1

Physics 364: The Emitter Follower and Output Impedance

Prof. Kroll

Early in the course we talked about the output impedance of a voltage source. We learned
that the ideal voltage source has zero output impedance. The finite output impedance of a
non-ideal source causes the source voltage to sag when a load (which draws current from the
source) is attached.
We often use voltage dividers as a convenient way to provide an arbitrary DC voltage. The
output impedance of the voltage divider is the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the divider,
that is, R1 ||R2 . We can measure this output impedance by attaching arbitrary loads with
different values of resistance RL . A plot of VL versus IL = VL /RL will be linear with a slope
equal to (R1 ||R2 ). Let us consider a specific case such as the setup you study in lab:
VCC = 15 V, R1 = 1000 and R2 = 500 . If no load is attached, the output voltage of the
divider is 5 V. As soon as a load is attached, the output voltage is reduced. You will try
various values of RL such as 100 , 500 , 1k, etc. For RL = 500 , for example, the output
voltage sags to 3 V.
A very important application of transistors is the emitter follower configuration, which is
depicted in the figure below on the left.
VCC

VCC

VCC

R1

VB

VB

VE
RE

R2

VE
RE

RL

The input of the emitter follower is the base and the output is the emitter. The collector
is connected directly to the DC power supply, so as far as ac operation is concerned, the
collector is connected to ground. Hence the name common collector for this configuration.
The right side of the figure shows the input of emitter follower connected to the output of
a voltage divider and the output of the emitter follower connected to a load RL . What is
the voltage across the load? We determine this voltage by assuming that the transistor is
in active mode. When the transistor is in active mode, the base draws very little current.
Assuming R1 ||R2 is not too large, then the voltage at the base will be the voltage from the
divider:
VCC R2
VB =
.
R1 + R2

2
As long as VB 0.7 V, the transistor will be in active mode (VB can never be larger than
VC ). If the transistor is in active mode, then VE = VB 0.7 V, independent of the value of
RL . Using the specific values we discussed for the voltage divider above, we expect that
VL = VE = 4.3 V, for all values of RL . (We use RE = 1 k; the exact value is unimportant).
In lab you will find that the plot of VL versus IL has a slightly negative slope. The value of
the slope will be a few Ohms instead of 333 as you measured with the resistive divider alone.
A table comparing the voltage divider alone to the voltage divider hooked up to an emitter
follower is shown below. The second two rows are for the limit of small load impedance RL .
Voltage Divider

Emitter Follower

RL
RL +333

VL = 4.3 V

VL =

IL =
VL =
IL =

5V

5V
RL +333
RL
333

5V
333

5V

= 15 mA

IL =

4.3 V
RL

VL = 4.3 V
IL =

4.3 V
RL

(small RL )
(small RL )

One way of thinking about this problem is the following: in the case of the voltage divider,
the source cannot supply enough current to the load to maintain a fixed voltage. As the
value of RL gets smaller, the required current to maintain a fixed voltage across the load gets
larger. The voltage divider cannot provide this current; the maximum current it can provide
is 15 mA. In the case of the emitter follower, this required current is provided by the power
supply; the transistor in the emitter follower provides the required current amplification as
we will see below. (Of course there is a practical limitation to the emitter follower as well,
it cannot supply current beyond the current limit of the power supply).

Response of the Emitter Follower to a Change in Voltage The analysis presented

above is a DC analysis. Eventually we will be interested in how our various transistor circuits
respond to ac signals superimposed on DC voltages or currents. A simple way to evaluate
the response of the emitter follower to a small change in base voltage VB is described below.
We assume that we are applying a base voltage VB to the base of the transistor set up in
the common collector configuration shown above. As long as VB 0.7 V (and < VC ), the
transistor will be in active mode and VE = VB 0.7 V. Now imagine we make a small change
to the base voltage: VB VB + VB ; small means that the change in voltage does not
move the transistor very far from its operating point established by VB and that the transistor
stays in active mode. What happens at the emitter? VE VE + VE = VB + VB 0.7 V.
So VE = VB , or
VE
= 1.
VB
Treating the base as the input to this circuit and the emitter as the output of this circuit, we
see that the voltage gain of the emitter follower is unity. The voltage changes at the emitter

follow the voltage changes at the base.

What about the currents at the input and output? The currents are related by the transistor
: IE = (1 + )IB IB . When we make the small voltage change, the current will change
too: IE + IE = (IB + IB ), and
IE
= .
IB
Since is a large number (100), the emitter follower has a large current gain. This large
current gain makes it possible to maintain the same voltage across any load.
Another name for the emitter follower is a voltage buffer. Do you understand why it is called
this name?