Major Mango

Polyphenols and
Their Potential
Significance to
Human Health
Martin Masibo and Qian He

ABSTRACT: The mango is a rich source of various polyphenolic compounds. The major polyphenols in the mango
in terms of antioxidative capacity and/or quantity are: mangiferin, catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, rhamnetin,
anthocyanins, gallic and ellagic acids, propyl and methyl gallate, benzoic acid, and protocatechuic acid. The nutraceutical and pharmaceutical significance of mangiferin, which is a special polyphenol in the mango has been
extensively demonstrated and continues to attract much attention especially in its potential to combat degenerative
diseases like heart diseases and cancer. The amounts of the different polyphenolic compounds in the mango vary
from part to part (pulp, peel, seed, bark, leaf, and flower) with most polyphenols being found in all the parts. Mango
polyphenols, like other polyphenolic compounds, work mainly as antioxidants, a property that enables them to
protect human cells against damage due to oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and many
degenerative diseases. Use of pure isolated compounds has been found to be less effective than the use of crude mixtures from the particular mango part suggesting that synergism of the various mango polyphenols is important for
maximum antioxidative activity. In this article, we review the major mango polyphenols, looking at their proposed
antioxidative activity, estimated amounts in the different parts, their structures, suggested modes of action, and
related significance to human health, with great emphasis on mangiferin.

Introduction
In the past few years, there has been increasing interest in the
study of mango phenolics from mango fruits, peels, seeds, leaves,
flowers, and stem bark due to their antioxidative and healthpromoting properties that make consumption of mangoes and
derived products a healthy habit. Bioactive compounds found
in the mangos, among other plants and herbs have been shown
to have possible health benefits with antioxidative, anticarcinogenic, antiatherosclerotic, antimutagenic, and angiogenesis inhibitory activities (Cao and Cao 1999). Interestingly, many herbs,
fruits, and vegetables are known to contain large amounts of phenolic antioxidants other than the well-known vitamins C, E, and
carotenoids.
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites of plants and are widely
distributed in beverages and plant-derived foods. Human consumption studies indicate 1 g of total polyphenols is frequently
consumed per day and it is not anticipated that any acute or
lethal toxicity would be observed through the oral intake route
(Scalbert and Williamson 2000). Phenolic compounds have the
capacities to quench lipid peroxidation, prevent DNA oxidative
MS 20080164 Submitted 3/4/2008, Accepted 6/14/2008. Authors Masibo and
He are with School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan Univ., Food
Safety and Quality Control Laboratory, Wuxi -214122, Jiangsu Province, P.R.
China. Author Masibo is also with Food and Agricultural Products Laboratory,
Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS)-54974, Nairobi, Kenya. Direct inquiries to
author Masibo (E-mail: martinmasibo@yahoo.com).

C

2008 Institute of Food Technologists

damage, scavenge free radicals (Cao and Cao 1999), and prevent inhibition of cell communication (Sigler and Ruch 1993),
all of which are precursors to degenerative diseases. Free radicals cause depletion of the immune system antioxidants, change
in gene expression, and induce abnormal proteins resulting in
degenerative diseases and aging.
Antioxidant nutrients and phytonutrients inhibit the oxidation
of living cells by free radicals by protecting the lipids of the cell
membranes through free radical scavenging, blocking the initiators of free radical attack, neutralizing or converting free radicals
into less active, stable products thus breaking the chain reaction
and assisting in salvaging oxidized antioxidants enabling them to
continue to be of benefit (Halliwell and others 1992). There are 2
main antioxidant defense mechanisms developed by living organisms: enzymatic and nonenzymatic components defense systems.
An array of small molecules including polyphenols fall under
the later system (Shahidi and others 1992; Rice-Evans and others 1997). Polyphenols have the ability to scavenge free radicals
via hydrogen donation or electron donation (Shahidi and others 1992). A phenolic molecule is often characteristic of a plant
species or even of a particular organ or tissue of that plant. The
antioxidant activity of polyphenols is governed by the number,
reactivity, and location of their aromatic hydroxyl groups (Chen
and others 1996).
The main classes of polyphenols are defined according to the
nature of their carbon skeleton and they are: phenolic acids,
flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans (Lee and others 2003). Other
dietary polyphenols are not well-defined chemical entities and

Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

309

CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

result from the oxidative polymerization of flavonoids and phenolic acids (Santos-Buelga and Scalbert 2000). The means of extracting polyphenols from plants is crucial as some polyphenols
can be denatured by heat and lost by some solvents. Besides,
some solvents are toxic and render the extracts unsafe for human
consumption. Decoction is an extraction method of choice due to
the absence of any organic solvent, as is the case with the industrial production of (Vimang), a mango stem bark extract in Cuba.
Specific polyphenolic compounds can be determined and quantified by chromatographic techniques, while total phenols can
be estimated by reduction of the FolinCiocalteu reagent (Singleton and Rossi 1965). Besides these, antioxidative capacity assays
of plant extracts can also be used to predict their polyphenolic
quantity and/or activity.

Polyphenolic composition
Polyphenolic composition of mango pulp. Mangiferin, gallic

acids (m-digallic and m-trigallic acids), gallotannins, quercetin,

isoquercetin, ellagic acid, and -glucogallin are among the
polyphenolic compounds already identified in the mango pulp
(Schieber and others 2000). Gallic acid has been identified as
the major polyphenol present in mango fruits, followed by 6 hydrolysable tannins and 4 minor compounds, p-OH-benzoic acid,
m-coumaric acid, p- coumaric acid, and ferulic acid (Kim and
others 2007). Schieber and others (2000) found 6.9 mg/kg of gallic acid and 4.4 mg/kg of mangiferin in mango pulp. In a polyphenol screening of 20 mango varieties, Saleh and El-Ansari (1975)
reported the co-occurrence of mangiferin, isomangiferin, and homomangiferin in mango fruit pulp. Mangiferin has been shown
elsewhere to be the main compound of leaves and stem bark with
great medicinal values. It has been reported that phenolic compounds and their associated antioxidant capacity decrease as fruit
ripens (Kim and others 2007). Gallotannins represent the major
components of unripe fruits and seeds. According to Prabha and
Patwardhan (1986) gallic acid is the substrate of polyphenol oxidase in the fruit pulp, whereas ellagic acid is the predominant
substrate in mango peel.
Polyphenolic composition of mango peel. During mango fruit
development, the total phenols have been found to be higher in
the peel than in the flesh at all stages (Lakshminarayana and others 1970), with an estimated total polyphenol content in mango
peel of 4066 mg (GAE)/kg (dry matter) (Berardini and others
2005b). Generally, ripe peels contain higher total polyphenols
than raw peels (Ajila and others 2007). The polyphenolic constituents of mango peel include mangiferin, quercetin, rhamnetin,
ellagic acid, kaempferol, and their related conjugates as shown in
Table 1 where it can be seen that the 2 main polyphenols in mango
peel are mangiferin and quercetin 3-0-galactoside. Berardini and
others (2005b) found that, while mangiferin contents slightly decreased at elevated temperatures, the contents of the other xanthone derivatives significantly increased. The observed changes
may be attributed to the formation of xanthones from benzophenone derivatives, which were recently identified in mango peels
(Berardini and others 2004) and which are considered precursors
of xanthone C-glycosides (Larrauri 1999). Anthocyanins have also
been identified in the mango peel and estimated to range from
203 to 565 mg/100 g (dry matter) depending on variety and stage
of maturity (Berardini and others 2005b). In their study on the
antioxidative activity of mango peel extract, Berardini and others
(2005b) established that the antioxidative capacity of the extract
was higher than that of standard mangiferin and quercetin 3-Oglucoside, thus indicating that the antioxidative capacity of the
peel extract cannot be attributed to a single component but to the
synergistic effect of all the compounds present.
310

Table 1 --- Phenolic compounds in mango peel (mg/kg) on

dry matter basis.
Compound
Mangiferin
Mangiferin gallate
Isomangiferin
Isomangiferin gallate
Quercetin 3-O-galactoside
Quercetin 3-O-glucoside
Quercetin 3-O-xyloside
Quercetin 3-O-arabinopyranoside
Quercetin 3-O-arabinofuranoside
Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside
Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside
Rhamnetin 3-O galactoside/glucoside
Quercetin
Total phenolics

Amount (mg/kg)
1690.4
321.9
134.5
82.0
651.2
557.7
207.3
101.5
103.6
20.1
36.1
94.4
65.3
4066.0

Source: Berardini and others (2005a).

Polyphenolic composition of mango seed kernels. Besides the

pulp and the peel, mango seed kernels are equally rich in
polyphenols with potent antioxidative activity, but ironically the
seeds are always discarded as waste during processing and consumption of the mango fruit. As an example, in India about
300000 metric tons of mango seed kernels are discarded every
year (Char and Azeemoddin 1989). Ahmed and others (2007)
identified and quantified various polyphenolic compounds in the
mango seed kernel: tannin 20.7 mg/100 g, gallic acid 6.0 mg/
100 g,coumarin 12.6 mg/100 g, caffeic acid 7.7 mg/100 g,
vanillin 20.2 mg/100 g, mangiferin 4.2 mg/100 g, ferulic acid
10.4 mg/100 g, cinnamic acid 11.2 mg/100 g, and unknown
compounds 7.1 mg/100 g. The total polyphenolic content of the
mango seed kernel extract was estimated to be 112 mg (GAE)/
100 g (Ahmed and others 2007). Soong and Barlow (2004) assayed the antioxidant activity of a variety of fruit seeds, namely,
mango, jackfruit, longan, avocado, and tamarind and found that
the antioxidant activity of the mango seed kernel was the highest,
a fact attributed to its high polyphenolic content. These point to a
reason to industrially utilize the mango seed kernel as a functional
food ingredient.
Polyphenolic composition of mango leaves and stem bark. Galloyl, hydroxy benzoyl esters, and epicatechin have been identified in mango leaves. Chemical studies performed with a standard
aqueous extract of the stem bark from M. indica, which has been
used in nutraceutical formulations in Cuba under the brand name
vimang, have enabled the isolation and identification of phenolic acids (gallic acid, 3,4 dihydroxy benzoic acid, benzoic acid),
phenolic esters (gallic acid methyl ester, gallic acid propyl ester,
benzoic acid propyl ester), flavan-3-ols (catechin and epicatechin), and the xanthone mangiferin, which is the predominant
component of this extract (10%) (Sanchez and others 2000). The
total polyphenolic content of mango stem bark extract was found
to be 10.61 g (GAE)/100 g of dry weight by the HPLC method
and 9.4 g (GAE)/100 g dry weight by the FolinCiocalteu method.
Thus, no significant difference was found between the 2 methods.
At this juncture, it is worth pointing out that environmental and
developmental factors have been reported to affect the accumulation and eventual concentration of polyphenols in plant parts.
Saleh and El-Ansari (1975) reported on the polyphenolic composition of mango leaves, twigs, bark, fruits, and seeds. Mangiferin
was the major component of the leaves, twigs, and bark, with
the bark having the highest content, while the gallotannins were
the major components of the unripe fruits and their seeds besides

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 7, 2008

Major mango polyphenols . . .

being detected in all parts of the mango, isomangiferin, and homomangiferin were mainly present in the leaves and twigs, the
former was also detected in fruits of some varieties. Fisetin was
high in twigs, as was quercetin in the fruits. Quercetin-3-glucoside
and kaempferol-3- glucoside were mainly found in the leaves.
Gallic acid was found throughout all parts of the mango and so
was ellagic acid; however, the latter was found in higher concentration in twigs, fruits, and seeds as compared to the leaves.
m-Digallic acid was high in unripe fruits, as was -glucogallin in
the seeds.
Mango extracts from leaves, fruit, seed kernel, fruit pulp, roots,
and stem bark for medicinal purposes in many countries have
been widely documented in the Napralet database. The ethnomedical use of the mango stem bark extract in Cuba has been
extensively researched for over 10 y on more than 7000 patients
and has been found effective against cancer, diabetes, asthma, infertility, lupus, prostatitis, prostatic hyperplasia, gastric disorders,
arthralgies, mouth sores, among others (Nunez-Selles 2005). The
various research studies on mango antioxidative bioactivity underscore that mango polyphenols are the active compounds in
the extracts.
The different parts of the mango (fruit pulp, peel, seed kernel,
leaves, and stem bark) are a rich source of various polyphenols
with quantities of the different polyphenols varying in the different
parts or missing totally in some parts. Significant research work
has been done on mangoes and many articles have been published, but most of them have discussed mango polyphenols from
1 part only and none has discussed polyphenols in the mango as a
whole. In this article, we review for the 1st time the various mango
polyphenolic compounds from the different parts and their related
antioxidative and medical significance to human health paying
special attention to mangiferin.

Mangiferin
Occurrence

42 mg/kg (Ahmed and others 2007), whereas in dried mango peel

it was 1690 mg/kg (Table 1). In the mango stem bark, mangiferin
was the most abundant phenolic compound, estimated at about
71.4 g/kg (Rastraelli and others 2002). From a global point of
view, xanthones are only known to have restricted distribution
(about 5 families). On the other hand, mangiferin has a wider
distribution (recorded within 12 families), and within the anacardiacae, besides Mangifera indica only Mangifera zeylanica is
recorded as containing mangiferin.
Bioactivity of mango mangiferin

Many researchers have established mangiferin as the possible active principle of mango (Mangifera indica L.) stem bark
and leaf extract and attributed most of the biological activities
of the extracts to it (Sanchez and others 2000). From the various
studies done on mangiferin and the extracts from mango leaves,
bark, and flowers, it has been found to exhibit a wide range of
pharmacological effects: antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial,
antiatherosclerotic, antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
and immunomodulatory among many others. Mangiferin has
been investigated in vitro for its antioxidant (Rouillard and others 1998), immuno-stimulating, and antiviral properties (Zheng
and Lu 1990), and it was found to protect hepatocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages from oxidative stress; reduce
atherogenicity in streptozotocin diabetic rats; and to reduce the
streptozotocin-induced oxidative damage to cardiac and renal
tissues in rats (Muruganandan and others 2002).
The iron-complexing ability of mangiferin was reported as a
primary mechanism for protection of liver mitochondria against
Fe2+ citrate-induced lipid peroxidation (Halliwell and Gutteridge
1986). They also showed that in vitro antioxidant activity of
mangiferin is related to its iron-chelating properties and not
merely due to the scavenging activity of free radicals. Iron chelators such as mangiferin could be an important approach to reduce iron-induced oxidative damage in pathologies related to
abnormal intracellular iron distribution and/or iron overload,
such as hereditary hemochromatosis, h-thalassemia, Friedreichs
ataxia, and sideroblastic anemia (Britton and others 2002). The
metabolism of mangiferin yields noranthyriol after cleavage of
the CC linkage of the glucose moiety, which exhibits a potent iron chelating effect, and an inhibitory effect of the induced
respiratory burst in rat neutrophyls (Andreu and others 2005b).
Those effects were thought to have originated from the high scavenger capacity of mangiferin by singlet oxygen.
Mangiferin (MF) was found to protect mitochondrial membrane against lipid peroxidation hence preserving its integrity.
From their study, Halliwell and Gutteridge (1986) suggested that
mangiferin removes iron from the Fe2+ citrate complex and forms

Mangiferin is a xanthone and xanthones are some of the most

potent antioxidants known; they are thought to be more potent
than both vitamin C or vitamin E and are sometimes unofficially referred to as super antioxidants. Xanthones are heatstable molecules. Mangiferin, generally called C-glucosyl xanthone, is widely distributed in higher plants (Sanchez and others
2000) where it provides protection to producer plants against different forms of static and dynamic stresses including ingress of
pathogenic microorganisms (Muruganandan and others 2002).
It is a pharmacologically active phytochemical and a natural
polyphenolic antioxidant present in the bark, fruits, roots, and
leaves of Mangifera indica Linn, and a few other medicinal plants
recommended in the Indian system of medicine for treatment of a
number of immunodeficiency diseases (Scartezzini and Speroni
2000).
Mangiferin (C 2- D glucopyranosyl-1, 3, 6, 7tetrahydroxyxanthone) (Figure 1) was first isolated from Mangifera
indica leaves, while from the bark homomangiferin (1,6,7trihydroxy-3-methoxy-2-C- -D-glucopyranosyl-xanthone) was
isolated. A quantitative estimation on the dried leaf and bark
material revealed that the mangiferin content was higher in the
mango bark (Sissi and Saleh 1965) than in the leaf. Saleh and
El-Ansari (1975) reported on the co-occurrence of the 3 xanthones (mangiferin, isomangiferin, and homomangiferin). They
isolated 2 xanthones in the leaves along with a 3rd xanthone, isomangiferin (1-, 3-, 6-, 7-tetrahydroxy-4-C--D-glucopyranosylxanthone), which had been first identified in Anemarrhena asphodeloides. Mangiferin content of mango pulp was found to Figure 1 --- Chemical structure of mangiferin (C 2- -Dbe about 4.4 mg/kg (Schieber and others 2000), seed kernel glucopyranosyl-1, 3, 6, 7-tetrahydroxyxanthone).
Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

311

CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

an unstable complex with it, favoring Fe2+ oxidation to Fe3+
with subsequent formation of a more stable complex with Fe3+ ,
which is not able to initiate and/or propagate mitochondrial lipid
peroxidation. This Fe3+ mangiferin complex impairs ferric iron
reduction to ferrous iron by endogenous reducers like ascorbate,
sparing them and also preventing Fe2+ reloading of the biological system, which can readily participate in reactions involved in
OH formation.
It has been suggested that oxidation derivatives of mangiferin
may sensitize mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability
transition (Andreu and others 2005c), a process often related to
apoptotic/necrotic cell death. In this regard, it was proposed that
the accumulation of such oxidation products would take place
in such cells exposed to an overproduction of reactive oxygen
species, such as cancer cells, where the occurrence of apoptosis
induced by mitochondria permeability transition may be a cellular defense mechanism against excessive reactive oxygen species
formation (Nunez-Selles 2005).
Mangiferin has been found to inhibit colon tumorigenesis in
rats. Bhattacharya and others (1972) reported that the mechanism
of this compound in the central nervous system is related to its
ability to inhibit monoamine oxidase activity. Malignant cell proliferation in the colonic mucosa of male F344 rats was reduced by
75% after addition of MF to the diet (0.1%) in a long-term study
which suggested that MF may act as a naturally occurring chemopreventive agent in colon cancer (Yoshimia and others 2001).
Chemoprevention effect of MF has also been tested on other tumors like the ascitic fibrisarcoma (AFS) in Swiss mice where significant inhibition levels were recorded coupled with increased
survival rates (Guha and Chattopadhyav 1996). Alongside the
tumor studies on rats treated with mangiferin, Yoshimia and others (2001) found that mangiferin also inhibited body weight gain
in experimental rats. This points at the possible utilization of
mangiferin in food products for special dietary needs like with
obese people.
1-Methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine ion (MPP+), the active metabolite of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1-, 2-, 3-, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)
has been found to induce a Parkinsonian syndrome in humans
and animals, a neurotoxic effect postulated to derive from oxidative stress (Amazzal and others 2007). Mangiferin has been
found to protect neuroblastoma cells line N2A against MPP+ induced cytotoxicity, to restore the glutathione (GSH) content, and
to downregulate both superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) and catalase (cat mRNA) expression all being mediated by oxidative stress
(Amazzal and others 2007). In Parkinsons disease, the nigral level
of iron is increased and may contribute to the hyper-production
of reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidation and nitration of
proteins, lipids, and DNA, as was observed in postmortem brains
(Halliwell 2006). Therefore, mangiferin could be a useful compound in therapies for degenerative diseases, including Parkinsons disease, in which oxidative stress plays a crucial role.
Mangiferin, being able to traverse the bloodbrain barrier as
demonstrated by Martnez and others (2001) in gerbils, has been
found to have real potential to ameliorate the oxidative stress
observed in neurodegenerative disorders. Mangiferin has been
shown to reduce the intracellular Ca2+ concentration, an activity that may contribute to its protective effects and reduce iron
neurotoxicity in cells. For the immune system, lymphocyte apoptosis maintains the normal physiology and self-tolerance of the
system. For peripheral T cells, apoptosis induced by repeated
T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, known as activation-induced
cell death (AICD), may be responsible for the peripheral deletion
of autoreactive T cells (Green and Ware 1997) and is involved
in terminating the immune response through elimination of activated lymphocytes. The imbalance in this apoptotic process is
dangerous and leads to severe diseases associated with autoim312

mune phenomena (Rieux-Lancat and others 1995) and immunodeficiencies (Alimonti and others 2003). CD95 and its ligand
(CD95L) play a crucial role in this type of cell death (Devadas and
others 2002). Activation of T cells via T-cell receptor signaling increases intracellular reactive oxygen species and Ca2+ , leading
to CD95L expression and, consequently, activation-induced cell
death (Gulow and others 2005). Activation-induced cell death
plays an important role in the maintenance of peripheral lymphocyte homeostasis. Reactive oxygen species combined with simultaneous calcium (Ca2+ ) influx into the cytosol are required for
induction of activation-induced cell death. Mango stem bark extract, whose main active ingredient is mangiferin has been shown
to protect T cells from in vitro activation-induced cell death due
to its richness in polyphenols which diminished the increase of
intracellular reactive oxygen species and free Ca2+ induced by
T-cell receptor triggering (Hernandez and others 2007).
Reduction of the reactive oxygen species has been found to
consume ATP, thus progressively reducing the energy charge of
the system. Mangiferin has been shown to be able to scavenge reactive oxygen species, thus inhibiting all those processes leading
to energy charge decrease, red blood cell damage, and membrane destabilization. Erythrocytes and erythrocyte membrane
have a high ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids to total lipids, indicating susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. Red blood cells are
highly vulnerable to lipid peroxidation due to constant exposure
to high oxygen tension and the presence of large iron ion concentrations (Pawlak and others 1998). After human cell studies,
Rodriguez and others (2006) suggested that Mangiferin protects
erythrocytes and red blood cells from reactive oxygen species
production thus contributing to integrity and functionality of these
cells.
The use of dietary ingredients to protect against radiationinduced damage is an attractive proposition, because they are
part of the daily human diet, do not have side effects, will have
wide acceptability, and can be safely manipulated for human
use. The mango fruit is commonly used by humans in various
forms and the principal compound mangiferin has been isolated.
From their study on cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes (HPBLs), Jagetia and Baliga (2005) found that mangiferin
provided protection against radiation-induced sickness and mortality. A similar effect of mangiferin was observed for radiationinduced bone marrow deaths (Jagetia and Baliga 2005).
It has been suggested that mangiferin reduces blood glucose
levels by inhibiting the glucose absorption from the intestine.
This hypothesis could be supported by the recent findings that
mangiferin inhibits the glucosidase enzymes sucrase, isomaltase,
and maltase from rats (Yoshikawa and others 2001) which are
involved in the digestion of carbohydrates into simple sugars
in the gut leading to delay or inhibition of carbohydrate breakdown and subsequent slower glucose absorption from the intestine (Aderibigbe and others 2001). Mangiferin has been suggested
to possess both pancreatic and extrapancreatic mechanisms in its
antidiabetic action and such apparent dual actions of mangiferin
enhance its efficiency.
Mangiferin was found to significantly reduce plasma total
cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-C associated with a concomitant increase in HDL-C levels and a decrease in atherogenic index in diabetic rats indicating its potential antihyperlipidemic
and antiatherogenic activity (Muruganandan and others 2005).
The triglyceride-lowering property of mangiferin could indirectly
contribute to the overall antihyperglycemic activity through the
glucosefatty acid cycle mechanism (Randle and others 1963).
According to the Randle glucosefatty acid cycle, an increased
supply of plasma triglycerides could constitute a source of increased free fatty acid availability and oxidation that can impair
insulin action and glucose metabolism and utilization leading

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 7, 2008

Major mango polyphenols . . .

to development of hyperglycemia. Therefore, the reduction of
triglycerides following administration with mangiferin would also
facilitate glucose oxidation and utilization and, subsequently, reduction of hyperglycemia (Muruganandan and others 2005).
It has been demonstrated elsewhere that mangiferin possesses
a wide range of antibacterial effects, both with regard to Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria. The species most sensitive to mangiferin among the Gram-positive microorganisms was
Bacillus pumilus, whereas among the Gram-negative species the
most sensitive to mangiferin was Salmonella agona, though it has
to be noted that higher concentrations of mangiferin were necessary (30% to 35%) to achieve the desired effect with regard to
the Gram-negative microorganisms (Stoilova and others 2005).
Antifungal effect of mangiferin has also been shown with regard to Thermoascus aurantiacus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Trichoderma reesei, and Aspergillus flavus (Lova and others 2005).
Chakrabarti and Ghosal (1985) found that the fungus Fusarium
moniliforme var. subglutinans transforms mangiferin into polymerous quinone, possibly due to the phenoloxidase it releases.
It is possible that the resistance to mangiferin by various other
mycelial fungi is due to this mechanism.
At this point, it is worth mentioning that Mangiferin alone did
not show higher biological activity than the whole extract of either
the leaf or bark raw material, and it has been hypothesized that the
total antioxidant effect of any mango extract is due to the presence
of a combination of several polyphenolic compounds and their
derivatives and not only the single, though potent, compound
mangiferin (Arts and others 2000).

than 5 donor functions for hydrogen bonds; fewer than 10 acceptor functions for hydrogen bonds; and potential log P (calculated)
less than + 5 (log P mangiferin :+ 2.73). These similar properties are
shared by most of the other mango polyphenols.
The mechanism of bioactivities of mangiferin is mainly centered on its capacity to provide cellular protection as an antioxidant and radical captodative agent. A biologically active antioxidant is a substance that, when present even at low concentration,
compared to those of an oxidizable substrate such as membrane
lipid or DNA, significantly delays or inhibits oxidation of that
substrate. Mangiferin performs its antioxidant function at different levels of the oxidative sequence. As far as membrane lipid
peroxidation is concerned, it acts by (a) decreasing the localized
O 2 concentration and generating mangiferin phenoxy radicals (2)
(Figure 2) in concert, (b) binding metal ions (Fe 2+/3+ ) in the form
of a mangiferiniron complex also called metal ligand complex
(3) (Figure 2), which is a stable complex structure that will not allow the generation of such tissue damaging OH radicals and/or
oxo-ferryl groups; (c) regulating polymer chain initiation by interaction with the reactive oxygen species to produce feeblyreactive oxo-ferryl radical (caged oxygen radical) (4) (Figure 2).
This radical acts as a soft inducer of polymerization of the
vinylic monomer methylmethacrylate (MMA). The generated radical complex containing a polar end group (mangiferin Fe3+ -O-)
acts as a chain terminator by oxidizing the other end group carbon radical of the polymer resulting in a low-molecular-weight
mangiferinFePMMA (polymethylmethacrylate)polymer (5)
(Figure 2), (d) scavenging lipid peroxy/alkoxy radicals and thereby
preventing continued abstraction of hydrogen from cellular lipids,
and (e) maintaining a cellular oxidationantioxidant balance (via
Mechanism of mangiferin bioactivity
The chemical structure of mangiferin fulfills the 4 requisites that 12) (Figure 2) (Ghosal and Rao 1996).
The deficiency in the bodys functioning has for long been ashave been reported to have high bioavailability by oral administration: molecular weight below 500 Dalton (C 19 H 18 O 12 ); fewer sociated with free radicals, and thus one tends to view oxidants

Figure 2 --- Mechanism of action of

mangiferin (Ghosal and Rao 1996).

Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

313

CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

as bad and antioxidants as good. The actual situation is rarely
so simple; an oxidantantioxidant balance is a realistic depiction
of the normal state. Mangiferin (1) (Figure 2) and the resonancestabilized phenoxy radicals (2) (Figure 2) in conjugated forms
would assist to maintain the desired oxidantantioxidant balance in vivo via such systems as 3 and 4 (Figure 2). These 2 systems were found to contribute to the formation of the complex
system mangiferinFePMMApolymer (5) (Figure 2) (Ghosal and
Ran 1996). Also formed during the activity of mangiferin are lowmolecular-weight mangiferin complexes as shown by 6 and 7 in
Figure 2 (Ghosal and Rao 1996).

Flavonoids
Flavonoids are the most abundant polyphenols in our diets.
Once thought to be vitamins, flavonoids were given such names
as vitamin P and vitamin C2. They can be divided into several
classes according to the degree of oxidation of the oxygen heterocycle: flavones, isoflavones, flavanones, flavonols, flavanols,
anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. The occurrence of some
of these flavonoids is restricted to a few foodstuffs. Quercetin,
the main flavonol in our diet, is present in many fruits and
vegetables, while flavones are less common (Hertog and others 1992) and occur in foods as O-glycosides with sugars bound
at the C 3 position. Flavonoids with a diphenylpropane skeleton
(C 6 C 3 C 6 ) are known to have antioxidative properties as well
as, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antiallergic effects (Hollman and others 1996). The main flavanols are
catechins, whereas proanthocyanidins are polymeric flavanols
present in plants as complex mixtures of polymers with an average degree of polymerization between 4 and 11, are responsible
for the astringency of food, and are usually present in association
with flavanol catechin (Santos-Buelga and Scalbert 2000). On the
other hand, anthocyanins are pigments of red fruits (Frankel and
others 1995).
Flavonoid composition of the mango

Rastraelli and others (2002) found both (+) catechin and ()

epicatechin (Figure 3 and 4) in mango stem bark extract, the raw
material for the formulation of a Cuban food supplement (Vimang)
at concentrations of 1308 mg and 807.4 mg/100 g dry matter,
respectively. This high concentration points to the contribution
of catechins to the potency of mango stem bark extract as an
antioxidant with great medicinal use.
Catechin (C), epicatechin (EC), and mangiferin (MF) may react with H 2 O 2 directly or prevent the Fenton reaction between
Fe2+ and H 2 O 2 to form hydroxyl radicals (Sanchez and others
2000; Andreu and others 2005a) reducing H 2 O 2 induced by Tcell receptor activation and thus controlling the reactive oxygen
species-pathway against activation-induced cell death (Hernandez and others 2007) resulting in the protection of human T lymphocytes from in vitro activation-induced cell death (AICD) in
a concentration-dependent manner. The effects of these 3 major
polyphenols are not equivalent; the decreased order in protective
effects was classified as C > EC > MF at a constant concentration (Hernandez and others 2007). However, C and EC comprise
considerably less content of the whole mango stem bark/leaf extract compared with MF, whose prevalence in the extract determines its predominant action. Although the major polyphenols in
the mango extracts (mangiferin and catechin) inhibit activationinduced cell death, none of them singly could reach the inhibitory
level achieved by the whole extract at equivalent concentration
(Hernandez and others 2007).
Andreu and others (2006) evaluated the ability of membrane
permeability transition (MPT) induction in rat liver mitochondria
by the most representative compounds in mango stem bark extract besides mangiferin, namely, gallic acid, benzoic acid, and
catechin. All showed some MPT-inducing ability with benzoic
acid being the most effective. This compound, however, together
with its derivatives, comprises only around 2% of the whole extract, considerably less than mangiferins 16% content in mango
stem bark extract; gallic acid, a poor MPT inducer, makes up
around 5% and catechin, the 2nd major component, together
with epicatechin, comprises approximately 11%. The bioactivity of catechin and epicatechin polyphenolic components of the
mango owes its power to their strong antioxidative capacities that
have given them good medicinal properties.

The flavonoids found in mango include catechin, epicatechin,

quercetin, isoquercetin (quercetin-3-glucoside), fisetin, and astragalin (kaempferol-3-glucoside). The flavonoid glucosides are
present in the mango leaves and are common flavonoids, whereas
fisetin is confined to the twigs (Harborne 1994). Quercetin has
been identified in unripe mango fruits, but it is interesting to note
that quercetin has been previously identified in the tender fruits
and is also found in mature fruits along with its glucosides, but
both disappear on ripening (El-ansari and others 1969). The skin
of mango variety Haden (from Florida) is reported to contain
peonidin-3-galactoside. Some mango fruits/varieties have been
known to have a reddish tint, this could be due to the presence of
anthocyanins, a group of phenolic compounds with good antioxidant properties higher than that of phenolic acids (Rice-Evans
and others 1997). Anthocyanin changes during growth of mango
leaf or epidermal cells, where the polyphenols are mainly accu- Figure 3 --- Chemical structure of (+
+)-catechin.
mulated, as reported by Rozema and others (2002).
(+
+)-Catechins. (+)-Catechin is a flavonoid from the group
of catechins including ()-epicatechin, ()-epigallocatechin, ()epicatechingallate, and (+)-gallocatechin. The polyphenolic fraction of Mangifera indica extract, which represents the largest part
of the constituents (around 50%), is rich mainly in mangiferin, catechin, and epicatechin (Scartezzini and Speroni 2000). Several
epidemiological and in vitro studies suggest that catechins have
beneficial effects on human health due to their free radical scavenging and antioxidant activities (Augustyniak and others 2005)
serving to protect against congestive heart failure (Ishikawa and
others 1997), cancer (Yamanaka and others 1997), myoglobinuric acute renal failure (Chander and others 2003), to reduce the
incidence of myocardial ischemia, and to support anti-aging.
Figure 4 --- Chemical structure of ()-epicatechin.
314

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 7, 2008

Major mango polyphenols . . .

Quercetin. Quercetins, among other flavonoids, are largely
responsible for the colors of many fruits, flowers, and vegetables. They often occur in plants as glycosides, such as rutin
(quercetin rutinoside). Schieber and others (2000) demonstrated
the presence of quercetin (Figure 5) and related glycosides in
mango pulp, with the predominant flavonol glycoside being
quercetin 3-galactoside amounting to 22.1 mg/kg, followed by
quercetin 3-glucoside (16.0 mg/kg) and quercetin 3-arabinoside
(5.0 mg/kg). The amount of the quercetin aglycon was 3.5 mg/kg.
Other flavonol glycosides (kaempferol) were only present in trace
amounts. In a separate study on mango peel, Berardini and others (2005b) found higher quantities of quercetin and its related
glycosides as illustrated in Table 1.
Roberts-Thomson and others (2008) evaluated the abilities of
the mango components quercetin and mangiferin and the aglycone derivative of mangiferin, norathyriol, to modulate the transactivation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs)
through the use of a gene reporter assay. They found that quercetin
inhibited the activation of all 3 isoforms of PPAR (PPAR IC 50 =
56.3 M; PPAR IC 50 = 59.6 M, and PPAR IC 50 = 76.9 M) as
did norathyriol (PPAR IC 50 = 153.5 M; PPAR IC 50 = 92.8 M,
and PPAR IC 50 = 102.4 M), whereas mangiferin did not inhibit
the transactivation of any isoform. PPARs are nuclear receptors
that control many cellular and metabolic processes. Three isotypes: PPAR, PPAR, and PPAR have been identified in lower
vertebrates and mammals with each subtype fulfilling specific
functions. However, all the 3 PPARs affect energy homoeostasis
and inflammatory responses. Their activity can be modulated by
drugs such as the hypolipidemic fibrates and the insulin sensitizing thiazolidinediones. Thus, identifying small molecule modulators of the PPARs is an active area of research and may impact chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and
atherosclerosis. The study of Roberts-Thomson and others (2008)
concluded that mango components and metabolites may alter
transcription and could contribute to positive health benefits.
Some conjugates of quercetin such as quercetin rhamnosides,
quercetin xylosides, and quercetin galactosides are not easily hydrolyzed by the enzyme lactase phlorizin hydrolase, and most
likely are not readily absorbed by small intestinal cells. In comparison, the quercetin in the form of quercetin glucosides and free
quercetin are easily hydrolyzed making them more bioavailable
to small intestinal cells as demonstrated in cell and in vitro studies
by Boyer and Liu (2004). On absorption, quercetin is metabolized
mainly to isorhamnetin, tamarixetin, and kaempferol.
Quercetin downregulates expression of mutant breast cancer
cells, arrests human leukemic T cells, inhibits tyrosine kinase,
and inhibits heat shock proteins (Lamson and Brignall 2001).
Quercetin protects Caco-2 cells from lipid peroxidation induced
by hydrogen peroxide and Fe2+ (Peng and Kuo 2003). In mouse
liver, quercetin decreases lipid oxidation and increases glutathione, thus protecting the liver from oxidative damage (Molina
and others 2003). Elsewhere it has been found that high doses of

quercetin inhibit cell proliferation in colon carcinoma cell lines

and in mammary adenocarcinoma cell lines, but at low doses
quercetin increases cell proliferation in colon and breast cancer cells (Woude and others 2003), inhibits cell proliferation in
Mol-4 human leukemia cells, induces apoptosis (Mertens-Talcott
and others 2003), and inhibits platelet aggregation, calcium
mobilization, and tyrosine protein phosphorylation in platelets
(Hubbard and others 2003). Modulation of platelet activity may
help prevent cardiovascular disease. Quercetin has also been
found to exhibit antihistamine and antinflammatory effect associated with various forms of arthritis. Quercetin works mainly as an
antioxidant.
Kaempferol, rhamnetin, and anthocyanins. Little information is
available about these flavonoids in the mango. Studies here
have centered only on the identification and characterization of
these compounds with no studies detailing the effect of mango
kaempferol, rhamnetin, or anthocyanins on human or animal
health. Kaempferol and its related conjugates are found in almost
the same quantities in mango pulp (Schieber and others 2000),
while in mango peel Berardini and others (2005b) found 36 mg/kg
of kaempferol-3-0 glucoside. In other studies, kaempferol was
found to be a strong antioxidant with in vitro studies by Kowalski and others (2005) showing that kaempferol inhibits monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1). MCP-1 plays a role in
the initial steps of atherosclerotic plaque formation. Elsewhere
kaempferol has been found to help fight cancer in cultured human cancer cell lines by reducing the resistance of cancer cells
to anticancer drugs (Ackland and others 2005), induce apoptosis in human glioblastoma cells (Sen and others 2007) besides
being found to be absorbed more efficiently than quercetin in
humans, even at low oral doses, and excretion is low (Kroon and
others 2004). The chemical structure of kaempferol is shown in
Figure 6.
Mango peel extract was found to contain about 94.4 mg/kg
of rhamnetin 3-0 galactoside/glucoside (Berardini and others
2005b) (Figure 7). In other studies invloving pure compounds,
the effect of, rhamnetin, on serum and liver cholesterol concentrations, liver lipoperoxide content, and antioxidative enzyme
activities were studied and it was found that the flavonoid reduced the total serum cholesterol in rats, and the activities of liver

Figure 6 --- Chemical structure of kaempferol.

Figure 5 --- Chemical structure of quercetin.

Figure 7 --- Chemical structure of rhamnetin.

Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

315

CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

superoxide dismutase and catalase were almost unaffected by
feeding these flavonoids (Igarashi and others 2008).
Today, interest in anthocyanins has intensified because of their
possible health benefits as dietary antioxidants. Over 300 structurally distinct anthocyanins have been identified in nature, with
a basic structure as shown in Figure 8. The total anthocyanin
content in the mango was found to be more in ripe mango peel
and ranged from 360 to 565mg/100g as compared to 203 to
326mg/100g in raw peels. Elsewhere, a novel anthocyanin 7-Omethylcyanidin 3-O--D-galactopyranoside has been identified
in the mango peel of cv. Tommy Atkins (Berardini and others
2005b). The daily intake in humans of anthocyanins has been
estimated to be approximately up to 200 mg/d (Kuhnau 1976).
Anthocyanins have been proposed to exert therapeutic activities on human diseases associated with oxidative stress such as
coronary heart disease, cancer (Duthie and others 2000), protect
against DNA damage (Lazz`e and others 2003), prevent inflammation and subsequent blood vessel damage, dampen allergic reactions (Bertuglia 1995), prevent tyrosine nitration (anthocyanin
pelargonidin) and, therefore, help protect against neurological
diseases with some researchers reporting reversal of age-related
neurological deficits in animals (Joseph 1999), fight atherosclerosis, relax blood vessels (Andriambeloson 1998), maintain microcapillary integrity (Bertuglia 1995), manage diabetes, prevent
abnormal protein proliferation (Perossini and others 1987), and
improve eyesight (Nakaishi 2000).

Phenolic Acids
Phenolic acids are abundant in plant foods. Among
those already identified in the mango are gallic acid, 3,4dihydroxybenzoic acid, benzoic acid, gallic acid methyl ester,
gallic acid propyl ester, and benzoic acid propyl ester (Rastraelli
and others 2002). They are esterified to a polyol, usually glucose. The phenolic acids are either gallic acid in gallotannins
(mango fruit) or other phenolic acids derived from the oxidation of
galloyl residues in ellagitannins (Scalbert and Williamson 2000).
Hydrolyzable tannins are derivatives of phenolic acids and their
occurrence is much more limited than that of condensed tannins. Major components in this category (hydrolyzable tannins)
identified in mango parts (pulp, peel, seed, leaf, and stem bark
extracts) include gallic acid, methyl gallate, digallic acid, ellagic
acid, -glucogallin, and -gallotannin. Although gallotannins are
reported to be toxic, their concentration in fruits is rather negligible (El-sissi and others 1971). Gallotannins are generally regarded
as safe (GRAS) food additives and ellagic acid has been allowed
for use as a food additive, functioning as an antioxidant in some
countries, including Japan. Hydrolyzable tannins are easily hydrolyzed in vivo by the action of acid and/or enzymes, releasing
gallic acid or ellagic acid units (Scalbert and Williamson 2000).
Tannins have been implicated as the bitter principle present in
the kernel; they are known to form a complex with protein and

Figure 8 --- Chemical structure of anthocyanins.

316

minerals, thereby reducing the biological value of protein-rich

foods significantly (Narasinga and others 1982). About 75% of
the total tannin content in mango seed kernel has been found
to contain hydrolyzable tannins. These tannins require treatment
during processing to reduce their in vivo toxic effect. The tannin
toxic effect can be reduced by water blanching, which lowers
the rate of tannin formation through enzyme activity with the
additional advantage of the possible leaching of soluble tannic
substances into the soak water.
Gallic acid, ellagic acid, and their derivatives. Gallic acid (3, 4,
5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) (Figure 9) and its dimeric derivative,
known as ellagic acid, exist either in the free form or bound as
gallo-tannins and/or ellagi-tannins, respectively. Since gallic acid
has hydroxyl groups and a carboxylic acid group in the same
molecule, its 2 molecules can react with one another to form
an ester, digallic acid. Gallic acid does not combine with protein
and has therefore no astringent taste. Gallic acid was identified as
the major polyphenolic compound present in mangoes, followed
by 6 hydrolyzable tannins (Kim and others 2007). The amount of
gallic acid in mango seed extract ranged from 23 to 838 mg/100 g
(on dry matter basis) depending on the method of extraction
(Soong and Barlow 2006). Rastraelli and others (2002) found a
total of 226.2 mg/100 g (of dry matter) of gallic acid in mango
stem bark extract. Among the phenolic acids, gallic acid was the
major compound (6.9 mg/kg) found in the mango pulp (Schieber
and others 2000).
Gallic acid and, in general, total hydrolyzable tannins were
found to significantly decrease during mango fruit ripening from
mature-green to full ripe stages, but were unaffected by hot water
treatment which is often used to control invasive pests in harvested mango fruits. Gallic acid concentration was found to decrease by about 22%, whereas the total hydrolyzable tannins decreased by an average of 57% (Kim and others 2007). In contrast,
Kim and others (2007) reported an increase in hydrolyzable tannins in Tommy Atkins mangoes during ripening, indicating that
differences may occur among fruit varieties under different growing conditions or harvest periods. Several studies have shown
that polyphenolic compounds generally decrease in climacteric
fruits like mangoes during ripening (Haard and Chism 1996).
Tannic acid, which is simply gallic acid anhydride, when oxidized
is converted into gallic acid. Tannic acid is the more powerful of
the two as an astringent, it coagulates albumen and gelatin, impairs digestion, stops peristalsis, and causes constipation, while
gallic acid does not. Tannic acid is, however, converted into gallic
acid in the stomach before absorption.
Gallic acid has been shown through in vivo and in vitro studies to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, anticancer, radical scavenging activities (Madsen and
Bertelsen 1995), decrease histamine release in rat basophilic
leukemia cells (Matsuo and others 1997), and inhibit inflammatory allergic reactions (Shin and others 2005).
Ellagic acid is a fused 4-ring polyphenol (Figure 10) that is
present in the mango among other plants where it is present in

Figure 9 --- Chemical structure of gallic acid.

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 7, 2008

Major mango polyphenols . . .

the form of ellagitannin, (ellagic acid bound to a sugar molecule)
which is a more water-soluble compound and easier for animals to absorb in their diets. The amount of ellagic acid in
mango seed extract has been found to range from 3 to 156
mg/100 g (GAE), on dry matter basis, depending on the method
of extraction (Soong and Barlow 2006). Ellagic acid has been
found to inhibit the DNA binding and the DNA adduct formation of N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine (NBMA) in cultured explants of rat esophagus (Mandal and others 1988), prevent Nnitrosodiethylamine-induced lung tumorigenesis in mice (Khanduja and others 1999), exhibit antimutagenic, antiviral, antioxidant properties, and stimulate the activities of detoxifying enzymes (Mandal and others 1988). Elsewhere, 13-cis-retinoic acid
has been found to antagonize the preventive effects of ellagic
acid (Daniel and Stoner 1991). Application of small amounts of
ellagitannins derived from natural sources has been suggested to
be more effective in the human diet than large doses of purified
ellagic acid.
Methyl gallate and propyl gallate (Figure 11 and 12) are derivatives of gallic acid and both have been found to have strong
antioxidative properties. Rastraelli and others (2002) found that
mango stem bark extract contained about 445.2 mg/100 g and
476.2 mg/100 g (on dry matter) of methyl gallate and propyl gallate, respectively. In other studies, methyl and propyl gallate have
been found to have inhibitory potential against herpes simplex
virus in vitro (Kane and others 1988), adhesion of human leukocytes, adhesion of cancer cells with vascular endothelial cells, human collagenase, growth of intestinal bacteria (Chung and others
1998), and to decrease the peroxidation of ox brain phospho-

Figure 10 --- Chemical structure of ellagic acid.

lipids. Contrary to these antioxidant properties, they (methyl gallate and propyl gallate) were found in vitro and cell studies to
accelerate damage to the sugar deoxyribose in the presence of
ferric-EDTA and H 2 O 2 (Aruoma and others 1993).
Benzoic acid and related conjugates. Benzoic acid, the simplest
aromatic carboxylic acid containing a carboxyl group bonded
directly to a benzene ring (Figure 13), was found to be present
in mango stem bark extract at about 198.6 mg/100 g, while its
conjugate, benzoic acid propyl ester, was 398.7 mg/100 g in the
extract (Rastraelli and others 2002). Benzoic acid and its related
polyphenolic derivatives have been found to be among the active
components in vimang, a mango stem bark extract used in Cuba
as a nutritional supplement. It was found to play a role in induced
mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) in rat liver mitochondria besides other polyphenolic substances (Pardo-Andreua and
others 2005).
In studies of the conjugation of benzoic acid in man, it was proposed that the body has no store of preformed glycine and that
benzoic acid acts as a stimulus for the synthesis of this amino
acid. Glycine production was found to increase with increased
amounts of benzoic acid up to a certain maximum (Quick 1931).
Two urinary metabolites of benzoic acid are known, namely,
hippuric acid and benzoyl-glucuronic acid. Conjugation with
glycine and glucuronic acid occurs in preference to oxidation
because benzoic acid strongly inhibits fatty oxidation in the liver.
In man, benzoic acid is almost entirely excreted as hippuric acid,
whereas dogs excrete more conjugated glucuronic acid than hippuric acid (Quick 1931).
Protocatechuic acid (3, 4 dihydroxybenzoic acid) (Figure 14)
is one of the several forms of dihydroxybenzoic acid identified
and quantified in mango stem bark extract at about 226.2 mg/100
g of dry matter (Rastraelli and others 2002). Dihydroxybenzoic
acids are used as intermediates for pharmaceuticals, especially
for antipyetic, analgesic, antirheumatism drugs, and other organically synthesized drugs. Many experiments undertaken on
these phenolic acids and their derivatives have shown that they
exhibit strong pharmacological antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic,
antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties (Wang and others 2007).
Besides the previously discussed phenolic acids, other phenolic acids found in the mango, albeit in small amounts, are: caffeic
acid 7.7 mg/kg, ferulic acid 10.4 mg/kg, and cinnamic acid 11.2
mg/kg (Ahmed and others 2007), all of which are strong antioxidative agents in their own right but their low concentrations in
the various mango parts make their nutraceutical and pharmaceutical contribution insignificant, but not irrelevant.

Figure 11 --- Chemical structure of propyl gallate.

Figure 13 --- Chemical structure of benzoic acid.

Figure 12 --- Chemical structure of methyl gallate.

Figure 14 --- Chemical structure of protocatechuic acid.

Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

317

CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

Conclusions
The mango is a potential source of polyphenolic compounds
with high antioxidative activity that help protect the body against
damage linked to oxidative stress. The quantities and characteristics of different mango phenolics differ in the different plant parts
besides being affected by the geographic locations of the plants.
Mangiferin, which is mainly concentrated in the bark and leaves
of the mango tree, is a unique polyphenol to the mango with high
pharmaceutical activity, a potential which has been exploited in
medicine and food supplements. Whole mango extracts are more
potent than pure isolated mangiferin highlighting the synergism
between mangiferin and other mango polyphenols for enhanced
activity. Being a very popular plant, especially within the tropics
and owing to its uniqueness of all parts (pulp, peel, seed, bark,
leaves, and flowers) being utilized domestically or industrially,
the mango thus could be a cheap and readily available supplier
of dietary polyphenols with great antioxidative potential that will
help reduce degenerative diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and obesity.

References
Ackland ML, Van de Waarsenburg S, Jones R. 2005. Synergistic antiproliferative action of the
flavonols quercitin and kaempferol in cultured human cancer cell lines. In Vivo 19:6976.
Aderibigbe AO, Emudianughe TS, Lowal BA. 2001. Evaluation of antidiabetic action of
Mangifera indica in mice. Phytotherapy Res 15:4568.
Ahmed A, Saeid D, Eman A, Reham E. 2007. Egyptian mango by-product 1. Compositional
quality of mango seed kernel. Food Chem 103:114152.
Ajila CM, Bhat SG, Rao UJSP. 2007. Valuable components of raw and ripe peels from two
Indian mango varieties. Food Chem 102:100611.
Alimonti J, Ball T, Fowke K. 2003. Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human
immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS. J Gen Virol 84:164961.
Amazzal L, Lapotre AE, Quignon FEE, Bagrel D. 2007. Mangiferin protects against 1methyl-4-phenylpyridinium toxicity mediated by oxidative stress in N2a cells. Neurosci
Lett 418:15964.
Andreu G, Delgado R, Velho J, Curti C, Vercesi A. 2005a. Iron complexing activity of
mangiferin, a naturally occurring glucosylxanthone, inhibits mitochondrial lipid peroxidation induced by Fe2+-citrate. Eur J Pharmacol 513:4755.
Andreu G, Delgado R, Velho J, Curti C, Vercesi A. 2005b. Mangiferin, a natural occurring
glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced
permeability transition. Arch Biochem Biophys 439:18493.
Andreu G, Delgado R, Velho J, Curti C, Vercesi A. 2005c. Mangiferin, a natural occurring
glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced
permeability transition. Arch Biochem Biophys 439:18493.
Andreu GLP, Dorta DJ, Delgado R, Cavalheiro RA, Santos AC, Vercesi AE, Curti C. 2006.
Vimang (Mangifera indica L. extract) induces permeability transition in isolated mitochondria, closely reproducing the effect of mangiferin, Vimangs main component. Chem Biol
Interact 159(2):1418.
Andriambeloson E. 1998. Natural dietary polyphenolic compounds cause endotheliumdependent vasorelaxation in rat thoracic aorta. J Nutr 128(12):232433.
Arts ICW, van de Putte B, Hollman PCH. 2000. Catechin contents of foods commonly consumed in the Netherlands. 2. Tea, wine, fruit juices, and chocolate milk. J Agric Food Chem
48:17527.
Aruoma O, Murcia A, Butler J, Halliwell B. 1993. Evaluation of the antioxidant and prooxidant
actions of gallic acid and its derivatives. J Agric Food Chem 41:18805.
Augustyniak A, Waszkiewicz E, Skrzydlewska E. 2005. Preventive action of green tea from
changes in the liver antioxidant abilities of different aged rats intoxicated with ethanol.
Nutrition 21:92532.
Berardini N, Carle R, Schieber A. 2004. Characterization of gallotannins and benzophenone
derivatives from mango (Mangifera indica L. Cv. Tommy Atkins) peels, pulp and kernels
by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.
Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 18:220816.
Berardini N, Knoedler M, Schieber A, Carle R. 2005a. Utilization of mango peels as a source
of pectin and polyphenolics. Inn Food Sci Emerg Tech 6:44252.
Berardini N, Schieber A, Klaiber I, Beifuss U, Carle R, Conrad J. 2005b. 7-O-methylcyanidin
3-O--D-galactopyranoside, a novel anthocyanin from mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv.
Tommy Atkins peels. Chem Sci 60(7):8014.
Bertuglia S. 1995. Effect of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides on ischemia reperfusion
injury in hamster cheek pouch microcirculation. Pharmacol Res 31(3/4):1837.
Bhattacharya SK, Sanyal AK, Ghosal S. 1972. Monoamine oxidase-inhibiting activity of
mangiferin isolated from canscora decussata. Naturwissenschaften 59:651.
Boyer J, Liu RH. 2004. Apple phytochemicals and their health benefits. Nutr J 3:5.
Britton RS, Leicester KL, Bacon BR. 2002. Iron toxicity and chelation therapy. Int J Hematol
76:21928.
Cao YH, Cao RH. 1999. Angiogenesis inhibited by drinking tea. Nature 398(6726):381.
Chakrabarti D, Ghosal S. 1985. Effect of Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans infection
on mangiferin production in the twigs of Mangifera indica. Phytopath Z 113:4750.
Chander V, Singh D, Chopra K. 2003. Catechin, a natural antioxidant protects against
rhabdomyolysis-induced myoglobinuric acute renal failure. Pharmacol Res 48(5):5039.
Char BLN, Azeemoddin G. 1989. Edible fat from mango stones. Acta Horticulture 231:7448.
Chen ZY, Chan PT, Ho KY, Fung KP, Wang J. 1996. Antioxidative activity of natural flavonoids

318

is governed by number and location of their aromatic hydroxyl groups. Chem Phys Lipids
79:15763.
Chung KT, Lu Z, Chou MW. 1998. Mechanism of inhibition of tannic acid and related compounds on the growth of intestinal bacteria. Food Chem Toxicol 36:105360.
Daniel DM, Stoner GD. 1991. The effects of ellagic acid and 13-cis-retinoic acid on Nnitrosomethylbenzylamine-induced esophageal tumorigenesis in rats. Cancer Lett 56:117
24.
Devadas S, Zaritskaya L, Rhee S, Oberley L, Williams M. 2002. Discrete generation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide by T cell receptor stimulation: selective regulation of
mitogen-activated protein kinase activation and fas ligand expression. J Exp Med 195:59
70.
Duthie GG, Duthie SJ, Kyle JAM. 2000. Plant polyphenols in cancer and heart disease:
implications as nutritional antioxidants. Nutr Res Rev 13:79106.
El-ansari MA, Reddy KK, Sastry KNS, Nayudamma Y. 1969. Polyphenolic components of
mango (Mangifera indica). Leather Sci 16:134.
El-sissi H, Ishak S, Wahid MSAE, El-Ansari MA. 1971. The gallotannins of Rhus coriaria and
Mangifera indica. Planta Medica 19:34251.
Frankel EN, Waterhouse AL, Teissedre PL. 1995. Principal phenolic phytochemicals in selected California wines and their antioxidant activity in inhibiting oxidation of human
low-density lipoproteins. J Agri Food Chem 43:8904.
Ghosal S, Rao G. 1996. A plausible chemical mechanism of the bioactivities of mangiferin.
Indian J Chem 35B:5616.
Green DR, Ware CF. 1997. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 94(12):598690.
Guha SG, Chattopadhyav V. 1996. Antitumor, immunomodulatory and anti-HIV effect of
mangiferin, a naturally occurring glucosylxanthone. Chemotherapy 42:44351.
Gulow K, Kaminski M, Darvas K, Suss D, Li-Weber M, Krammer P. 2005. HIV-1 trans-activator
of transcription substitutes for oxidative signaling in activation-induced T cell death. J Immunol 174:524960.
Haard N, Chism GWF. 1996. Characteristics of edible plant tissues. In: Fennema OR, editor.
Food chemistry. Vol. 3. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Halliwell B. 2006. Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: where are we now? J Neurochem
97:163458.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM. 1986. Oxygen free radicals and iron in relation to biology and
medicine: some problems and concepts. Arch Biochem Biophys 246:50114.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM, Cross CE. 1992. Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease:
where are we now? J Clin Lab Med 119:598620.
Harborne JB. 1994. The flavonoids: advances in research since 1986. London, UK: Chapman
& Hall. 676 p.
Hernandez PA, Rodriguez PCA, Delgado RA, Walczak H. 2007. Protective effect of Mangifera
indica L. polyphenols on human T lymphocytes against activation-induced cell death.
Pharmacological Res 55:16773.
Hertog MGL, Hollman PCH, Katan MB. 1992. Content of potentially anticarcinogenic
flavonoids of 28 vegetables and 9 fruits commonly consumed in the Netherlands. J Agric
Food Chem 40:237983.
Hollman PCH, Hertog MGL, Katan MB. 1996. Analysis and health effects of favonoids. Food
Chem 57(1):436.
Hou DX, Ose T, Lin S, Harazoro K, Imamura I, Kubo M, Uto T, Terahara N, Yoshimoto M,
Fujii M. 2003. Anthocyanidins induce apoptosis in human promyelocytic leukemia cells:
structure-activity relationship and mechanisms involved. Int Oncol 23:70512.
Hubbard G, Wolffram S, Lovegrove J, Gibbins J. 2003. The role of polyphenolic compounds
in the diet as inhibitors of platelet function. Proc Nutr Soc 62:46978.
Igarashi K, Horima K, Yoshinari O, Nanjo F, Hara Y. 2008. Effects of dietary catechins on
glucose tolerance, blood pressure and oxidative status in goto-kakizaki rats. J Nutr Sci
Vitaminol (Tokyo) 53(6):496500.
Ishikawa T, Suzukawa M, Ito T, Yoshida H, Ayaori M, Nishiwaki M, Yonemura A, Hara Y,
Nakamura H. 1997. Effect of tea flavonoid supplementation on the susceptibility of lowdensity lipoprotein to oxidative modification. Am J Clin Nutr 66:2616.
Jagetia GC, Baliga MS. 2005. Radioprotection by mangiferin in Dbaxc57bl mice: a preliminary study. Phytomedicin 12:20915.
Joseph JA. 1999. Reversals of age-related declines in neuronal signal transduction, cognitive,
and motor behavioral deficits with blueberry, spina strawberry dietary supplementation. J
Neurosci 15:811421.
Kane CJM, Menna JH, Sung CC, Yeh YC. 1988. Methyl gallate, methyl-3,4,5-trihydoxybenzoate, is a potent and highly specific inhibitor of herpes simplex virus in vitro. II. Antiviral
activity of methyl gallate and its derivatives. Biosci Rep 8:95102.
Khanduja KL, Gandhi RK, Pathania V, Shal N. 1999. Prevention of N-nitrosodiethylamineinduced lung tumorigenesis by ellagic acid and quercetin in mice. Food and Chem Toxicol
37:3138.
Kim Y, Brecht JK, Talcott ST. 2007. Antioxidant phytochemical and fruit quality changes in
(Mangifera indica L.) following hot water immersion and controlled atmosphere storage.
Food Chem 105:132734.
Kowalski J, Samojedny A, Paul M, Pietsz G, Wilczok T. 2005. Effect of kaempferol on
the production and gene expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1in J774.2
macrophages. Pharma Rep 57:10712.
Kroon PA, Day AJ, Bennett RN, Mellon FA, DuPont MS. 2004. Absorption of kaempferol
from endive, a source of kaempferol-3-glucuronide, in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 58:947
54.
Kuhnau J. 1976. The flavonoids. A class of semi-essential food components: their role in
human nutrition. World Rev Nutr Diet 24:11791.
Lakshminarayana S, Subhadra NV, Subramanyam H. 1970. Some aspects of developmental
physiology of mango fruit. J Hort Sci 45:13342.
Lamson D, Brignall M. 2001. Antioxidants and cancer. III: Quercetin. Altern Med Rev 5:196
209.
Larrauri JA. 1999. New approaches in the preparation of high dietary fibre powders from fruit
by products. Trends Food Sci Technol 10:38.
Lazze MC, Pizzala R, Savio M, Stivala LA, Prosperi L, Bianchi L. 2003. Anthocyanins protect against DNA damage induced by tert-butyl-hydroperoxide in rat smooth muscle and
hepatoma cells. Mutat Res 535:10315.

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 7, 2008

Major mango polyphenols . . .

Lee KW, Kim YJ, Kim DO, Lee HJ, Lee CY. 2003. Major phenolics in apple and their contribution to the total antioxidant capacity. J Agric Food Chem 51:651620.
Madsen HL, Bertelsen G. 1995. Spices as antioxidants. Trends Food Sci Technol 6:2717.
Mandal S, Shivapurkar NM, Galati AJ, Stoner GD. 1988. Inhibition of Nnitrosomethylbenzylamine metabolism and DNA binding in cultured rat esophagus
by ellagic acid. Carcinogenesis 9:13136.
Martinez G, Candelario E, Giuliani A, Leon O, Sam S, Delgado R. 2001. Mangifera indica
L. extract (Qf808) reduces ischaemia-induced neuronal loss and oxidative damage in the
gerbil brain. Free Radic Res 35:46573.
Matsuo N, Yamada K, Shoji K, Mori M, Sugano M. 1997. Effect of tea polyphenols on histamine release from rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells: the structure-inhibitory activity
relationship. Allergy 52:5864.
Mertens-Talcott S, Talcott S, Percival S. 2003. Low concentration of quercetin and ellagic
acid synergistically influence proliferation, cytotoxicity and apoptosis in MOLT-4 human
leukemia cells. J Nutr 133:266974.
Molina M, Sanchez-Reus I, Iglesias I, Benedi J. 2003. Quercetin, a flavonoid antioxidant,
prevents and protects against ethanol-induced oxidative stress in mouse liver. Biol Pharm
Bull 26:1398402.
Muruganandan S, Gupta S, Kataria M, Lal J, Gupta PK. 2002. Mangiferin protects the
streptozotocin-induced oxidative damage to cardiac and renal tissues in rats. Toxicol Pharmacol 176:16573.
Muruganandan S, Srinivasan K, Gupta S, Gupta PK, Lal J. 2005. Effect of mangiferin on hyperglycemia and atherogenicity in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 97(3):497
500.
Nakaishi H. 2000. Effects of black current anthocyanoside intake on dark adaptation and
VDT work-induced transient refractive alteration in healthy humans. Alt Med Rev 5(6):553
62.
Narasinga, Rao BS, Prabhavathi T. 1982. Tannin content of foods commonly consumed in
India and its influence on ionisable iron. J Sci Food Agric 33:8096.
Nunez-Selles AJ. 2005. Antioxidant therapy: myth or reality. J Braz Chem Soc 16(4):699
710.
Pardo-Andreua GL, Dortaa DJ, Delgadob R, Cavalheiroc RA, Santosd AC, Vercesia AE, Curtia
C. 2005. Vimang (Mangifera indica L. extract) induces permeability transition in isolated
mitochondria, closely reproducing the effect of mangiferin, Vimangs main component.
Chem Biol Interact 159(2):1418.
Pawlak W, Kedziora J, Zolynski K, Kedziora-Kornatowska K, Blaszczyk P, Zieleniewski J.
1998. Effect of long term bed rest in men on enzymatic antioxidative defense and lipid
peroxidation in erythrocytes. Gravit Physiol 5(1):1634.
Peng I, Kuo S. 2003. Flavonoid structure affects inhibition of lipid peroxidation in caco-2
intestinal cells at physiological conditions. J Nutr 133:21847.
Perossini M, Guidi G, Chiellini S, Siravo D. 1987. Diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy therapy with Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides (Tegens). A double blind placebo-controlled
clinical trial. Ann Ottalmol Clin Ocul 113:117390.
Prabha TN, Patwardhan MV. 1986. Endogenously oxidizable polyphenols of mango, sapota
and banana. Acta Alimentaria 15:1238.
Quick AJ. 1931. The conjugation of benzoic acid in man. J Biol Chem 92:6585.
Randle PJ, Garland PB, Hales CN, Newsholme EA. 1963. The glucose-fatty acid cycle,
its role in insulin sensitivity and metabolic disturbances in diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1:
7859.
Rastraelli L, Selles AJN, Castro HTV, Aguero-Aguero J, Gonzalez-Gonzalez J, Naddeo F, Simone FD. 2002. Isolation and quantitative analysis of phenolic antioxidants, free sugars,and
polyols from mango (Mangifera indica L.) stem bark aqueous decoction used in Cuba as a
nutritional Supplement. J Agric Food Chem 50:7626.
Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ, Paganga G. 1997. Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds.
Tr Pla Sci 2:1529.
Rieux-Lancat F, Deist FL, Hivroz C, Roberts I, Denatin K, Fischer A. 1995. Mutations in
Fas associated with human lymphoproliferative syndrome and autoimmunity. Science 268:
13479.
Roberts-Thomson SJ, Wilkinson AS, Monteith GR, Shaw PN, Lin C, Gidley MJ. 2008. Effects
of the mango components mangiferin and quercetin and the putative mangiferin metabolite
norathyriol on the transactivation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor isoforms. J
Agric Food Chem 56(9):303742.

Rodriguez J, Di Pierro D, Gioia M, Monaco S, Delgado R, Coletta M, Marini S. 2006. Effects of a natural extract from Mangifera Indica L, and its active compound, mangiferin,
on energy state and lipid peroxidation of red blood cells. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
1760(9):133342.
Rouillard LF, Thiais AJ, Robin JR. 1998. Cosmetic or pharmaceutical composition containing,
as active ingredient, mangiferin or its derivatives, in pure or in plant extracts. U.S. Patent
5,824:320.
Rozema J, Bornman JF, Gaberscik A, Haeder DP, Trost T. 2002. The role of UV-B radiation in
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems-an experimental and functional analysis of the evolution
of UV-absorbing compounds. J Photochem Photobiol B: Biol 66:212.
Saleh NAM, El-Ansari MAI. 1975. Polyphenolics of twenty local verities of Mangifera indica.
Planta Medica 28:12430.
Sanchez GM, Re L, Giuliani A, Nunez-Selles AJ, Davison GP, Leon-Fernandez O. 2000. Protective effects of Mangifera indica L. extract, mangiferin and selected antioxidants against
TPA-induced biomolecules oxidation and peritoneal macrophage activation in mice. Pharmacol Res 42:56573.
Santos-Buelga C, Scalbert A. 2000. Proanthocyanidins and tannin-like compounds: nature,
occurrence, dietary intake and effects on nutrition and health. J Sci Food Agric 80:1094
117.
Scalbert A, Williamson G. 2000. Dietary intake and bioavailability of polyphenols. J Nutr
130:207385.
Scartezzini P, Speroni E. 2000. Review on some plants of Indian traditional medicine with
antioxidant activity. J Ethnopharmacol 71:2343.
Schieber A, Ullrich W, Carle R. 2000. Characterization of polyphenols in mango puree
concentrate by HPLC with diode array and mass spectrometric detection. Inn Food Sci
Emerg Technol 1:1616.
Sen E, Joseph C, Ghosh S, Agarwal A, Mishra MK, Sharma V. 2007. Kaempferol induces apoptosis in glioblastoma cells through oxidative stress. Mol Cancer Ther 6:2544
53.
Shahidi F, Janitha PK, Wanasundara PD. 1992. Phenolic antioxidants. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
32:67103.
Shin T-Y, Kim S-H, Jun C-D, Suk K, Choi B-J, Lim H, Park S, Lee SH, Shin H-Y, Kim D-K.
2005. Gallic acid inhibits histamine release and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in
mast cells. Toxicol Sci 91(1):12331.
Sigler K, Ruch RJ. 1993. Enhancement of gap junctional intercellular communication in tumor
promoter-treated cells by components of green tea. Cancer Lett 69(1):159.
Singleton VL, Rossi JJA. 1965. Colorimetric of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic
phosphotungstic acid reagents. Am J Enol Vitic 16:14458.
Sissi HIE, Saleh NAM. 1965. Phenolic components of Mangifera indica (Part II). Planta Medica
13:34652.
Soong Y, Barlow J. 2004. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of selected fruit seeds.
Food Chem 88:4117.
Soong Y, Barlow P. 2006. Quantification of gallic acid and ellagic acid from longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) seed and mango (Mangifera indica L.) kernel and their effects on
antioxidant activity. J Food Chem 97:52430.
Wang X, Wang J, Yang N. 2007. Flow injection chemiluminescent detection of gallic acid in
olive fruit. Food Chem 105(1):3405.
Woude HVD, Gliszcynska-Swiglo A, Struijs K, Smeets A, Alink G, Rietjens I. 2003. Biphasic
modulation of cell proliferation by quercetin at concentrations physiologically relevant in
humans. Cancer Lett 200:417.
Yamanaka N, Oda O, Nagao S. 1997. Green tea catechins such as (+)-epicatechin and
()-epigallocatechin accelerate Cu2+-induced low-density lipoprotein oxidation in propagation phase. FEBS Lett 401:2304.
Yoshikawa M, Nishida N, Shimoda H, Takada M, Kawahara Y, Matsuda H. 2001. Polyphenol
constituents from salacia species: quantitative analysis of mangiferin with glucosidase and
aldose reductase inhibitory activities. Yakugaku Zasshi 121:3718.
Yoshimia N, Matsunagaa K, Katayamaa M, Yamadaa Y, Kunoa T, Qiaoa Z, Haraa A, Yamaharab J, Moria H. 2001. The inhibitory effects of mangiferin, a naturally occurring glucosylxanthone, in bowel carcinogenesis of male F344 rats. Cancer Lett 163:16370.
Zheng MS, Lu ZY. 1990. Antiviral effect of mangiferin and isomangiferin on herpes simplex
virus. Chin Med J 103:1605.

Vol. 7, 2008COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

319