AS Exam Top Tips Unit 2

This document picks out the areas that students often lose marks on in
the unit 2 exam and gives you tips on how to tackle tricky questions. It
also tells you exactly what to write to get full marks when answering
explaining questions

1. Energetics
Q = MCT: The units of Q are Joules. To get kJmol-1, divide by 1000 then by
the number of moles. If 2 substances are mixed together, you divide by
the smallest number of moles or whichever one is not in excess. Your final
answer should have a + or in front of it to show whether the reaction is
exothermic or endothermic (this is worth a mark by itself in the exam).
When you have finished the calculation, look back at the question to see if
the temperature went up (-) or down (+).
C will only be 4.18 if water is involved, so make sure you look carefully at
the question to see what the value of c is. Sometimes, you get told the
total capacity of the solution and cup, this is (c x m), the giveaway will be
that there will not be a volume or mass value and the value will be quite
large.
Remember, m is the mass of the solution, and is equal to the volume of
the solution. If 2 solutions are mixed together, you need to use the total
volume.

Data book values: When comparing values obtained from Hesss cycles
with those obtained from calorimetry, the values are different due to heat
loss or incomplete reaction
When comparing values obtained from mean bond enthalpies with Hesss
cycles or calorimetry, the values are different because mean bond
enthalpies values are values for breaking a particular bond averaged over
a range of compounds containing that bond, they are not specific to a
particular molecule.

Mean bond enthalpy calculations: Always draw out the compounds as it is

easy to miss a bond or count too many if you try to do it in your head.

Total Bonds broken Total bonds made always gives you the correct
answer and correct sign in front of the answer.

Hesss law: The DATA that you have tells you which cycle to draw or which
calculation to use (example, use the enthalpies of formation data given to
calculate the enthalpy of combustion You would use the formation
calculation/cycle as this is the DATA you have been given).
Formation Arrows fly up: Follow cycle round from left to right, adding
everything together, but inverting the sign of the enthalpy change if you
go against an arrow.
Calculation method: Sum of products
sum of reactants
Combustion Arrows come down. Follow cycle round from left to right,
adding everything together, but inverting the sign of the enthalpy change
if you go against an arrow.
Calculation method: Sum of
reactants sum of products

2. Kinetics
Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves: When drawing what the curves
would look like a higher or lower temperatures, make sure that the area
under the curves are the same size.
If you are asked to label the y axis, look at the question. If it refers to
atoms, label it number of atoms, if it refers to molecules, label it number
of molecules etc.
Mean energy and most probable energy: The most probable energy is at
the peak of the curve. The mean energy is slightly to the right of the peak.
Effect of temperature on rate: You need to use the word many to get full
marks. Temperature increase many more particles have energy greater
than the activation energy, Temperature decrease many fewer particles
have energy greater than activation energy.
Catalysts: Make sure you know the difference between questions that ask
what a catalyst does and what it is (both worth 2 marks in an exam). What
is a catalyst? : A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
but is unchanged at the end. What does a catalyst do? : It provides an
alternative route with a lower activation energy.

3. Equilibrium
What is equilibrium? : Forwards and backwards reactions occur at the
same rate, concentrations of reactants and products remain constant
(constant does not mean that the concentrations of reactants and
products are the same, it means that if one reactant is 0.2mol and the
other is 0.5mol, they are still 0.2mol and 0.5mol 2 hours later for example)

Explaining changes in conditions: Follow these steps for guaranteed full

marks:
1. State what you can see in the question (eg, there are 4 moles
on the right and 2 moles on the left)
2. Write down the direction that the equilibrium will move in
(eg, as pressure increases, the position of the equilibrium moves to
the left)
3. State what is it reducing or increasing as it moves? (eg, to
reduce the pressure)
Catalysts: Increase the rate at which equilibrium is reached, does not
affect the yield.

4. Redox Reactions
Oxidation states: Unfortunately, you just need to learn these and the
exceptions to the rules. Oxidation states refer to the individual atom,
not the total number of atoms For example, in HNO3 oxygen has an
oxidation state of -2, not -6.
Constructing redox equations: Look at what the question says you start
with and what you go to. Ignore any references to H+, acid, aqueous
solution or water as you will add these anyway when you balance the
equation. Write down what you start with and put an arrow to what you
end up with. Then follow the following steps in the correct order:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Balance
Balance
Balance
Balance
side)

any element that isnt oxygen or hydrogen

oxygen atoms with water
hydrogen atoms with H+ ions
the charge with electrons (electrons go on the most positive

When adding equations together, get the electrons in each to balance

and then when you combine them the electrons will cancel out.

5. Halogens
Halide ions as reducing agents: Make sure you know the observations
and what products are produced with each halide ion: NaCl Misty
fumes of HCl, NaBr brown fumes (Br2(g)), choking gas (SO2), NaI
Black solid (I2), choking gas (SO2), bad egg smell (H2S), yellow solid (S).
Only Br- and I- reduce the sulphuric acid.
Equations: You could just learn the equations for these reactions but it
is better to work them out in the exam to save your revision time (also
you may be asked to give the half equation rather than the full). You
will always be told that sulphuric acid is being reduced and will either
be told what it is reduced to or what reduces it (in the latter case, you
are free to choose what product you want it to go to). Construct a half
equation for the reduction of H2SO4 to the sulphur containing product
and a half equation for the oxidation of the halide ion, then combine to
get the full equation.
Identifying halide ions: The precipitate formed is called a silver halide. The
simplest ionic equation is Ag+ + XAgX (X = halide). If the
precipitate formed is cream then it may be silver bromide or it may be a
mixture of silver chloride and silver iodide. When talking about the further
tests with ammonia, remember it is the silver halide that is dissolving/not
dissolving, not the metal halide you started with. There is no precipitate
when silver nitrate solution reacts with fluoride ions because silver
fluoride is soluble (a reaction does happen but the product dissolves in
solution).
Uses of chlorine: You need to learn the reaction of chlorine with sodium
hydroxide and hence also be able to figure out the reaction of bromine or
iodine with sodium hydroxide. You need to be able to give the names and
formulae of the chlorine containing products make sure you remember
the (I) in sodium chlorate (I).
Chorine is safe to use in drinking water or swimming pools, because only
small quantities are used and the benefits outweigh the risk.

6. Group 2 The Alkaline Earth metals

Solubilities of hydroxides and sulfates: To cut down on revision, remember
the trend for one - the other is the opposite: hydroxides increase in
solubility down the group (so sulfates increase in solubility up the group)
Uses of magnesium hydroxide and Barium sulfate: These can be ingested
without causing harm because they are insoluble. Barium sulfate is used

as a barium meal. Sometimes to get the mark, the markscheme wants

more detail than this, so if asked what BaSO4 is used for, always write
down as a barium meal to outline the gut in medical x-rays just to
make sure you get the mark.

7. Extraction of Metals
This topic involves a lot of equations and conditions for the extraction of
different metals. You just need to learn them and the reasons why carbon
is not used in extracting Ti, W and Al.

8. Haloalkanes
Mechanisms: Draw mechanisms neatly and large enough so that the
examiner can clearly see what is going on. Curly arrows go from lone pairs
and from bonds (the end of the arrow needs to actually touch the bond
otherwise you will lose a mark)

Nucleophilic Substitution: Make sure you put the delta on the halogen
and the delta + on the carbon bonded directly to it. OH- acts as a
nucleophile when you use cold aqueous potassium hydroxide. When
haloalkanes react with ammonia, 2 ammonia molecules are needed; one
for the initial attack and one to remove a hydrogen at the end.
Elimination: You get elimination when the potassium hydroxide is
dissolved in hot ethanol. The OH- always attacks a hydrogen atom that is
bonded to a carbon next to the carbon where the halogen is bonded. This
can lead to isomers if there are 4 or more carbon atoms in the molecule.
Chlorofluorocarbons: It is the C-Cl bond that breaks. You need to learn the
equations for the depletion of ozone using chlorine free radicals. The
chlorine can be substituted for bromine or iodine and the reactions would
be the same.
The formation of haloalkanes: If you follow the following steps, you will be
able to tackle any question on this topic no matter how complicated the
haloalkane is that you are making:
1. Initiation: The halogen always breaks into two halogen free
radicals
(example: Cl2
2Cl.)
2. Propagation 1: One halogen free radical always reacts with the
compound to always give a hydrogen halide as one of the products.
The other product can be worked out by seeing what atoms you

have left, writing them down and putting a dot after it. (example:
CH2Br2 + Cl.
HCl + CHBr2.)
3. Propagation 2: The free radical created in propagation 1 always
reacts with more of the halogen molecule and always produces a
halogen free radical. The other product can be worked out by seeing
what atoms are left over and writing them next to each other.
(example: CHBr2. + Cl2
Cl. + CHBr2Cl)
4. Termination: The reaction between any 2 free radicals that are
present in the initiation or 2 propagation steps pay attention to the
question, it may ask you to make a specific molecule in this
termination step.
The overall equation for these reactions is always:
The compound + halogen molecule
Product + hydrogen halide

9. Alkenes
Isomerism: Alkenes have geometric isomerism due to limited rotation
about the double bond. E = groups are on Either side of double bond, so Z
means on the same side.
Electrophilic addition: Make sure that when drawing this mechanism, the
bottom of the arrow touches the double bond and goes to the delta +
hydrogen or delta + halogen.
Remember, you form a carbocation intermediate before the final product.
Pay attention in the question to what the final product is: (example, if the
final product is CH3CHBrCH3, then the intermediate would be CH3C+HCH3)
It is important to do this so that you get the mechanism correct and dont
lose any marks.
In the reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid, you need to draw the
acid like this:
H-O-SO3H. The H bonded to the O has the delta +
and the O has the delta -. You do not need to know the mechanism for the
second stage, just that it reacts with water to make the alcohol and
regenerate the H2SO4.
Major and minor products: The major product is formed from the most
stable carbocation intermediate (positive carbon atom with most carbons
attached to it).

Polymerisation: Alkenes add to each other across their double bonds only.
When drawing repeating units, you should never have more than 2 carbon
atoms in a row.

10.

Alcohols

Displayed formula: Remember to draw a bond between the O and H if

asked for the displayed formula.
Carbon Neutral: When describing the fermentation of glucose as a carbon
neutral process, remember that 6 moles of CO2 are used in
photosynthesis, 2 moles are given out in the fermentation process and a
further 4 moles are given out when the ethanol is used as a fuel.
Fermentation: You need to be able to state the conditions needed:
Anaerobic and a temperature of 35oC.
Oxidation of alcohols: The reagents for oxidation are potassium
dichromate (VI) and dilute sulphuric acid.
Primary alcohols are oxidised to aldehydes. Conditions needed are gentle
heat using distillation apparatus to collect the aldehyde.
Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones and primary alcohols can be
oxidised straight to carboxylic acids. The conditions needed for these
conversions are reflux.
When writing the formulae of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic
acids, always write the structural formulae: Alcohols end in OH, aldehydes
end in CHO, carboxylic acids end in COOH.
Use [O] to represent the oxidising agent in equations, but remember that
you need to balance this as well. If making an aldehyde or ketone, you
only oxidise once so just need 1 mole of [O]. If you go straight from the
alcohol to the carboxylic acid, you need 2 moles of [O]. Water is also
produced in all cases.
Tests for aldehydes and ketones: These questions will be 3 marks 1 mark
for describing the test, 1 mark for stating what will happen to the
aldehyde and 1 mark for saying that there is no reaction with the ketone.
Elimination reactions: You do not need the mechanism but do need to be
able to draw the products. To see what the products would be if there are
4 or more carbons in the chain, find the OH in the alcohol and look for a
hydrogen bonded to a carbon next to the one with the OH on. Remove the
OH and this hydrogen and see what alkene you get.

11.

Analytical Techniques

Mass spectrometry: The peak furthest to the right gives the Mr of the
compound. It is called the molecular ion peak and is the molecule being
analysed with one electron removed.
Infra-red spectroscopy: Although you will have a table of values to use,
you should be able to recognise where certain peaks appear and their
shape so you are not over relying on the table. A peak at about 1700cm-1
is for a C=O bond. A peak at around 3500cm-3 that is really smooth and
broad is for an OH in an alcohol. A peak at around 3000cm-1 which is broad
but jagged around the edge is for an OH bond in a carboxylic acid. You
need to be able to recognise these as you are sometimes given
compounds that have an OH and a C=O in and many people assume this
will be a carboxylic acid, but it isnt necessarily as it depends on what type
of OH is present.
If you get a question that asks why the spectra given can or cannot be
that of a molecule drawn, you need to say what peaks for particular
functional groups are present or what are missing and where they are /
should be. These questions will be worth 2 marks (Example, the spectra
cannot be that of compound A because there is no peak in the region of
1680 1750cm-1 for a C=O bond)