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This article is about the chemical element. For other 1.1 Physical properties
uses, see Titanium (disambiguation).
A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high
[7]
Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and strength-to-weight ratio. It is a strong metal with low
quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free
atomic number 22. It is a lustrous transition metal with a density that is [2]
lustrous, and metallic-white in color.[9]
environment),
silver color, low density and high strength. It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia and chlorine. The relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 C
or 3,000 F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It
Titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal
William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich conductivity.[2]
Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, princi- Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have
pally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa (63,000 psi),
Earths crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are
dense than aluminium,
living things, rocks, water bodies, and soils.[2] The metal less dense. Titanium is 60% more
[6]
but
more
than
twice
as
strong
as
the most commonly
is extracted from its principal mineral ores via the Kroll
used
6061-T6
aluminium
alloy.
Certain
titanium alloys
[3]
process or the Hunter process. Its most common com(e.g.,
Beta
C)
achieve
tensile
strengths
of
over
1400 MPa
pound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is
[10]
(200000
psi).
However,
titanium
loses
strength
when
[4]
used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other com[11]
heated
above
430
C
(806
F).
pounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4 ), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichlo- Titanium is fairly hard (although not as hard as some
ride (TiCl3 ), which is used as a catalyst in the production grades of heat-treated steel), non-magnetic and a poor
of polypropylene.[2]
conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires
Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, precautions, as the material will soften and gall if sharp
and molybdenum, among other elements, to pro- tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those
limit
duce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet en- made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue
[9]
which
guarantees
longevity
in
some
applications.
Titagines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial
process (chemicals and petro-chemicals, desalination nium alloys have lower specic stinesses than in many
plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medi- other structural materials such as aluminium alloys and
cal prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodon- carbon ber.
tic instruments and les, dental implants, sporting goods, The metal is a dimorphic allotrope whose hexagonal alpha
jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.[2]
form changes into a body-centered cubic (lattice) form
[11]
The specic heat of the alpha
The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion at 882 C (1,620 F).
form
increases
dramatically
as it is heated to this tranresistance and the highest strength-to-density ratio of any
sition
temperature
but
then
falls
and remains fairly conmetallic element.[5] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is
stant
for
the
form
regardless
of
temperature.[11] Simias strong as some steels, but less dense.[6] There are two
lar
to
zirconium
and
hafnium,
an
additional
omega phase
allotropic forms[7] and ve naturally occurring isotopes
exists,
which
is
thermodynamically
stable
at
high presof this element, 46 Ti through 50 Ti, with 48 Ti being the
sures,
but
is
metastable
at
ambient
pressures.
This
phase
most abundant (73.8%).[8] Although they have the same
is
usually
hexagonal
(ideal)
or
trigonal
(distorted)
and
can
number of valence electrons and are in the same group in
be
viewed
as
being
due
to
a
soft
longitudinal
acoustic
the periodic table, titanium and zirconium dier in many
phonon of the phase causing collapse of (111) planes
chemical and physical properties.
of atoms.[12]
Characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS
1.3
Occurrence
1.4 Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of titanium
Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable
isotopes: 46 Ti, 47 Ti, 48 Ti, 49 Ti, and 50 Ti, with 48 Ti being
the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). Eleven
radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 44 Ti with a half-life of 63 years, 45 Ti with a
half-life of 184.8 minutes, 51 Ti with a half-life of 5.76
minutes, and 52 Ti with a half-life of 1.7 minutes. All
of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that
are less than 33 seconds and the majority of these have
half-lives that are less than half a second.[8]
Titanium is always bonded to other elements in na- The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from
ture. It is the ninth-most abundant element in Earth's 39.99 u (40 Ti) to 57.966 u (58 Ti). The primary decay
crust (0.63% by mass)[18] and the seventh-most abundant mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 48 Ti, is
2.2
Nitrides, carbides
electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emis- batteries. Because Ti(IV) is a hard cation, the suldes
sion. The primary decay products before 48 Ti are ele- of titanium are unstable and tend to hydrolyze to the oxide
ment 21 (scandium) isotopes and the primary products with release of hydrogen sulde.
after are element 23 (vanadium) isotopes.[8]
Titanium becomes radioactive upon bombardment with
2.2 Nitrides, carbides
deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma
[3]
rays.
Titanium nitride (TiN), having a hardness equivalent to
sapphire and carborundum (9.0 on the Mohs Scale),[26]
is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits.[27]
2 Compounds
It also nds use as a gold-colored decorative nish,
and as a barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.[28]
[21]
Titanium carbide, which is also very hard, is found in
The +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry,
but compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also high-temperature cutting tools and coatings.
common.[22] Commonly, titanium adopts an octahedral
coordination geometry in its complexes, but tetrahedral
TiCl4 is a notable exception. Because of its high oxida- 2.3 Halides
tion state, titanium(IV) compounds exhibit a high degree
of covalent bonding. Unlike most other transition metals, Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4 [29] )
is a colorless volatile liquid (commercial samples are yelsimple aquo Ti(IV) complexes are unknown.
lowish) that in air hydrolyzes with spectacular emission
of white clouds. Via the Kroll process, TiCl4 is produced
2.1 Oxides, suldes, and alkoxides
in the conversion of titanium ores to titanium dioxide,
e.g., for use in white paint.[30] It is widely used in organic
The most important oxide is TiO2 , which exists in three chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in the Mukaiyama
important polymorphs; anatase, brookite, and rutile. All aldol condensation.[31] In the van Arkel process, titanium
of these are white diamagnetic solids, although mineral tetraiodide (TiI4 ) is generated in the production of high
samples can appear dark (see rutile). They adopt poly- purity titanium metal.
meric structures in which Ti is surrounded by six oxide
Titanium(III) and titanium(II) also form stable chlorides.
ligands that link to other Ti centers.
A notable example is titanium(III) chloride (TiCl3 ),
Titanates usually refer to titanium(IV) compounds, as which is used as a catalyst for production of polyolens
represented barium titanate (BaTiO3 ). With a perovskite (see Ziegler-Natta catalyst) and a reducing agent in orstructure, this material exhibits piezoelectric properties ganic chemistry.
and is used as a transducer in the interconversion of
sound and electricity.[7] Many minerals are titanates, e.g.
ilmenite (FeTiO3 ). Star sapphires and rubies get their 2.4 Organometallic complexes
asterism (star-forming shine) from the presence of titanium dioxide impurities.[14]
Main article: Organotitanium chemistry
A variety of reduced oxides of titanium are known.
Ti3 O5 , described as a Ti(IV)-Ti(III) species, is a purple
semiconductor produced by reduction of TiO2 with hydrogen at high temperatures,[23] and is used industrially
when surfaces need to be vapour-coated with titanium
dioxide: it evaporates as pure TiO, whereas TiO2 evaporates as a mixture of oxides and deposits coatings with
variable refractive index.[24] Also known is Ti2 O3 , with
the carborundum structure, and TiO, with the rock salt
structure, although often nonstoichiometric.[25]
The alkoxides of titanium(IV), prepared by reacting
TiCl4 with alcohols, are colourless compounds that convert to the dioxide on reaction with water. They are industrially useful for depositing solid TiO2 via the sol-gel
process. Titanium isopropoxide is used in the synthesis of
chiral organic compounds via the Sharpless epoxidation.
3 History
4
the presence of two metal oxides; iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white
metallic oxide he could not identify.[18] Gregor, realizing
that the unidentied oxide contained a metal that did not
match the properties of any known element, reported his
ndings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and
in the German science journal Crells Annalen.[33]
In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat
and pressure, the powder can be used to create strong,
Around the same time, Franz-Joseph Mller von Re- lightweight items ranging from armor plating to compoichenstein produced a similar substance, but could not nents for the aerospace, transport, and chemical processidentify it.[4] The oxide was independently rediscovered ing industries.[43]
in 1795 by Prussian chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in
rutile from Boinik (German name of unknown place) village of Hungary (Now in Slovakia).[33] Klaproth found 4 Production and fabrication
that it contained a new element and named it for the
Titans of Greek mythology.[20] After hearing about GreThe processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major
gors earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of manacsteps:[44] reduction of titanium ore into sponge, a
canite and conrmed it contained titanium.
porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a masThe processes required to extract titanium from its var- ter alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an
ious ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet,
reduce the ore in the normal manner, by heating in the bar, plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and secondary fabricapresence of carbon, as that produces titanium carbide.[33] tion of nished shapes from mill products.
Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was rst prepared in 1910
Titanium Sponge is only produced in 7 countries[45] by
by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti19 companies.[46]
tute by heating TiCl4 with sodium at 700800 C in
the Hunter process.[3] Titanium metal was not used out- Because it cannot be readily produced by reduction of
side the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll its dioxide,[9] titanium metal is obtained by reduction of
proved that it could be produced by reducing titanium TiCl4 with magnesium metal, the Kroll Process. The
tetrachloride (TiCl4 ) with calcium.[34] Eight years later he complexity of this batch process explains the relatively
rened this process by using magnesium and even sodium high market value of titanium.[47] To produce the TiCl4
in what became known as the Kroll process.[34] Although required by the Kroll process, the dioxide is subjected
research continues into more ecient and cheaper pro- to carbothermic reduction in the presence of chlorine. In
cesses (e.g., FFC Cambridge), the Kroll process is still this process, the chlorine gas is passed over a red-hot mixture of rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon. After
used for commercial production.[3][4]
extensive purication by fractional distillation, the TiCl4
Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities
is reduced with 800 C molten magnesium in an argon
when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer
atmosphere.[7] Titanium metal can be further puried by
discovered the iodide, or crystal bar, process in 1925, by
the van Arkelde Boer process, which involves thermal
reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors
decomposition of titanium tetraiodide.
[35]
over a hot lament to pure metal.
A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge
In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the
process,[48] converts titanium dioxide powder (a rened
use of titanium in military and submarine applications
form of rutile) as feedstock to make Ti metal, either a
(Alfa Class and Mike Class)[36] as part of programs repowder or sponge. If mixed oxide powders are used, the
lated to the Cold War.[37] Starting in the early 1950s, tiproduct is an alloy.
tanium began to be used extensively for military aviation
purposes, particularly in high-performance jets, starting Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For
with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed example, cuprotitanium (rutile with copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke
A-12.
in an electric furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with
Recognizing the strategic importance of titanium[38] the
manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.[49]
U.S. Department of Defense supported early eorts of
commercialization.[39] Throughout the period of the Cold
2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3
War, titanium was considered a strategic material by the
+
6 CO (900 C)
U.S. government, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge
was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile CenTiCl4 + 2 Mg 2 MgCl2 + Ti (1100 C)
ter, which was nally depleted in the 2000s.[40] According to 2006 data, the worlds largest producer, RussianAbout 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are desigbased VSMPO-Avisma, was estimated to account for
nated and currently used, although only a couple of dozen
about 29% of the world market share.[41] As of 2009, titaare readily available commercially.[50] The ASTM Inter-
5.2
national recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1 through 4 are commercially pure
(unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their varying degrees of tensile strength, as a function of oxygen
content, with Grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest
tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and
Grade 4 the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).[14] The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specic purposes, be it ductility,
strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance,
resistance to corrosion from specic media, or a combination thereof.[51]
5
and a strengthening agent in graphite composite shing
rods and golf clubs.
TiO
2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight,
and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure
and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.[4] In
nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase,
brookite, and rutile.[2] Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures, and stands up to
marine environments.[4] Pure titanium dioxide has a very
high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher
The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also than diamond.[3] In addition to being a very important
produced to meet Aerospace and Military specica- pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens due
tions (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country- to its ability to protect skin by itself.[9]
specic specications, as well as proprietary end-user
specications for aerospace, military, medical, and industrial applications.[52]
In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be
done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium in order
to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases
such as oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.[11] Contamination
will cause a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement,
which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and
lead to joint failure.
Commercially pure at product (sheet, plate) can be
formed readily, but processing must take into account the
fact that the metal has a memory and tends to spring
back. This is especially true of certain high-strength
alloys.[53][54] Titanium cannot be soldered without rst
pre-plating it in a metal that is solderable.[55] The metal
can be machined using the same equipment and via the
same processes as stainless steel.[11]
Applications
Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element (ferrotitanium) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer,
and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content.[2] Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to rene grain
size), vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese,
molybdenum, and with other metals.[56] Applications for
titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings,
castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is
used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning par- Due to its high corrosion resistance to sea water, titanium is used to make propeller shafts and rigging and in
ticles.
the heat exchangers of desalination plants;[3] in heaterchillers for salt water aquariums, shing line and leader,
and for divers knives. Titanium is used to manufacture
5.1 Pigments, additives and coatings
the housings and other components of ocean-deployed
About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is surveillance and monitoring devices for scientic and mildestined for renement into titanium dioxide (TiO
itary use. The former Soviet Union developed techniques
2), an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys.[63]
paper, toothpaste, and plastics.[17] It is also used in Techniques were developed in the Soviet Union to forge
cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacier in paper,[57] titanium in huge vacuum tubes.[59]
5.3
5 APPLICATIONS
Industrial
Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the
chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specic alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy applications due to their
high strength (e. g.: titanium Beta C alloy), corrosion resistance, or combination of both. The pulp and
paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite
or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).[64] Other applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,[65] and
sputtering targets.[66]
5.5 Jewelry
5.4
Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry (particularly, titanium rings).[71]
Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools. Titanium is also alloyed
with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as
24-carat gold, as the 1% of alloyed Ti is insucient to
require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the
hardness of 14-carat gold and thus is more durable than
a pure 24-carat gold item would be.[76]
Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle racing, where weight
reduction is critical while maintaining high strength
and rigidity.[67] The metal is generally too expensive
to make it marketable to the general consumer market,
other than high-end products, particularly for the racing/performance market. Some late model Corvettes
have been available with titanium exhausts,[68] and
the new Corvette Z06s LT4 supercharged engine uses
lightweight, solid titanium intake valves for greater Titaniums durability, light weight, dent- and corrosion resistance makes it useful in the production of
strength and resistance to heat.[69]
watch cases.[71] Some artists work with titanium to proTitanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, duce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and
golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, furniture.[77]
and football helmet grills; and bicycle frames and components. Although not a mainstream material for bicycle The inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes
[78]
production, titanium bikes have been used by race teams titanium a popular metal for use in body piercing. Tiand adventure cyclists.[70] Titanium alloys are also used tanium may be anodized to produce various colors, which
in spectacle frames.[71] This results in a rather expensive, varies the thickness of the surface oxide layer and causes
[79]
but highly durable and long lasting frame which is light in interference fringes.
weight and causes no skin allergies. Many backpackers The Gold Coast Titans, an Australian rugby league team,
use titanium equipment, including cookware, eating uten- award a medal of pure titanium to their player of the
sils, lanterns, and tent stakes.[71] Though slightly more ex- year.[80]
pensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives,
these titanium products can be signicantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored for 5.6 Medical
use by farriers, because it is lighter and more durable than
steel when formed into horseshoes.[71]
Titanium biocompatibility: Because it is biocompatible
Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m (131 foot) memorial to Yuri Gagarin,
the rst man to travel in space, in Moscow (554229.7N
373457.2E / 55.708250N 37.582556E), is made
of titanium for the metals attractive color and association with rocketry.[72] The Guggenheim Museum Bil-
(it is non-toxic and is not rejected by the body), titanium has many medical uses, including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint
replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 years.[33]
The titanium is often alloyed with about 4% aluminium
or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.[81]
7
Titanium has the inherent ability to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can last for over 30
years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications.[33] These benet from titaniums lower
modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) to more closely
match that of the bone that such devices are intended
to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly
shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and
periprosthetic bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys
stiness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent
bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.[82]
Bioremediation
8 See also
Titanium in Africa
Titanium alloy
Titanium coating
Titanium Man
Titanium Metals Corporation
Titanium rings
Titanium sublimation pump
Precautions
VSMPO-AVISMA
Titanium in zircon geothermometer
9 References
[1] Andersson, N. et al.
(2003).
Emission specJ. Chem.
tra of TiH and TiD near 938 nm.
Phys. 118: 10543. Bibcode:2003JChPh.118.3543A.
doi:10.1063/1.1539848.
[2] Titanium. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2006. Retrieved
29 December 2006.
REFERENCES
10
11
[75] Apple PowerBook G4 400 (Original Ti) Specs. everymac.com. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
[76] Gafner, G. (1989). The development of 990 GoldTitanium: its Production, use and Properties. Gold Bulletin 22 (4): 112122. doi:10.1007/BF03214709.
[77] Fine Art and Functional Works in Titanium and Other
Earth Elements. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
[78] Body Piercing Safety. doctorgoodskin.com. Retrieved 1
August 2009.
[79] Alwitt, Robert S. (2002). Electrochemistry Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 December 2006.
[80] Turgeon, Luke (20 September 2007). Titanium Titan:
Broughton immortalised. The Gold Coast Bulletin.
[81] Orthopaedic Metal Alloys. Totaljoints.info. Retrieved
27 September 2010.
[82] Titanium foams replace injured bones. Research News
(Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft). September 2010. Retrieved
27 September 2010.
[83] Shoesmith, D. W.; Noel, J. J.; Hardie, D.;
Ikeda, B. M. (2000).
Hydrogen Absorption and
the Lifetime Performance of Titanium Nuclear
Waste Containers.
Corrosion Reviews 18 (45).
doi:10.1515/CORRREV.2000.18.4-5.331.
[84] Carter, L. J.; Pigford, T. J. (2005). Proof of Safety
at Yucca Mountain. Science 310: 447, see footnote
6. doi:10.1126/science.1112786. Retrieved 26 August
2012.
[85] Carmen Cristina Elekes; Gabriela busuioc. The Mycoremediation of Metals Polluted Soils Using Wild Growing
Species of Mushrooms. Engineering Education.
[86] Berglund, Fredrik; Bjorn Carlmark (October 2011).
Titanium, Sinusitis, and the Yellow Nail Syndrome.
Biological Trace Element Research 143 (1): 17.
doi:10.1007/s12011-010-8828-5. PMC 3176400. PMID
20809268.
[87] Cotell, Catherine Mary; Sprague, J. A.; Smidt, F. A.
(1994). ASM Handbook: Surface Engineering (10th ed.).
ASM International. p. 836. ISBN 0-87170-384-X.
[88] Compressed Gas Association (1999). Handbook of compressed gases (4th ed.). Springer. p. 323. ISBN 0-41278230-8.
[89] Solomon, Robert E. (2002). Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual. National Fire Prevention Association (8th
ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 45. ISBN 0-87765472-7.
10
Bibliography
EXTERNAL LINKS
Emsley, John (2001). Titanium. Natures Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford,
England, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19850340-7.
Flower, Harvey M. (2000). Materials Science: A
moving oxygen story. Nature 407 (6802): 305
306. doi:10.1038/35030266. PMID 11014169.
Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry
of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
11 External links
Titanium: Our Next Major Metal, Popular Science, October 1950one of rst general public detailed articles on Titanium
Titanium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University
of Nottingham)
International Titanium Association
Metallurgy of Titanium and its Alloys, Cambridge
University
World Production of Titanium Concentrates, by
Country
Metal of the gods
11
12
11
EXTERNAL LINKS
13
14
12
12
12.1
Titanium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium?oldid=645296651 Contributors: Vulture, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Stokerm, LA2,
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