Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Autumn 2014
Report
Safe drinking water is a basic human necessity. Poor rural communities across the world struggle to meet this basic
requirement either due to a lack of access to water or due to poor water quality of existing water sources. This
study is a preliminary study which focuses on the latter problem - the challenges surrounding water quality.
Drinking water quality is an immensely vast field, and challenges vary greatly by geography and local conditions.
This study considers the drinking water problems that are common in the hilly regions in north Thane district (now
Palghar), and explores possible treatment methods and existing enterprise solutions that may be applied there.
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
Potable water
Standards and Regulations
Common treatment methods
4.1 Boiling
4.2 Activated Carbon
4.3 Distillation
4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
4.5 KDF
4.6 Ultra-Violet (UV) Radiations
4.7 Chlorination
4.8 Tabular summarisation of the processes
5. Field visit
5.1 Kashivali
5.2 Velpada
5.3 Vikramgarh High School(Livinguard set-up)
5.4 Thapapada
5.5 Water Sample Testing using a Jal-Tara kit
5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi
.......................4
.......................4
.......................5-6
.......................7-11
............7
............7-8
............8
............8-9
............9
............9-10
............10-11
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.......................12-21
.............12-14
............15-16
............17
............18
............19
............20-21
6. Case Studies
6.1 Livinguard Technologies
6.2 Sarvajal
6.3 SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection)
6.4 Bio-Sand filter
7. Observation
References
.......................22-24
............21
............22
............23
............24
............25
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report and the facilities being required. It was a really wonderful learning experience. I
would really like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Miss Janhvi Doshi who allowed me to take
this topic. She has a very friendly nature. Her enthusiasm and constant involvement helped me a lot
throughout. I am thankful for her aspiring guidance, invaluably constructive criticism and friendly
advice.
I express my warm thanks to Mr. Santosh and Ms. Reshma Thakur founder of Astitva (an NGO in
Maharashtra) for their support and guidance. They helped a lot in understanding the ground reality
of potable water in the villages of Maharashtra. I would also like to thanks Deepak Halder, the
representative of Sarvajal at Sawda village near New Delhi for helping us understand their "Hub and
Spoke" model.
I will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way,
Thank You
Sincerely Yours
ABHISHEK AGGARWAL
(Under-Graduate student of IIT-B)
Place :IIT-Bombay, Mumbai
Dated: 29th November,2014
1 INTRODUCTION:
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's water is found in seas and
oceans but drinking water with high salinity causes dehydration. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is
freshwater and desalination process is really expensive, but still desalination plants are used in the Middle
East and Western Asia since there is no other source option (Apoprox. 17,000+ such plants worldwide).
Desalinated waters are commonly further treated by adding chemical constituents such as calcium
carbonate or limestone to improve their taste and reduce their aggressiveness to the distribution network
and plumbing materials1. Around 0.3 million2 people out of 7.2 billion3 people depend on this desalinated
water.
-- Samuel Taylor
But this report is all about the water quality conditions in rural areas. Studying the business
models catering to underprivileged section of the society and the cheap treatment solutions
available.
2 Potable Water
Drinking/Potable water is the water which doesnt cause any acute or chronic health effects like
diarrhoea, typhoid, intestinal worms, cancer etc.
Water contamination can be broadly classified in two types of impurities:
1. Biological contamination: Includes certain species of Bacteria (e.g. cholera, typhoid ), Virus(e.g.
hepatitis A, rotavirus), Protozoa and Helminths (Intestinal Parasites).
2. Chemical contamination: It can be further divided into two categories:
(i) Volatile impurities:- Those impurities which have boiling point close to water or less than it and
are generally organic like benzene, toulene etc. These impurities evaporate along with the water.
(ii) Non-volatile impurities:- Other impurities might be considered non-volatile with respect to
water e.g. sodium, calcium, iron, magnese, fluoride, nitrate, lead, arsenic, chlorine, fertilizers, pesticides
etc.
These impurities are not harmful at lower concentration and even some are good for health at low
concentration like fluoride. So, different organizations have different drinking water quality
guideline/standard.
2
3
U.S & World Population clock by United States Census Bureau as on 19-11-2014
(http://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop )
4
Parameter
Arsenic
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium
WHO
10g/l
2.4mg/l
3 g/l
50g/l
2.0 mg/l
1.5 mg/l
10 g/l
6 g/l
50 mg/l
40 g/l
Europe
10 g/l
1.0 mg/L
5 g/l
50 g/l
2.0 mg/l
50 g/l
1.5 mg/l
10 g/l
1 g/l
50 mg/l
10 g/l
US
10g/l
5 g/l
0.1 mg/L
TT
0.2 mg/L
4 mg/l
15 g/l
2 g/l
10 mg/L (as N)
50 g/l
China
50g/l
5 g/l
50 g/l (Cr6+)
1 mg/l
50 g/l
1 mg/l
10 g/l
0.05 g/l
10 mg/L (as N)
10 g/l
India1
50g/l
1.0mg/L
3 g/l
50 g/l
1.5 mg/l
50 g/l
1.5 mg/l
10 g/l
1 g/l
45 mg/l
10 g/l
*All the parameters are not included. This is just to show the comparison b/w different guidelines.
1
Values for India are taken from its revised drinking water guideline in 2012 published by bureau of Indian Standard i.e. IS 10500 : 2012
Source : http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/9789241548151_annex.pdf?ua=1
If we just consider the case of India itself, we will find different departments of government publishing
their own standards for drinking water. And these standards are just guidelines i.e. They are not legally
enforced.
If we look at the Central level, we will find guidelines by departments like:
1)Bureau Of India (BIS) : IS 10500 (2012) Updated in 2012
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS) follow these guidelines
2)Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
5
3)Central Public Health and Environmental Engg. Organisation (CPHEOO), Ministry of Urban
Development
Even many states in India have their own guidelines e.g. Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal (WBPHED).But
mostly the BIS guidelines are followed by most of the departments/states.
According to UNICEF, 67% of Indian households do not treat drinking water despite the contamination;
and those who do, still rely largely on traditional methods such as boiling water4. Boiling is one of the
methods of purifying the water. Boiling just disinfects the water from most of the biological
contamination but doesnt decontaminate the chemical impurities. Lets study some of the common
methods which alone or in combination are used in purifying the water.
Article by ValueNotes Database Pvt Ltd. on India's Home Water purifier Industry released published on Press Release
(http://www.pr.com/press-release/579155)
4.1 Boiling:
Process: Keep water at its boiling temperature for 15-20 minutes.
Effect: Kills micro-organisms such as bacteria, virus or parasites and removes some VOCs
Disadvantages:
Cloudy or highly turbid water must be filtered (can use cloth)
Boiling may concentrate the contaminants
Should not be used when toxic metals, chemicals or nitrates are present, since it increase
their concentrations
Disadvantages:
Can become breeding grounds for the bacteria they trap, thus, it is suggested to run water
through it for a few minutes to flush them out before use.
Hot water tends to release trapped contaminants into the water and even damage carbon
filter
Doesn't affect heavy metals like lead, mercury, arsenic (unless specially designed to),
cadmium, total dissolved solids, hardness(i.e. calcium, magnesium, potassium), nitrates,
sulphides, and fluoride
4.3 Distillation:
Process:
Water is boiled in a container, which leaves non-volatile impurities behind. Steam is collected in a
separate container and condensed
Effect:
Kills pathogens, remove salts that carbon filtration cannot remove, like heavy metals, nitrates,
chlorides. Used rarely when a large amount of minerals or impurities are to be removed.
Disadvantages:
VOCs(like pesticides) are not removed , so, a post-filter such as granular carbon filter is
attached to it
Distilled water is prone to recontamination or bacterial growth.
Distilled water (also referred as aggressive/hungry) have a leaching effect i.e. high
tendency to absorb minerals, metals or other materials it touches. To counterbalance this
effect mineral supplements are recommended
Due to Distilled water aggressive nature, it easily absorbs carbon dioxide from the
atmospheric forming carbonic acid. Therefore, distilled water should be stored in closed
container preferably glass because of might be acidic nature.
Maintenance is expensive and is required periodically
Used by most leading water bottling plants. Combining RO and activated carbon filter provides the
most efficient treatment against broadest range of water contamination.
RO water tastes like spring water since its well oxygenated.
Process:
Filters water through a semi- permeable membrane by applied hydraulic pressure which
counteracts the osmotic pressure. This membrane rejects the contaminants that are too large to
pass through the tiny pores in the membrane.
Effect:
Removes microbes, total dissolved solids (TDS), asbestos, lead, chloride, fluoride, nitrates and
other toxic heavy metals, radioactive substances (like radium).
Disadvantages:
Not highly effective in removing organic compounds and some of pesticides, solvents and
VOCs are not completely removed, so, a good post-filter like activated carbon filter is
recommended.
RO water is essentially mineral-free ,thus, mineral supplements are recommended
Since, some Membrane deterioration can occur due to the bacteria (like coliform), so a prefilter is also suggested.
Process:
It utilizes the principle of redox process (Redox reaction) to eliminate a vast number of water
contaminants.KDF extends the life of Granulated Activated Carbon.
The KDF itself creates a miniature electrolytic cell with anode as zinc, cathode as copper
and impure water as electrolyte.
o Substances such as metals are attracted to the surface of the KDF particles and
adhere with them.
o Non-metallic impurities react with the KDF and form oxides, hydroxides, sulphates
and even ozone. These by-products are not dangerous and carried through into the
drinking water.
Ozone as a by-product forms hostile and desolate environment for microorganism like algae, bacteria.
Effect:
KDF is known to kill algae and fungi, control bacterial growth, and remove chlorine, pesticides,
organic matter, rust, unpleasant taste and odour, hydrogen sulphide, nickel, chromium, cadmium,
calcium, aluminium, mercury, arsenic, and other organic.
Turbulent water flow is more effective since it exposes the micromicro-organisms completely to
UV radiation
Disadvantages:
Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year
year.
UV is not effective if the water is very turbid, colored or has very high concentration of
coliform, since the radiations
radiation dont reach the organism Thus,, UV is generally used in the
last stage of a treatment process.
4.7 Chlorination:
5
Chlorination is the cheapest means of disinfecting water. The residual effect of cchlorination helps
in transportation of water without re-contamination
re
for long duration.
Process:
In water chlorine stays in equilibrium as:
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
(1)
And Hypochlorus acid (HOCl)) is in further
equilibrium with hypochlorite ions as:
HOCl H+ + OCl (2)
Since, chlorine and HOCl are neutrally charged,
thus, easily penetrating the outer membrane of the
pathogens. Also, since these are good oxidizing
agents, they react with the enzymes and proteins
inside the cell disrupting their growth and
reproduction. And thus, either leading to
t their
death or completely harmless
Effect:
4.7-1 Definitions used in process of chlorination
This either kills the pathogens or renders them
harmless.
Note:-Disinfection effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side
i.e. decreasing the concentration of HOCl
Disadvantages:
The presence of organic materials especially humic, fulvic acids (result as degradation of plant
material) and organic substances(e.g.
substances(e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles) combines with free
chlorine via halo-form reaction resulting in the production of carcinogenic Trihalomethanes
(THMs).
10
The WHO has stated that the "risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison
with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection
Parameter/
Technology
KDF
RO
UV
Chlorination
Activated
Carbon
X
Distillati
on
Electricity/Heating
Expensive
Life
>6 years
1year (Annual
filter change)
1year
(Annual
bulb
change)
X
Recyclable
Technology
Taste of water after
processing
1year
(depending on
amount of
impurities)
No drop
in quality
with
time
-
()Removes
odour and
taste
X
()
() Close to
Spring water
(X) - No
change
() (Flat
taste)
X (not
recommended)
(X)
(Introduces
bitter taste)
Volatile Organic
Contaminants (VOCs)
Residual Disinfecting
Effects
X (used at POS,
no storage req.)
Non-Volatile Chemical
Contaminants7
Hazardous Byproducts
(Tri-Halo
Biological
Contamination6
Methanes THMs
and haloacetic
acids HAAs)
Many germs can no longer be detected in very low concentrations. In these cases, it is not possible to provide scientific
proof of a 100% reduction according to Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
(http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN)
7
2+
2+
Doesn't mean it removes all of them i.e. Ca /Mg /lead/Arsenic/Nickel/Cadmium etc the technology removes most of them.
Before using a technology, see specifically which all contaminants it doesn't remove.
11
5 Field Visits:
Visits to few places were made to understand the ground reality. Following visits were made:
Astitva foundation started a project Rainwater Harvesting in 2010. One of the things they do is
to help villages build a pipeline system from a perennial source to their habitation, in order to save
the women the drudgery of collecting water. They tend to all the technological needs like the
motor size, diameter of the pipe, size of the tank etc. They also provide the construction material
12
GOVT.
Description: A well of diameter 20ft and 25ft deep was dug about 10 years ago.
Seasonal change: It dries up around feb-march till the start of next monsoon
13
(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other:
GOVT.
Description: It was well which was dug up around 6-7 years ago. It has now developed
cracks and water is no longer potable
Seasonal change: It dries up around feb-march till the start of next monsoon
(iii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other:
Private(Astitva Foundation)
Description: Astitva dug a 10x15x15 ft perennial well in Valvandi village and connected
it to a 5000L plastic storage tank in the village by a 1.5km pipeline of diameter
1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground
Cost: Cost of project by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of about 10001500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households
Agricultural
14
5.2.2 Education:
They dont discriminate much between male and female. It appears that people over there send
their kids both boy and girl to schools. There is an Anganwadi and school till class 4th in the village
itself. For further they have to go to Vikramgarh around 1.5km away. For doing BA/MA they have
to travel about 12kms to Wada. The amusing thing is there 25 graduates in the village.
5.2.3 Summary of water condition in Velpada:
1. Diseases prevalent in the area:
Throughout the year: Stomach Problems, Cold, Pain in Hands & Feet
GOVT.
Seasonal change: It dries up around feb-march till the start of next monsoon
15
(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other:
Private(Astitva Foundation)
Description: Astitva connected a 5000L plastic storage tank with the already existing
perennial well a 2-3km far village, Rhati-pada, by a pipeline of diameter about
1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground
Cost: Cost of project was borne by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of
about 1000-1500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households.
Description: Its used for other activities other than drinking like washing clothes once
in a week or two
Distance: 1.5-2km
Agricultural
16
Set-up in School:
The water comes from a nearby russet. It has a
very high turbidity, coffee coloured. Before
storing the water in a 1500L overhead tank its
first passed through a primary filter to remove
suspended solid particles. Then it is passed
through a sand filter and
nd then a carbon candle.
Then finally before passing through the
Livinguard Candle, it passes through 2 other
filters. Then it is finally stored
ored in a 2500L in
another tank.
Before the start of each day, the sand filter,
filter
carbon and Livinguard candle are cleaned
cl
by
backwash process. It just takes about 10 minutes.
Figure 5.3-2 Entire Water-purification
purification set
set-up in Vikramgarh
High School
17
5.4.2 Education:
Astitva started a Balwadi here. Care of 17 kids of about 2-5years is taken in it.
18
5.5
Sample 1 -> Water from the well in Kashivali used for drinking
Sample 2-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project in
Velpada
Sample 3-> Water from the storage tank before treatment
through Livinguard set-up in Vikramgarh High
School
Sample 4 -> Water after treatment through Livinguard setup in Vikramgarh High School
Sample 5-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed
Figure 5.5-1 Sample in Bacteria Vials in order 1 to 7 (L-R) for
as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project 36 hrs. Black Colour denotes presence of Coliform bacteria
in Thapapada
Sample 6->Water from the well not used for drinking in Thapapada
Sample 7-> Water from the well situated right in the middle of the village of Thapapada which is used for
drinking purpose by the villagers
Test/Sample
Faecal Contamination(2)
pH(3)
Turbidity (NTU)
Residual Chlorine (mg/L)(4)
Chloride (mg/L)(5)
Fluoride
Hardness (mg/L)
Ammonia (mg/L)
Acceptable
limit(1)
Must be -ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
-ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
6.5-8.5
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
5-10
<10
<10
<10
<10
50
25
25
0.2 (min)
Absent ( there was no change in colour)
250-1000
1418 1467.63 638.1 666.46
709 1205.3 1666.15*
1-1.5 (max)
0.6 mg/L ( all showed the same colour)
300-600
120
200
144
144
136
144
200
1.5
0.6 mg/L ( all showed the same colour)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
19
5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi / "Hub and Spoke" model of
Sarvajal: (Oct'14)
Visited the Sarvajal establishment in JJ Colony, Sawda village near Delhi. It was established almost a
year ago. At Sawda, met with the representative Deepak Halder running the facility. The entire facility
is handled by 2 persons i.e. a driver and the representative.
In the JJ colony there is no pipeline laid. Sewer line has been built but is not cleaned regularly. Sewer
line is not properly built. So, many households have underground tanks in which they store the sewer
waste. This waste is collected by a tanker for a fee.
They have a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) in an area of about 100-150 sq.ft and
have put about 13 kiosks (see fig. 5.6-1) like an ATM in the radius of about 300500m. These kiosks (can store about 500L of water like an ATM machine) are
recharged with using a CNG operated recharging vehicle which can carry about
800L of water. People are given cards, like Delhi Metro cards, which they
recharge at the WTP and then use them at the ATM kiosks to get water.
Presently 1000 people have these cards. They call this model as Hub & Spoke.
All of the kiosks are connected to the server using cloud computing, so the water
level is monitored. Whenever the water level falls below a certain level, an SMS
is sent to the people at the WTP. It seems to happen on every alternate day.
Before recharging the kiosk they dump the water in it into the sewers.
At WTP they store the ground water in an underground 10,000L storage tank so that sedimentation
takes place. Then they further pump this water (raw water)
into a 1,000L water tank. Before pumping this water through
the Reverse Osmosis (RO) membrane, it is subjected to some
pre-filtration processes. It is first passed through media filter
and then the cartridges. Before storing water in two 3000L
(see fig. 5.6.-4) storage tanks, it undergoes UV treatment.
Purified water is not stored for more than 76hrs. It is
dispensed in the recharge pit, its a pit dug in the ground to
pour back the waste water back into the ground. TDS of raw
water is around 1500 mg/l and after purification its around
100-130mg/l. After 6hrs of use they backwash/clean the entire
20
system. It takes about 15min in backwashing and then further 10mins for the rinsing.
Electricity bill comes out to be 10,0008 Rupees/month. They pay around 8,0009 Rupees/month each to
their 2 employees. The transportation cost comes out to be 3,00010 Rupees/month. The cost of each
kiosk is about Rs 40,00011.
Figure 5.6-4 3000L Storage Tanks used to store Purified water for 76 hours
8,9,10,11
21
6 Case Studies:
I looked at some of the business models of the companies working in potable water sector for poor
people.
6.1
22
Sarvajal
6.2
http://www.sarvajal.com/#
Piramal Water Private Limited, ChandanBunglow, OppParitosh Tower, Near Darpana Academy,
Usmanpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat - 380 013 India
Office - 079 4050 2100; Toll Free - 1800 103 2334
Product: Water ATMs , also operate Filtration plants
o Solar powered
o Cloud based remote monitoring system
Cost to consumer12:Rs 0.30 per litre at ATMs away from filtration centre and Rs 0.15 at the
filtration centre
Water undergoes :
o Reverse osmosis
o Ultra-violet treatment
o Do not use Ozonisation process : quite expensive
Claims water quality maintained according to BIS guidelines
6.3
http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN
SODIS Ueberlandstrasse 133 P.O. Box 611 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
Phone +41 58 765 52 86
info@sodis.ch
Principle: UV-A rays in sunlight kill germs such as viruses, bacteria and parasites (giardia and
cryptosporidia)
Clear and Transparent (generally PET) bottles are filled with the water and placed in full sunlight
for at least 6 hours (depending on sunlight)
PET bottles are better than PVC (PVC have a pungent smell and doesnt burn as easily as possible
whereas PET have)
Restrictions/Requirements:
Bottles must be transparent, colourless, not heavily scratched
In order to allow sufficient radiation water must have turbidity less than 30 NTU (which can be
tested by reading newspaper headline through it) and its depth shouldnt be more than 10 cm
Disadvantages:
If more than half of the sky is clouded than you might even be required to keep it under sunlight
for 2 days
Water that has been polluted with chemicals (poisons, fertilisers, etc.) must not be used since
SODIS method change the chemical composition
Once removed from sunlight, remaining bacteria may again reproduce in the dark
1.
12
"Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Boards New Initiative." article by The Indian Express. N.p., 13
May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. ( http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-from-atms-for-30-paise-under-delhijal-boards-new-initiative/ )\
23
Restrictions/Requirements:
Chlorinated water should not be used since chlorine
chlorine kills the biolayer
the filtration sand bed be not less than 50 cm in depth
-- To ensure attachment and deactivation of viruses
-- 50 cm is the minimum depth at which slow sand filters operate
Flow rate of 0.4 m3/m2/hr ( i.e. 0.4 L/min for cross-sectional
sectional area of 0.06 m2 ) is the target
Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size.
Thus, 5 cm seems safe (2 times this minimum)
Disadvantages:
Cannot remove most of the chemical impurities
The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the
water. So, the water must be further disinfected. Mostly Chlorination, SODIS or boiling is used.
Wada
Prototype was constructed with Astitva in Wada:
The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller cross
crosssection area but it matched the required flow of 0.4 m3/m2/hr
It was built at very small level
Its cost was around 500 bucks
24
Figure 6.4-3 Prototype
7 Observations:
As observed, the households in most of the villages in India get their water from the dug-up well.
Majorly its polluted with biological contamination. Villagers do put chlorine powder in wells which is
fine. But
1. Once all the TCL is used, Gram Panchayat delays the delivery of TCL packets. So, during this
period people drink contaminated water
2. The other point is that the wells are not properly covered so they also have organic substances
like a dead frog (seen in a well during the field visit), leaves from the plants etc which results in
the production of carcinogenic THMs. These bi-products can be avoided:
i. if the wells are properly covered and/or
ii.
Instead of directly putting TCL in well they first filter it using activated carbon or sand
filter and then use TCL.
Figure 6.4-1 Kids from Thapa-pada village checking pH for the water
25
References:
1. Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods. Paris: OECD,
2003. Web. Aug. 2014.
2. "CAWST." Biosand Filter. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2014.
<http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/biosand-filter>.
3. "Chlorine Residual Testing." Chlorine Residual Testing Fact Sheet, CDC SWS Project (n.d.): n. pag.
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. Nov. 2014.
<http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf>.
4. "Different Water Filtration Methods Explained." Apec Water Free Drinking Water. N.p., n.d. Web.
Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-water-filtrationmethod.htm>.
5. "Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Boards New Initiative." The Indian Express.
N.p., 13 May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-fromatms-for-30-paise-under-delhi-jal-boards-new-initiative/>.
6. "Drinking Water Filters -- A Complete Guide." Pure Water Network. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014.
<http://www.pwn.com/guide2.html>.
7. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: First Addendum to the Third Edition, Volume 1:
Recommendations. Geneva: WHO: n.p., 2006. Web. Aug. 2014.
8. "IDA." IDA. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2014. <http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-thenumbers>.
9. Livinguard. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://www.livinguard.com/>.
10. "Microbiology." SODIS:. To Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology,
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