Similitude & Model Analysis

Model Analysis

Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure.

Prototype: the actual structure or machine.

Lp1

Lp2

Lm1

Fp1

Fp2

Fp3

Lp3

Prototype

Lm2

Fm1

Fm2
Fm3 Lm3

Model

Model Analysis

Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of

finding solutions of complex flow problems.

The followings are the advantages of the model analysis

The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in

advance from its model.
Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables
influencing a flow problem is obtained which helps in conducting
tests.
The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of
model analysis to adopt most economical, and safe design.

Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for

obtaining, in advance, useful information about the
performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity
exits between the model and the prototype.

Similitude-Type of Similarities

Similitude: is defined as similarity between the model

and prototype in every respect, which means model and
prototype have similar properties or model and prototype
are completely similar.

Three types of similarities must exist between model and

prototype.
Geometric

Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity

Similitude-Type of Similarities

Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist

between model and prototype if ratio of all the corresponding linear
dimensions in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm

Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype

and Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.
Lr= Scale ratio
Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every
direction. Such a model is called true model. However, sometimes it
is not possible to do so and different convenient scales are used in
different directions. Such a models is call distorted model

Similitude-Type of Similarities

Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist

between model and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at
the corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

V p1 V p 2
= = Vr ;
Vm1 Vm 2

a p1 a p 2
= = ar
am1 am 2

Where: Vp1& Vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point
1 & 2 in prototype and Vm1& Vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and
accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.
Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio
Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence
not only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should be same; but
the direction of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points
in model and prototype should also be parallel.

Similitude-Type of Similarities

Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist

between model and prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding
points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = =
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m

Fr

Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational
forces in prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and
gravitational forces in model.
Fr is the Force ratio
Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model
and prototype should also be parallel.

Types of forces encountered in fluid Phenomenon

Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in

the flowing fluid.

Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to

viscosity and surface area of flow.

Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration

due to gravity.

Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and

cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.

Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension

and length of surface of flowing fluid.

Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of

flowing fluid.

Dimensionless Numbers

These are numbers which are obtained by dividing the

inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure
force or surface tension force or elastic force.

As this is ratio of one force to other, it will be a

dimensionless number. These are also called nondimensional parameters.

The following
numbers.

are

Reynolds Number
Froudes Number
Eulers Number
Webers Number
Machs Number

most

important

dimensionless

Dimensionless Numbers

Reynolds Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force of
flowing fluid.
Velocity
Volume

. Velocity
Fi
Time
Time
Re
= =
=
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area
Q.V AV .V AV .V VL VL
= = = ==
du
V
.A

.A .A
dy
L
Mass.

Froudes Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force
of flowing fluid.

=
Fe
=

Fi
=
Fg

Q.V

Velocity
Time
=
Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion

=
Volume.g

Mass.

AV .V
=
AL.g

V2
=
gL

V
gL

Volume
. Velocity
Time
Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion

Dimensionless Numbers

Eulerss Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of
flowing fluid.

Fi
=
Fp

=
Eu
=

Q.V

=
P. A

Velocity
Time
=
Pr essure. Area

Mass.

AV .V

=
P. A

V2
=
P/

Volume
. Velocity
Time
Pr essure. Area

V
P/

Webers Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the surface

tension force of flowing fluid.

=
We
=

Fi
=
Fg

Q.V
=
.L

Velocity
Time
=
Surface Tensionper. Length
Mass.

AV .V
=
.L

L2V 2
=
.L

Volume
. Velocity
Time
Surface Tensionper. Length

Dimensionless Numbers

Machs Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of
flowing fluid.

=
M
=

Fi
=
Fe

Q.V

=
K .A

Velocity
Time =
Elastic Stress. Area
Mass.

AV .V

=
K .A

Where : C = K /

L2V 2

=
KL2

Volume
. Velocity
Time
Elastic Stress. Area

V
V
=
K/ C

Model Laws or similarity Laws

We have already read that for dynamic similarity ratio of corresponding

forces acting on prototype and model should be equal. i.e

( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p ( Fp ) p ( Fs ) p ( Fe ) p ( FI ) p
= = = = =
( Fv )m ( Fg )m ( Fp )m ( Fs )m ( Fe )m ( FI )m

Force of inertia comes in play when sum of all other forces is not
equal to zero which mean

(F + F
v

+ Fp + Fs + Fe ) =
( FI )

Thus dynamic similarity require that

(F + F
(F + F
v

+ Fp + Fs + Fe )

( FI ) p
=
( FI )m
g + Fp + Fs + Fe ) m
g

In case all the forces are equally important, the above two equations
cannot be satisfied for model analysis

Model Laws or similarity Laws

However, for practical problems it is seen that one force

is most significant compared to other and is called
predominant force or most significant force.

Thus for practical problem only the most significant force

is considered for dynamic similarity. Hence, models are
designed on the basis of ratio of force, which is
dominating in the phenomenon.

Finally the laws on which models are designed for

dynamic similarity are called models laws or laws of
similarity. The followings are these laws

Reynolds Model Law

Froudes Model Law
Eulers Model Law
Webers Model Law
machs Model Law

Reynolds Model Law

It is based on Reynolds number and states that

Reynolds number for model must be equal to the
Reynolds number for prototype.
Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous
forces are dominant. These problems include:

Pipe Flow
Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed
bodies etc.

VP LP Vm Lm
Re )m or
=
( Re ) P (=

VP LP
Vr Lr
= = 1
P r
Vm Lm
m
P
VP
LP
: Vr =
, Lr =
, r
=
where
m
Vm
Lm

Reynolds Model Law

The Various Ratios for Reynoldss Law are obtained as

VL VL
=
sin ce =
and /
P m
VP Lm P r
=
=
Velocity Ratio: V
=
r
Vm LP m L r
TP L P /VP L r
= =
Time Ratio: Tr=
Tm L m /Vm Vr
aP VP / TP Vr
Acceleration Ratio: a=
=
r=
am Vm / Tm Tr
APVP
Discharge Ratio:
Q r = L2rVr
=
AmVm
2
2 2
Force Ratio: Fr =
=
Q
V

L
=
V
V

L
mr ar =
r r r
r r r r
r rVr

Power Ratio: Pr =Fr .Vr = r L2rVr2Vr = r L2rVr3

Reynolds Model Law

Q. A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of specific
gravity 0.90 and viscosity 3x10-2 poise at the rate of 3000litre/sec.
Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at 20oC.
Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
Solution:
For pipe flow,
Prototype Data:

Diameter, Dp= 1.5m

Viscosity of fluid, p= 3x10-2 poise
Discharge, Qp =3000litre/sec
Sp. Gr., Sp=0.9
Density of oil=p=0.9x1000
=900kg/m3

Model Data:

Diameter, Dm=15cm =0.15 m

Viscosity of water, m =1x10-2 poise
Density of water, m=1000kg/m3n
Velocity of flow Vm=?

Discharge Qm=?

According to Reynolds' Model Law

Vm p D p m
m Vm D m p Vp D p
=
=
Vp m Dm p
m
p
Vm
900 1.5 1102
= =
3.0
V p 1000 0.15 3 102
=
Since V
p

Qp
3.0
=
Ap / 4(1.5) 2

= 1.697 m / s
3.0V=
5.091m / s
V=
m
p
5.091 / 4(0.15) 2
and=
Qm V=
m Am
= 0.0899m3 / s

Froudes Model Law

It is based on Froudes number and states that Froudes

number for model must be equal to the Froudes number
for prototype.
Froudes Model Law is used in problems where gravity
forces is only dominant to control flow in addition to inertia
force. These problems include:

Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,

channels etc.
Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
Waves on surface of fluid

VP
=
e )m or
( F e ) P ( F=
g P LP

Vm
VP
=
or
g m Lm
LP

Vm
Lm

VP
VP
LP
= Vr =
=
/ Lr 1; where
: Vr =
, Lr
Vm
Lm
LP
Vm

Lm

Froudes Model Law

The Various Ratios for Reynoldss Law are obtained as

Vm
VP
=
sin ce
LP
Lm
VP
=
=
Velocity Ratio: V
r
Vm

Lp
=
Lm

TP L P /VP
=
Time Ratio: Tr==
Tm L m /Vm

Lr
Lr
=
Lr

Lr

aP VP / TP Vr
= =
Acceleration Ratio: a r = =
am Vm / Tm Tr
Discharge Ratio:=
Qr

Lr
= 1
Lr

APVP
2
2
5/ 2
= L=
V
L
=
L
L
r r
r
r
r
AmVm

2
2 2
2
3
Q
V

L
=
V
V

=
L
V

=
L
L

L
Force Ratio: Fr=mr ar = =
r r r
r r r r
r r r
r r r
r r

Power Ratio: Pr=Fr.Vr= r L=

r L =
r L7r / 2
V V =
Lr
rL V
2 2
r r r

2 3
r r

2
r

Froudes Model Law

Q. In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow
over the model were 2 m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the
velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the model
size.

Solution: Given that

For Model

Discharge over model, Qm=2 m3/sec

Velocity over model, Vm = 1.5 m/sec
Linear Scale ratio, Lr =36

For Prototype

Discharge over prototype, Qp =?

Velocity over prototype Vp=?

For Discharge
Qp
2.5
2.5
Lr )
= (=
( 36 )
Qm
=
Qp

( 36 )

2.5

=
2 15552 m3 / sec

For Dynamic Similarity,

Froude Model Law is used
Vp
= =
Lr
=
36 6
Vm
V p =6 1.5 =9 m / sec

Classification of Models

Undistorted or True Models: are those which are

geometrically similar to prototype or in other words if the scale ratio
for linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the
models is called undistorted model. The behavior of prototype can
be easily predicted from the results of undistorted or true model.

Undistorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not

geometrically similar to its prototype. For distorted models different

scale ratios for linear dimension are used.
For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale ratio
are taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of river will
be very very small which may not be measured accurately.

The followings are the advantages of distorted models

The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured

The cost of the model can be reduced
Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained

Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the

results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.

Classification of Models

Scale Ratios for Distorted Models

Let: ( L r ) H

( Lr )V

LP BP
=
=
Scale ratio for horizontal direction
Lm Bm
=

hP
=Scale ratio for vertical direction
hm

=
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=V
P / Vm

2 ghP
=
2 ghm

Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A P=

/ Am
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P=
/ Qm

( Lr )V

BP hP
=
Bm hm
APVP
=
AmVm

( Lr ) H ( Lr )V

( Lr ) H ( Lr )V

Lr )V
(=

( Lr ) H ( Lr )

3/ 2
V

Distorted model

Q. The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge

through the model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the
model=1/50 the horizontal dimension of prototype and vertical
dimension of model =1/10 the vertical dimension of prototype.
Solution:
Discharge of River= Q p =1.5m3 /s
Scale ratio for horizontal direction= ( L r ) H =
Scale ratio for vertical direction= ( L r )V =

LP
=50
Lm

hP
=10
hm

Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )

50 103/ 2 = 1581.14
Q p / Qm =
=
Qm 1.5 /1581.14
= 0.000948 m3 / s

3/ 2
V

Distorted model

A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a horizontal

of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/sec, the average width and
depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively. Determine the corresponding
discharge in model and check the Reynolds Number of the model flow.

=
Disch arg e of River

=
Q
450m3 / s
p

= B=
Width
60m and Depth=
p

y=
4.2 m
p

Horizontal scale ratio= ( L r ) H

BP
=
=200
Bm

Vertical scale ratio= ( L r )V =

yP
=50
ym

Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Q r =Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )

Q p / Qm =200 503/ 2 =70710.7
Qm= 450 /1581.14= 6.365 103

m3 / s

3/ 2
V

Distorted model
VL
Reynolds Number, Re m =

m
Lm = 4 Rm

Width
B p / ( Lr )=
60 / 200
= B=
= 0.3m
m
H
Depth
=

y=
y p / ( Lr =
= 0.084 m
)V 4.2 / 50
m

Am =
Bm ym =
0.3 0.084 =
0.0252m
Pm = Bm + 2 ym = 0.3 + 2 0.084= 0.468m
R
=

A m 0.0252
=
= 0.05385
Pm
0.468

Kinematic Viscosity of water = =1106 m 2 / sec

4VR
4 0.253 0.05385
=
Re =
=

54492.31
6
110
m

>2000
Flow is in turbulent range

Assignment Problems:
Q.1: The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically
similar model constructed to a scale of 1:10.
(a) If 28.3 cumecs, is the maximum rate of flow in prototype, what will be the corresponding
flow in model?
(b) If 2.4m/sec, 50mm and 3.5 Nm are values of velocity at a point on the spillway, height of
hydraulic jump and energy dissipated per second in model, what will be the
corresponding velocity, height of hydraulic jump and energy dissipation per second in
prototype?

Q.2: A 10m wide rectangular headrace channel carries 450 m3/sec at a flow depth of 3.5
m. It is intended to construct its model at a model station to a scale of 1:20. What will be
the discharge in the model headrace channel? If the head loss due to friction in the
model is 0.50 m. What is the corresponding power loss (kW) in the prototype channel?

Q.3: A 5m diameter penstock carries 1500 m3/sec design discharge for the
turbine. A model of this penstock is developed at a scale of 1:10 at a hydraulic
model station. If the head loss due to friction in the model is 0.5m what will be
the head loss in the prototype. Also find the velocity, discharge and reynoldes
number for the model penstock.