Electromagnetic Induction

There are this far two phenomenas concerning electricity and magnetism
1.

an electric current produces a magnetic field

2.

a magnetic field exerts a force on an electric current or moving electric

charge

There exists still a question: if an electric current produces a magnetic field, is it possible to
produce an electric current using magnetic fields
Faradays experiment is
represented if Figure.
Faraday noticed that if
current is constant in X
there is no current in Y.
But when the switch was
closed the galvanometer in
Y was deflected strongly
The galvanometer deflected also strongly in opposite direction if the switch was opened.
Faradays conclusion was that the change in magnetic field can produce an electric current
and it is called as an iduced current. A changing magnetic field induces an emf.
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Induced Electromotive Force

In Figure below there are a few basics experiments to demonstrate the electromagnetic
induction. a) A current is induced in the coil when magnet is moved toward the coil. The
magnetic field through the coil increases for a short time.

b) The induced current is opposite when the magnet is moved away from the coil. The
magnetic field decreases through the coil. In c) no current is induced if the magnet does not
move relative to the coil. The relative motion is able to induce a current and emf in a coil.
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Magnetic Flux
The incuced emd is proportional to the change of the magnetic flux B, passing
throught the circuit of loop. determined as an area in space where the magnetic forces
are present. The magnetic field is surrounding a magnet in a similar way than the
electric field is surrounding an electric charge.
The magnetic flux is determined

B B A BA cos B A

or

B B d A

Figure: left A magnetic flux through a flat loop a), b) and c) Magnetic flux is proportional
to the number of lines of B that pass through the loop
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Faradays Law of Induction

The emf induced in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of magnetif flux
B through the circuit.

d B

dt
If the circuit contains N closely wrapped loops, the same flux passes through each of
the loops, the induced emf is

d B
N
dt
Example: A magnetic field is perpendicular to a plane of 15cm circular coil
containing 25 loops. The magnetic field increases 150 mT/s through the coil. Calculate
the induced emf in the coil

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d ( BA cos 0)
2
T
NA dB

25

(
0
,
15
m
)

0
,
15
dt
s 0,26V
dt
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Lenzs Law
The minus sign in the Faradays law remind us in which direction the induced emf
generates a current. Lenzz Law determines the direction of the induced current: A
current produced by an induced emf moves in a direction so that the magnetic field
created by that current opposes the original change in flux

Bind

Bind

Figure a) An induced current flows in the direction to generate a magnetic field down to
prevent the increase in flux through the coil. b) Magnetic flux is decreasing and the induced
current flows to a direction to produce a magnetic field up to prevent the flux to decrease
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through the coil,

Lenzs Law
It is important to note that an emf is induced whenever there is a change in
flux throuth the coil. There are three possibilities: 1. Changing the magnetic
field B, 2 changing the area of a loop in the field and 3. changing the loops
orientation with respect to the field.

Figure: A current can be induced by changing the area of a loop in the magnetic field.
a) Initial situation, a circular loop is in a constant magnetic field. b) The area is
decreased by pulling on its sides, the flux through the coil is reduced and an induced
current is produced to prevent the change in flux through the coil.
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Lenzs Law
Example: A magnetic field of 250 mT points in to the screen. A coil (N=100) of radius 20
cm turns on its initial position (Figure a) to its final position (Figure b) in 50,0 ms.
Calculate the induced emf and determine the direction of the induced current.

B
t

NB

r 2 0
t

100 0,25T

( 0, 20m ) 2
50103 s

62,8V

The direction of a current is clocwise along the coil (Lenzs law). Explain why?
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Lenzs Law
Exercise. In Figures below there are four examples a, b, c and d. Determine the
direction of current in each of the cases.

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EMF in a Moving Conductor

Consider an U-shaped conductor and the
movable rod resting on it (see Figures=. If the
rod moves at speed v, it travels a distance dx
= v dt in a time dt. The area of a loop
increases by amount ot dA = l dx = lv dt in a
time dt. By Faradays law there is and
induced emf and its magnitude is

d B
dt

BdA
dt

Blvdt
dt

Blv

Example: An airplane travels 1100 km/h in the

Earths magnetic field and the vertical
component of the field is 65T. What is the
potential difference induced between the wing
tips that are 70 m apart.
m
Blv 65 106 70m 1100
3, 6 s 1,4V

Note: If a conductor is moving in a magnetic field (Figure b), the induced emf is also = Blv
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Electric Generators
An electric generator (or dynamo) is one of the most important application of
Faradays law. A generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy. Since
there are no possibilities to store electrical energy, we have to product continuously
the same amount of energy we consume. Generators can produce electrical energy
continuously.
A simplified diagram of an ac generator
is shown in Figure. A generator consists of
many loops of wire wound on a
armamture that can rotate in a magnetic
field. The axle of a generator is turned by
some mechanical methods (falling water,
steam turbine, heat engine) and an emf is
induced in the rotating coil. An electric
current is the output of a generator.
Suppose the loop is being made to rotate
in a uniform magnetic field B between the
N and S poles with constant angular
velocity . The change of angle between
the surface vector A and the magnetic field
B with respect to time is
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and

2f

Electric Generators
The magnetic flux is

B BA cos BA cos t
where A is the area of the loop. The rate of change of magnetic flux is
d B
dt

BA sin t

If the number of loops is N and using Faradays law we have

d B
dt

NBA sin t o sin t

The output emf changes sinusoidally
with respect to time (Figure) and the
amplitude of the output voltage is

o NBA
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Electric Generators
Example: An ac generator (a rotating loop in a magnetic field) must generate a
sinusoidal voltage with peak output 325 V at a frequency of 50 Hz. Suppose the loop is
rotating in a 250 mT magnetic field. Determine the rotational frequency, the area of loop
and the number of loops for that output voltage.
The rotating frequency f = 50 Hz, since one full revolution of a loop gives one cycle of a
sine wave. Lets suppose the area of a loop is 30cm40cm, then we have

o NBA
N

o
BA

The solution is

BA2f

and for number of loops we have

V
0, 25T 0,30325
35
, 4 m 2 2 50Hz

f 50 Hz
A 0,3 0,4m 2 0,12m 2
N 35

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Electric Generators
A simplified diagram of a dc generator is shown in Figure. Compared to an ac
generator, the slip rings are replaced by split ring commutators. The output of a
generator can be smoothed using a capacitor parallel to output. The other way to
smooth the output voltage, is the use of many armature windings (see Figure b).

http://www.k-wz.de/physik/threephasegenerator.html
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Electric Generators
In cars, a dc generator is used earlier but in modern cars there are mainly alternators.
Figure shows a diagram of an alternator. Alternators differ from generators that the
electromagnet, called
rotor, is fed by current
from battery and the belt
from the engine rotates the
rotor. The rotor rotates
inside a stator generating
an emf in stator coils.
The output voltage is
taken from stator coils.
This ac output is changed
to a dc voltage using a
four diode bridge and that
dc voltage is used to load
the battery and also to
drive other devices of a
car.

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Back EMF and Counter Torque

A dc motor turns and produces mechanical energy. As the armature of the motor turns,
the magnetic flux through the coils changes and an emf is generated (see Figure).This
induced emf acts to oppose the motion and is called back emf or counter emf
The greater the speed of the motor, the greater is
the back emf. If there is no load of external force
acting on motor (only small friction forces), the
motors speed increases untill the back emf is close
to input voltage and the motor rotates at constant
speed
Example: The armature windigs of a dc motor has a
resistance of 5,0, and the motor is connected to a120 V
line. When the motor reaches its normal speed, the back
emf is 108 V. Calculate a) a current at start up and b) the
current at full speed.

a) A start up current

V
I 120
5, 0 24 A

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b) At full speed the back emf has its maximum

value and the voltage is less than at startup. A full
speed current is

I
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(120108)V
5, 0

2,4 A

Back EMF and Counter Torque

In generators the situation is different compared to motors. If a generator is not
connected to an external circuit, the emf exists in terminals but there is no current. In
this case it is very easy to rotate the armature.

If the generator is connected to an external circuit, a current flows in the coils of

armature. Since the coils are in magnetic field, there exist forces acting on coils and a
torque is exerted on armature. This torque opposes the motion and is called a counter
torque. The greater the electrical load (=the greater the current taken from generator),
the greater is the counter torque. This makes sense from the conservation of energy
principle. More mechanical energy input is needed to produce more electrical energy
output.

Example: A ac generator: n = 50 r/s, N = 35, A = 0,30,4 m2, B = 250 mT is

connected to an external load of 15 . Calculate a) the counter torque and b) the
average output power of the generator. c) What is the mechanical power needed to
rotate the generator if there is a 20% power loss to change the mechanical energy to an
electrical energy

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Transformers
A transformer is a device for increasing or decreasing ac voltage. An ideal transformer
consists of two coils known as the primary coil and secondary coil (Figure). The coils are
linked by a laminated iron core to minimize eddy currents. The next equations concerns
only to an ideal transformer (no energy losses). When an ac voltage is applied
to the primary coil, the currnet in primary coil
produces a changing magnetic field and also
along the iron core a magnetic flux through a
secondary coil. The emf induced in secondary
coils is

VS N

d B
S dt

The input primary voltage is related to rate at

which the flux is changing through it, so

VP N P

d B
dt

and we have for transformer equation

VS
VP

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NS
NP

IP
IS

Transmission of Electric Power

Figure below presents a schematic diagram of a modern electric power transmission
system. In power plants the original energy (chemical, potential, nuclear, etc.) is changed
continuously to an electric energy using ac generators. Step up transformers rise up the
voltage to a level of transmission voltage (20 kV-400 kV in Finland) to avoid power loss

in the lines. The electric power is transmitted close to customers and then the voltage is
decreased to lower value using step down transformers. Depending on the power of
transmission system, there may be several step down transformers before the voltage has a
standard level for customers (230 V in Finland).
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Power Loss in Transmission Lines

Example: An average of 120 kW of electric power is sent to a customers from a power
plant 10 km away. The transmission lines have a total resistance of 0,40 . Calculate the
power loss if the power is transmitted at a ) 230 V and b) 230 kV.
Solution: Since the load of the transmission lines depends on the resistance of the lines
and also on the resistance of different loads, we are not able to determine the potential
difference in both cases. We cannot use the equation P=V2/R, but we can solve the current
in lines and determine the power loss in transmission lines.
a) Power is transmitted at 230 V. Current in transmission lines is

P
V

120103 W
230V

522 A

and the power loss in transmission lines is

PL RI 0,40 (522 A) 109kW

2

b) If power is transmitted at 120 kV, the current in transmission lines is

P
V

120103 W
230103 V

0,52 A

and the power loss in transmission lines is

PL RI 0,40 (0,52 A) 0,108W

2

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A Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Filed

Since a changing magnetic flux induces a current in the wire, there must be an electric
field in wire. The conclusion is that the changing magnetic flux produces an electric
field
This is a general result of Faradays induction law
and Lenzs law and this result is applied both
conductors and also to any situation (insulators,
vacuums) in space.
Figure a) A side wiew of a
nearly constant B. Figure b) A
top view for determining the
induced E-field at point P.
Figure c) Induced E-field lines
produced by increasing B-field.
According to Lenzs law the
induced electromotive force
resists the change of B-field and
generates an inductive B-field in
opposite direction to the original
one.

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A Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Filed

The basic difference between electric fields produced by changing magnetic fields and
electric fields produced by electric charges at rest (electrostatic fields) is
1. that the electrostatic force is a conservative force and hence the integral around a
closed loop is zero or

E dl 0

Therefore it is possible to determine potential energy for this case (work done between
any two points is independent of the path)
2. and for the fields produced by changing magnetic field the integral is nonzero

E dl

d B
dt

The previeous form is a general form of Faradays law and it means that the electric
field produced by a changing magnetic field is a nonconservative field and it is not
possible to determine potential energy for that case.
Note also: the electric field caused by the changing mangetic field is perpendicular to
that changing magnetic field. This explanes why in electromagnetic waves the E- and Bfields are perpendicular to each other (in most cases).
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Applications of Induction
Figure left) A diagram of microphone based on induction Figure b) Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupter (GFCI): Fuses and circuit brakers protect systems and apparatus
from wire and damages but they are too slow to protect human beings or animals. A GFCI
is designed fast enough to shut down current to protect humans (an ac current greater
than 50 mA may cause severe damages or death). A sensing coil detects if there is a
difference in input current to a device compared to return current. If the return current is
smaller than the input current, the circuit breaker opens the circuit at S. The GFCI:s are
designed to open the circuit if the net currents through a coil is about 30 mA in a very
short time.

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Applications of Induction
Figure a) Read/Write head for tapes or disks. In writing the input signal to the coil
generates a magnetic field to core and magnetizes the disk or tape according the input
signal. In reading the signal is out of the coil. Tape of disk moves close the magnet and
the small magnetic areas (generated by writing) create signals proportioal to written
signal. Figure b) A photo from a hard drive showing several platters and read/write heads

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Mutual Inductance
Figure below represents two coils of wire placed near each other. If a current I1 in coil 1
changes, also the magnetic flux through coil 2 changes. According to Faradays law the
emf 2 is incuced in coil 2. Since the change of magnetic flux in due to current change in
coil 1, it is convenient to express the emf in coil
2 using terms of coil 1. The magnetic flux
through coil 2 depends on the change of rate of
current 1, we define a mutual inductance

M 21

N 2 21
I1

and the emf induced in coil 2 is

2 N

d 21
2 dt

Combinig the two equations we have for emf in

coil 2
dI1
2
21 dt

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Mutual Inductance
The mutual inducltance M21 depends on the relative position of coils 1 ja 2 , and also on
whether ferromagetic material is used.
If we consider the reverse situation we have
dI2
1
12 dt

where M12 is the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. In this case

M M12 M 21
and we have for inducec emfs

1 M

dI2
dt

2 M

dI1
dt

The SI-unit for mutual incuctance is

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Self-Inductance
If there is an isolated single coil and its current is changing, a changing magnetic flux is
produced inside this coil. According to Faradays law an emf is induced in the same coil
and it opposes the growth of the original field. This phenomena is called a selfinductance, since it is caused by the coil itself. The self-inductance is defined
N B
I
and the emf induced in coil having a self-inductance is

N
The unit of self-inductance is

d B
dt

L dI
dt

[ L] VsA s H (henry)

Circuits always contain some inductance, but often it is small unless the circuit
contains a coil of many turns. A coil that has a significant self-inductance is called
and inductor.

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Self-Inductance
Example: Determine L for a tigthly wrapped and long solenoid containing N =150,
l = 10,0 cm ad r = 1,0 cm. and the solenoid is a) air filled b) inside the solenoid
there is a ferromagnetic material of m=850.
NI
Solution: A magnetic field inside a solenoid is determined
S
l

B BA

and the magnetic flux through the coil is

and for L we have

N B
I

NIr 2
l

N 2r 2
l

a) air filled solenoid

o N 2r 2
l

4 107 1502 0, 0102

0,10

H 88,9H

b) a solenoid filled with iron

L
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o m N 2r 2
l

4 107 8501502 0, 0102

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H 75,7mH

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

Energy stored in inductor when it is carrying a current (Note: U = 0 when I = 0)
2
1
2
The formula is similar to that when energy is stored in a capacitor C and a
potential difference V is connected across the capacitor

U LI

U 12 CV 2
Consider an ideal solenoid. Its self-inductance (air filled) is

o N 2 A
l

and we have for energy U

U LI
1
2

2
1 o N A
2
l

Bl 2
o N

1 B2
2 o

Al

The energy density u (= energy per unit volume inside the solenoid) is

u
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U
V

1 B2
2 o

This formula is valid for any region where a magnetic field

exists. If there is a ferromagnetic material o must replace by
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