests
FIG.
FIG.
FIG.
463
13.11
Protective Relays
d~i~;;~m~~~:$O
' : sct N$'...:
10MVA
a.ltuna.tor
'2 ~
-:::r=,!.,,!., - - __
.,
11 KV ~50 MVA
.w,tchgoa., -
._
'21
L-_ _ _..J.
~OCB
Intulock.d
Exc,t.r
~- isola.tor
Accommoda.tlon
for C.T'.
- 'I whon ttstitl!l
Mo.ln
900 A
~ tra.nsform"~-r conta.ctor
g, ovoro.lI prot.
~l
:;;
~I
1
~
10.J", )
6,360 volts
~~
3-14> 39MVA
~:; f T J~'::::::::::::"
~
~ N
4 4 KA termino.ls
R
FIG.
FIG.
464
13.11
13.11
Protective Relays
<a>
MtC1SUfI"g
tub.
1~i:3"
Orili tube.
(b)
FIG.
466
13.11
dust and provided with a dust filter through which cyclical expansion and
contraction of air takes place through a dust filter. Such an arrangement
permits use of protective relays in the most dusty locations, such as cement
mills, flour mills, steel mills and desert locations. Fig. 2.38 shows an airtight
draw-out relay case which is completely sealed against all ambient conditions.
These two cases are described in Chapter 2, sections 2.6.7, and 2.7.
13.11.4. Buchholz Relays
Fig. 13.24 shows the special test rig used by an English manufacturer for
testing Buchholz relays. Valves are provided for controlling the oil flow so
that velocities corresponding to Table 10.2 in Chapter 10 are produced and
the whole equipment can be tilted to simulate the slope of the pipe to the
conservator tank.
The test rig (fig. 13.24) consists of two oil storage cylinders with interconnecting pipes and valves, so arranged that when put under pressure by
the admission of compressed air above oil level in the left-hand cylinder,
the oil flows up and round through the orifice tube (selected to suit the size
of relay), giving the necessary differential to the flow meter, and thence
through the relay being tested to the empty right-hand cylinder. The compressed air inlet is regulated to build up pressure gradually, and this stimulates the rate of flow through the relay. Removable sections of either 1 in.,
2 in. or 3 in. diameter pipe used for mounting are interchangeable to suit the
size of the relay undergoing test, and the whole rig can be tilted to any angle
between 1 and 9, which gives relay. positions corresponding to various
angles in the pipe rising to the conservator.
Adjustments are made until the correct trip values are obtained under
steady flow conditions, as indicated on the flow meter, and these are followed
up by sudden surge tests, surges being created by the quick opening, under
pressure, of the left-hand air operated main valve. The action of the top
alarm element in response to gas accumulation is simply tested by admitting
air to the relay via the top pet cock, whilst running off oil from the relay
to waste. The gas scale is calibrated by comparison with the oil forced out
of the relay under pressure and rising in the calibrated measuring tube.
Used compressed air is occasionally released into the exhaust chamber, and
as needed the left-hand tank is recharged with the oil which has accumulated
in the right-hand tank, by manipulation of the appropriate valves.
The air injection test is carried out by the application of air under
measured pressure to the back pet cock provided for this purpose.
The relay is also given a mechanical stability test (see Table 10.3). Fig.
13.24 shows the pendulum hammer and graduated scale for administering a
calibrated impact. In addition the casing is given a porosity test by being
subjected to a pressure of 30 Ibs/in2 (over 2 Kgm/cm2) with cold oil for
12 hours and a short time test with hot oil (l00C) at 1 Kgm/cm2. The
strength of the casing is tested at 150 Ibs/in2 (over 10 Kgm/cm2) for one
minute.
467
14
MiseellaReolUl
Static Relays-Future of Electromagnetic Relays-d.c. Protection
Relays-Protection Engineering as a Career
The growing complexity of power systems, coupled with the increasing
difficulty of obtaining suitable personnel for maintaining the equipment,
poses a problem for which an ideal solution would theoretically be a completely static power system.
The components of a power system which are at present non~static are
generators, circuit-breakers, meters, instruments and relays. Research is
already under way on the direct transformation of heat, nuclear and chemical
energy into electrical energy by static means. It is possible that circuit-breakers
may one day be replaced by a device whose impedance can be controlled
over a wide range, similar to a magnetic amplifier, which would extinguish
arcing faults and reduce the current in permanent faults to a value which
would not affect the operation of the rest of the power system; isolation of the
defective circuit for repair could then be done by isolating switches or static
equivalents which would have no difficulty in interrupting the small inductive
current that was still flowing.
Static meters may soon be available which will integrate the amplitudes of
impulses derived at fixed intervals from a static measuring circuit, the
indication where necessary being given in printed form or on decatrons.
Indicating instruments may work on a similar principle except that indication
would be maintained between impulses.
14.1. STATIC RELAYS
Owing to the fact that static measurement and control devices use
comparators which are similar to those of protective devices it is probable
that protection, instrumentation, metering and control will tend to become
combined at each power station and substation and linked to a central
control as shown schematically in fig. 14.1.
As mentioned in Chapters 2 and 5, considerable work has been done
already on static relays. For many years semi-static relays have been available,
using transductor or rectifier bridge comparators supplying an electromagnetic slave output relay for tripping the breaker. Thyratrons and controlled
silicon rectifiers are available which could take the place of the output relay
468
Miscellaneous
14.1
and thus make the relay wholly static, but they have not yet done so because
thyratrons are not considered sufficiently reliable and controlled rectifiers are
at present too expensive. It is probable, however, that a suitable device will
be available in a few years, owing to the rapid advancement of semi-conductor
techniques.
The trend towards static relays will be accelerated by the use of higher
transmission voltages for the following reasons. At voltages of 275 kV and
above, the cost of c.t's of conventional design becomes prohibitive and even
Controlled
sta.tion
FIG.
Ana.logdigita.l
tra.nsmitter
a.nd
digita.la.na.log
rece.iver
linear couplers become somewhat impractical at 400 kV and above; consequently, research is being conducted into the possibility of transmitting
optical, acoustic or radio signals to an amplifier at earth potential so as to
eliminate the problems of insulation.
Present day amplifiers are limited in linear output range to about 20
watts; if this corresponds to a maximum fault current of, say, 20 times
normal rating it means that the relay current burdens should not exceed
005 VA at C.t. rating. This sensitivity, together with the higher source-to-line
impedance ratios of lines at these high voltages, can only be achieved by
static comparators with amplifying properties.
Although it was hoped that the absence of moving parts in static relays
would solve the problem of eliminating maintenance it is unlikely to do so
for a number of years because so little is known about the statistical reliability
of static components, such as thermistors, transistors and miniaturised
capacitors. This is aggravated by the fact that new types constantly appear
and the technical improvements which they offer may make it necessary to
use them although their recent appearance precludes the possibility of long
term life tests. For this reason maintenance is unlikely to disappear although
it may be reduced by automatic monitoring. In due course the reliability of
static components will have been proved and only then can there be any
real reduction of maintenance of protective relays.
An American company has developed a static flag indicator in which
the relay controls a digital computer type memory core; the state of the
core determines whether a neon indicator lamp lights when the circuit is
energised by a push-button 'reading' switch.
Printed circuits naturally follow the use of static components; they
conserve space, eliminate wiring errors and assist standardisation. They are
widely used in the radio industry but are new in the protection field. The
relay of the future will undoubtedly consist of a number of printed circuit
469
14.2
Protective Relays
470
Miscellaneous
14.4
Relays for protecting d.c. equipment are generally less sophisticated than
a.c. relays, partly because no phase relation is involved and partly because
most electrical equipment is a.c. on account of the ease with which a.c.
voltage can be changed.
The main uses of d.c. are traction, electrolytic reduction of metals,
production of gases and chemical fertilisers and variable speed drives in
steel and paper mills. It is probable that the use of d.c. will increase when
electrical energy is produced by magneto-hydro-dynamics or by static
means (nuclear, chemical, thermal, solar, etc.) instead of by synchronous
machinery. Furthermore, d.c. transmission links are becoming more common
as transmission voltages increase and the importance of these synchronous
power links will stimulate investigation into d.c. protective relaying.
D.C. relaying is simpler in execution but more difficult in application than
a.c. relaying. Modern, powerful permanent magnets enable very sensitive d.c.
relays to be made; the absence of a.c. losses enables solid cores to be used
which can be fabricated in much more convenient shapes than are possible
with lamination stackings. On the other hand, discrimination is more difficult
with the lack of a quality corresponding to phase relationship; furthermore,
d.c. transformers are much more complicated and expensive than a.c.
instrument transformers.
14.4. PROTECTION ENGINEERING AS A CAREER
14.4
Protective Relays
472
Belereaces
CHAP.
2
3
3
7
2,6
2
2,5
5
2,5
2, 5
2
2,4
4
9
2
REP.
473
Protective Relays
CHAP.
REF.
22
23
2, 10
24
25
2A
26
2A
27
28
29
8,9,
10,11
30
31
2,4,6
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
4,9
21
474
References
CHAP.
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
6
5
5
5
5,9
5
5
8
2
5
2
5
5
5
6
6
REF.
475
Protective Relays
CHAP.
REP.
69
70
71
11
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
10
89
10
90
10
91
13
68
476
References
CHAP.
10
10
8,9,
10,11
7
10
10
8
10
10
9
10
10
6
13
12
12
6
2
11
11
11
11
9
8
13
5
4
REF.
477
Protective Relays
CHAP.
REF.
119 HALMAN et al. 'A New Carrier Relaying System', Transactions A.I.E.E.,
63, 1944, pp. 568-572.
120 MORRIS, W. C. and GOFF, L. E. 'A Negative Sequence Overcurrent Relay
9
for Generator Protective', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953,
pp. 615-621.
121 BARKLE, J. E. and GLASSBURN, W. E. 'Protection of Generators Against
9
Unbalanced Currents', ibid., pp. 282-286.
9
122 GROSS, E. T. B. and LE VISCONTE, L. B. 'Back-up Protection for Generators',
ibid., pp. 585-592.
9
123 SEELEY, H. T. 'A Compensated Automatic Synchroniser', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 53, 1934, pp. 960-968.
10
124 KENNEDY, L. F. and HAYWARD, C. D. 'Harmonic Restrained Relays for
Differential Protection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 57, 1938, pp. 262-271.
10
125 HAYWARD, C. D. 'Prolonged Inrush Currents with Parallel Transformers
affect Differential Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 60, 1941, pp. 10961101. Disc., pp. 1305-1312.
11
126 ONYEMELUKERE, C. 'Differential Protection: Notes on Theory and Practice'
Electrical Times, December 24th, 1959.
11
127 SEELEY, H. T. and VON ROESCHLAUB, F. 'Instantaneous Bus Protection
Using Bushing Current Transformers', Transactions A.I.E.E., 67, 1948,
pp.1709-1719.
13
128 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Portable Equipment Speeds Relay Test',
Elec. World, 107, February, 1937, p. 764.
2,5,14 129 ADAMS, A. W. and BERGSETH, F. R. 'A Simplified Unit for Distance
Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, fJp. 996-998.
8
130 NEHER, J. H. 'A New Approach to the Pilot Wire Protection of Transmission
Lines, using Leased Pilot Wires having relatively Long Electrical Characteristics', A.I.E.E. Paper No. 60-155, Power Apparatus and Systems,
June, 1960, pp. 245-252.
2,5,7 131 SEELEY, H. T. and KIss, M. A. 'All Electronic One Cycle Carrier Relaying
System', Power Apparatus and Systems, A.I.E.E., April, 1954, pp. 161-195,
together with three other papers on the same subject by Messrs. Barnes,
H. C. and Kennedy, L. F., Hodges, M. E. and Macpherson, R. H.,
Price, W. S. and Cordray, R. E.
2,5 132 BARLOW, H. E. M. 'An Experimental Impedance Relay using the Hall
Effect in a Semi-conductor', I.E.E. Paper No. 3136M, February,
1960.
6
133 SALZMANN, A. 'Cross Country Faults seen by Protective Relays in Resonant
Neutral Earthed Transmission Systems', Electrical Energy, 1, No. 16,
December, 1957, pp. 494-500.
5
134 GOLDSBOROUGH, S. L. 'A Distance Relay with Adjustable Phase-angle
Discrimination', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63, 1944, pp. 835-838.
2, 5 135 MULLER, M., et al. 'Protection of E.H.V. Systems, Tl\king into Account
Single-phase Automatic Reclosure on Very Long Lines', Brown-Boveri
Review, 45, No.6, June, 1958, p. 243.
10
136 A.I.E.E. Committee. 'Report on Transformer Magnetising Inrush Currents
and its Effect on Relaying and Air Switch Operation', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 70, Part II, 1951, p. 1730.
10
137 ROCKEFELLER, G. P., et af. 'Magnetising Inrush Phenomena in Transformer
Banks', Transactions A.I.E.E., 77, 'Power Apparatus and Systems', October,
1958, p. 884.
10
138 BLUME, L. F. and CAMILLI et al. 'Transformer Magnetising Inrush Currents
and its Influence on System Operation', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63, 1944,
p.366.
10
139 WELLINGS, J. G. and MATHEWS, P. 'Instantaneous Magnetic Balance Protection for Power Transformers', B.T.H. Activities, 191, 1946, p. 30.
g
140 RUSHTON, J. 'The Fundamental Characteristics of Pilot-Wire Differential
Protection Systems', Proceedings 1.E.E., 108, Part A, No. 41, October,
1961.
8
478
References
CHAP.
REF.
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
10
9
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
479
Pages
Intlex
Sections
318
183
114, 196, 209
102, 118, 121
210
226
151
441
198
109
29, 47
17, 266
8.1
4.6
3.2.6, 5.1.1(c), 5.2.2
3.1.2, 3.3.1, 3.4.1
5.2.3
5.4
4.2
13.1.1
5.1.3
3.2.3(a)
2.3.1, 2.4.4
1.9,5.9
74
15,426,431
49
107
111, 328
363
74
106, 377, 390
234
307
79
436
382
23
232,413
Back-stops
Back-up relaying
Balanced beam unit
Balanced current relays
Balanced voltage pilot scheme
Bearing failure ...
Bearings
Biassed differential relay
Blinders ...
Blocking pilot ...
Bounce-proof contacts
Breaker back-up
Buchholz relay ...
Burdens on c.t's p.t's ...
Bus protection ...
2.6.2
1.8, 11.5, 12.3
2.4.5
3.2.2
3.2.3(c),8.4.3
9.1.3(e)
2.6.1
3.2,9.4.2,10.4.2
5.4.7
7.3.2
2.6.4
12.4.2
10.3.1
1.13.1, 1.13.2
5.4.5,11.1
109, 327
311
304, 338
316
87
26, 103
18
108, 133, 324
21
85
248, 440
99, 117
243,285
209
86
25
27, 38
66
75
448
225, 226
81
95
265
107
106
375
437
421
3.2,8.4.1
7.3.3
7.3,8.11
7.4
2.7
2.2,3.1.3
1.10.1
1:2.3,3.7.3,8.4.1
1.12
2.6.9
5.5.8,13.1
3.1,3.3
5.5.5,6.8
5.2.2
2.6.10
2.1.2
2.3,2.4
2.5
2.6.3
13.5
5.3.4
2.6.6
2.10.2
5.8
3.2.1
3.2.1
9.4
12.4.3
11.2.3
10.5.S(e)
4.1.6, 5.1.4
7.1
481
Index
Pages
66, 142
5
74
304
168
113, 167
191
20,102
183
84
175, 387
15,91
451
31,63
72
161, 244
148
2
441
198
94
18,93
423
263,371
148, 158
448
448
382
348
249
175
311
65
403
356,408
192, 210, 227
68
31,41, 255
31,40,321
42, 96
146, 158
444
365
311,410
354
142, 156
126
421
74
414
285
378
204
214
108, 323, 336
421
243, 285
304
432
106
362
207, 263, 438
Sections
2.5,4.1.1
1.3
2.6
7.3
4.5.1
3.2.5,4.5
5.1.1
1.11,3.1.2
4.5.4
2.6.7
4.5.2, 10.4.1
1.7,2.8
13.10
2.3.5, 2.4.11
2.5.6
4.3,5.5.5
4.1.6
Faults: Causes of
Initiation of test
Resistance of ...
Finishes ...
Flag indicators ...
Frame leakage protection
Fuse blowing ...
Fuse co-ordination
Gap cleaners ...
Gap gauges
Gas actuated relays
Generator faults
Ground distance relays
Ground faults ...
Ground preference
Hall Effect
Harmonic restraint
Heating (over) ...
1.1
13.1.1
5.1.3
2.10
1.10.2,2.9
11.3
5.7.2, 9.2.3
4.1.7, 4.2.6
13.5.2
13.5.3
10.3
9.1.1
5.5.9
4.5.2
7.3.2.4
2.4.13
10.5.5(b)
9.1.1(c), 10.6
Impedance relays
Inertia method of delay
Induction cup .. .
Induction dij;c .. .
Induction torque theory
Instantaneous O.C. relay
Insulation tests
Interlocked A.C. protection ...
Intertripping ...
Interturn faults
Inverse time relays
Inversion chart for complex quantities
Ironless c.t's. . ..
Jewel bearing ...
Kirchoff's Law
K-Dar ...
Lead resistance to c.t's
Likelihood of transients
Limitations of distance relays
Limitations of pilot wire relays
Linear couplers
Line drop compensators
Line traps
Local back-up ...
Longitudinal differential
Loss of field
Loss of potential
482
Index
Pages
363
243, 262
Sections
9.1.3(d)
5.5.5,5.7.1
37,60
68
246, 395
459
27,252
67
84
450
69
96
208
115, 196
369
362
70
51
54
250
2.3.8, 2.4.9
2.5.1.4
5.5.6,10.5
13.11
2.3,5.6
2.5.1
2.6.8
13.9
2.5.2
2.10.3
5.2.1
3.2.7, 5.1.1(c)
9.2
9.1.3(b)
2.5.4
2.4.6
2.4.7
5.5.9
9.1.2(c), 9.2.3
8.10
3.6.1
116, 211
371
18,93
233
234
141
147,204
362
451
357
3.2.8, 5.2.4
9.2.3
1.10.2,2.9
5.4.6
5.4.8
4.1
4.1.6, 5.1.4(b)
9.1.3(a)
13.10.1
9. 1.1(d)
5.6.7
5.8
8.11
6.6
3.2.3,7.2,8.2
8.9
2.5.1(b)
4.5.1, 4.5.2
4.5.1(d)
6.7
5.5.5
5.1.4(c), 5.7.2, 12.4.4
5.7.1
4.1.7
9.3
5.1.3
13.1.2
3.2.1,3.7.2
4.7
5.3
4.4
3.2.6, 5.1.1(b)
7.3.1(b)
1.9,5.9
2.3.7,2.4.8
4.1.7
12.4.1
2.1.3,12.2
12.3
7.3.3,10.8
261
265
338
283
108, 299, 319
337
67
168, 176
172
284
243
207, 363,438
262
148
375
198
442
106,132
184
214
166
114, 194
310
17,266
37,56
148
434
25,430
430
311,409
483
Index
Pages
177
127
72
181
239,431
357
104
Sections
4.5.2
3.6
2.5.5(d)
4.5.2
5.5.3,12.3
9.1.2
3.1.3
450
18
13, 141
51,53
258
42
84
226
268
265
80
426
376
343
224,283
348
154
385
332
341
337, 427
276
202
Safety measures
Seal-in relays ...
Selectivity
Sensitive relays
Sensitive tripping devices
Shaded-pole principle ...
Shock-proof relays
Single-step distance relay
Single pole reC\osing ...
Simultaneous ground faults
Spark-quenching circuits
Split bus protection
Stabilising resistance
Starting network
Starting units ...
Stator faults
Stranded Coil ...
Sudden pressure relays
Summation C.t. (pilot)
Summation network ...
Supervision circuits
Switched distance relays
System stability
13.7
1.10.2
1.6,4.1
2.4.6,2.4.7
5.6.5
2.4.3
2.6.8
5.4.1
5.9.4
5.8
2.6.5
11.6
9.4:1
8.11.2(h)
5.3.4,6.6
9.1.1
4.2.3
10.3.2
8.7
8. 11.2(a)
8.9,11.7
6.2
5.1.3(c)
Tap error
Targets ...
Thermal delay ...
Thermal relays ...
Three-step distance relays
Time delay methods
Time steps
Torque equations
Tools
Transferred tripping
Transformer differential protection ...
Transients
Transistor relays
Transistor timer
Transverse differential
Tripping check ...
Tropicalisation ...
4.3
1.10.2
2.5.3
2.3.4, 2.4.10, 10.6
5.4.3
2.5
5.1.2
2.2,3.3
13.5
7.3.3,10.8
10.4.2
5.1.4
2.3.6, 2.4.12
2.5.7.2
3.2.1
11.8
2.10.1
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.4
3.3
161
18
69
31, 62,408
227
66
197
26,117
447
311,409
390
203
34,64
73
106
428
95
371
372
372
117
7 Vector conventions
417 Voltage differential relays
364 Voltage regulator
1.3.2
11.2.2
9.1.3(g)
5.1.3(a)
2.10.3
...
3.1.3
5.5.4
484
5.10.1, 5.10.2
4.5.3