Description of a Capacitor

A capacitor in its simplest form consists of two conducting

plates separated by an insulating layer called a dielectric.
When a capacitor is connected in a circuit across a voltage
source, the voltage forces electrons onto the surface of
one plate and pulls electrons off the surface of the other
plate resulting in a potential difference between the plates.
Capacitors are charged and discharged as needed by its
application. Capacitors differ in size and arrangements of
plates and the type of dielectric materials used. Paper,
ceramic, air, mica, and electrolytic materials can be used,
depending on the type of dielectric needed. The
capacitance of a capacitor may be fixed or adjustable (as
in a radio tuner).
Charging of a Capacitor
When a capacitor is connected across a voltage source,
such as a battery, the voltage forces electrons onto one
plate resulting in a negatively charged plate. The electrons
of the other plate are pulled off by the battery resulting in a
positively charged plate. Because the dielectric between
the plates is an insulator, current cannot flow through it. A
capacitor has a finite amount of capacity to store charges.
When a capacitor reaches its capacity it is fully charged.
The following diagrams illustrate the charging of a
capacitor. Figure 2 shows a circuit containing a conductor
connecting a battery, an open switch, and a capacitor. The
capacitor in Figure 2 is not charged. There is no potential
difference between the plates.

When the switch is closed, as in Figure 3, there is a

momentary surge of current through the conductor to and
from the plates of the capacitor. When the current reaches
the negative plate of the capacitor, it is stopped by the
dielectric.

The surge of electric current to the capacitor induces a

counter electromotive force in the conductor and the
plates. This counter electromotive force is call reactance.
When reactance has reached a level equal to the voltage
of the battery, the capacitor is fully charged. There is no
further flow of current. When the capacitor is fully charged,

the switch may be opened and the capacitor will retain its
charge (Figure 4). Because of the difference of charges on
the plates there is a source of potential energy in the
capacitor. The energy stored is the energy that was
required to charge the capacitor.

The lines of force between the plates of the capacitor

represent an electric force field (see Figures 3 and 4). This
electric force field exists because of the unequal charges,
positive and negative, on the inside surfaces of the plates.
Current cannot flow through the electrostatic field because
of the dielectric insulator. In other words, the difference in
potential between the plates induces within the dielectric
an electrostatic field that retains the charge.
Discharging of a Capacitor
The charged capacitor shown in Figure 4 is now a source
of potential energy. This potential energy is now available
for its intended electronic application. If the switch is
closed, as in Figure 5, current will immediately begin to
flow through from the negative plate to the positive plate.
The capacitor is discharging.

The charged capacitor is the source of voltage for the

current flow. The current will cease flowing when the
charges of the two plates are again equal, meaning that
the capacitor is completely discharged.
We have simulated the charging and discharging of a
capacitor in our Capacitor Interactive Java Tutorial.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Capacitor
Discover how a capacitor is charged
and discharged.

Dielectric Materials
The dielectric material in a capacitor prevents the flow of
current between its plates. It also serves as a medium to
support the electrostatic force of a charged capacitor. A
variety of materials are used for dielectrics as shown in the
chart below.
Dielectric materials are rated based upon their ability to
support electrostatic forces in terms of a number called a
dielectric constant. The ability of the dielectric to support

electrostatic forces is directly proportional to the dielectric

constant. A vacuum is the standard by which other
dielectrics are rated. The dielectric constant of a vacuum is
1. You can see from the chart that there is very little
difference in the dielectric constant of a vacuum and air.
Therefore, air is often referred to as having a dielectric
constant of 1.
Material
Dielectric
Constant
Vacuum
Air
Polystyrene
Paper
Mica
Flint glass
Methyl
alcohol
Glycerin
Pure water

1.0
1.00059
2.5
3.5
5.4
9.9
35
56.2
81

Measurement of Capacitance
Capacitance is measured in farads, which is named after
Michael Faraday (1791-1867). The symbol for farads is F.
If a charge of 1 coulomb is placed on the plates of a
capacitor and the potential difference between them is 1
volt, the capacitance is then defined to be 1 farad. One
coulomb is equal to the charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
One farad is an extremely large quantity of capacitance.
Microfarads (10-6 F) and picofarads (10-12 F) are more
commonly used.
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the
quantity of charge that can be stored in it for each volt

difference in potential between its plates. Mathematically

this relationship is written as:
C = Q/V
Where C is capacitance in farads, Q is the quantity of
stored electrical charge in coulombs, and V is the
difference in potential in volts.
Therefore, stored electric charge can be calculated using
the formula:
Q = CV
The difference in potential or voltage of the capacitor can
be calculated using the formula:
V = Q/C
Factors Affecting Value of Capacitance
The capacitance of a capacitor is affected by three factors:
1. The area of the plates
2. The distance between the plates
3. The dielectric constant of the material between the
plates
Larger plates provide greater capacity to store electric
charge. Therefore, as the area of the plates increase,
capacitance increases.
Capacitance is directly proportional to the electrostatic
force field between the plates. This field is stronger when
the plates are closer together. Therefore, as the distance
between the plates decreases, capacitance increases. As

the distance between the plates increases, capacitance

decreases.
As discussed above, the ability of the dielectric to support
electrostatic forces is directly proportional to the dielectric
constant. Therefore, as the dielectric constant increases,
capacitance increases.
Taking into account each of the above three factors, the
capacitance of a capacitor with two parallel plates can be
calculated using the formula:
C = (8.855KA) d
Where C is capacitance in picofarads, K is the dielectric
constant, A is the area of one plate in m2, and d is the
distance between plates in m.
Our Factors Affecting Capacitance Interactive Java
Tutorial demonstrates changes of capacitance as plate
size, distance, and dielectric constants are adjusted.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Factors Affecting
Capacitance
Discover the factors affecting
capacitance.

Resistive-Capacitive Series Circuits and Time

Constant
As a capacitor becomes charged, the current flow
decreases because the voltage developed by the capacitor
increases over time and opposes the source voltage.
Therefore, the rate of charge of a capacitor is reduced over

time. The amount time required to charge and discharge a

capacitor is a very important factor in the design of
electronic circuits. Resistors are often used in combination
with capacitors in order to control the charge and
discharge time necessary for the intended application.
Resistance directly affects the time required to charge a
capacitor. As resistance increases, it takes more time to
charge a capacitor. The amount of time for the capacitor to
become fully charged in a resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit
depends on the values of the capacitor and resistor.
The following graph shows the rate of charge of a
capacitor in a RC circuit. Note that the rate of charge
greatly decreases over time. The latter part of its charging
time is many times longer than the first part. In fact, a
capacitor reaches 63.2% of its charge in one fifth of the
time it takes to become fully charged. Because of this,
capacitors in actual applications are generally not fully
charged. Capacitors in circuits are generally charged to
just 63.2% of full capacity. The time required for a
capacitor to charge to 63.2% of its full capacity is referred
as its RC (resistive-capacitive) time constant.

It is important to know how to calculate RC time constants

in order to design many different kinds of electronic
circuits. The RC time constant of a circuit can be
calculated by using the following formula:
t=CxR
Where t is time in seconds, C is capacitance in farads, and
R is resistance in ohms.
Our RC Time Constant Interactive Java Tutorial
demonstrates changes in the RC time constant as values
of resistance and capacitance are adjusted.
Interactive Java Tutorial

RC Time Constant
Observe changes in the RC time
constant for different values of
resistance and capacitance.

Capacitors in Parallel Circuits

Capacitance can be increased in a circuit by connecting

capacitors in parallel as shown in the following diagram:

We know that capacitance of a capacitor can be increased

by increasing the size of its plates. Connecting two or more
capacitors in parallel in effect increases plate size.
Increasing plate area makes it possible to store more
charge and therefore creating greater capacitance. To
determine total capacitance of several parallel capacitors,
simply add up their individual values. The following is the
formula for calculating total capacitance in a circuit
containing capacitors in parallel:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 . . .
Capacitors in Series Circuits
Capacitance can be decreased in a circuit by capacitors in
series as shown in the following diagram:

We know that capacitance of a capacitor can be decreased

by placing the plates further apart. Connecting two or more
capacitors in series in effect increases the distance
between the plates and thickness of the dielectric, thereby
decreasing the amount of capacitance.
The following is the formula for calculating total
capacitance in a circuit containing two capacitors in series:
CT = (C1 x C2x C3) / (C1 + C2+ C3)
Voltage Rating of Capacitors
In selecting an appropriate capacitor for a given
application, consideration must be made not only for value
of capacitance, but also for the amount of voltage the
capacitor will be subject to. Capacitors are designed to
withstand a certain maximum voltage. Exceeding the
maximum voltage may result in current arcing through the
dielectric and damaging the capacitor. The maximum
voltage that a capacitor can withstand is its working
voltage. The manufacturer indicates the working voltage.
However, the standard margin of error is to select a
capacitor with a working voltage that is 50 percent higher
than the maximum voltage that will be used in the
application.

Variable Capacitors
There are two major types of capacitors: fixed and
variable. The fixed capacitor has a specific value of
capacitance. A variable capacitor allows for a range of
capacitance. Variable capacitors are designed so that
capacitance can be changed through a mechanical means
such as adjusting a screw or turning a shaft. Variable
capacitors are used when the application requires an
adjustment of capacitance such as in a radio tuner.
Below is a typical variable capacitor. It has two sets of
plates. One set is called the rotor and the other the stator.
The rotor is usually connected to a knob outside the
capacitor. The two sets of plates are close together but not
touching. Air is the dielectric in a variable capacitor. As the
knob is turned, the sets of plates become more or less
meshed, increasing or decreasing the distance between
the plates. As the plates become more meshed,
capacitance increases. As the plates become less meshed,
capacitance decreases.

Our Variable Capacitor Interactive Java Tutorial

demonstrates the mechanics of a variable capacitor.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Variable Capacitor
Observe the mechanics of a variable
capacitor.

Capacitors in Action

Computer Memory
In most cases, the main memory of a computer is a highspeed random-access memory (RAM). Two types of main
memory are possible with RAM circuits, static randomaccess memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM). A single memory chip is made up of
several million memory cells. In a SRAM chip, each
memory cell consists of a resistor circuit flip-flop for storing
the binary digits 1 or 0. In a DRAM chip, each memory cell
consists of a capacitor rather than a resistor circuit flip-flop.
When a capacitor is electrically charged, it is said to store
the binary digit 1, and when discharged, it represents 0.
Figure 10 below shows a portion of a memory chip
containing 16 memory cells.

Condenser Microphones
A microphone converts sound waves into an electric signal.
All microphones have a diaphragm that vibrates as sound
waves strike. The vibrating diaphragm in turn causes an
electrical component to create an output flow of current at
a frequency proportional to the sound waves. A condenser
microphone uses a capacitor for this purpose.
In a condenser microphone the diaphragm is the
negatively charged plate of a charged capacitor. When a
sound wave compresses the diaphragm, the diaphragm is
moved closer to the positive plate. Decreasing the distance
between the plates increases the electrostatic attraction
between them. This results in a flow of current to the
negative plate. As the diaphragm moves out in response to
sound waves, the diaphragm moves further from the
positive plate. Increasing the distance between the plates
decreases the electrostatic attraction between them. This
results in a flow of current back to the positive plate. These

alternating flows of current provide weak electronic signals

which travel to a mixer, then to an amplifier, and finally to a
loudspeaker. You can observe the operation of a
condenser microphone at our Condenser Microphone
Java Tutorial.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Condenser Microphone
Discover how a microphone works.

Radio Receiver
Variable capacitors are used in tuning circuits of radios. In
Figure 11, a variable capacitor is connected to an antennatransformer circuit. Transmitted radio waves cause an
induced current to flow in the antenna through the primary
coil to ground.

A secondary current in the opposite direction is induced in

the secondary coil. This current flows to the capacitor. We

know that the surge of current to the capacitor induces a

counter electromotive force. This counter electromotive
force is call reactance. The induced flow of current through
the coil also induces a counter electromotive force. This is
called inductive reactance. So we have both capacitive and
inductive reactance.
At higher frequencies, inductive reactance is greater and
capacitive reactance is smaller. At lower frequencies the
opposite is true. A variable capacitor is used to equalize
the inductive and capacitive reactances. The condition in
which the reactances are equalized is called resonance.
The particular frequency that is isolated by the equalized
reactances is called the resonant frequency.
A radio circuit is tuned by adjusting the capacitance of a
variable capacitor to equalize the inductive and capacitive
reactance of the circuit for the desired resonant frequency,
or in other words, to tune in the desired radio station. Our
Radio Receiver Interactive Java Tutorial demonstrates
how a variable capacitor is used to tune in radio
frequencies.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Radio Receiver
Discover how a variable capacitor is
used to tune in radio frequencies.

Pulsed Magnets
At the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, magnets
are used for research in all areas of science, including
biology, chemistry, geology, engineering, material science,
and physics. Research in high magnetic fields is critical

because it allows scientists to study matter at the

molecular level.
One type of magnet used is a pulsed magnet. Pulsed
magnets are capable of inducing magnetic fields as high
as 800 teslas. In order to generate such high fields,
extremely high electrical currents are required, often in the
tens of thousands of amps. Pulsed magnets are usually
powered by a capacitor bank, a device containing a large
number of capacitors capable of storing massive amounts
of electrical energy. The capacitor bank is discharged in a
fraction of a second through the coil of the magnet. Typical
energies are of the order of 0.5 to 1 megajoules. We have
simulated the powering of a pulsed magnet in our Pulsed
Magnet Interactive Java Tutorial.
Interactive Java Tutorial

Pulsed Magnets
See how pulsed magnets are powered
by capacitors.

Links to more information about pulsed magnets: