6.

Collection of data

(i) Secondary Data: Data which are already available. Investigator uses the data which has already been
collected by others. It can be obtained from journals, reports, government publications, publications of
research organizations, trade and professional bodies etc.
Note: The researcher should not accept the secondary data at its face value as such data may be full of errors
because of bias, inadequate size of sample, substitution, errors of definition, arithmetical errors etc. Hence,
before using secondary data, the investigator should examine the following aspects:
a) Suitability for the purpose of investigation
b) Adequacy for the purpose of investigation
c) Reliability of data with reference to: bias of the collecting agency, sampling method, capability of
enumerators, proper supervision for accuracy of field work, editing, tabulating, analysis of data and
degree of accuracy as desired by the compiler of the report or database.
(ii) Primary Data: Data which must be collected by the researcher directly from the concerned respondents.
These measurements are observed and recorded as a part of original study. The work of collecting original
data is usually limited by time, money and manpower available for the study. When the data to be collected
is very large in volume, it is possible to draw reasonably accurate conclusions from the study of a small
portion of the group called a Sample.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
Focus Group
Telephone Interview Cant interview people without telephone. Moreover, telephonic conversation
cant be very long.
Mail Questionnaires
Door-to-Door Survey
Mall Intercept
New Product Registration
Personal Interview
Experiments
Observation The investigator does not ask any questions. The recording is done manually or by
using some recording devices etc. This method does not automatically produce accurate data. The
observations can get influenced by: situational variables, observers level of training, his/ her
philosophy, opinions, expectations etc.
Questionnaire: A formal list of questions. Three different techniques of communication generally used with
questionnaires include: Personal Interview, Mail and Telephone. The following are the advantages of using a
questionnaire method:
a) Versatility
b) Faster method
c) Cheaper than observing
Designing a Questionnaire
While developing a questionnaire, the researcher has to be very clear on the following issues:
a) What information will be sought?
b) What type of questionnaire will be required?
c) How that questionnaire will be administered?
d) What will the content of individual question be?
e) What form of response will be there for each question?
f) How many questions will be used and what will be the sequence of individual questions?
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g) Whether the questionnaire shall be disguised or undisguised?

h) Whether the questionnaire shall be structured or unstructured?
Types of Questionnaires
Undisguised
Disguised

Structured Unstructured
A
B
D
C

Structure refers to the degree of standardization imposed on the questionnaire.

A disguised questionnaire attempts to hide the purpose of study.
Some important points to be kept in mind while designing the questionnaire:
a) Covering Letter
b) The number of questions should be as few as possible.
c) Questions should be logically arranged.
d) Questions should be short and simple.
e) Questions of sensitive nature should be avoided.
f) Instructions must be given comprehensively to the informants.
g) Footnotes.
h) Questions should be capable of objective answers.
i) Answers to the questions should not require calculations.
j) Pre-testing the questionnaire.
k) Cross-checks as and when required.
l) Incentives to the respondents.
m) Method of tabulation to be used.
Pre-testing the Questionnaire
Editing the Primary Data
a)
b)
c)
d)

Editing for completeness

Editing for consistency
Editing for accuracy
Editing for homogeneity

(iii) Internal Records: refer to the measurements that are the by-product of routine business record keeping
like accounting, finance, production, personnel, quality control, sales, R & D etc. In this case, collecting the
desired information does not usually offer much difficulty. The problems with such data generally pertain to
organization of data the time it is compiled. Moreover, the information that is required might be available
with more than one departments at a time and this may lead to serious problems while compilation of
information.
7.

Execution of the project The following key points need to be considered:

The project needs to be executed in systematic manner.
The research work is done according to the time schedule.
Coding the data items.
Training the data collectors.
Design and development of instruction manuals for the interviewers.
Occasional field checks to ensure accuracy.
Tackling non-response problems.
Optimal use of methods for statistical control.
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8.

9.

10.

11.

Analysis of data It comprises of the following closely related operations:

Establishment of categories
The application of these categories to raw data through coding
Editing to improve the quality of data for coding.
Classification of raw data into some purposeful and usable categories
Tabulation of data and condensation of data into few manageable groups and tables
Drawing statistical inferences generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients etc. by applying various well-defined statistical formulae.
Relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should
be subject to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate
any conclusion(s).
Hypothesis Testing Test whether the facts support the hypotheses or do they happen to be
contrary? Various tests such as Chi Square test, F test, and t test have been developed by
statisticians for this purpose. The application of these tests depends upon the nature and objects
of research inquiry.
Generalisations and Interpretations If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at some generalizations, i.e. to build a theory. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. This is known as interpretation. This process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
Preparation of the report or the thesis Report writing must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
The layout of the report
i. The preliminary pages It comprises of title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and
list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
ii. The main text of the report should have the following parts:
Introduction This comprises of a clear statement of the objectives of research,
the explanation of the research methodology, scope of study and various
limitations to the study.
Summary of the Findings
Main report presented in logical sequence and broken down into readily
identifiable sections.
Conclusion Needs to be clear and precise.
iii. The end matter includes the appendices enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography should be given in the end and index should also be given specially in a
published research report.
Report needs to written in concise and objective style in simple language without any
ambiguity.
Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly.
Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Criteria of Good Research

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
2. The research procedure should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement.
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3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The flaws in procedural design and the estimated effects on the findings must be reported clearly.
5. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. The analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate.
7. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by data for the research and limited to those for
which the data provides adequate basis.
Thus a Good Research is:
Systematic
Logical
Empirical
Replicable
Problems encountered by Researchers
1. Lack of Scientific Training in research methodology.
2. Insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and business
establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side.
3. Reluctance on the part of business units to supply the information required by the researchers.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for adequate information which
results in duplication of efforts at times and fritters away resources.
5. No uniform code of conduct for researchers.
6. Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance.
7. Inadequate library management at many places.
8. Insufficient library and other resources.
9. Difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other research
agencies.
10. Problems related to conceptualization and also related to process of data collection.

DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we say that
a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
1. There must be an individual or an organization to which the problem can be attributed. The
individual or the said organization, as the case may be, occupies an environment, say N, which
is defined by the values of the uncontrolled variables.
2. There must be some objectives to be attained.
3. There must be at least two courses of action, to be pursued. A course of action is defined by one
or more values of controlled variables.
4. There must be at least two possible outcomes of the course of action, of which one should be
preferable to the other.
5. The course of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but they
cant provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter.
6. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem.
Selecting the Problem
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The following points need to be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or subject for
research:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen.

Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
Too narrow or too vague problems must be avoided.
The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material
or sources of research are within ones research.
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved
and the time factor involved are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting the
problem.
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by preliminary study, especially for a relatively new
field of inquiry.
Note: A research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a subject.
Necessity of Defining the Problem
A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a
research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from irrelevant ones. Moreover, a proper definition of the research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Technique involved in defining a Problem
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be
accomplished hurriedly. The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weight
age to all related points. This involves the following systematic sequential steps:
1. Statement of problem in a general way, keeping in view either some practical concerns or some
scientific or intellectual interest. The researcher may undertake some pilot survey or can seek the
guidance of some guide or subject expert.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem by discussing it with those (if possible) who first raised it
and those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned and similar problems.
3. Surveying the available literature Relevant theories in the field, reports, records, researches already
undertaken similar to the field of study.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions Experience surveys
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition in analytical or operational terms. This
may also help in development of working hypotheses.
6. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of problem
should be clearly defined.
7. Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.
8. The criteria for the selection of the problem should be provided.
9. The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the
researcher in defining the problem.
10. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be
mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.