Chapter 1 H-EX

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design
CHAPTER ONE
HEAT TRANSFER
FUNDAMENTALS
Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Enppi Copyright Enppi 2007
Page 1 of 137
HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Introduction
In the majority of chemical processes, heat is either given out or
absorbed. And in a very wide range of chemical plant; fluids must often be
either heated or cooled. Thus, in furnaces, evaporators, distillation units,
driers and reaction vessels one of the major problems is that of
transferring heat at the desired rate.
1.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Alternatively, it may be necessary to prevent the loss of heat from a
hot vessel or steam pipe. The control of the flow of heat in the desired
manner forms one of the most important sections of chemical engineering.
Provided that a temperature difference exists between two parts of a
system, heat transfer will take place in one or more of three different
ways.
Conduction
Radiation
Convection
In practice, the overall mechanism of heat transfer is usually a

combination of all three possibilities. The temperature level at which the
heat transfer takes place and the conditions under which the heat is
transferred determine the share which each of the above mentioned
mechanisms has in the final result.
These mechanisms are, however, not involving mass transfer.
Evaporation and condensation are important heat transfer phenomena
which involve mass transfer.

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Generally, heat transfer occurs whenever regions of different

temperatures can communicate and heat flows from the high temperature
region to the low temperature region. Equilibrium is achieved when the
temperatures of the regions are equal. Equilibrium is, therefore,
dependent on the temperature and independent on the heat content of
the regions.
1.2.1 Conduction
Conduction is defined as the transfer of heat from one part of a
body to another part of the same body or from one body to a second body
in direct contact with the first one, without any appreciable displacement
of the particles of the body or bodies.
All physical states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) are able to
conduct heat to some degree. Solids may either be good conductors (e.g.
the metals) or poor conductors ("insulators", such as non-metal elements,
cork, asbestos, etc...), whereas gases and liquids are, as a rule, very poor
heat conductors.
Steady state conduction of heat through a homogeneous solid one
dimensional body is represented mathematically by the following
equation, which is known as Fourier's law:
q KA
dt
dx
Where,
q
the rate of heat transfer
the area through which the heat flows, taken at a right

angle to the direction of flow.

Page 3 of 137
dt
dx
the temperature gradient along the line of heat flow

since the temperature decreases in the direction of
flow, the sign of this term is negative.
a constant, known as the thermal conductivity, the

value of which depends on the composition of the
material through which the heat flows and on the
temperature level at which the flow takes place.
The effect of the temperature level on the value of k is generally

small.
Figure 1.1 One dimensional conduction through a plane wall

Page 4 of 137
Materials which are good conductors of electricity are also good

heat conductors {copper: K = approx. 220 BTU/(hr.ft2)(F/ft}. Electrical
insulators are also heat insulators, the k for cork being only 0.025 BTU/
(hr.ft2)(F/ft).
For most of the metals the temperature coefficient of k is negative
(aluminum and brass are exceptions), while for most insulators it is
positive. Practically all non-metallic liquids have thermal conductivities,
which fall between 0.05 and 0.150 BTU/ (hr.)(F)(ft.). The values for
water and a few salt solutions are somewhat higher. The temperature
coefficient of k for liquids is negative, except that of water.
All gases have very low thermal conductivities {0.005-0.18 BTU/
(hr.ft2) (F/ft)} and usually show a positive temperature coefficient.
Before Fourier's law can be applied to the solution of a practical
problem, it must be integrated. The result of the integration will depend,
of course, entirely upon the shape of the object that conducts the heat.
However, only a few forms are commonly found in practical cases and only
a few of these have any use in the petroleum refinery. Some of the most
common conduction equations are tabulated in Table 1.1 and an indication
is given of their (limited) application in the refinery.
The customary assumption in applying these equations is that the
thermal conductivity k remains constant. In cases where a wide variation
exists the arithmetic average can be use, provided the variation with
temperature is approximately linear.

Page 5 of 137
The units in which the various terms in the equations are expressed
may be either of the metric or the British system, but should be
consistent.
Plane walls:
Conduction through a homogeneous
KA( t1 t 2 )
x
plane surface, e.g. a furnace wall.
Cylindrical walls:
Conduction through insulation on

piping. Conduction through heat
K .2( t1 t 2 )L
r
2.3 log 2
r1
exchangers, metal tubes walls

separating one fluid from another at
different temperatures.
Conduction through two or more plane
Composition plane walls:
walls of different composition in series.
A( t1 t 2 )
Xa Xb Xc
Ka Kb Kc
Composite cylindrical walls:
2.3

2( t1 t 2 )L
log( ra' / ra ) log( ra' / ra )
Ka
Kb

Conduction through two insulating

layers of different material on a large
cylindrical vessel
Table 1.1 Steady state conduction evaluations

Page 6 of 137
1.2.2 Convection
Convection is one of the most mechanisms by which heat is
transferred in industrial equipment. As was mentioned before, in most
practical cases heat transfer takes place by a combination of radiation,
conduction and convection, but as a rule convection plays the most
important part.
Convection may be caused by currents which are the result of
differences in density at various points in a medium owing to temperature.
Differences and is then known as natural convection. When some kind of
mechanical agitation is employed, the convection is known as forced
convection.
A practical example of natural convection is the heating of a tank
filled with oil with the aid of a steam coil at the bottom of the tank. Forced
convection takes place, for instance, when the contents of a steam heated
tank are circulated by means of the pumps.
As will be seen when dealing with the practical applications of heat
transfer, the type of flow of the fluids between which heat is transferred is
very important. It is well known that a fluid can be transported either in
stream line flow (viscous or laminar flow) or in turbulent How, depending
upon the value of the Reynolds number represented by the following
mathematical expression:
Re
dV
DG
Dv
Where,
Re
Reynolds number
Diameter of the conduit
linear velocity of the fluid

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density of the fluid at flowing conditions
mass velocity
absolute viscosity at flowing conditions
kinamatic viscosity
It should be pointed out that the Reynolds number is dimensionless

and consequently has the same numerical value as long as the units in
which D, v, , y and are expressed are consistent.
When the value of the Reynolds number, expressed in consistent
units is well below 2100, the fluid flows in stream line flow
(Laminar flow)
Each infinitesimally thin layer of fluid moves through the pipeline of
conduit as a coaxial cylinder.
At Reynolds number between (2100-10000) the flow in transition
region.
At Reynolds numbers above 10000 the parallel flow changes to a
whirling motion (turbulent flow) and only a very thin layer adjacent to the
wall of the conduit remains unmixed with the rest of the fluid (see figure 1
.2).
It has been found that as the turbulence increases the thickness of
the non-turbulent fluid film adjacent to the wall of the conduit decreases.
Studies of heat transfer to fluids flowing within conduits have shown that
the rate of heat transfer is a function, of the thickness of the nonturbulent fluid film, which is directly related to the Reynolds No. of the
fluid. This non-turbulent fluid film is the major resistance to the flow of
heat by convection from the wall to the main body of fluid. When
considering the factors which affect the thickness of this film it will be
seen that it is a function of physical properties of the fluid and the
condition under which it flows.

Page 8 of 137
Figure 1.2 Types of fluid flow

Page 9 of 137
1.2.2.1 Film coefficient of Transfer by Convection

If a fluid flows through a pipe which is heated on the outside, the
rate of heat transfer by convection from the inside of the tube wall to the
main body of the fluid depends upon a coefficient generally referred to as
the film coefficient. The rate of heat transfer can be mathematically
represented by the following equation:
qh A t
Where,
q
rate of heat transfer, BTU/hr
area through which heat is transferred, sq. ft.
film coefficient, BTU/ (hr) (sq.ft.) (F)
temperature difference between the inner surface of

the tube and the main body of the fluid, F
Nusselt Number
Nu
h
hL
k/L
k
Nu A Re a Pr b
Prandtl Number
Pr
C p
k
Reynolds Number Re
^
V L
Re

Page 10 of 137
The value of h depends on a number of factors chiefly associated

with the physical properties of the fluid and the conditions under which it
is flowing. A few of the factors that affect the value of the film coefficient
are:
Viscosity of the fluid,
Density of the fluid,
Velocity of the fluid,
Thermal conductivity of the fluid,
Specific heat of the fluid,
Degree of turbulence of the fluid,
Shape of the tube wall, and
Position of the tube.
1.2.2.2 Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer

Practically in all industrial heat transfer equipment heat is
exchanged between two fluids separated by a metal wall, and mostly the
flow inside and outside the tube is turbulent. In Figure 1.3, the
temperature gradient is shown when heat is transferred from a fluid
flowing inside a tube to a tube flowing outside the tube. It will be clear
that in such a case the transfer of heat takes place by conduction and
convection and that the rate of transfer is affected by the following
factors:
The non-turbulent or viscous fluid film on the outside of the tube.
The thickness and thermal conductivity of the dirt and/or scale layer
on the outside of the tube.
The thickness and thermal conductivity of the tube wall.
The thickness and thermal conductivity of the dirt and/or scale layer
on the inside wall of the tube.
The non-turbulent or viscous fluid film on the inside of the tube.

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Figure 1.3 Flow of heat through tube walls

At a given point the overall transfer of heat can be expressed by the
following equation:
q =UA T
Where,
q
rate of heat transfer = q1= q = q outside
overall coefficient of heat transfer
wall area through which heat is transferred
temperature difference between the two fluids

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Each of the above mentioned five factors affecting the overall

coefficient of heat transfer can be considered as an individual resistance
being part of the total resistance to heat transfer. These resistances are
added in the same manner as electrical resistances, i.e. the reciprocal
values of the coefficients (being resistance values) are added up to give
an overall resistance:
1
1
1
1
1
1
U U o hi ( Ai / Ao ) ( K w / I w ) ( K o / I o ) ( K i / I o )( Ai / Ao )
Where,
U
Overall heat transfer coefficient
ho
Film coefficient for the fluid outside the tube wall
hi
Film coefficient for the fluid inside the tube wall
(kw/Iw)
Conductance of heat through the tube wall
(ko/Io)
Conductance of heat through the deposit on the

outside of the tube
Thermal conductivity of tube wall of deposit
Thickness of the tube or layer of deposit
(Ai/Ao)
Ratio of inside to outside tube are used to

convert all coefficients to a common basis,
namely on the outside area
In most practical cases the resistance of the tube wall is so low that
it can usually be neglected without causing a serious error in the overall
coefficients. The scale deposits and the film coefficient are the two major
controlling resistances. In many cases when there are no scale deposits
and one of the fluids has a very high film coefficient, the overall coefficient
can be calculated with sufficient accuracy by calculating only the other
(low) film coefficient. However, in a large number of cases the scale
deposits are the major resistances to heat transfer.

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1.2.2.3 Mean Temperature Difference (MTD)

The basic equation of heat transfer can be expressed practically:
q = UA Tm
Where Tm is the mean temperature difference between the two
fluids. The other symbols have the same meaning as in equation.
The effect of relatively small temperature differences on the
physical properties of most of the petroleum hydrocarbons is usually too
small to cause large errors in the value of U, so that the overall coefficient
of heat transfer can be assumed constant. When larger differences occur,
it is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes to assume that most
physical properties vary approximately linearly, so that arithmetic
averages of the properties can be satisfactorily used in the calculation of
an average value of U.
Consequently once the overall transfer coefficient is known, the only
problem in evaluating heat transfer for petroleum products is the proper
calculation of the temperature difference.
The direction of flow of the liquids exchanging heat influences the
rate of heat transfer.
The two fluids exchanging heat in industrial equipment may flow
either co-current (parallel) or in countercurrent. In almost all cases
countercurrent flow is preferred, since in this way a more efficient
recovery of heat is usually possible. In Figure 1.4 the change of
temperature with the distance of flow is illustrated for several common
flow arrangements.
In any of these cases the mean temperature difference may be
calculated as the logarithmic mean temperature difference:

Page 14 of 137
Tm
L arg er temp . difference Smaller temp. difference

L arg er temperature difference
ln
Smaller temperature difference
In order to avoid errors when calculating the temperature

differences, the temperatures (in case of concurrent flow) are usually
tabulated as follows:
T1 T2
t 2 t1
______________________________
(T1 - t2)
(T2 - t1)
Where T1 and T2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hotter
fluid and t1 and t2 those of the colder fluid. The values for (t1 - t2) and (T2
t1) can then be substituted and the mean temperature difference (MTD)
can be computed.
When the ratio of the larger to the smaller temperature differences
is less than 2, little error (<4%) arises from the use of the arithmetic
average.
However, most of the heat exchange equipment used in the
petroleum industry is the shell and tube type. One of the fluids flows
through the tubes and the other fluid flows around the tubes in the shell.
In order to improve the efficiency of the heat exchange without
unduly increasing the size of the equipment, the fluids are usually forced,
to flow through the tubes and the shell in several passes by special baffle
arrangements. Consequently the direction of the flow is reversed several
times, which results in a lower Tm than the value which is calculated from
the terminal temperatures. Charts have been drawn up from which a
correction factor for Tm can be rapidly computed. Figures 1.4A to 1.4D

Page 15 of 137
show a number of these Tm correction charts which are applicable to the

type of exchange equipment commonly used in petroleum refineries.
Figure 1.4 Temperature difference for common flow

If the number of shell passes, equal the number of tube passes, the
correction factor = 1.0. For all other cases F< 1.0. An exchanger with
correction factor <0.8 can seldom be justified.
Example:
Lean oil is to be cooled from 410 F to 155 F by rich oil entering at 110
F and leaving at 330 F. Find Tm.
Solution:

Page 16 of 137
410 -------------155
330
110
-------------
80
45
From equation (5) Tm = 61 F
Ratio
P= (330-110) / (410-110) =0.733
& Ratio R= (410-155) / (330-110) = 1.16

The following results are obtained:
Figure 1.4A & B
- correction factor < 0.5
Figure 1.4C
Figure 1.4D
Selecting exchanger with 4 shell passes and 8 (or multiple) tube

passes therefore corrected Tm = 0.84 x 61 = 51.2 F
Exercise
State from the above example the following:
1.
What type of direction of flow of the liquids exchanging heat?
2a. What is the maximum temperature could the rich oil be gained
if the flow is concurrent?
2b. Otherwise what will be the minimum temperature could the lean
oil be reached for the concurrent case?
3. Which flow type is therefore preferred?
1.2.2.4 Economic Approach Temperature
When considering the principles underlying heat transfer it will be
clear that heat exchanging fluids can never reach the same temperature
at either of the exchange terminals (Figure 1.4). A certain temperature
difference will always exist, which is known as the "approach
temperature".
Page 17 of 137
From a view point of maximum heat exchange a small approach

temperature is desirable. However, as the approach temperature
decreases, Tm (the MTD) decreases also, with the result that a larger heat
exchange area is required (other conditions remaining the same).
From an economic point of view there is an optimum approach
temperature below which the increased recovery of heat no longer
compensates for the increased heat transfer area to be installed.
This optimum figure can be determined on the basis of the cost per
unit area of exchange surface, the value of the heat removed and
assumptions regarding amortization of the heat exchange equipment. It
has been found in practice (particularly for coolers in which products have
to be cooled to the lowest possible temperatures attainable with cooling
water) that in a large number of cases an approach temperature of 10 F
is economically attractive.
The customary practice is to design coolers and certain condensers
for 1.0 F approach temperature. For heat exchange between
hydrocarbons, involving a large transfer area, the economic approach
temperature may be considerably higher (30 F). In such cases, it is
advisable to carry out some approximate calculations, which are simplified
by using charts published in the literature (Standards of Tubular
Exchangers Manufacturers Association: TEMA standards).
1.2.2.5 Calculation of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
As mentioned before, the overall heat transfer coefficient depends
upon five factors, being the film coefficients for the fluids flowing inside
and outside the tubes and the tube wall resistance. A complete discussion
of the methods used for computing film resistances in all cases
encountered in a refinery is far beyond the scope of this course. Different
methods must be applied in individual cases, depending on whether the

Page 18 of 137
fluids are flowing with or without change of state and whether the hotter
fluid flows inside or around the tubes.
In order to facilitate the calculations, graphical correlations have
been derived and may be found in the literature. The film coefficients
obtained by these graphical methods apply to clean surfaces, and for the
calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient the fouling resistance
has to be incorporated. Usually the fouling resistances or fouling factors
are given in terms of resistance to heat transfer instead of conductance.
1
A
1
ro rw ri o
ho
Ai
1
A
hi i
Ao
Where,
ro
Fouling resistance on the outside of the tubing
ri
Fouling resistance on the inside of the tubing
rw
Resistance of the tube wall
1.2.3 Radiation
Heat radiation follows the same general laws as light, but it has a
much longer wave length than light waves. Radiant heat is, therefore,
reflected or absorbed by surfaces upon which it falls, the degree of
reflection or absorption depending on the nature of the body. It has been
found that dark surfaces absorb a large percentage of radiant heat, while
light colored or shiny bodies reflect radiant heat.
Furthermore, experiments and theoretical considerations have
shown that a body which readily absorbs radiant heat is also a good
emitter of heat waves. The two factors governing the absorption and
emission of heat are the nature of the body and its temperature. For
theoretical purposes the concept of the perfect black body has been

Page 19 of 137
developed, which refers to a hypothetical body which absorbs all radiation

incidents upon it and which is the perfect radiator of thermal energy.
Actually, no such body exists, but a number of real materials come
close to being perfect black bodies. The ratio of the emissive power of a
given body to that of a perfect black body is referred to as the emissivity.
Furnace walls, tubes and most of the common construction
materials have emissivities in the neighbourhood of 0.9 (black body =
1.0).
Stefan-Boltzman law:
q AT 4
Where,
q
rate of radiant heat transfer emitted or absorbed
Stephan-Boltzman constant, which has the following

values in the different systems
0.173 10 8 BTU /( hr . ft 2 )( R 4 )
4.94 10 8 Kcal /( hr .m 2 )( K 4 )
area of the body
absolute temperature of the body
the emissivity of the body
When considering the transfer of heat by radiation in any practical

case, it will be evident that the net rate of heat transfer is equal to the
rate at which a body emits thermal radiation, minus the rate at which it
re-absorbs the fraction of its thermal radiation which is reflected by
surrounding surfaces and minus the rate at which it absorbs radiation
emitted by the surroundings.

Page 20 of 137
Thus the net rate of heat transfer is dependent not only upon the
temperature and emissivity of the body, but also upon the temperature
and emissivity of the surroundings.
For the case of an isothermal surface completely enclosed by
another isothermal surface being separated by a non-absorbing medium,
the net rate of radiant heat transfer can be represented as follows:
( T )4 ( T )4
q Ae 1 2 Fe
100 100
Where,
q and
same as in previous
Ae
effective area
Fe
a factor to allow for the emissivities of the
two
surfaces.

Page 21 of 137

Chapter 1 H-EX

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Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS

1.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

In practice, the overall mechanism of heat transfer is usually a

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Generally, heat transfer occurs whenever regions of different

the rate of heat transfer

the area through which the heat flows, taken at a right

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

the temperature gradient along the line of heat flow

a constant, known as the thermal conductivity, the

The effect of the temperature level on the value of k is generally

Figure 1.1 One dimensional conduction through a plane wall

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Materials which are good conductors of electricity are also good

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Conduction through a homogeneous

plane surface, e.g. a furnace wall.

Conduction through insulation on

exchangers, metal tubes walls

Composition plane walls:

walls of different composition in series.

Composite cylindrical walls:

Conduction through two insulating

Table 1.1 Steady state conduction evaluations

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Diameter of the conduit

linear velocity of the fluid

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

density of the fluid at flowing conditions

absolute viscosity at flowing conditions

It should be pointed out that the Reynolds number is dimensionless

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

Figure 1.2 Types of fluid flow

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

1.2.2.1 Film coefficient of Transfer by Convection

rate of heat transfer, BTU/hr

area through which heat is transferred, sq. ft.

film coefficient, BTU/ (hr) (sq.ft.) (F)

temperature difference between the inner surface of

Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Heat Exchangers Selection & Design

The value of h depends on a number of factors chiefly associated

Viscosity of the fluid,

Density of the fluid,

Velocity of the fluid,

Thermal conductivity of the fluid,

Specific heat of the fluid,

Degree of turbulence of the fluid,

Shape of the tube wall, and

Position of the tube.

1.2.2.2 Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer

The non-turbulent or viscous fluid film on the outside of the tube.

The thickness and thermal conductivity of the tube wall.