Slides X

1
Factorisation of Integers
Definition N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} are the natural numbers.

Definition Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} are the integers.
Closed under the binary operations +, ,
Definition R then bc is the greatest integer which is less than or equal to .
Ex b3c = 3,

2 = 1, bc = 4
Then bc 6 < bc + 1
Proposition 1 If a and b are two integers with b > 0 then there are integers q and r
with 0 6 r < b and a = qb + r.
Proof. Let = ab .

0 6 ab ab < 1
0 6 a b ab < b
so if r = a b
a
b
then a = qb + r with q =
a
b
.
Definition If a = cb (a, b, c Z) we say a is a multiple of b, or b divides a and write
2
b | a.
Proposition 2 If b 6= 0, c 6= 0 then
(a) b | a and c | b c | a
(b) b | a bc | ac
(c) c | d and c | e m, n Z, c | dm + en.
Proposition 3 Let a, b > 0. If b | a and b 6= a then b < a.
Definition If b | a and b 6= 1 or a then we say b is a proper divisor of a. If b does not
divide a write b - a.
Definition P = {p N : p > 1 and the only divisors of p are 1 and p} are the prime
numbers. Then N \ (P {1}) are the composite numbers.
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, . . .}.
Theorem 1 Every n > 1, n N, is a product of prime numbers.
Proof. If n P we are done. If n is not prime, let q1 be the least proper divisor of n.
Then q1 is prime (since otherwise, by Prop 3, it would have a smaller proper divisor). Let
n = q1 n1 , 1 < n1 < n. If n1 is prime we are done. If not n1 = q2 n2 , 1 < n2 < n1 < n.
This process must terminate in less than n steps. Hence n = q1 q2 . . . qs with s < n.
Ex 10725 = 3 5 5 11 13
3
In a prime factorization of n arrange the primes so that p1 < p2 < < pk and exponents
i N, 1 6 i 6 k so
n = p1 1 p2 2 pk k
k
Y
=
pj j
j=1
is the standard factorisation of n.
Prime Numbers
We can use the sieve of Eratosthenes to list the primes 2 6 p 6 N .
If n 6 N
and n is not prime, then n must be divisible by a prime p 6
and p2 > N p1 p2 > N ).
List all of the integers between 2 and N
2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , N
successively remove
(i) 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . even integers from 22 on
(ii) 9, 15, 21, 27, . . . multiples of 3 from 32 on
(iii) 25, 35, 55, 65, . . . multiples of 5 from 52 on
N (if p1 >
4
etc.
i.e. remove all integers which are multiples of a prime p <
primes up to N .
N . We are left with all
Ex N = 16, N = 4
{2, 3, 6 4, 5, 6 6, 7, 6 8, 6 9, 16 0, 11, 16 2, 13, 16 4, 16 5, 16}
6
Theorem 2 |P| = , i.e. there are an infinite number of primes.
Q
Proof. Let P = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } with p1 < p2 < < pn and letQq = nj=1 pj + 1. Then
q > pj j q 6 P so q is composite. But pi | q pi | q nj=1 pj = 1 pi = 1
which is false. Hence |P| = .
How many primes are there ?
Note:
X
1
=
n
n=1
X
1
2
=
< .
n2
6
n=1
5
We can show
X
1
=
p
j
j=1
so the primes are denser than the squares.
If x > 0, let S(x) = #{n N : n2 6 x}. Then S(x) = b xc. We can show
(x) = #{p P : p 6 x}
x
log(x)
Definition A modulus is a set of integers closed under . The zero modulus is just
{0}. If a Z then M = {na : n Z} is a modulus.
Proposition 4 If M is a modulus with a, b M and m, n Z then ma + nb M .
Proof. a M a + a = 2a M 2a + a = 3a M etc. so ma M and so is nb,
thus ma + nb M .
Proposition 5 If M 6= {0} is a modulus, it is the set of multiples of a fixed positive
integer.
Proof. Let d be the least positive integer in M with 0 < d.
Claim: every element of M is a multiple of d. If not (???) let n M have d - n. Then
n = dq + r with 1 6 r < d. But r = n dq M (!!!).
6
Definition Let a, b Z and let M = {ma + nb : m, n Z} then M is generated by d in
that M = {nd : n Z}. We call d the greatest common divisor or GCD of a and b,
and write (a, b) = d.
Proposition 6
(i) x, y Z so ax + by = (a, b)
(ii) x, y Z, (a, b) | ax + by
(iii) If e | a and e | b then e | (a, b)
Definition If (a, b) = 1 we say a and b are coprime.
Ex The GCD (greatest common divisor) is normally computed using the Euclidean
Algorithm. From Proposition 5: (a = 323, b = 221)
323 = 221 1 + 102 so 102 M
221 = 102 2 + 17 so 17 M
102 = 17 6 + 0
so 17 is the least positive integer in M (323, 221) = 17. Reading back:
17 = 221 2 102
= 221 2 (323 221)
= 3 221 2 323
so (a, b) = xa + yb x = 2, y = 3.
7
Proposition 7 If p P and p | ab then p | a or p | b.
Proof. If p - a then (a, p) = 1. By Prop 6(i) x, y Z so
xa + yp = 1
xab + ybp = b
But p | ab so ab = qp. Hence (xq + yb)p = b so p | b.
Proposition 8 If c > 0 and (a, b) = d then (ac, bc) = dc.
Proof. x, y Z so
xa + yb = d
x(ac) + y(bc) = dc
(ac, bc) | dc. Also d | a cd | ca (and similarly cd | cb) dc | (ac, bc). Hence
dc = (ac, bc).
Theorem 3 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) The standard factorisation of
a number n N is unique.
Proof. If p | ab m, by Proposition 7, p must divide one of the factors. If each of
these is prime, then p must be one of them. If n = p1 1 pi i = q11 qj j are two

standard factorizations of n, each p must be a q and each q a p. Hence i = j. Since
p1 < p2 < < pk and q1 < q2 < < qk , p` = q` for 1 6 ` 6 k. If 1 < 1 , divide n by
p1 1 to get p1 1 1 p2 2 = p2 2 1 = 1 etc.
8
Proposition 9 Let a, b N have non-standard factorisations
a=
m
Y
pj j
j=1
and
b=
m
Y
pj j
j=1
with j > 0, j > 0 then

(a, b) =
m
Y
min (j , j )
pj
j=1
Ex
a = 22 34 51
b = 21 30 51
(a, b) = 21 30 51
Definition Let a, b Z+ = {0, 1, 2, . . .} = N {0}. The least common multiple or

LCM of a and b is the smallest common multiple of a and b and is written {a, b}.
Ex {3, 4} = 12
9
Proposition 10 With the same notation as for Proposition 9,
{a, b} =
m
Y
max (j , j )
pj
j=1
Proposition 11 Any common multiple of a and b is a multiple of the least common

multiple.
Proposition 12 {a, b} (a, b) = ab
Proof.
LHS =
m
Y
max (j , j )+min (j , j )
pj
j=1
But x, y max (x, y) + min (x, y) = x + y. Hence

LHS =
m
Y
+
pj j j
j=1
m
Y
pj j
j=1
Alternative Characterisation of the GCD

By Proposition 6 (ii), (a, b) | ax + by.
m
Y
j=1
pj j = ab.
10
Let x = 1, y = 0 (a, b) | a.
Let x = 0, y = 1 (a, b) | b.
So g = (a, b) is a common divisor of a and b. By Proposition 6 (iii), if e | a and e | b then
e | g i.e. g is divisible by every common divisor. Hence it is the greatest. This property:
being a common divisor divisible by every common divisor characterises the GCD up
to sign.
Proof. If g1 and g2 satisfy this property, then g1 and g2 are both common divisors with
g1 | g2 and g2 | g1 . Hence g2 = g1 = g2 = 1 if g2 6= 0. Hence = 1. So
g1 = g2 . The GCD, so defined by the above property, is made unique by fixing the sign,
g > 0.
Ex
divisors of 12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} = D12

divisors of 18 = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} = D18
common divisors = {1, 2, 3, 6} = D12 D18
So 6 satisfies the property. Hence, fixing the sign, 6 = (12, 18).
Linear Equations in Z
Proposition 13 Given a, b, n Z, the equation ax + by = n has an integer solution
x, y (a, b) | n.
11
Proof. () By Proposition 6 (i) x, y such that ax + by = (a, b). Since (a, b) | n, c such
that (a, b) c = n Hence a(xc) + b(yc) = (a, b) c = n and xc, yc is the solution.
() By Proposition 6 (ii), (a, b) | ax + by = n.
Proposition 14 Let (a, b) = 1 and let x0 , y0 be a solution to ax + by = n (a solution
exists by Proposition 13). Then all solutions are given by
x = x0 + bt
, t Z.
y = y0 at
Proof.
a(x0 + bt) + b(y0 at) = ax0 + abt + by0 bat
= n
so each such x and y is a solution. If ax0 + by0 = n and ax + by = n also, then
a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) = n n = 0. But (a, b) = 1. Hence b | x x0 bt = x x0 so
x = x0 + bt abt + b(y y0 ) = 0 y y0 = at if b 6= 0.
Theorem 4 If (a, b) = 1, a > 0, b > 0 then every integer n > ab a b is representable
as n = ax + by, x > 0, y > 0 and ab a b is not.
Proof. By Proposition 14,
x = x0 + bt
y = y0 at
12
Choose t so that 0 6 y0 at < a 0 6 y0 at 6 a 1. But
(x0 + bt)a = n (y0 at)b > ab a b (a 1)b = a
(x0 + bt) > 1
(x0 + bt) > 0.
Hence n is representable. Finally suppose ax + by = ab a b (???) x > 0, y > 0.
a(x + 1) + b(y + 1) = ab.
But (a, b) = 1, hence a | y + 1 (a(x + 1 b) = b(y 1)) and b | x + 1. a 6 y + 1 and
b 6 x + 1 so ab = (x + 1)a + (y + 1)b > ba + ab = 2ab (!!!).
Definition n N
(n) = sum of the divisors of n
X
=
d
d|n
Ex (12) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 12 = 28
(6) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 = 12 = 2(6).
Perfect Numbers
13
Definition A perfect number is equal to the sum of its proper divisors
X
d
n=
d|n
16d<n
or (n) = 2n.
Ex 6, 28
Proposition 15 If n =
Qm
j=1
pj j then
(n) =
+1
m
Y
pj j 1
j=1
pj 1
Proof. All divisors of n have the form d = px1 1 pxmm with 0 6 xj 6 j . Hence
(n) =
1
X
x1 =0
1
X
m
X
px1 1 pxmm
xm =0
!
px1 1
x1 =0
= RHS above.
m
X
xm =0
!
pxmm
14
Definition A function f : N N is called multiplicative if a, b N and (a, b) = 1
f (ab) = f (a)f (b)
Proposition 16 (a, b) = 1 (ab) = (a)(b) i.e. is a multiplicative function.
Proof. This follows from Proposition 15.
Theorem 5 Let p = 2n 1 be prime. Then m = 21 p(p + 1) = 2n1 (2n 1) is perfect.
Every even perfect number has this form.
Proof. m = 21 p(p + 1) = 2n1 p1 and p is odd. By Proposition 15
2n 1 p2 1
21 p1
= (2n 1)(p + 1)
= p(p + 1)
= 2m
(m) =
so m is perfect. Let a be an even perfect number. a = 2n1 u, u > 1, 2 - u. (Note that

(2 ) = 2+1 1 6= 2 2 , so no power of 2 is perfect.) Since is multiplicative,
(a) =
2n 1
(u) = 2a = 2n u
21
since a is perfect. Hence

(u) =
2n u
u
=
u
+
.
2n 1
2n 1
15
But u | u and
u
2n 1
| u so u has just two divisors hence u P and
u
2n 1
= 1 u = 2n 1.
Conjecture There are no odd perfect numbers.

Definition If p = 2n 1 P we say p is a Mersenne Prime.
Theorem 6 If n > 1 and an 1 is prime then a = 2 and n is prime.
Proof. If a > 2 then a 1 | an 1 (an 1 = (a 1)(an1 + an2 + + 1)) so an 1 6 P.
If a = 2 and n = j`, where j is a proper divisor of n, then 2n 1 = (2j )` 1 is divisible
by 2j 1 (a = 2j in the equation above). Hence n P.
web: http://www.utm.edu/research/primes/mersenne.shtml
Theorem 7 If 2m + 1 P then m = 2n .
Proof. If m = qr, where q is odd, then
2qr + 1 = (2r )q + 1 = (2r + 1)(2r(q1) 2r(q2) + + 1) and 1 < 2r + 1 < 2qr + 1 so 2qr + 1
cannot be prime. Hence m has no odd prime factor. Hence m = 2n , n N.
Note The factorization
an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 b + an3 b2 + + bn1 )
16
works here for odd n since
an + 1 = an (1)n
= (a (1))(an1 + an2 (1) + an3 (1)2 + (1)n1 )
= (a + 1)(a + 1)(an1 an2 + an3 + 1)
Fermat Numbers
n
Definition The nth Fermat number, Fn = 22 + 1
F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, F4 = 65537.

Fi P for 0 6 i 6 4. No other Fermat prime is known.
F5 6 P.
5
(Euler, 1732): 641 | 22 + 1 = 641 6700417.
17
Proof. Let
a
b
a b3
1 + ab b4
=
=
=
=
27
5
3
1 + 5 3 = 24
Therefore
5
22 + 1 =
=
=
=
=
=
=
(28 )4 + 1
(2a)4 + 1
2 4 a4 + 1
(1 + ab b4 )a4 + 1
(1 + ab)a4 + 1 a4 b4
(1 + ab)a4 + (1 a2 b2 )(1 + a2 b2 )
(1 + ab)[a4 + (1 ab)(1 + a2 b2 )]
and 1 + ab = 641.
Theorem 8 (Lagrange) If p P, the exact power of p dividing n! (p k n!) is

n
n
n
+ 2 + 3 +
=
p
p
p
18
Proof.
n! = 1 2 (p 1)
p(p + 1) 2p (p 1)p
p2
j k
j k
There are np multiples of p, pn2 multiples of p2 , etc.
Each multiple of p contributes 1 to . Each multiple of p2 has already contributed 1,
being a multiple of p, so contributes 1 more to leading to

n
n
+ 2
p
p
etc. Hence

n
n
n
n
=
+ 2 + 3 + + r
p
p
p
p
j k
where r is the first N such that pr+1 > n. So pn = 0 > r + 1.
19
Ex n = 12, p = 3 so

12
12
12
=
+
+
3
9
27
= 4+1+0
= 5.
12! = 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
2
1
1
and 35 k 12! .
20
Congruences
Definition a b (mod m) if m | a b, m 6= 0, a, b, m Z. If so we say a is congruent

to b modulo m. We call m the modulus.
Proposition 17 is an equivalence relation on Z and the set of equivalence classes
forms a ring (Zm , +, , [ 1 ]m ) where
[ a ]m + [ b ]m = [ a + b ]m
[ a ]m [ b ]m = [ a b ]m
Proposition 18
a1 b 1
a2 b 2
(mod m)
(mod m)
a1 a2 b1 b2 (mod m)
a2 + a2 b1 + b2 (mod m)
Proposition 19
ac bd (mod m)
c d (mod m)
a b (mod m)
(c, m) = 1
21
Proof. (a b)c + b(c d) = ac bd 0 (mod m) m | (a b)c m | a b so a b
(mod m).
If m P then (c, m) = 1 c Z with m - c, c 6= 0 and x, y Z so that cx + my =
(c, m) = 1 so cx 1 (mod m). Hence [ c ]m has a multiplicative inverse class [ x ]m and
(Zm , +, , [ 1 ]m ) is a field GF(m) called a Galois field.
Note [ c ]m is called a residue class with representative c. Each class has a smallest
non-negative representative.
Ex m = 5
GF (5) = {[ 0 ]5 , [ 1 ]5 , [ 2 ]5 , [ 3 ]5 , [ 4 ]5 }
Proof. If c Z and m > 0, q, r so that c = mq + r, 0 6 r < m and c r (mod m)
[ c ]m = [ r ]m
Eulers Phi Function

Definition (n) = #{i 6 n : 1 6 i and (i, n) = 1} is the number of natural numbers
less than n and coprime to n.
Ex (1) = 1, (2) = 1, (4) = 2 since (1, 4) = 1, (2, 4) = 2, (3, 4) = 1, (4, 4) = 4.
Ex p P (p) = p 1 since (p, 1) = 1, (p, p) = p and (p, j) = 1, 1 < j < p.
22
Consider m > 1. In Zm , [ c ]m will have an inverse class (c, m) = 1.
() cx + my = (c, m) = 1 cx 1 (mod m).
Hence the number of classes which have inverses is (m).
Definition A reduced residue system is a complete set of representatives for those
classes with inverses.
Ex {1, 3} is such a system for Z4 .
Proposition 20 If a1 , . . . , a(m) is a reduced residue system and (m, k) = 1 then
ka1 , . . . , ka(m) is also a reduced residue system.
Proof. (ai , m) = 1 (kai , m) = 1. If kai kaj (mod m) ai aj (mod m)
i = j. Hence the kai represent distinct residue classes, and each is coprime with m.
Theorem 9 (Euler) (a, m) = 1 a(m) 1 (mod m).
Proof. The {aai : 1 6 i 6 (m)} and {ai : 1 6 i 6 (m)} represent the same classes
(albeit in a different order). Hence
(m)
(m)
(aaj )
j=1
(m)
a(m)
Y
j=1
aj
(mod m)
j=1
(m)
aj
aj
j=1
(mod m)
23
and so a(m) 1 (mod m) since (aj , m) = 1 means we can cancel.
Corollary (Fermats Little Theorem) (a, p) = 1 ap a (mod p).
Proof. (p) = p 1 so ap1 1 (mod p) ap a (mod p).
Note Simple probabilistic primality test: Check q N through considering aq a
(mod q) for random a with (a, q) = 1.
Note Eulers a(m) 1 (mod m) is the basis of RSA public key cryptography.
Proposition 21 Let (m, m0 ) = 1, let x run over a complete residue system (mod m)
and x0 over a complete system (mod m0 ). Then mx0 + m0 x runs over a complete system
(mod mm0 ).
Proof. Consider the mm0 numbers mx0 + m0 x. If mx0 + m0 x my 0 + m0 y (mod mm0 )
then

x0 y 0 (mod m0 )
mx0 my 0 (mod m0 )
m0 x m0 y (mod m)
x y (mod m)
since (m, m0 ) = 1. So each class is distinct. The result follows since there are mm0 classes
(mod mm0 ).
Proposition 22 Same as before but complete reduced.
Proof. Claim: (mx0 + m0 x, mm0 ) = 1. If not (???) Let p P have p | (mx0 + m0 x, mm0 ).
If p | m then p | m0 x. But (m, m0 ) = 1 so p - m0 hence p | x and p | (m, x) which is false
(!!!). This proves the claim.
24
Claim: Every a Z, (a, mm0 ) = 1 satisfies a mx0 + m0 x (mod mm0 ) for x, x0
with (x, m) = (x0 , m0 ) = 1. By the above x, x0 so a mx0 + m0 x (mod mm0 ). If
(x, m) = d 6= 1 then (a, m) = (mx0 + m0 x, m) = (m0 x, m) = (x, m) = d 6= 1 which is
false. Similarly (x0 , m0 ) = 1.
By the above, the numbers mx0 + m0 x are incongruent. hence we have a reduced residue
system of this form.
Theorem 10 is a multiplicative function.
Proof. If (m, m0 ) = 1,
(mm0 ) = #{RRS(mm0 )}
= #{RRS(m)} #{RRS(m0 )}
= (m) (m0 )
25
Since = is multiplicative, if n =
Qm
j=1
(n) =
pj j is the standard factorisation,

m
Y
(pj j ).
j=1
Theorem 11

1
(p ) = p 1
p

Y
1
(n) = n
1
.
p
so
p|n
Proof. Consider the natural numbers in the interval 1 6 j 6 p . There are

p
= p1
p
multiples of p and the rest are coprime with p, (j, p) = 1 hence (j, p) = 1. Therefore
(p ) = p p1 = p (1 p1 ).
26
Ex
(100) = (22 52 )

1
1
= 100 1
1
2
5

1
4
= 100
2
5
= 40 40% are coprime with 100
Theorem 12 (Wilson) If p P, (p 1)! 1 (mod p).

Proof. In Zp , f (x) = xp1 1 has degree p 1 and roots [ 1 ]p , [ 2 ]p , . . . , [ p 1 ]p since
ap1 1 (mod p). x = 0 1 (1)p1 (p 1)! (mod p) (p 1)! 1 (mod p)
for p odd and for p = 2, (2 1)! = 1! = 1 1 (mod 2).
Note The converse also holds.
Note on Fermat Numbers

These can be defined as
F0 = 3
Fn+1 = Fn2 2Fn + 2, n > 0
27
since then
Fn 1 = (Fn1 1)2
2
= (Fn2 1)2
..
.
n
= (F0 1)2
n
= 22
n
so Fn = 22 + 1 n > 0.
Proposition 23 (Fn , Fm ) = 1 n 6= m.
28
M
obius Function and M
obius Inversion
(Mathematica: MoebiusMu[n])
Definition
1
if n = 1
m
(1)
if n is a product of m distinct p P
(n) =
0
if p P with p2 | n
Ex (1) = 1, (2) = 1, (6) = (1)2 = 1, (p) = 1, (4) = 0, (12) = (22 3) = 0
Proposition 24 is multiplicative.
Q n j
Q
i
Proof. Let (a, b) = 1, a = m
j=1 qj . If i or i > 2 then (ab) = 0 and
i=1 pi , b =
(a) or (b) = 0 so (ab) = 0 = (a)(b). If not
(ab) = (1)n+m = (1)m (1)n = (a)(b)
so is multiplicative.
Definition

I(n) =
1 if n = 1
.
0 if n > 1
29
Proposition 25 If f (n) is multiplicative and not identically zero, then f (1) = 1.
Proof. (1, a) = 1 f (1 a) = f (1)f (a) so f (a) = f (1)f (a). If we choose a so f (a) 6= 0
then 1 = f (1).
Theorem 13 Let g(n) and h(n) be multiplicative. Then the function
n
X
f (n) =
g(d)h
d
d|n
is also multiplicative.
Proof. Let (a, b) = 1. Then

ab
f (ab) =
g(d) h
d
d|ab

X
ab
=
g(d) h
d
d = uv
X
u | a, v | b

ab
=
g(uv) h
uv
u|a v|b
a b
XX
=
g(u) g(v) h
h
u
v
XX
u|a
v|b
30
since (u, v) =
a b
,
u v
= 1.

a
b
f (ab) =
g(u) h
g(v) h
u
v
u|a v|b

a
X
X
b
=
g(u) h
g(v) h
u
v
XX
u|a
v|b
= f (a)f (b).

Proposition 26 Let f be multiplicative and not identically zero. Then
X
Y
(d)f (d) =
(1 f (p))
d|n
(1)
p|n
where the product includes one term for each prime divisor of n.
Proof. Let g(n)
= (n)f (n) and h(n) = 1 in Theorem 13. Then LHS of equation (1) is
P
n
so is multiplicative. The RHS of (1) is also multiplicative since if n = ab
g(d)h
d|n
d
then (a, b) = 1, p | n p | a or p | b.
At n = 1
LHS = (1)f (1) = 1
RHS = empty product = 1 (by definition).
31
At n = p
LHS =
(d)f (d)
d|p
= (1)f (1) + (p)f (p) + (p2 )f (p2 ) +

= 1 + (1)f (p) + 0 + 0 +
= 1 f (p)
Y
RHS =
(1 f (p))
p|p
= 1 f (p)
= LHS
Hence they are equal, since multiplicative functions are determined by their values at 1
and prime powers.
Proposition 27 If n > 0,
X

(d) = I(n) =
d|n
1 if n = 1
.
0 if n > 1
Proof. Let f (d) = 1 in Proposition 26 and note

X
(d) = (1) = 1.
d|1
32

Theorem 14
X
(d) = n
d|n
Proof.
F Let S = {1, 2, , n}. IfFd | nSlet A(d) = {k
P: (k, n) = d, 1 6Pk 6 n}. Then
S = d|n A(d) (i.e. disjoint union 6= ) #S = d|n #A(d) or n = d|n f (d) where
f (d) = #A(d).
But

k n
,
= 1 and
(k, n) = d
d d
k
n
0<k6n 0< 6
d
d
so if q = kd there is a 1-1 correspondence between q N satisfying 0 < q 6
q, nd = 1.
i.e. f (d) = P
( nd )
n
Hence n =
d|n ( d )
But as d runs through the divisors of n, so does nd . Hence
X
n=
(d).
d|n
n
d
and
33
Ex Divisors of 6 are {1, 2, 3, 6} and

1
1
(1) + (2) + (3) + (6) = 1 + (2 1) + (3 1) + 6 1
1
2
3
= 1+1+2+2
= 6
Dirichlet Multiplication
Definition If f and g are two real functions on N then define their Dirichlet product
(or convolution) h(n) as
n
X
h(n) =
f (d)g
= (f g)(n).
d
d|n
Proposition 28 I f = f I = f where

1 if n = 1
I(n) =
0 if n > 1
34
Proposition 29
f g = gf
(commutative law)
(f g) k = f (g k).
(associative law)
Definition The function u(n) = 1 n N.

Then for Proposition 27:
X
(d) = I(n) is u = I
(2)
d|n
and for Theorem 14:

X
(d) = n is u = N
d|n
where N (n) = n is the identity. If f (1) 6 0 there is a unique function f 1 with f f 1 =

f 1 f = I.
Ex By (2) u = 1 , u1 = .
Theorem 13 says if f and g are multiplicative then so is f g, their Dirichlet product.
Theorem 15 (M
obius Inversion Formula)
n
X
X
f (n) =
g(d) g(n) =
(d)f
d
d|n
d|n
35
Proof. () f = g u
f =
=
=
=
(g u)
g (u )
gI
g.
gu =
=
=
=
(f ) u
f ( u)
f I
f.
() g = f

Ex Theorem 14:
X
(d) = n
d|n
u=N
36
(n) = ( N )(n)
X
n
=
(d)
d
d|n
= n
X (d)
d|n
Liouvilles Function
Definition
n=
m
Y
Pm
pi i (n) = (1)
i=1
Then is completely multiplicative.

Theorem 16 n > 1,
X
d|n

(d) =
1 if n is a square
0 otherwise.
37
P
Proof. Let g(n) = d|n (d). Then g = u is multiplicative as the Dirichlet product of
multiplicative functions. So we need to compute g(p ) for p P and = 1, 2, 3, . . .
X
g(p ) =
(d)
d|p
= (1) + (p) + (p2 ) + + (p )

= 1 1 + 1 1 + + (1)

0 if is odd
=
1 if is even.
Qm
Q
i
i
If n = m
i=1 g(pi ) = 0
i=1 pi and n is not a square, then j so j is odd, hence g(n) =
since the j th term is zero. If n is a square each i is even, hence g(pi i ) = 1 i g(n) = 1.
38
Averages of Arithmetic Functions
Definition
d(n) =
1 = # of divisors of n N
d|n
16d6n
is the divisor function.

Then, as a function of n, d is very irregular. d(p) = 2 p P but d(n) can be very large.
Averages are smoother
n
1X
d(n) =
d(j)
n j=1
indeed (later)
d(n)
= 1.
n log(n)
lim
Need the partial sums

D(x) =
d(j)
16j6x
where we define D(x) = 0 for 0 < x < 1. So D(x) = d(1) + d(2) + + d(bxc), x > 1.
Later we prove Dirichlets theorem:
x > 1 D(x) = x log(x) + (2 1)x + O

x
39
( is Eulers constant) where f (x) = O(g(x)) if x0 , M > 0 such that x > x0 , |f (x)| 6
M g(x) defines the big-Oh notation, and f (x) = h(x) + O(g(x)) f (x) h(x) =
O(g(x)).
Ex x = O(x2 ) , x2 + 7x + 20 = O(x2 )
Normally, f (x) is number theoretic, like D(x), h(x) is nice and smooth, g(x) is a nice
power, or other simple mop up for the random variation in f (x) e.g. D(x) = x log(x)+
O(x).
Definition We say f (x) is asymptotic to g(x) as x if
f (x)
=1
x g(x)
lim
and write f (x) g(x), x .

So D(x) x log(x) as x since

D(x)
x
x log(x) (2 1)x
=
+
+O
x log(x)
x log(x)
x log(x)
x log(x)
D(x)
x log(x)
log(n).
1. From this it follows that d(n)
Theorem 17 (Euler Summation) If f has a continuous derivative f 0 on [y, x] R
40
where 0 < y < x, then
S=
Z
f (n) =
f (t) dt +
y
y<n6x
(t btc)f 0 (t) dt
+ f (x)(bxc x) f (y)(byc y).
(3)
Proof. Let m = byc , k = bxc. If n, n 1 [y, x]:

Z n
Z n
0
btc f (t) dt =
(n 1)f 0 (t) dt
n1
n1
= (n 1)(f (n) f (n 1))

= {nf (n) (n 1)f (n 1)} f (n)
Summing from n = m + 2 to n = k, the sum in braces ({ }) telescopes to give
Z k
k
X
btc f 0 (t) dt = kf (k) (m + 1)f (m + 1)
f (n)
m+1
n=m+2
= kf (k) mf (m + 1)
f (n)
y<n6x
Hence
Z
S =
btc f 0 (t) dt + kf (k) mf (m + 1)
Zm+1
x
= btc f 0 (t) dt + kf (x) mf (y).
y
(4)
41
Integrating
Rx
y
f (t) dt (by parts) gives

Z
f (t) dt = xf (x) yf (y)

y
tf 0 (t)dt.
Then (4) (5) (3).

Theorem 18

X1
1
= log(x) + + O
n
x
n6x
where
Z
=1
1
t btc
dt = lim
x
t2
!
X1
log(x) .
n
n6x
(5)
42
Proof. Let f (t) =
1
t
in Theorem 17 with y = 1 so f 0 (t) = t12 and
X 1
X 1
= 1+
n
n
0<n6x
1<n6x
Z x
Z x
t btc
bxc x
1
dt +
dt
+
f (1)(b1c 1)
= 1+
t2
x
1
1 t
Z x
Z x
dt
t btc
x bxc
=
dt
+
1
t2
x
1 t

Z1 x
t btc
1
dt
+
1
+
O
= log(x)
t2
x
1
Z

Z
t btc
1
t btc
= log(x) + 1
dt +
dt + O
2
2
t
t
x
1
x
Now
Z
06
x
So
t btc
dt 6
t2
Z
x
1
1
dt = .
2
t
x

X 1
1
= log(x) + + O
n
x
16n6x
where = { }.
Note: = 0.577215776 . . . is Eulers constant (EulerGamma in Mathematica). It could
43
be rational, but probably is not. By Theorem 18,
!
X 1
lim
log(x) = + 0 = .
x
n
16n6x
Since log(x) as x ,
1
n=1 n
= , quoted earlier.
Theorem 19 (Dirichlet)
D(x) =
d(n) = x log(x) + (2 1)x + O
16n6x
Proof.
d(n) =
d|n
D(x) =
d(n) =
n6x
XX
n6x d|n
Now d | n n = qd so we can express the double sum as

X
1
D(x) =
q, d
qd 6 x

x
(6)
44
This is a sum over a set of lattice points in the q d plane with (q, d) such that qd = n
and n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , bxc. We sum these horizontally:
XX
D(x) =
1
d6x q6 x
d
But
X
1 = x + O(1) (Ex)
16i6x
so
D(x) =
X nx
d6x
= x
X1
d6x
o
+ O(1)
+ O(x)

1
= x log(x) + + O
+ O(x)
x
= x log(x) + O(x)
(7)
This is weaker than (6). To prove (6) we use the symmetry of the set of points:
o
X nj x k
d +
x
D(x) = 2
d
d6 x
= 2#(below line q = d) + #(on q = d)
(8)
45
But y R, byc = y + O(1) so (8)
o
X nx

d + O(1) + O x
D(x) = 2
d
d6 x
X 1
X

d+O x
2
d
d6 x
d6 x

x

1
= 2x log x + + O
+O x +O x
2
2
x

= x log(x) + (2 1)x + O x
= 2x
where we have use Lemma 1 below for the middle sum.

Lemma If > 0,
X
n6x
n =
x+1
+ O(x ) .
+1
46
Proof. In Theorem 17 (Euler Summation), let f (t) = t , f 0 (t) = t1
X
X
n = 1 +
n
0<n6x
1<n6x
Z
=
t dt +
1
1
x+1
=
+1 +1
x+1
=
+ O(x )
+1
t1 (t btc) dt + 1 (x bxc)x

Z x
1
dt + O(x )
+O t
1
Note: Improvements in the error term O( x)

at great cost:
1903 Voronoi
1922 van der Corput
1969 Kolesnik
1915 Hardy and Landau
The Distribution of Primes
in Dirichlets theorem for d(n) have come

O
O
O
O

x1/3 log(x)

x33/100

x+12/37 > 0

x > 41
47
Let
dt
2 log(t)
for x > 2 be the logarithmic integral and (x) = #{p P : 2 6 p 6 x}. Consider the
following data:
Li(x) =
x
but (x) ; Li(x) is better, and
So (x) ; log(x)
x
(x) log(x) Li(x).
(x)
x
0 as x 0 apparently. Indeed
This distribution is the subject of the famous Prime Number Theorem, which took
all of the 19th century to prove.
Because log(10n ) = n log(10)
in [2, 100] :
about
1
in [2, 1000] :
3
in [2, 1, 000, 000] : 16 etc.
1
2
the numbers are prime
1
so they progressively thin out with a local density log(t)
since if a 2,
1
(n)
6
6 12.
8
n/ log n
48
Note: This is as close as we will get to proving the Prime Number Theorem.
Lemma (Chebyshev) If H(n) =
Pn
1
j=2 j
then
H(n)
1
6 (n)
6 6.
8
n
Proof. Proof of Theorem 20 assuming Chebychevs Lemma:
For n > 2,
log
For n > 4,
Hence
1
2
n
2
Z
=
2
dt
1 1
1
< + + + <
t
2 3
n
dt
= log(n) .
t
n
1
log(n) 6 log
.
2
2
log(n) 6 H(n) 6 log(n) so, by the RHS of Chebychevs Lemma,
(n) 2H(n)
(n) log(n)
6
6 12
n
n
and by the LHS of Chebychevs Lemma
1
(n)H(n)
(n) log(n)
6
6
8
n
n
49
using Lemma 2 when n > 4.
If n = 2, (2) = 1 and
1
1
6
6 6.
8
2/ log(2)
| {z }
0.34
If n = 3, (3) = 2 and
2
1
6
6 6.
8
3/ log(3)
| {z }
0.73
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Proof of Lemma 2 :
Claim : k > 0, (2k+1 ) 6 2k
(9)
Proof: If x > 9, (x) 6 x2 since all even numbers greater than 2 are composite. Since
(21 ) = 1 = 20 , (4) = 2 = 21 and (8) = r = 22 , (1) is true k > 0.
1
Claim : ` 6 H(2` ) 6 `
2
(10)
50
+ + n1 .

1
1
`
+
+
H(2 ) =
2
3

1
1
>
+
+
2
4
`
=
2
where H(n) =
1
2

1
1 1 1 1
1
1
+
+ + +
+ +
+ + `
4
5 6 7 8
2`1 + 1
2

1
1 1 1 1
1
1
+ + +
+ + `
+
+ +
`
4
8 8 8 8
2
2
and

1 1
1 1 1 1
1
H(2 ) =
+
+
+ + +
+ + `
2 3
4 5 6 7
2

1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+ `1
6
2 2
4 4 4 4
2`1
2
6 `
`
This proves the claim.

If p P has n < p < 2n p | 2n! and p - n!

2n
2n!
p
=
n
n! n!

2n
p
n

n<p<2n
Y
(11)
51

By Lagrange, the power of p in
2n
n

is

r
X
2n
pm
m=1
n
2 m
p

(12)
where pr 6 2n < pr+1 and the sum is r since x, b2xc 2 bxc 6 1 (See below). Hence

Y
2n
pr

n
r
r+1
p 62n 2n
=
n
n(n 1) 1
n1
n2
1
52
so
2 6
2n
n
6 4n
(14)
Using LHS of (13) we get n(2n)(n) < 22n and the RHS gives 2n < (2n)(2n) , n > 1.
Now let n = 2k , k = 0, 1 , 2, . . . so these two inequalities translate to
2k((2
k+1 )(2k ))
k+1
6 22
, 22 6 2(k+1)(2
k+1 )
, k>0
or
k((2k+1 ) (2k )) 6 2k+1 , 2k 6 (k + 1)(2k+1 ).
(15)
Hence
(k + 1)(2k+1 ) k(2k ) =
6
<
=
k((2k+1 ) (2k )) + (2k+1 )

2k+1 + (2k+1 )
2k+1 + 2k by (9)
3 2k
Apply this for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k and add ((20 ) = (1) = 0):

(k + 1)(2k+1 ) < 3(20 + 21 + + 2k ) < 3 2k+1 .
By (15) and (16), k > 0
2k+1
1 2k+1
6 (2k+1 ) < 3
.
2k+1
k+1
(16)
53
If n N, n > 1 choose k so 2k+1 6 n < 2k+2 . By (10) ( is increasing)
(n) 6 (2k+2 ) < 3
2k+1
6n
2k+2
66
6
k+2
k+2
H(2 )
H(n)
(H is increasing) and
k+1
(n) > (2
1 2k+1
) >
2k+1
1 2k+2
=
8 12 (k + 1)
1 2k+2
8 H(2k+1 )
1 n
>
8 H(n)
>
1
(n)
6
66
8
n/H(n)
as claimed.
Ex x R, 0 6 b2xc 2 bxc 6 1
Proof.
bxc 6 x 2 bxc 6 2x
and 2 bxc Z 2 bxc 6 b2xc
54
so 0 6 b2xc 2 bxc
If x Z, then b2xc 2 bxc = 2x 2 x = 0 6 1.
If x 6 Z, n Z so n < x < n+1 and x = n+ 12 + where || < 21 . Then 2x = 2n+1+2.

b2xc = b2n + 1 + 2c
= 2n + 1 + b2c
= 2n + 1
bxc = n
Hence b2xc 2 bxc = (2n + 1) 2n = 1 6 1.

Note we have used several times the result
by + nc = byc + n n Z . (Ex)
55
Primes in Gaps
primes can be close together: {11, 13}, {29, 31}, {101, 103}, . . .
there can be long stretches of N with no primes:
a1
= n! + 2
a2
= n! + 3 are n 1 composite and consecutive
numbers, so none are prime
..
and n can be as large as you like.

an1 = n! + n
we will prove the celebrated Bertrands Hypothesis: n N, p P with
n 6 p < 2n.
n N does there exist a p P with n2 < p < (n + 1)2 ?
56
57
58
59
60
61
Aron, Potter, Young
lim [size of gap n] = .
If n N
a1 = (n + 1)! + 2
a2 = (n + 1)! + 3
a3 = (n + 1)! + 4
..
.
an = (n + 1)! + (n + 1)
Then {a1 , . . . , an } are consecutive and i + 1 | ai composite.
But [1993] best gap length = 804 at p 1015 .
n = 804 n! 0.771 101977 .
Proof of Bertrands Postulate
62
Proof. Claim:
x>2
p 6 4x1
(17)
p6x
If q is the largest prime less than or equal to x

Y
Y
p and 4q1 6 4x1
p=
p6x
p6q
so we can assume x = q is prime. If q = 2, 2 6 421 so let q = 2m + 1 be odd. Then

!
!
Y
Y
Y
p
p
p =
p6m+1
p62m+1
m+1<p62m+1
= AB
By induction A 6 4m . Also

2m + 1
m

=
(2m + 1)!
m! (m + 1)!
so all primes in B divide the numerator and are not cancelled so

1
2m + 1
2m + 1
B6
=
6 (1 + 1)2m+1
m
m+1
2
Hence A B 6 4m 22m = 42m+11 = 4x1 , which proves the claim.
63
Legendres Theorem Implications
n! contains the prime factor p exactly
j>1
n
p
times.
Ex 24! = 222 310 54 73 112 13 17 19 23

24
24
p = 23 :
= 1,
= 0,
23
232

24
24
= 3,
p=7:
= 0,
7
72
Claim:

2n
p
pr 6 2n.
n

j k
P j 2n k
2n
contains p
2 pnj
times. But
j>1
pj
n

2n
n
2n
n
2 j < j 2 j 1 =2
06
pj
p
p
p
r
each summand is 0 or 1 and is 0 for pj > 2n

X 2n
n
2 j
6 max{j : pj 6 2n}
j
p
p
j>1
64

if p > 2n, p occurs at most once in
If
2
n
3

2n
.
n

< p 6 n p does not appear in

2n
.
n
2
n
3
< p 2n < 3p p, 2p are the only multiples of p in the numerator of

p 6 n there are two in the denominator. So they cancel.
Ex n = 24
48
24
= 22 32 52 13 29 31 37 41 41 43 47
2 24
16 
4n
2n
(2n)!
.
n! n!
65
Hence
A
n
4
6
2n
A 6 (2n)
2n
2n
n
}|
Y
z
{
2n
p6 2n
}|
Y
n
3
2n<p6 23 n
}|
Y
!{
p
n<p62n
, C = 1 by (???), B 6 4 3 n by (17). Thus
{ z
log(4) 6 (1 +
4n 6 (2n)1+
2n
2n
43
2n) log(2n) n < 468.
But n 2.
Prime Number Theorem Implications
(x) log(x)
=1
x
x
lim
66
or

x
x
(x) =
+o
log(x)
log(x)
Number of primes in (x, x(1 + )], > 0, is

x
x
+o
> 0 for x > x
(x + x) (x) =
log(x)
log(x)
p with x N2 p
n < p < 2n
Bertrands Postulate
Chebyshev [1850]
Ramanujan
Erdos at age 19 years
Progress beyond Bertrand
< 1 with (x + x ) (x)
x
log(x)
67
1930
1937
1961
1972
1979
1984
1994
1998
Hoheisel
Ingham
Montgomery
Huxley
Iwaniec, Jutlia
Iwaniec, Printz
Lou and Yeo
Baker and Herman
1
= 1 33,000
+ ( > 0)
5
= 8 +
= 35 +
7
= 12
+
13
= 23 +
1
= 12 + 21
+ = 0.547 . . . +
7
= 13 + = 0.538 . . . +
= 0.535 . . . +
Exercise for John in his Retirement

[Hardy and Wright, 1979]: There is a prime p with n2 < p < (n + 1)2
Note: = 21 p x < p < x + x.

x = n2 n2 < p < n2 + n < (n + 1)2 .
Degree of difficulty for the student:
Other Results on the Distribution of Primes
68
Theorem 21 (Bertrands Postulate) n N, p P with n 6 p < 2n.
Theorem 22 There are infinitely many primes of the form 4n 1.
Proof. Assume there are only a finite number and let p be the largest. Let
n
z }| {
N = 2 3 5 p 1
2
The product n = 3 5 p contains all the odd primes less than or equal to p as factors.
Since N > p and N = 4n 1, it cannot be prime. No prime less than or equal to p
divides N (since it would divide 1). Thus all the prime factors of N must exceed p.
If x = 4m + 1 and y = 4` + 1 then
xy = 16m` + 4m + 4` + 1 = 4(4m` + m + `) + 1 = 4k + 1
If two factors of N are of the form 4n + 1, so is their product. But N has the form 4n 1,
so at least one prime factor must be of the form p = 4m 1. This contradiction proves
the theorem.
Can also show there are an infinite number of primes of each of the forms 4n + 1, 5n 1,
8n 1, 8n 3 and 8n + 3.
Note All numbers of the form 4n or 4n + 2 are composite. Every prime p P is of the
form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3.
69
Theorem (Dirichlet) If k > 0 and (h, k) = 1 then x > 1,
X log(p)
1
=
log(x) + O(1)
p
(k)
p6x
ph
(mod k)
Corollary Since x log(x) , there are an infinite number of primes

in every arithmetic progression nk + h, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . since p = nk + h for some
n p h (mod k).
Theorem (Dirichlet) Let
h (x) =
1.
p6x
p h (mod k)
Then h (x) counts the number of primes in nk + h, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

h (x)
1
x
(x)
as x
(k)
(k) log(x)
Corollary For each h (mod k), h (x) has the same asymptotic value i.e. the number
of primes in each class [ h ]k is asymptotically the same.
Note All attempts to extend this result to more complex subsets of N than arithmetic
progressions have failed.
70
1. Are there an infinite number of primes of the form p = n2 + 1?
Ex There are an infinite number of composites xy = n2 + 1.
2. Are there an infinite number of primes p such that q = 2p + 1 is also prime? (Sophie
Germain primes.)
3. Are there an infinite number of primes p such that q = p + 2 is also prime? (Twin
primes conjecture.)
Ex If n > 3 one of {n, n + 2, n + 4} is divisible by 3, and is hence composite. (No
triple primes conjecture.)
Proof.
n 0 (mod 3)
3|n
n 1 (mod 3) n + 2 3 0 (mod 3) 3 | n + 2
n 2 (mod 3) n + 4 6 0 (mod 3) 3 | n + 4

4. Find a quadratic polynomial f (n) = an2 + bn + c with an infinite number of prime
values.
71
r
f,J
~'"'t>
~J
I::
---
~('f)
~
~
72
73
74
Sums of Squares
Sums of Two Squares

Which n can be expressed as n = x2 + y 2 ?
1
2
4
5
8
=
=
=
=
=
12 + 02
12 + 12
22 + 02
22 + 12
22 + 22
But 3, 6, 7 cannot be written in this form.

Proposition If n 3 (mod 4) then n = x2 + y 2 is impossible.
Proof. x2 0 or 1 (mod 4) only x2 + y 2 0, 1 or 2 (mod 4) only x2 + y 2 3
(mod 4) is impossible.
Ex
3
6
x2 + y 2
7
6
x2 + y 2
15
6
x2 + y 2
75
Proposition If n is representable (as the sum of two squares) so is k 2 n k N.

Proof. x2 + y 2 = n k 2 x2 + k 2 y 2 = k 2 n k 2 n = (kx)2 + (ky)2 so k 2 n is representable.

Theorem n is not representable p k n where is odd and p 3 (mod 4).
Proof. () Let n = x2 + y 2 and d = (x, y) (the GCD), x1 = xd , y1 = yd , n1 =

2
x 2
+ yd = dn2 d2 | n and x21 + y12 = n1 and (x1 , y1 ) = 1.
d
n
d2
then
If p k d p2 | n1 and 2 > 1 since is odd. Hence p | n1 . But (x1 , y1 ) = 1 so

p - x1 and there is a u Z so ux1 y1 (mod p).
Hence 0 n1 x21 + y12 x21 + (ux1 )2 x21 (1 + u2 ) (mod p). But (p, x1 ) = 1 also so
p1
2+4`
1 + u2 0 (mod p). But p 3 (mod 4) (1 | p) = (1) 2 = (1) 2 = 1 so
u2 1 (mod p) is impossible. This contradiction shows n 6= x2 + y 2 .
Proposition a, b, c, d Z (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ac + bd)2 + (ad bc)2 .
Proof. LHS = a2 c2 + a2 d2 + b2 c2 + b2 d2
RHS = a2 c2 + b2 d2 + 2acbd + a2 d2 + b2 c2 2adbc = LHS.
OR
76
z = a ib, w = c + id, |z|2 |w|2 = |zw|2 .
Note: If n1 = x21 + y12 and n2 = x22 + y22 then n1 n2 = z12 + z22 where z1 = x1 x2 + y1 y2 and
z2 = x1 y2 x2 y1 . Hence the product of any two representable numbers is representable.
Ex 5 = 22 + 12 , 13 = 32 + 22 65 = 5 13 = (2 3 + 1 2)2 + (2 2 3 1)2 .
Theorem Every prime p 1 (mod 4) can be written as the sum of two squares.
Proof. Outline: Show x2 + y 2 = kp. Then if 1 < k there is a k1 < k.
p1
p 1 (mod 4) (1 | p) = (1) 2 = 1 os u2 1M odp has a solution. Hence

u2 + 1 = kp for some k N. Let x = u, y = 1. So x2 + y 2 = kp.
Define r, s by
r x (mod k) k2 < r 6
s y (mod k) k2 < s 6
k
2
k
2
Then r2 + s2 x2 + y 2 0 (mod k) r2 + s2 = k1 k for some k1 > 1. (rx + sy)2 +

(ry sx)2 = (r2 + s2 )(x2 + y 2 ) = (k1 k)(kp) = k1 k 2 p from the Proposition above.
But rx + sy r2 + s2 0 (mod k) and ry sx rs sr 0 (mod k). So k 2 | (rx + sy)2
and k 2 | (ry sx)2 and we can write

rx + sy
k
2

+
ry sx
k
2
= k1 p x21 + y12 = k1 p.
77
2
r2 + s2 6 k4 +
are done.
k2
4
k2
2
but r2 + s2 = k1 k k1 k 6
k2
2
k1 6
k
2
k1 < k and we
Notes:
1. n = x2 + y 2 + z 2 n 6= 4e (8k + 7) and only 15 numbers less than 100 cannot be
written as the sum of three squares
{7, 15, 23, 28, 31, 39, 47, 55, 60, 63, 71, 79, 87, 92, 95}
2. Every integer can be written as the sum of four squares.
3. 3 6= x3 +3 but every integer can be written as the sum of 9 cubes (of positive
integers).
4. Let g(k) be the smallest value of s N such that every integer can be written as
the sum of s k th powers. g(2) = 4, g(3) = 9
1770 Waring guessed {g(2), g(3), g(4) = 19}
1909 Proved g(k) exists for all k.
Much later
$ %
k
3
2
g(k) = 2k +
2
for 6 6 k 6 200, 000 and thought to be true for all k.
78
5. Goldbachs Conjecture (1742): Every even integer n > 2 can be written as the
sum of two primes.
4
6
8
10
12
=
=
=
=
=
..
.
2+2
3+3
5+3
5+5
7+5
100 = 97 + 3
Known 2n = p1 + p2 + + pk , k 6 2 1010 .
Vinograou n > n0 , 2n = p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 .
Chen (1966) n > n0 , 2n = p1 + p2 p3 .
Sums of Four Squares

Bachet (1621): Stated n N, n = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w2 where x, y, z, w > 0. Verified up
to n = 325.
Fermat claimed he had a proof.
79
Descartes: The theorem is true, but so difficult I dare not undertake it.
Euler (1743): Product of a sum of four squares is again a sum of four squares.
(1751): 1 + x2 + y 2 0 (mod p) p P.
Lagrange (1770): Proof.
Euler (1773): Simpler proofafter 43 years!
Proposition The product of four squares is a sum of four squares.
Proof.
(a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 )(r2 + s2 + t2 + u2 )
= (ar + bs + ct + du)2 + (as br + cu dt)2
+ (at bu cr + ds)2 + (au + bt cs dr)2
Check by multiplying out each side.
We now need only show every prime p is the sum of four squares.
Proposition If p is an odd prime then
1 + x2 + y 2 0
has a solution with 0 < x, y < p2 .
(mod p)
80
Proof. Let
(
S1 =
02 , 12 , . . . ,
p1
2
2 )
.
Then x2 y 2 (mod p) (x + y)(x 7) 0 (mod p) p | x + y or p | x y x = y

so the numbers in S1 are distinct mod p. So are the numbers in
if 0 6 x, y 6 p1
2
(

2 )
p
1
S2 = 1 02 , 1 12 1 22 , . . . , 1
.
2

p1
+
1
+
+
1
numbers i.e. p + 1 numbers. Hence one number in
S1 S2 contains p1
2
2
S1 is congruent to one number in S2 or x2 1 y 2 (mod p) and 0 6 x, y 6 p1
2
2
2
1 + x + y 0 (mod p).
Approach to Lagranges theorem: Express some multiple of p as the sum of four squares,
then prove there is a smaller multiple. The Proposition above implies kp = x2 +y 2 +12 +02 .
Proposition If p is an odd prime, there is an odd integer m < p such that
mp = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w2 .
Proof. By the above

kp = x2 + y 2 + 12 + 02
where 0 < x, y < p2 . kp = x2 + y 2 + 1 <
p2
4
p2
4
+ 1 < p2 k < p.
81
Claim: We can choose k odd. If k is even let
kp = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w2
then all of x, y, z, w are odd, all are even, or two are odd and two are even. So arrange
terms so x y (mod 2) and z w (mod 2).
kp
=
xy
2
2

+
x+y
2
2

+
zw
2
2

+
zw
2
2

+
z+w
2
2
If k2 is even repeat this process, until eventually, we obtain an odd multiple of p expressed
as the sum of four squares.
Proposition If m, p are odd, 1 < m < p and mp = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w2 then there is a
positive integer m1 with m1 < m and
m1 p = x21 + y12 + z12 + w12
Proof. Choose A, B, C, D in m2 < A, B, C, D <
(mod m).
m
2
with A x, B y, C z, D w
A 2 + B 2 + C 2 + D 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w 2
(mod m) 0
2
(mod m)
2
A2 +B 2 +C 2 +D2 = km for some k. But A2 +B 2 +C 2 +D2 < m4 + m4 + m4 + m4 = m2

0 < k < m. (k 6= 0 since k = 0 A = B = C = D = 0 so m | x, y, z, w m2 | mp.)
82
Hence m2 kp = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w2 )(A2 + B 2 + C 2 + D2 )
m2 kp = (xA + yB + zC + wD)2 + (xB yA + zD wC)2
+ (xC yD zA + wB)2 + (xD + yC zB wA)2
Each term in parentheses on the RHS is divisible by m:
xA + yB + zC + wD
xB yA + zD wC
xC yD zA + wB
xD + yC zB wA
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w 2
xy yx + zw wz
xz yw zx + wy
xw + yz zy wx
0 (mod m)
0 (mod m)
0 (mod m)
0 (mod m)
So put
xA + yB + zC + wD
m
xB yA + zD wC
=
m
xC yD zA + wB
=
m
xD + yC zB wA
=
m
x1 =
y1
z1
w1
x21 + y12 + z12 + w12 =
m2 kp
m2
= kp and k < m (from above) so the proposition is proved.
83
Theorem Every positive integer can be written as the sum of four integer squares.
Proof. 2 = 12 + 12 and pi = x2i + yi2 + zi2 + wi2 for odd pi P. So given
0
n=2
m
Y
pi i
i=1
apply the above results as many times as necessary to show that n can be expressed as
the sum of four squares.
Eulers Conjecture (1769): k > 3 a non-zero k th power is not equal to the sum of
k 1 non-zero k th powers.
(1966) Lander and Perkin k = 5
1445 = 275 + 845 + 1105 + 1335
(1988) Elkies (using elliptic curves)
20, 615, 6734 = 2, 682, 4404 + 15, 365, 6394 + 18, 796, 7604
Notes:
1. Every integer can be expressed as the algebraic sum of three squares i.e. n =
84
x2 y 2 z 2
2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 n2 + 02 (2n + 1 odd)
2n = (n + 1)2 n2 12 (2n even)
2. Every integer can be expressed as the sum of five cubes: If 6 | n then
(x + 1)3 + (x 1)3 2x3 = 6x = n
3
n 6 | n n3 so x nn
6

3

3
3
n n3
n n3
n n3
+1 +
2
= n n3
6
6
6
n = x31 + x32 + x33 + x34 + x35
Diophantine Equations
Ex The Pythagorean equation x2 + y 2 = z 2 , (x, y, z) = 1 has a solution

x = p2 q 2 , y = 2pq, z = p2 + q 2
for p N, q N with (p, q) = 1, one being even and one being odd. Conversely every
solution of the Pythagorean equation in coprime positive integers has this form. Ex
p = 2, q = 1, p = 3, q = 2.
85
Ex The equation 2x2 + 3y 2 = z 2 is insoluble: Assume (x, y, z) = 1 3 - x. But
2x2 z 2 (mod 3) (zx1 )2 2 (mod 3). But 02 0, 12 1, 22 1 (mod 3) so this
equation has no solution.
Fermats Last Theorem (FLT, 1994, Wiles, Ribet & Taylor) For n > 3 the
equation
xn + y n = z n
has no solution in (strictly) positive integers.
Theorem 23 There are no non-trivial solutions to x4 + y 4 = z 2
Corollary FLT is true for n = 4: If false there is a solution a4 + b4 = c4 = (c2 )2 so
there would be a solution x = a, y = b, z = c2 .
Proof. (of Theorem 23 ) (method of infinite descent) Suppose a4 + b4 = c2 is a solution
with c2 as small as possible. Then
Claim: (a, b) = 1. If not p P, p | aandp | b p4 | c2 so p2 | c and
4 4 2
a
b
c
+
=
p
p
p2
would be a solution with a smaller value for c2 .
Claim: a and b cannot both be odd. If so a = 2n + 1, b = 2m + 1 a4 + b4 2
(mod 4) but 02 0, 12 1, 22 0, 32 1 (mod 4) so c2 2 (mod 4) is impossible.
86
Claim: a and b cannot both be even. Since 2 | a, 2 | b 2 | (a, b) = 1.
Hence one is even and one is odd. Call the even one a. Now we have a solution to
x2 + y 2 = z 2 , (x, y) = 1.
(a2 )2 + (b2 )2 = c2
(a2 , b2 ) = 1, a2 is even and b2 is odd.
Hence, m, n Z, (m, n) = 1 not both odd so
a2 = 2mn
2
2
2
b = m n
c = m2 + n2
(18)
Claim: n is even. If n is odd and m even, b2 m2 n2 (mod 4) b2 n2

(mod 4) x2 1 (mod 4) but this is impossible so n is even, hence m is odd by
(18).
Say n = 2q.
(18) a2 = 4mq
a 2
2
= mq.
(19)
Claim (m, q) = 1: If not, p | m and p | q p | m and p | n (m, n) 6= 1. By (19)

t, v N with m = t2 , q = v 2 and (t, v) = 1. Now
n2 + (m2 n2 ) = m2
(20)
87
n = 2q = 2v 2
m2 n2 = b2
we know
m = t2
so (20) (2v 2 )2 + b2 = (t2 )2 and no two of 2v 2 , b and t2 have a common factor.
Therefore, by the Pythagorean theorem again 2v 2 = 2AB, t2 = A2 + B 2 , A > 0, B >
0, (A, B) = 1. v 2 = AB and (A, B) = 1 A = r2 , B = s2 , r > 0, s > 0 and so
r 4 + s4 = t 2 .
But t 6 t2 = m 6 m2 < m2 + n2 = c by (18) and so c is not the least member of a
solution (!!!).
Corollary x4n + y 4n = z 4n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . has no non-trivial solution.
Proof. If it did, say a4n + b4n = c4n , a, b, c > 1 (an )4 + (bn )4 = (c2n )2 would give a
solution to x4 + y 4 = z 2 , which is impossible.
Theorem 24 FLT(p) for any odd prime p FLT(n) n > 3.
Proof. Let n > 3 and an + bn = cn , a, b, c > 1. Let n not be divisible by any odd prime.
m
m
m
Then n = 2m , m > 2 so a2 + b2 = c2
m2
(a2
m2
)4 + (b2
solves x4 + y 4 = z 2 which is impossible.
)4 = (c2
m1
)2
88
Let n be divisible by some odd prime p > 3 so n = pm. Then
an + b n = c n
amp + bmp = cmp
(am )p + (bm )p = (cm )p
which is impossible by FLT(p)
Further reading Fermats Last Theoremby Simon Singh (4th Estate)
VideoFermats Last TheoremBBC Horizon
Proof based on the Frey curve y 2 = x(x Ap )(x B p ), which, if Ap + B p = C p , has a
discriminant (ABC)p , should not, and does not exist.
89
Ex Equations like y 2 = x3 + 7 are called elliptic curves. They arise in solving integrals
for, say, the period of a body in a planetary orbit.
(Lebesgue, 1869) The equation y 2 = x3 + 7 is insoluble over Z.
Proof. If x is even, x = 2 RHS = 83 + 7 = 8 + 7, where = 3 . But
02 0, 12 1, 22 4, 32 1, 42 0, 52 1, 62 4 and 72 1 (mod 8) so y 2 7
(mod 8) has no solution. Hence x is odd. Write
y 2 + 1 = x3 + 8
= (x + 2)(x2 2x + 4)
= (x + 2)((x 1)2 + 3)
If x = 2n + 1 (odd) then (x 1)2 + 3 = 4n2 + 3 = 4m + 3, m = n2 so (see back) must
have a prime factor of the form p = 4` + 3. But then y 2 + 1 qp 0 (mod p) But
(lemma later) p 3 (mod 4) y 2 1 (mod p) has no solution.
We frequently need to know the answer to the following: When does x2 r (mod p)
have a solution x? Or, more generally, x2 (mod m). The answer is given by the
theory of quadratic reciprocity due to Gauss. This will be developed later.
90
Pells Equation
x2 N y 2 = 1
Trivial solution x = 1, y = 0, x, y > 0.

N = 1 (x, y) = (1, 0) or (0, 1) are trivial solutions only.
N 6 2 (x, y) = (1, 0).
Let N > 0 and not a square: If N = M 2 , M 1, x2 N y 2 = x2 (M y)2 = (x
M y)(x + M y) = 1 x M y = 1 and x + M y = 1 so we can get all solutions. Indeed
(x, y) = (1, 0) for x, y > 0. So we always assume N 2.
Note: Solutions to Pells equation provide good rational approximations for square roots,
since x2 = N y 2 + 1
2
1
x
=N+ 2
y
y
xy N if y is large.
Note: This type of equation hasa long and interesting history, and has lots of applications, especially to fields F = Q( N ).
Ex (Euler, 1770) A triangular number has the form
n(n+1)
.
2
Which numbers are both
91
triangular and square?
m2 = n(n + 1)/2
8m2 + 1 = 4n2 + 4n + 1 = (2n + 1)2
x2 2y 2 = 1 where x = 2n + 1, y = 2m.
So solutions to this Pellian equation produce (all) square triangular numbers.
Definition A fundamental solution to x2 dy 2 = 1 is (r, s) where any other positive
solution satisfies r < x and s < y.
Theorem 25 (Lagrange) Let (r, s) be the least positive (or fundamental) solution to
x2 dy 2 = 1, where d is not a square. Then every solution to this equation is given by
(xn , yn ) where
xn + dyn = (r + s d)n
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Proof.
x2n dyn2 = (xn + yn d)(xn yn d)
= (r + s d)n (r s d)n
= (r2 s2 d)n = 1n = 1
Hence (xn , yn ) is a solution.
Let (a, b) be a solution. Suppose n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , (a, b) 6= (xn , yn ). Then there is a
92
positive integer m with
(r + s d)m < a + b d < (r + s d)m+1
But (r + s d)m = (r s d)m so (21)
1 < (a + b d)(r s d)m < (r + s d)
Let u + v d = (a + b d)(r s d)m so
u2 v 2 d = (u + v d)(u v d)
= (a + b d)(r s d)m (a b d)(r + s d)m

= (a2 b2 d)(r2 s2 d)m = 1 1m = 1
(21)
(22)
Thus (u, v) is a solution.
But 1 1 + 0 > 0
And 2v d = (u + v d) (u v d) > 1 1 = 0 so u > 0, v > 0 and u + v d < r + s d

by (22), contradiction the assumption that (r, s) is the fundamental solution. Hence
(a, b) = (xn , yn ) for some n.
Finding the least positive solution is not easy however and requires the theory of continued
fractions of J. L. Lagrange. Frenicles table for non-square d up to 50 is given below.
93
Pell's equation
"f,,'
~l:lPuler,
aftera cursoryreadingof Wallis'sOperaMathematica,
mistakenly
r~buted the first serious study of nontrivial solutions to equations of the
'~J;f!Inx2 - dy2=
1,wherex ~ 1 andy ~ 0, to Cromwell'smathematician
~a,.John
Fell. However, there is no evidence that Fell, who taught at the
'~;~niversity of Amsterdam, had ever considered solving such equations.
~t[;rhey:would be more aptly called Fermat's equations, since Fermat first
~~(tlvestigated
properties of nontrivial solutions of each equations. Neverthe,~\(tess,
Pellian equations have a long history and can be traced back to the
.;ff,.Greeks.Theon of Smyrna used x/y to approximate ~, where x and y
~'\gY(ereintegral solutions to x2 - 2y2 = 1. In general, if x2 = dy2+ 1, then
;~~2/y =d+ 1/y2. Hence, for y large, x/y is a good approximation of
~'Yd,a factwell knownto Archimedes.
JI(Archimedes's problema bovinum took two thousand years to solve.
itccording to a manuscript discovered in the Wolfenbiittel library in 1773
,tRY Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, the German critic and dramatist, Archi~~edes became upset with Apollonius of Perga for criticizing one of his
t~orks. He divised a cattle problem that would involve immense calculation
j~?isolve and sent it off to Apollonius. In the accompanying corresponr!~ence,A.rchimedes asked Apollonius to compute, if he thought he was
,ii'
.
~
-~
smart enough, the number of the oxen of the sun that grazed once upon the
plains of the Sicilian isle Trinacria and that were divided according to color
into four herds, one milk white, one black, one yellow and one dappled,
with the following constraints:
white bull~
black bulls
~ yellow
bulls
+ (~+ ~)
( )
( + '7) whitebulls,
1
= yellow bulls + 4 + :5
dappled bulls
= yellow bulls +
white cows = (~+~)

black cows = (~+~)
black bulls,
dappled bulls,
"6
black herd,
dappled herd,
i
f
94
95
96
Continued Fractions
Ex
1+
1
2 + 3+1 1
= 1+
1
1
2 + 13/4
1
4
2 + 13
1
= 1+
30/13
13
= 1+
30
43
=
30
= 1+
looks silly until we consider some interesting continued fraction expansions

: [3, 7, 15, 1, 292, 1, 1, 1, . . .] i.e.
3+
e : [2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, . . .]
1
7+
1
1
15+ 293+
97
2 : [1, 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .]
3 : [1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, . . .]
5 : [2, 4, 4, 4, . . .]
n2 + 1 : [n, 2n, 2n, . . .] (Euler)
Definition By a simple continued fraction (or C.F.) we mean an expression

a0 +
1
= [a0 , a1 , a2 , . . .]
1
a1 + a2 +
where a0 Z and ai N for i > 1.

Note: [a0 ] =
a0
,
1
[a0 , a1 ] =
a0 a1 +1
,
a1
[a0 , a1 , a2 ] =
a2 a1 a0 +a2 +a0
a2 a1 +1
Generally, [a0 , . . . , an ] = pqnn where pn and qn are polynomials in the ai , linear in any given
aj , and a0 does not occur in the denominator qn . (pn , qn ) are called the nth convergents.
Note: [a0 , . . . , an ] = [a0 , . . . , an1 +
Proposition
ai = bi i.
1
]
an
If [a0 , . . . , am ] = [b0 , . . . , bn ], ai , bi N, am , bn > 1 then m = n and
Proof. This follows by induction from

[a0 , . . . , am ] = a0 +
1
1
= b0 +
[a1 , . . . , am ]
[b1 , . . . , bn ]
98
if we can show [a1 , . . . , am ] > 1 when a1 , . . . , am > 1. But this is so since [a1 , . . . , am ] =
1
a1 + a2 +
.
Let ai > 0 and n let n = [a0 , . . . , an ] then n can be computed using the recursive
formulas, for n 2:
p0 = a0
q0 = 1
so 0 =
p0
,
q0
1 =
p1
q1
and n =
p 1 = a0 a1 + 1
q 1 = a1
pn = an pn1 + pn2
qn = an qn1 + qn2
pn
qn
Proof.
n = [a0 , . . . , an ] = [a0 , . . . , an1 +
where these belong to a0 , . . . , an2 , an1 +

an1 +
p0n1

=
0
qn1
an1 +
1
an
p0
1
] = n1
0
an
qn1
i.e. (induction)
1
an
pn2 + pn3
1
an
qn2 + qn3
an (an1 pn2 + pn3 ) + pn2

an (an1 qn2 + qn3 ) + qn2
an pn1 + pn2
=
(induction again!)
an qn1 + qn2
=
99
Hence pn = an pn1 + pn2 and qn = an qn1 + qn2
(pn , qn ) are called the nth convergents of the C.F.
Let R \ Z, > 1. a0 = bc so = a0 + 11 , 1 > 1 defines 1 . Continue with
1
, an = bn c , n=1 > 1 if
1 = a1 + 12 so a1 = b1 c , 2 > 1 if 1 6 Z etc n = an + n+1
n 6 Z. We get
1
= a0 +
1
a1 + a2 +
1
...
1
+
1
an +
so = [a0 , a1 , . . . , an +
1
n+1
n+1
Proposition The expansion stops if n = an is in N and then Q+ i.e. is a positive

rational number. Conversely, if Q+ , the C.F. expansion is finite.
Proof. Let =
u
v
Q+ , u, v N. Use division
u = a0 v + r1 0 < r1 < v
v = a1 r1 + r2 0 < r2 < r1
r1 = a2 r2 + r3 0 < r3 < r2
..
.
rn1 = an rn + 0
100
as if we were doing the Euclidean algorithm. These equations give
u
1
r1
1
= a0 +
= a0 +
= a0 +
v
v
v/r1
1
r2
1
1
= a1 +
= a1 +
= a1 +
r1
r1 /r2
2
..
.
rn1
N
=
rn
= 0 =
1
so the C.F. expansion is finite.

Proposition n > 2
=
n pn1 + pn2
n qn1 + qn2
Proof. The definition of n is = [a0 , . . . , an1 , n ] so = n =

and n for this particular C.F.
Ex
pn
qn
n pn1 +pn2
n qn1 +qn2
using an
2 = [1, 2, 2, . . .]
( 2 1)( 2 + 1) = 2 1 = 1 2 1 =
We now copy the expression for
1
1+ 2
so
2=1+
2 in the RHS into the
1
.
1+ 2
2 on the RHS successively
101
(photocopy model for recursion).
2 = 1+
1
1 + 1 + 1+12
1
= 1+
2 + 1+12
1
= 1+
2 + 2+ 1 1
1+
etc.
leading
to
2
=
[1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
.
.
.
,
2,
1
+
2]. If we continue indefinitely we obtain
2 = [1, 2, 2, . . .] = [1, 2 ].
Every quadratic irrational has a periodic continued fractionthis characterises quadratic
irrationals.
Ex
2 = [1, 2, . . . , 2, 1 +
2] so a0 = 1, a1 = 2, . . .

p0
1
p0 = a0 = 1
0 =
= =1
q0 = 1
q0
1
p 1 = a0 a1 + 1 = 3
q 1 = a1 = 2

1 =
p1
3
= = 1.5
q1
2
102

7
p2
p 2 = a2 p 1 + p 0 = 7
= = 1.4
2 =
q 2 = a2 q 1 + q 0 = 5
q2
5
and the approximation n 2 gets better.

Theorem 26 Let a0 Z, ai N, i > 1. Then (n ) converges to an irrational number
. The ai are uniquely determined by the C.F. expansion of . Conversely, if is an
irrational number, and n = [a0 , . . . , an ] are obtained by expanding as a C.F. then
= lim n .
n
Proof. The sequences (pn ) and (qn ) are both strictly monotonically increasing sequences
of natural numbers.
Claim:
pn qn1 pn1 qn = (1)n1
(23)
11
n > 1. If n = 1 this is p1 q0 p0 q1 = (a0 a1 + 1)1 a0 a1 = 1 = (1)

Assume it is true for n = m. Then
pm+1 qm pm qm+1 =
=
=
=
=
which is true.
(am+1 pm + pm1 )qm pm (am+1 qm + qm1 )

pm1 qm pm qm1
(pm qm1 pm1 qm )
(1)m1
(1)m
103
Hence, by induction, the claim is true n > 1.
Divide (23) by qn qn1 to obtain
(1)n1
pn pn1
=
qn
qn1
qn qn1
or
(1)n1
qn qn1
(24)
(1)n1
qn1 (n qn1 + qn2 )
(25)
n n1 =
Apply this to = [a0 , . . . , an1 , n ] to get
n1 =
But i > 0 and qi
lim n =
n
since RHS of (25) 0. The proof of uniqueness is similar to that given above when
Q+ .
2
Aside Numbers of the
form + d, d N, d 6= m are a field, F = Q( d), the
extension of Q by d:

1
d
= 2
=
{
+
1
1 d}
2d
2 2 d
2 2 d
+ d
104
Diophantine Approximation
Equation (25) implies

1
pn =

qn
qn (n+1 qn + qn1 )
1
<
qn qn+1
(26)
The numbers q0 , q1 , . . . are strictly increasing in N. The continued fraction process provides us with an infinite sequence of rational approximations to an irrational number, ,
namely the convergents pqnn Q. How rapidly do they approach ?
By (26), if
x
y
is a convergent,

x
1
< 2

y
y
It is possible to prove that (Hurwitz, 1891] any irrational number has an infinite number
of rational approximations which satisfy

x < 1
(27)

y
5y 2
This is the best possible: If we choose > 5 then there

are numbers R \ Q for

x
which there are only a finite number of rationals y with xy < y1 2 .
105
e.g. the golden ratio
g =1+
so g 2 g 1 = 0 g =
1
1+
=1+
1
1
1+ 1+...
1
g
1+ 5
.
2
Inequalities of the form (27) will be very important later when

we study rational, alge
401 1+ 5
braic, irrational and transcendental numbers such as 403 , 2 and e or .
Quadratic Irrationals
solutions to quadratic equations with Z coefficients e.g. x2 2 = 0 x = 2.
simplest type of irrational e.g. ( 4 + 71/3 )1/5 is more irrational as is (see later)
Ex =
24 15
17
: 3<
15 < 4 bc = 1 and
=1+
1
1
106
1
17
7 + 15
=
1 =
=
1
2
7 15
b1 c = 5
1
1 = 5 +
2
2
1
=
2 =
=
1 5
15 3
b2 c = 2
1
2 = 2 +
3
1
3
3 =
=
=
2 2
15 3
b3 c = 3
1
3 = 3 +
4
4
15 + 3
3
15 + 3
2
1
2
15 + 3
=
=
=
so 4 = 2
3 3
3
15 3
25 15
1
=1+
17
5 + 2+ 1 1
3+
1
2+ 1
3
107
Ex
=
=
=
=
[1,
[1,
[2,
[2,
2]
1, 2 ]
4]
2, 4 ]
H. Davenport, The Higher Arithmetic
Ex
50 = [ 7, 14 ]
108
Purely periodic fractions
Ex
2+1 = 2+
1
2+
6 + 2 = [ 4, 2 ]
1
1
2+
These numbers are easier to deal with than those with a preperiod.
Ex
= 4+
1
1+
1
3+
4+
1
1
1
1+ 3+
= [4, 1, 3, ]
using the recursive equations we get convergents
=
4
, 5 , 19 , 5 , . . .
1 1 4 1
19 + 5
pn1 + pn2
=
4 + 1
qn1 + qn2
Hence 42 18 5 = 0 and is a quadratic irrational.

.
109
Now consider the number which has the period of reversed :
= [ 3, 1, 4 ] =
19 + 4
5 + 1
5 2 18 4 = 0
The equations are the same if 1 = 1 is the second root of the equation for
called the (algebraic) conjugate of or i.e. = 1/.
In general let = [a0 , . . . , an , ] be purely periodic, then
=
pn + pn1
qn + qn1
Let = [an , . . . , a0 ] = [an , . . . , a0 , ] then (Ex)

=
pn + qn
pn1 + qn1
As before 1 is the conjugate of the root .

Note: If > 1 then 1 < 1 < 0.
Theorem 27 Any purely periodic continued fraction represents a quadratic irrational
number > 1 with a conjugate satisfying 1 < < 0. This conjugate is = 1
where is defined by the C.F. of with the period reversed.
110
Remark (Galois, 1828) This property characterises numbers with purely periodic continued fractions.
Definition A quadratic irrational is reduced if > 1 and 1 < < 0.
Theorem 28 If is reduced, its C.F. expansion is purely periodic.
Proof. There are integers a, b, c such that a 2 + b + c = 0. Solving for :
b b2 4ac
P D
=
=
2a
Q
where P, Q Z, D N, D 6= m2 . Assume the sign is positive, else multiply by
P+ D
=
Q
so , the other root, is
Note that
P D
=
.
Q
P2 D
b2 (b2 4ac)
=
= 2c Q | P 2 D
Q
2a
1
1
so
111
But 1 < and 1 < < 0 so
> 0 QD > 0 Q > 0

P
+>0 Q
>0 P >0
<0
P < D
1<
Q<P+ D<2 D
P, Q N, P < D, Q < 2 D and Q | P 2 D.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(28)
Now expand as a C.F.

1
, a0 = bc , 1 > 1
1
1
= a0 +
1
1
1 < 1 < 0
1 =
a0
= a0 +
Hence 1 is reduced also. Similarly 2 , 3 , . . . are reduced.

Now
1
P+ D
P Qa0 + D
= a0 =
a0 =
1
Q
Q
so let P1 = P + Qa0 so
Q
P1 + D
=
1 =
Q1
P1 + D
(29)
112
where Q1 Q = D P12 and Q1 Z since Q | D P 2 and P1 P (mod Q).
Then
P1 + D
1 =
Q1
and since 1 is reduced, P1 > 0, Q1 > 0 and get the conditions (28) above using (29).
We carry on with the C.F. process, using 1 instead of , . . .. Each complete quotient
pn
has the form
qn
Pn + D
n =
Qn
where Pn , Qn satisfy (28)There are only a finite set of possibilities for the pairs (Pn , Qn )
so eventually we come to a pair (Pm , Qm ) = (Pn , Qn ) , m > n so m = n and so the
C.F. is periodic from this point on.
Claim: The C.F. is purely periodic.
Subclaim: n1 = m1 . If this were so we would be able to work back to get, eventually,
1
n = an +
0 = mn proving pure periodicity. Proof of the subclaim: n = an + n+1
1
1
1
. Let n = n then 1 < n < 0 1 < n and n = an n+1 or n+1 = an + 1n
n+1
so an = bn c = bn+1 c. Now let n < m and n = m so n = m n = m and
an1 = bn c = bm c = am1 . But n1 = an1 + 1n , m1 = am1 + 1m n1 = m1 .
113
Applying this again successively = 0 = mn = r say, and
= [a0 , a1 , . . . , ar1 , r ]
= [a0 , a1 , . . . , ar1 , ]
= [ a0 , a1 , . . . , ar1 ]
pure periodic with period length r.
114
115
116
Now Consider the table on given above: N N, n 6= m2 . All the continued fractions are
of a special form:
j k
(1) None are purely periodic N = N < 1 but a0 =

N , = a0 + N
has
< k and 1j < k < 0 and the continued fraction of begins with 2a0 since
j 1
a0 + N = a0 +
N = 2a0 . Hence a0 + N = [2a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 2a0 ] eventually since
it is purely periodic.
(2) There is one preperiod term for N (with a periodic part consisting of symmetric
terms), followed by 2a0 :
N = [a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , a2 , a1 , 2a0 ]
Ex
53 = [7, 3, 1, 1, 3, 14]
Theorem (Lagrange) A continued fraction is periodic it is the continued fraction

of a quadratic irrational. Ex
21/3 = [1, 3, 1, 5, 11, 4, 1, . . .]
e1
= [2, 6, 10, 14, . . .]
e+1
e = [2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, . . .]
117
Return to the Fundamental Solution to Pells Equation
N = [a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 2a0 ]
|
{z
}
periodic part
118
Let
pn1
, pqnn
qn1
be the two convergents just preceding 2a0 . i.e
pn1
= [a0 , . . . , an1 ]
qn1
pn
= [a0 , . . . , an1 , an ]
qn
Now =
N=
n+1 pn +pn1
n+1 qn +qn1
(1) where
1
a1 + . . .
= [2a0 , a1 , a2 , . . .]
= a0 + N
n+1 = 2a0 +
Substituting this value for n+1 in (1) and simplifying gives

N ( N + a0 )qn + N qn1 = ( N + a0 )pn + pn1

equating rational and irrational parts:
N qn
a0 q n
pn1
qn1
=
+
=
=
a0 pn + pn1
qn1 = pn
N q n a0 p n
p n a0 q n
119
Substitute in equation (1) on page 74 to get
pn (pn a0 qn ) qn ((N qn a0 pn ) = (1)n1
p2n N qn2 = (1)n1
Hence x = pn , = qn is a solution to x2 N y 2 = 1 if n is odd and x2 N y 2 = 1 if n
is even. In the latter case apply the same argument to the convergents at the end of the
second period: [a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 2a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 2a0 ] so x = p2n+1 , y = q2n+1 solve
x2 N y 2 = (1)2n+11 = (1)2n = 1
Ex N = 21
21 = [4, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 8] so n = 5 odd
Convergents: 14 , 51 , 29 , 23
, 32
, 55
= pq55 , . . .
5
7
12
So x1 = p5 = 55, y1 = q5 = 12 solves x21 21y12 = 1
This gives the fundamental solution. Other solutions are
xm + ym 21 = (x1 + y1 21)m , m = 2, 3, 4, . . .
Ex N = 29
29 = [5, 2, 1, 1, 2, 10] so n = 4 even
, 16
, 27
, 70
, 727 , 1524
, 2251
, 3774
, 9801
=
Convergents: 15 , 11
2
3
5
13 135
283
418
701
1820
So x1 = 9801, y1 = 1820 gives the fundamental solution.
p9
q9
120
Note
1. Not all details have been proved, e.g. that the C.F. expansion gives all of the
solutions, including the fundamental.
2. There are deep mysteries tied up in C.F. expansions e.g. why are they o closely
related to quadratic irrationals?
121
10
Quadratic Reciprocity
Let p be an odd prime p {3, 5, 7, . . .}, n Z, p - n.

If x2 n (mod p) has a solution x Z let (n | p) = 1.
If x2 n (mod p) has no solution let (n | p) = 1.
If p | n let (n | p) = 0.
This defines the Legendre symbol, (n | p).
122
Ex p = 11:
12
22
32
42
52
and 62
72
82
92
102
and 112
=
=
1
4
9
16 = 11 + 5 5
25 = 22 + 3 3
(11 5)2 (5)2 52 3
(4)2 5
(3)2 9
(2)2 4
(1)2 1
0 (mod 11)
So the quadratic residues are 1, 3, 4, 5, 9 (n | 11) = 1

the non-residues are 2, 6, 7, 8, 10 (n | 11) = 1
and (11 | 11) = 0.
Proposition a b (mod p) (a | p) = (b | p)
Proof. a = b + lp so if p | a p | b (a | p) = 0 (b | p) = 0. Also (a | p) = 1
x2 a (mod p) has a solution x2 a b has a solution.
123
Proposition Let p P be odd. Every (reduced) residue system mod p contains exactly
p1
quadratic residues and p1
quadratic non-residues mod p. The quadratic residues
2
2
belong to the residue classes containing the numbers:
(

2 )
p
1
R = 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . ,
2
Proof. Claim: the numbers in R are distinct mod p: If x2 , y 2 N and x2 y 2
+ p1
< p so
(x y)(x + y) 0 (mod p) p | (x y)(x + y) But 0 < x + y 6 p1
2
2
p | x y x y (mod p) x = y.
Since (p k)2 = p2 2pk + k 2 k 2 (mod p) and {1, 2, . . . , p 1} is a complete set of
representatives, every quadratic residue is congruent to one of the numbers in R.
Ex p = 7
12 1
22 4
32 2
The number of residues is
1, 4, 2 are residues
3, 5, 6 are non-residues
71
2
Ex For all odd p, (1 | p) = 1.
= 3. So
124
Ex For all odd p and m Z, (m2 | p) = 1.
Ex Fix p and let f (n) = (n | p) so f : Z {1, 0, 1}. Then f (n + p) = (n + p | p) =
(n | p) = f (n) so f is periodic with period p. It is also completely multiplicative.
f (ab) = f (a)f (b) a, b Z.
Theorem 29 (Euler) Let p P be odd. Then n Z,
(n | p) n
p1
2
(mod p).
Proof. Note p1
N. If p | n both sides are zero so suppose p - n.
2
Let (n | p) = 1. Then x so x2 n (mod p)
n
p1
2
(x2 )
p1
2
= xp1 1 = (n | p)
by Fermats little theorem. Hence

n
p1
2
(n | p) if (n | p) = 1
Let (n | p) = 1. Consider the polynomial

f (x) = x
p1
2
So, over any field, f has at most

has at most p1
solutions. But the
2
1, f = degree of f =
p1
2
p1
2
p1
2
roots, hence the congruence f (x) 0 (mod p)

quadratic residues mod p are solutions (the case
125
(n | p) = 1) so the non-residues are not. Hence
n
But
p1
2
6 1
(mod p) if (n | p) = 1.
p1

p1
np1 1 = n 2 1 n 2 + 1
and p | np1 1 so
n
Hence
n
p1
2
p1
2
(mod p)
1 = (n | p)
(mod p)

Proposition f (n) = (n | p) is completely multiplicative.
Proof. p | m or p | n p | mn (mn | p) = 0, hence f (mn) = f (m) f (n) if p | m or
p | n. Let p - m and p - n. Then p - mn so
(mn | p) (mn)
p1
2
= f (mn) = m
p1
2
p1
2
(m | p) (n | p)
(mod p)
But each of (mn | p) , (m | p) or (n | p) is 1 os the difference (mn | p) (m | p) (n | p)

is 0, 2. But this difference is divisible by p, hence it is 0, and therefore, (mn | p) =
(m | p) (n | p) f (mn) = f (m) f (n) so f is completely multiplicative.
Proposition
(1 | p) = (1)
p1
2

=
1 p1
1 p 3
(mod 4)
(mod 4)
126
Proof. By Euler, Theorem 29,

(1 | p) (1)
p1
2
(mod p)
since each side is 1, they must be equal.

Ex p = 5,
p1
2
=2
n
0
(n | 5) 0
1 2 3 4 5
1
1 0
p=7
n
0 1
(n | 7) 0 1
2 3 4 5
6 7
-1 0
Proposition
(2 | p) = (1)
p
p2 1
8
1 2
R

=
1 p 1
1 p 3
3 4
N
5 6
N
(mod 8)
(mod 8)
7
R
127
Proof. Consider the
p1
2
congruences mod p:
p 1 1(1)1
2 2(1)2
p 3 3(1)3
..
.
p1
p1
(1) 2
r
2
Multiply these together and note that each integer on LHS is even, since p is odd.

p1
p1
2 4 6 (p 1)
!(1)1+2+3++ 2
(mod p)
2

p1
p2 1
p1
p1
2 2
!
!(1) 8
(mod p)
2
2

But p - p1
!, hence, by Euler, Theorem 29,
2
(2 | p) = 2
p1
2
(1)
p2 1
8
and since LHS and RHS are 1 we have

(2 | p) = (1)
p2 1
8
(mod p)
128
Eulers theorem is normally too computationally expensive to compute (n | p). Gauss
lemma and Reciprocity theorem, proved below, both give better ways to evaluate this
function.
Note: f : Z {1, 0, 1} S 0 {0} = {z C : |z| = 1}{0} is an example

of a so-called
Z
0
character an extension of the group character : pZ S , [ n ]p = (n | p)
Theorem 30 (Gauss) Let p - n and consider the residues mod p of the p1
multiples
2
p1
of n, M = {n, 2n, 3n, . . . , 2 n} which are the least positive residue representatives, i.e.
which lie in {1, . . . , p}. If m is the number which exceed p2 , then (n | p) = (1)m .
Proof. If p | in jn with 1 6 i, j 6 p1
. Then p | (i j)n but p - n i = j. hence the
2
numbers in M are incongruent mod p.
Consider their least positive residues and put them in two disjoint sets A = {a1 , . . . , ak }
and B = {b1 , . . . , bm } where ai tn (mod p), 1 6 t 6 p1
, 0 < ai < p2 and bi sn
2
(mod p), 1 6 s 6 p1
, p2 < bi < p (1).
2
Since A B = , m + k = p1
. Let ci = p bi , 1 6 i 6 m and C = {c1 , . . . , cm }. Now
2
0 < ci < p2 by (1).
Claim A C = : If ci = aj p bi = aj aj + bj = p 0 (mod p) tn + sn =
(t + s)n 0 (mod p) for some s and t with 1 6 s, t < p2 . But this is impossible since
129
1 <6 s + t < p p - s + t. Hence A C = .
Hence #(A C) = m + k = p1
integers in [1, p1
]. Hence
2
2
A C = {a1 , . . . , ak , c1 , . . . , cm } = {1, 2, . . . ,
p1
}
2
Now form the product of all of the elements in A C:

p1
a1 a2 ak c 1 c 2 c m =
!
2
But ci = p bi so

p1
! = a1 ak (p b1 ) (p bm )
2
(1)m a1 ak b1 bm (mod p)

p1
m
n
(1) n(2n)(3n)
2

p1
m p1
! (mod p)
(1) n 2
2
n
p1
2
(mod p)
(1)m (mod p) and (n | p) = (1)m follows by Theorem 29.
Theorem 31 If m is defined as in the above theorem,

p1

2
X
jn
j=1

+ (n 1)
p2 1
8

(mod 2)
130
so if n is odd:
p1

2
X
jn
j=1
(mod 2)
Note (1) If n N, n = 2a m, a > 0, m odd, so

(n | p) = (2 | p)a (m | p) where m is odd
= (1)
a(p2 1)
8
(m | p)
(2) (n | p) = (1)m so only the value of m (mod 2) (its parity) is needed to compute
the Legendre symbol.
Proof. The number m is the number of least positive residues of n, 2n, . . . , p1
n exceeding
2
p
. Let jn be one of these
2

jn
jn
jn
jn
=
+
where 0 <
<1
p
p
p
p

jn
jn
jn
so jn = p
+p
=p
+ rj where 0 < rj < p
p
p
p
131
The number rj is the least positive residue of jn : rj = jn p
notation as in the previous theorem,
j k
jn
p
(1). Using the same
{r1 , . . . , r p1 } = {a1 , . . . , ak , b1 , . . . , bm }
2

p1
= {a1 , . . . , ak , c1 , . . . , cm }
1, 2, . . . ,
2
c i = p bi
Add all of the elements in each set:
p1
2
X
p1
2
j=
k
X
j=1
ai +
rj =
k
X
j=1
i=1
m
X
k
X
i=1
cj =
j=1
m
X
ai +
bj (2)
j=1
ai + mp
i=1
m
X
bj (3)
j=1
In (2) use (1) for rj :

k
X
i=1
ai +
m
X
p1
p1
bj = n
jp
j=1
j=1
(3) is mp +
2
X
k
X
i=1
ai

2
X
jn
p
j=1
m
X
j=1
(4)
p1
bj =
2
X
j=1
j (5)
132
Add (4) and (5) to get
2
k
X
p1
!
ai

+ mp = (n + 1)
i=1
p2 1
8

p

2
X
jn
j=1
But p 1 (mod 2) and n + 1 n 1 (mod 2), hence

p1

m (n + 1)
p2 1
8

+

2
X
jn
j=1
(mod 2)

Theorem 32 (Quadratic Reciprocity Law, Gauss, 1796) If p and q are distinct
odd primes, then
(p1)(q1)
4
(1)
(p | q) (q | p) = (1)
Proof. (q | p) = (1)m where
p1

2
X
jq
j=1
(mod 2)
Similarly (p | q) = (1) where

q1

2
X
ip
i=1
(mod 2)
133
Hence (p | q) (q | p) = (1)m+n and (1) follows from the claimed identity:
p1
q1

2
X
jq
j=1

2
X
ip
i=1

=
p1
2

q1
2

(2)
Consider the rectangle with given vertices. (In the illustration, p = 7, q = 5.)
The diagonal does not pass through any lattice point, because if so, y = pq x at the lattice
point (x, y). xq = yp p | x and q | y so x > p, y > q and the point (x, y) must be
134
outside the rectangle.

The total number of lattice points inside the rectangle is p1
2
The total number of points in the triangle below the diagonal is
q1
2
=c
p1
b=

2
X
jq
j=1
The number above is
q1
a=

2
X
ip
i=1
So a + b = c and so (2) follows, hence (1).

Ex (219 | 383). Note 383 P. Now 219 = 3 73 (73 P) so, by multiplicativity
(219 | 383) = (3 | 383) (73 | 383) .
Reciprocity implies that
(3 | 383) (383 | 3) = (1)
(3831)(31)
4
= 1
so
(3 | 383) = (1 | 3) using periodicity mod 3
= 1
135
Also
(3831)(731)
4
(73 | 383) = (383 | 73) (1)

= (18 | 73)
= (2 | 73) (3 | 73)2
= (1)
= 1
732 1
8
Hence (219 | 383) = 1 1 = 1 and x2 219 (mod 383) has a solution.
136
11
Elliptic Equations and Curves
Diophantine family with interesting properties.

Used in factoring and encryption.
Curves have their own intrinsic arithmetic.
Ex (see above) y 2 = x3 + 7 has no Z solutions.
General (Weierstrass) form:
y 2 + a1 xy + a3 y = x3 + a2 x2 + a4 x + a6
y 21 (y a1 x a3 ) and multiplication by 4 gives
y 2 = 4x3 + (a21 + ra2 )x2 + 2(2a4 + a1 a3 )x + (a23 + 4a6 )
x
x3(a21 +4a2 )
,
36
y
108
and multiplying by 1082 we get

y 2 = x3 Ax B
and Proposition If the ai Z so are A and B.
Discriminant
137
Definition D = (4A3 27B 2 )
If y 2 = F (x) is an elliptic curve where F (x) is a cubic polynomial with integer coefficients
with roots r1 , r2 , r3 C then the discriminant
Y
D :=
(ri rj )2 N
i<j
which is nonzero if and only if the roots are distinct.
If D = 0 then x Ax B = (x 2)(x + ) , =
A
.
B
1. If D = 0 and A 6= 0 then the curve y 2 = x3 Ax B crosses itselfknown as

a node.
2. If D = 0 and A = B = 0 we have a cusp.
138
If D 6= 0 curve is non-singular i.e. interesting.
139
Can use Mathematica to plot elliptic curves e.g.

ContourPlot[y 2 x3 + x, {x, -4, 4}, {y, -4, 4}, PlotPoints->200,
Contours-> {0}, ContourShading->False]
Line intersection property: each non-vertical line meeting a curve E(R), points on
the curve with coordinates in R, in two points P, Q meets it in a third point R.
140
Proof. If the line is y = mx + c solve with y 2 = x3 Ax B so (mx + c)2 = x3 Ax B
has two solutions x1 , x2 if P = (x1 , y1 ) , Q = (x2 , y2 ) and therefore a third x3 so let
R = (x3 , mx3 + c)
Now if P, Q have rational coordinates, m, c Q, so if A, B Z then x1 x2 x3 = (B) =
B so if x1 , y1 Q and x2 , y2 Q so does x3 and hence y3 Q.
This simple observation enables us to generate new Q solutions or points on E(R) out of
old.
141
Vertical lines: We say each vertical line meets the curve again at and give this point
a label 0 or zero.
Note:
1. P 0 = Q0 is possible but we still get a third point R.
2. If P 00 Q00 is vertical, then their x-coordinates are the same so P 00 = (x1 , y1 ) , Q00 =
(x2 , y2 ) x1 = x2 so y12 = x31 Ax1 B = x32 Ax2 B = y22 . Hence y2 = y1
and the curve is symmetric about OX.
Definition of the group law: definition of +
If P, Q E(R) and R0 has the same x-coordinate as R, the third point on the line through
P and Q, but with y-coordinate negated, let R0 = P + Q. This defines +.
P = (x1 , y1 ) , Q = (x2 , y2 ) , R0 = (x3 , y3 ) then x1 6= x2
)
2

y2 y1
x
x3 =
1
2
x2 x1
(A).
y1 x2 y2 x1
y2 y1
y3 = x2 x1 x3 x2 x1
P =Q
x3 =
y3 =
2
3x21 A
x1 x2
2y1
2
3x1 A
(x1 x3 ) y1
2y1
(B).
142
P = Q0 0 = P + Q.
Notes:
1. The proof of these formulas are an exercise in coordinate geometry.
2. P 00 = P since (x1 , (y1 )) = (x1 , y1 ).
3.

y1 y2
x1 x2
2
y 2 x1 y 1 x2
y1 y2
x3
x1 x2 ,
x1 x2
x1 x2
y2 y1
x2 x1
2
y2 y1
y1 x2 x2 y1
x1 x2 ,
x3
x2 x1
x2 x1
Q+P =
=
= P +Q
so + is commutative.
4. + is also associative (P + Q) + R = P + (Q + R).
5. + takes a point with Q coordinates to a point with Q coordinates i.e. + : E(Q)
E(Q) E(Q).
143
Write 2P instead of P + P and nP for P + (n 1)P .
Note: We could have P 6= 0 but nP = 0 for some n > 1.
Ex y 2 = x3 63x 162 : P1 = (6, 0) , P2 = (3, 0) , P3 = (9, 0) all satisfy 2Pi = 0
Definition If nP = 0 with P 6= 0 we say P is a torsion point.

Ex y 2 = x3 2, 52 = 33 2
P = (3, 5) E(Z) E(Q)

129
383
2P =
,
100
1000

164, 323
66, 234, 835
3P =
,
29, 241
5, 000, 211
etc and nP 6= 0 n N.
144
Ex y 2 = x3 11, P = (3, 4) , Q = (15, 58) generate an independent set of two
dimensions nP + mQ = 0 n = m = 0 and E(Q) has no torsion points.
Ex (Mestre) y 2 246xy + 36, 599, 029y = x3 19, 339, 780x 36, 239, 244 has at least
12 independent points.
Conjecture n N an elliptic curve with at least n independent points.
Note: Finding points can be difficult: (Bremner, Cassels) y 2 = x3 + 877x; P =
(0, 0) , 2P = 0 the next simplest point is

375494528127162193105504069942092792346201
,
6215987776871505425463220780697238044100
256256267988926809388776834045513089648669153204356603464786949
490078023219787588959802933995928925096061616470779979261000
Theorem (Mazur) The number, t, of torsion points for an elliptic curve E(Q) is
one of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16}. Also, if A, B Z, a torsion point has integral
coordinates and either y = 0 (so 2 (x, y) = 0) or y 2 | := 4D.
There are infinitely many non-torsion points if there are any at all.
145
Definition The rank of a curve E(Q) is an integer r such that there are r independent
points on the curve and every rational point can be expressed as a sum of multiples of
these points and some torsion point.
Theorem (Mordell) 0 6 r < so each curve has finite rank.
Note:
1. The structure of E(Q) is that of a finitely generated abelian group. G
= T Zr
where the torsion elements T form a subgroup.
2. Finding r is a very difficult problem.
Elliptic curves mod p
We can often get insight into points on curve with rational coordinates, E(Q), by considering them modulo p, where p is a prime. If p 6= 2 or 3, formulas (A) and (B) still work
so they define + for E(Zp ) E(Zp ) E(Zp ) with Zp = {[ 0 ] , . . . , [ p 1 ]} = GF (p) the
finite field of order p.
Ex
y 2 x3 Ax B (mod p)
y 2 x3 + x + 2 (mod 11)
146
The solutions are {(1, 2) , (2, 1) , (4, 2) , (5, 0) , (6, 2) , (7, 0) , (10, 0)} = S and
0 = making 12. All points are torsion since they are finite in number.
How many points are there in E(Zp )? x can have p values, so x3 Ax B at most
p. If these were random, we would expect about half to be quadratic residues and half
non-residues, the residues giving two possible values of y.
Theorem (Hasse) |#E(Zp ) (p + 1)| < 2 p

Proposition p 1 (mod 4) the number of points on y 2 x3 x is exactly p
(mod p) (including ).
Any integral solution of y 2 = x3 Ax B becomes a modular solution of the congruence
y 2 x3 AX B (mod p).
Warning: Over Z, we may have D 6= 0 (a requirement), but D 0 (mod p) when
p | . and such a curve would not be elliptic mod p. If 6 0 (mod p) we have good
reduction, so we assume this is so.
147
E : y 2 = x3 Ax B, A, B Z, = 16(4A3 27B 2 ) 6= 0, D = 4A3 27B 2
Map
: Z Z pZ = Fp = GF (p) (Zp before)
n 7 [ n ]p
Theorem (Nagell-Lutz) Points P = (x, y) of E(Q) of finite order, other than 0, i.e.
the torsion points, have integer coordinates, i.e. are in E(Z), and either y = 0 or y | D.
We map E(Q) to E(Zp ) through considering y 2 x3 Ax B (mod p)
Theorem (Reduction Theorem) Let T E(Q) be the subgroup of all points of finite
order (the torsion subgroup). If p - 2D, p P then reduction mod p is an isomorphism
of T onto a subgroup of E(Zp ).
Theorem (Lagrange) If S G and S is a subgroup of the finite group G, then
#(S) | #(G)i.e. the order of S divides the order of G.
Corollary If P T and the order of P in E(Q) is m N then m | #E(Zp ) p - 2D.
These theorems can be used to determine the points of finite order of an elliptic curve
E(Q).
148
Ex E : y 2 = x3 + 3, D = 35 so let p > 5, p P. Then #E(Z5 ) = 6, #E(Z7 ) =
13 #T | 6 and #T | 13 #T = 1 T = {0} so T has no (finite) points of finite
order. Note (1, 2) E(Q) since 22 = 13 + 3, so (1, 2) has infinite order and E(Q) has
an infinite number of points.
Ex E : y 2 = x3 43x + 166, D = 91215 13. Exploring small integers (x, y) Z2 we find
P = (3, 8) E. Using the point doubling formula above the x-coordinates of 2P, 4P, . . .
are x(P ) = 3, x(2P ) = 5, x(4P ) = 11, x(8P ) = 3 so x(P ) = x(8P ) 8P = P so
P is a point of finite order.
Since 3 - 2D, by the Reduction Theorem, T is isomorphic to a subgroup of E(Z3 ).
#E(Z3 ) = 7 so #(T ) = 1 or 7. But 0 T and so does P = (3, 8) so #(T ) = 7. The only
abelian group of order 7 is Z7 , a cyclic group generated by P (which must be of order 7
since its order divides 7). Computing {0, P, 2P, 3P, 4P, 5P, 6P } we get
T = {0, (3, 8) . (5, 16) , (11, 32)}.
Congruent Number Problem

Find a simple test to determine whether or not n N is the area of a right triangle, all
of whose sides are of Q length.
149
Ex
6=
1
2
3 4 so 6 is congruent.
Ex Fermat n = 1 is not congruent. (X 4 + Y 4 6= Z 4 X, Y, Z Z).

Ex Euler n = 7 is congruent.
{1, 2, 3, 4} are not congruent but {5, 6, 7, } are congruent.
Problem: Find a nice criteria to check n.
Theorem (Tunnell, 1983) Let n be an odd square-free natural number. Then if n is
congruent, the number of triples satisfying 2x2 + y 2 + 8z 2 = n is twice the number of
triples (x, y, z) satisfying 2x2 + y 2 + 32z 2 = n.
Let n be square-free and let X, Y, Z (X < Y < Z) be sides of a right triangle with area
n. The number n N is fixed.
150
So n = 12 XY, X 2 + Y 2 = Z 2 .
Proposition There is a 1-1 correspondence between the right triangles given above and
rational numbers x for which x, x + n, x n are each the square of a rational number.
The correspondence is
2
Z
(X, Y, Z) 7 x =
2
x 7 X = x + n x n
Y = x+n+ xn
Z=2 x
In particular, n is congruent x Q+ such that x, x + n, x n are squares of rational
numbers.
Proof. () Let X, Y, Z Q+ be a triple with n = 21 XY, X 2 + Y 2 = Z 2 . Then
2

Z 2
X 2 +Y 2 = Z 2 and 2XY = 4n (X Y )2 = Z 2 4n (1) XY
=
n = xn
2
2
151
2
if x = Z2 . So x, x n are squares of rational numbers.
() Given x, x n being squares, then
x+n xn
X =
x+n+ xn
Y =
Z = 2 x
satisfy X < Y < Z and X, Y, Z Q+ . Finally
XY = ( x + n x n)( x + n + x n) = (x + n) (x n) = 2n
and
p
X 2 + Y 2 = (x + n) + (x n) 2 (x + n)(x n)
p
+ (x + n) + (x n) + 2 (x + n)(x n)
= 4x
= Z 2.

Let n be a congruent number. By the above equation (1),

X Y
2
2
2
Z
1
=
n if n = XY
2
2
152
Multiply these two equations together:
2
2 4
X Y2
Z
n2
=
4
2
2
, u = Z2 . Now multiply by u2 :
so v 2 = u4 n2 has a rational solution v = X Y
4

2
u6 n2 u2 = (uv)2 . Let x = u2 = Z2 (as before) and y = uv = (X 2 Y 2 )Z/8 a pair
(x, y) Q2 satisfying y 2 = x3 n2 xan elliptic equation y 2 = x(x n)(x + n).
Hence if n is congruent, the curve y 2 = x3 n2 x has a nontrivial rational point.The
converse, that any point (x, y) Q2 must come from such a triangle is false in general.
We need extra conditions equivalent to Q En (Q) such that (x, y) = P = 2Q i.e. P is
a (rational) point which is double a rational point.
Theorem 32B Let (x, y) Q2 be on y 2 = x3 n2 x. Let x satisfy
(i) it is the square of a rational number,
(ii) its denominator is even,
(iii) its numerator is coprime with n.
Then there is a right triangle with rational sides and area n under the correspondence of
the above Proposition.
2
Proof. Let u = x Q+ (i) and let v = uy Q+ . Since (x, y) is on En (Q) : v 2 = yx =
x2 n2 v 2 + n2 = x2 (1). Let t N be the denominator of u, i.e. the smallest N so
153
tu Z. By (ii) t is even.
Because n N, the denominators of v 2 and x2 are the same by (1), namely t4 .
Hence (t2 v)2 + (t2 n)2 = (t2 x)2 is a primitive Pythagorean triple with t2 n even. (Primitive
through (iii).) Hence a, b Z such that t2 n = 2ab, t2 v = a2 b2 , t2 x = a2 + b2 . Then
= n. Finally, the image of
the right triangle with sides 2at , 2bt , 2u has area 12 2at sbt = 2ab
t2

2
this triangle with X = 2at , Y = 2bt , Z = 2u is x = Z2 as required.
Ex (i) and (ii) alone are not sufficient: n = 5, x =
x n = 5 6 Q.
25
,
4
y =
75
8
X =
x+n
Back to Tunnells theorem n odd and square-free,

#{(x, y, z) Z3 : 2x2 + y 2 + 8z 2 = n}
= 2#{(x, y, z) Z3 : 2x2 + y 2 + 32z 2 = n} (B)
(A) (B)
n congruent
Then, subject to an unproved conjecture, (B) (A). We can confidently use not(B)
not(A)
Ex #{(x, y, z) : 2x2 + y 2 + 8z 2 = n} = #{(x, y, z) : 2x2 + y 2 + 32z 2 = n} if n < 8. So
none of {1, 6 2, 3, 6 4, 5, 6 6, 7} can be congruent unless the size of each set is O(2 0 = 0).
But x2 , y 2 0, 1 or 4 (mod 8) 2x2 + y 2 + 8z 2 6 5, 7 (mod 8). So e.g. if n = 5 or 7
both of the sets of triples are .
154
Ex The first congruent number n 1, 3 (mod 8) is n = 41:
If (B) (A) is true, the above argument would imply all of the following (odd, squarefree) numbers are congruent, through 2 0 = 0: {5, 7, 13, 15, 21, 23, 29, 31, 37, 39, 47}.
155
156
157
12
Numbers Rational and Irrational

m
,
n
If R we say Q if =
m, n Z, n 6= 0.
2 6 Q.
Proof. Assume 2 Q
Proposition
a
, (a, b) = 1 (???)
b
a =
2b
2
a = 2b2 2 | a2 2 | a
2 =
So a = 2c and 4c2 = 2b2

2c2 = b2 2 | b2 2 | b
Hence 2 | a and 2 | b so 2 | (a, b) so (a, b) 6= 1 (!!!).
We say
2 is irrational or 2 I = R \ Q.
We can generalise the above proposition to get a much wider family of irrational numbers:
Theorem 33 If x R satisfies the equation
xn + c1 xn1 + + cn = 0
where ci Z, then x is either an integer or an irrational number.
158
Proof. Let x Q i.e. x = ab , b > 0, (a, b) = 1. Then
an = b(c1 an1 + c2 an2 b + + cn bn1 )
If b > 1, then p | b p | an p | a but then p | (a, b) (!!!). Hence b has no prime
divisors, so b = 1.
Corollary If m N is not an nth power then m1/n = n m I since = m1/n satisfies

xn m = 0.
Trigonometric function values and
n
g(x)
Lemma 1 Let g Z[x] (i.e. a polynomial with integral coefficients). Let h(x) = x n!
.
(j)
(n)
If j 6= n, h (0) is an integer divisible by (n + 1). If g(0) = 0, h (0) is an integer
divisible by (n + 1).
Proof. Let
1
(cn xn + cn+1 xn+1 + + cj xj + )
n!
= 0 and the ci are integers.
xn g(x) =
where c0 , , cn1
Then the jth derivative

h(j) (0) =
If j < n, cj = 0.
cj j!
.
n!
159
If j > n, n + 1 | h(j) (0) since
j!
n!
= (n + 1)(n + 2) (j).
If j = n h(j) (0) = cj h(n) (0) = cn but g(0) = 0 xn g(x) = xn [g1 x+g2 x2 + ] =

cn+1 xn+1 + n + 1 | h(j) (0).
Lemma 2 If f (x) is a polynomial in (r x)2 , then, for any odd positive integer j,
f (j) (r) = 0 i.e. f 0 (r) = 0, f 000 (r) = 0, .
Proof. Let j 0 be an integer and n N a positive integer.
f (x) = a0 = f (2j+1) (x) = 0 = f (2j+1) (r) = 0
f (x) = (r x)2 = f 0 (x) = 2(r x) = f 0 (r) = 0
f (x) = (r x)2n , 2j + 1 > 2n = f (2j+1) (x) = 0 = f (2j+1) (r) = 0
2n!
f (x) = (r x)2n , 2j + 1 < 2n = f (2j+1) (x) = (1)2j+1
(r x)2n2j1
2j + 1!
= f (2j+1) (r) = 0.
Therefore if f (x) if a sum of even powers of (r x) all of its odd derivatives vanish at
x = r.
Theorem 34 is irrational, i.e. I.
Proof. Let f (x) =
xn (1x)n
n!
where n N.
160
By Lemma 1 above, j, f (j) (0) Z and f (x) = f (1 x) f (j) (1) Z. Since

0 < x < 1 0 < xn < 1 and 0 < 1 x < 1 0 < (1 x)n < 1 we have
0 < f (x) < n!1 (1).
Let 2 = ab , a > 1, b > 1, a, b N (???). Let
F (x) = bn [ 2n f (0) (x) 2n2 f (2) (x) + 2n4 f (4) (x) + (1)n f (2n) (x)].
So F (0) Z, F (1) Z. Now

d
0
F (x) sin x F (x) cos x
= F (2) (x) + 2 F (x) sin x
dx
= bn 2n+2 f (x) sin x
= 2 an f (x) sin x
161
So
n
1
F 0 (x) sin x
f (x) sin x dx =
F (x) cos x
0
= F (1) + F (0) Z.

But by (1),
n
0 < a
f (x) sin x dx <

0
an
< 1 for n > n0
n!
which is a contradiction. Hence 2 is irrational.

Corollary is irrational: If not 2 would be rational.
Note: With a similar, but more complex proof, we can show r Q \ {0} cos r is
irrational.
Corollary 1 to the note is irrational, since if Q, cos I but cos = 1.
Corollary 2 All trigonometric functions are irrational at non-zero rational values of
their arguments.
Proof. r Q and sin r Q cos2r = 1 2 sin2 r Q, which is false. Similarly,
1tan2 r
tan r Q cos 2r = 1+tan

2 r Q.
Corollary 3 Any non-zero value of an inverse trigonometric function is irrational at
rational values of the argument.
162
Proof. Let r Q and arccos r = cos1 r = s. Suppose s Q cos s = r which is false.

Exponential, hyperbolic and logarithmic functions
Note: e0 = 1 Q and sinh 0 = 0, cosh 0 = 1 but these are the only rational values at
rational arguments. The proof is similar to Theorem34 based on cosh:
Corollary 4 er Q er =
1
er
er +er
2
Q but this is not possible if r Q.
Theorem 35 e is irrational, e I.
Proof. Claim: n N
0<e
n
X
1
1
<
(1)
j!
n
n!
j=0
Represent e by an infinite series e = 1 +

e
1
1!
1
2!
+ +
1
j!
X
X
1
1
=
>0
j!
j!
j=0
j=n+1
+ so
163
Also
n
X
1
1
1
e
=
+
+
j!
(n + 1)! (n + 2)!
j=0

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
n! n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)

1
1
1
1
<
+
+
+
n! n + 1 (n + 1)2 (n + 1)3

1
1/(n + 1)
1
=
(sum of a geometric series r = n+1
)
n! 1 1/(n + 1)
1 1
=
n! n
which proves the claim.
Now let e =
m
,
n
m, n N, (m, n) = 1 (???), and assume n 6= 1. Let

!
n
X
1
= n! e
j!
j=0
By (1)
0 < < n!
But

= n!
1
1
=
n n!
n
m
1
1
1
1
n
1! 2!
n!

Z (!!!)
164
Hence e is irrational.
Corollary
e is irrational, since otherwise e = ( e)2 would be in Q.
Question: e seems to be more irrational than

numbers below.
2. We will explore families of irrational
Let S R be a subset. We say S has measure zero if it is possible to cover S with a

finite or countable set of intervals of arbitrarily small total length. Write (S) = 0.
Ex S = N:

1 1 , 1+
2
2

2 2 2, 2 + 2
2
2

j j j , j + j = Ij
2
2

So
N
[
j=1
Ij
165
and
`(Ij ) = length of Ij

= j+ j j j
2
2
= 2 j
2
Then
X
1
`(Ij ) = 2
2j
j=1
j=1
= 2
which can be made arbitrarily small by choice of > 0. Hence (N) = 0. We can replace

N by any countable set A = {an : n N} R. by defining Ij = aj 2j , aj + 2j since
`(Ij ) = 2
.
2j
166
Definition A property of real numbers is said to hold almost everywhere or to
almost all numbers, if the set of numbers which do not have the property has measure
zero.
Ex (Q) = 0 since Q is countable. Hence almost all numbers are irrational.
Note We can count the numbers in Q+ via listing them and then counting the diagonals,
skipping any already counted.
r1
r3 r4
%
.
r2
.
r5
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
1
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
167
1/1
1/2 1/3
%
.
2/1
2/2
2/3
.
3/1
3/2
3/3
Q+ = {rn : n N}.
Since `([0, 1]) = 1 > 0, [0, 1] and (hence) R are not of measure 0. Hence, since the union
of any two countable sets is countable, the irrational numbers I are not countable.
Proof. A = {an : n N}, B = {bn : n N} A B = {cn : c2n = an , c2n1 = bn , n =
1, 2, 3, . . .} so A B is countable.
Now let S R. We say S is dense in R if < x S with < x < .
Archimedian Axiom (AA) > 0 n N such that 0 <
1
n
< .
Proposition Q is dense in R.
Proof. Let < By AA n N such that 0 < n1 < . Let m Z satisfy
m < n 6 m + 1. Then < n1 6 m+1
n1 = m
and m
< . Hence < m
< and
n
n
n
n
m
we can let x = n .
168
Proposition I is dense in R.
Proof. Let , R have < . Let < m
< as above, and using AA choose k N
n
so
m
1
0< < n.
k
2
Then <
m
n
<
m
n
2
k
< and x =
m
n
2
k
I.
Definition A number is algebraic if it satisfies an equation

xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + + an = 0
with ai Q.
Ex
2 satisfies x2 2 = 0.
The unique polynomial with leading coefficient 1 (called monic) in Q[x] of minimal degree
which has a given algebraic number as a root is called the minimal polynomial of ,
and the degree of this polynomial is called the degree of .
The set of all algebraic numbers is called A R.
Proof. If An is the set of algebraic numbers of degree n for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . then
A=
[
n=1
An
169
There are a countable number of polynomials of degree n with Q coefficients since p(x) =
xn + a1 xn1 + + an (a1 , . . . , an ) Qn and the latter is a countable set.
But each polynomial has at most n roots in R An is countable. To complete the
proof we need to assume that a countable union of countable sets is countable. To see
this, use the diagonal counting trick:
A1 = {a11 ,
a12 , a13 , . . .}
%
.
A2 = {a21 ,
a22 ,
a23 , . . .}
.
A3 = {a31 ,
a32 ,
a33 , . . .}
..
.

Since (A) = 0, almost all numbers are not algebraic. We call these numbers transcendental and the set of all such numbers T = R \ A.
Ex
21/3 + 2
A, and e T
3
The former is not difficult, but and e are both very difficult.
170
Both Q and I (and T) are dense in R. This implies each real number can be expressed as the
limit of rational numbers: Let R then give n N rn Q with n1 < rn < + n1
so | rn | < n1 = limn . But this universal fact gives little insight into the
difference between Q, A and T.
Definition A real number is said to be approximable by rationals to order n N
if a constant C = C() > 0 such that the inequality

h
< C

k kn
has infinitely many rational solutions
h
k
where k > 0, (h, k) = 1.
Note Approximable to order 3 Approximable to order 2 and 1.

Theorem 36 If I, infinitely many hk Q with

h
< 1

k k2
i.e. is approximable to order 2.
Proof. See page 75. If I its continued fraction expansion is infinite so the set of
convergents pqnn is infinite and

p
n
< 1 < 1

qn qn qn+1
qn2
171
so we can let hk = pqnn .
OR Let n N. Consider the n + 1 real numbers
S = {0, bc , 2 b2c , . . . , n bnc}
and their distribution in the intervals nj 6 x < j+1
, j = 0, . . . , n 1 which cover [0, 1),
n
so contain all of the numbers in S. Hence (by the Dirichlet pigeon-hole principle) two
numbers
j j+1 lie in the same interval, say 01 6 n1 < n2 6 n, n1 bn1 c , n2 bn2 c
, n . The length of this interval is n so
n
|(n2 bn2 c) (n1 bn1 c)| <
1
n
Let k = n2 n1 and
h = bn2 c bn1 c , k N, h Z. so |k h| < n1 and

1
6 k12 . Suppose there were only a finite number of such pairs
k 6 n (1) hk < nk
(h, k) : (h1 , k1 ) , . . . , (hr , kr ). Let

h1
hr

= min , . . . , > 0.
k1
kr

1
Use AA to find n N with 0 < n1 < so h, k by (1) so hk < nk
6 n1 < so hk 6= hkii
(!!!).
Theorem 37 Any rational number is approximable to order 1, but not to any higher
order.
Proof. Let = ab , (a, b) = 1, b > 1 be rational. Then there are infinitely many solutions
(x, y) to ax by = 1 (x = x0 + bt, y = y0 + at, t Z if(x, y) is one solution) and
172
infinitely many with x > 0. Then
a y
1
2

ax by = 1 =
 1
=
b x
bx bx
1
there is no constant C such that bx
< xC2 for infinitely many x N. Hence ab = is not
approximable to any order higher than 1.
1
Ex = 10
+ 1012 + 1014 + + 1012m + I. Let rm = (m + 1)th partial sum of , rm
m+1
m+2
m+1
m
Q. | rm | = 102
+ 102
+ < 2 102
= 2(102 )2 . rm = 10a2nm , an N. So
this inequality shows we can approximate to order 2 at least. Hence 6 Q I.
173
Theorem 38 A real algebraic number of degree n is not approximable to order n + 1
or higher.
Proof. Theorem 37 is n = 1. Let satisfy the equation f (x) = a0 xn +a1 xn1 + +an = 0
where ai Z, n > 2. Since the degree of is n, this polynomial must be irreducible
(since otherwise f (x) = g(x) h(x) 0 = f () = g() h() so g() = 0 or h() = 0
and each would have lower degree than n).
If x ( 1, + 1) , |x| < || + 1 so

|f 0 (x)| = na0 xn1 + (n 1)a1 xn2 + + an1

6 na0 xn1 + (n 1)a1 xn2 + + |an1 |
< n |a0 | {|| + 1}n1 + (n 1) |a1 | {|| + 1}n2 + + |an1 |
= A

Now if hk is a rational approximation to with 1 < hk < +1 we must have f hk 6= 0,
since otherwise f (x) would have a factor x hk over Q, but it is of degree n > 2 and
irreducible. Hence

n
n1
n

f h = |a0 h + a1 h k + + an k | > 1

k
kn
kn

By the Mean Value Theorem f hk = f hk f () = hk f 0 () for some between
h
and . Hence
k

h
h

= f k > 1
k

|f 0 ()|
Ak n
There is no constant C so that Ak1 n <
imable to order n + 1 or higher.
C
kn+1
for infinitely many k, hence is not approx-
174

m
Definition A Liouville Number R satisfies m N hkm
Q such that
hm
km
<
1
m.
km
Proposition Any Liouville Number is transcendental.

1
m
Proof. m > n + 1, hkm
< k1m
n+1 . So cannot be algebraic of order n n N.
m <
km

m
Ex 1 = 101! + 102! + + 10m! + = 0.1100010 . . . and hkm
is the mth partial sum
so km = 10m!

1 hm = 10(m+1)! + 10(m+2)! +

km
< 2 10(m+1)!
< (10m! )m
1
= m.
km

Ex (Baker)(Alledi, 1979) log(2) ab >

Ex (Baker, 1964) 3 2 ab >

Ex (Mahler, 1953) ab >
C
b296
1
b42
1
1010 b5.8
ab Q.
ab Q.
ab Q.
175
Ex (Gelford,
Schneider, 1934) A, A \ Q, 6= 0 T. e.g. 2
2
T, 2 T.
Ex (Hermite, 1873) e T.
Ex (Lindeman, 1882) T via A \ {0} e I since ei = 1.
RSA Public Key Cryptograms
1. Let p, q P be large and distinct primes known only to Alice.

2. Alice selects a (large) random integer e relatively prime to r := (p 1)(q 1).
3. Alice publishes n = pq and e (say in a newspaperthe public key).
4. The sender Bob has a message and encodes this in an integer 1 < m < n.
5. He uses the public key (n, e) to compute the least positive residue c me (mod n).
The encrypted message is c.
6. He sends c to Alice using any (public) transmission process.
176
7. Alice recovers m from c using

Y
1
(n) = n
1
p
p|n

1
1
= pq 1
1
p
q
= (p 1)(q 1)
= r
177
as follows:
8. Compute d e1 (mod r) using xe + yr = 1 so de 1 (mod r).
9. Then cd (me )d med m1+`(n) m(m(n) )` m 1` (mod n) cd m
(mod n) and 1 < m < n we have recovered m.
Code Cracking
Given n = pq where p, q P and are large, find p and q.
Method 1 Either p 6
If n 10100 ,
n or q 6
n so for 1 6 j 6 b nc try j | n until it succeeds.
n 1050 .
If we can check 1 million divisors on average, per second then we need 3.2 1037
years= T .
If we speed this up by 1 million times (i.e. 1012 per second), T = 3.2 1031 years.
Method 2 (Pollards p 1, 1974) Let n have a prime factor p such that p 1 is a
product of (high powers) of small primes. By Fermats little theorem, if p - a, ap1 1
178
(mod p) p | (ap1 1, n). The prime p is unknown. So first let k = 21 32 rs
where 2, 3, . . . , r arethe first s primes and i N and are small.
Compute ak 1, n = (ak 1) (mod n), n , which can be done in O(log2 (2kn)) operations. If p | n with p 1 | k and (a, n) = 1 then p | ak 1 since ak = a(p1)` = (ap1 )`
1` 1 (mod p) and so ak 1, n > p > 1.

If ak 1, n 6= n we have a non-trivial factor of n, so we can divide by it, and repeat
this process on each factor.

If ak 1, n = n choose a new a.
If ak 1, n = 1 choose a larger k.
Ex n = 246, 082, 373
1. Compute 2n1 6= 1 (Mathematica: PowerMod[2, n-1, n]very slow). Hence n is
not prime, by Fermats little theorem. n is composite.
2. Let a = 2, k = 22 32 5 = 180 then k = 180 = 22 + 24 + 25 + 27 in base 2. We need
i
to compute 22 (mod n) for 0 6 i 6 7 we can do a few extras by successive mod n
179
squaring:
i
i 22
(mod n)
0
2
1
4
2
16
3
256
4
65,536
5
111,566,955
6
166,204,404
7
214,344,997
8
111,354,998
9
82,087,367
10
7,262,569
11
104,815,687
Using the table
2
2180 = 22 22 22 22
16 65, 536 111, 566, 955 28, 795, 219
121, 299, 227 (mod n)
(mod 246, 082, 373)
then, using the Euclidean algorithm:

2180 1, n = gcd(121, 299, 226, 246, 082, 373) = 1
so the test fails because n has no factor p with p 1 dividing 180.
Choose a new k = {2, 3, . . . , 9} = 23 32 5 7 = 2520. In base 2 2520 = 23 +
180
3
11
24 + 26 + 27 + 28 + 211 so 22520 22 22 22 101, 220, 672 (mod n) and

(22520 1, n) = gcd(101, 220, 672, 246, 082, 373) = 2521 so 2521 | n and we have a
factor. Indeed n = 2521 97613 and each of these factors is prime.
Summary (Pollard p 1) n > 2 composite given.
1. k = {1, 2, 3, . . . , K}, a product of small primes to small powers.
2. Choose arbitrary a in 1 < a < n, say a = 2.
3. Calculate (a, n). If more than 1 then a is a factor of n so return a.

4. Let d = ak 1, n .
If 1 < d < n return d.
If d = 1 go to 1. and choose K K + 1.
If d = n go to 2. and choose another a.
Pollards algorithm eventually returns a proper factor since we will reach K = 21 (p 1)
so k = 21 12 (p 1) and (p 1) | k.
Note: The algorithm is fast only when n has a prime factor p such that p 1 is the
product of small primes to small powers, i.e. K is reasonably small.

Method 3 (Lenstra, ECM, 1987) Non-zero elements of Z pZ = Fp form a multiplicative group of order p 1 so p 1 | k ak = 1 in the group. This makes Pollards
181
p 1 work. Here the group Fp (so-called multiplicative group) is replaced by the group
of points on an elliptic curve E(Fp ) and a by a point P E(Fp ).
As before, choose k a product of small primes. If #E(Fp ) | k kP = 0 in E(Fp ) and
this will often allow us to find a non-trivial factor of n.
Lenstra is good if for some curve E(Q) and some p P, p | n and #E(Fp ) is a product of
small primes. If we lose with Pollard, the game is over, e.g n = pq and p 1, q 1 both
have large prime factors. If we lose with Lenstra, we simply choose a new curve.
Note: (Subject to a conjecture but crucial underpinning) #E(Fp ) = p+1p , |p | 6 2 p

and for fixed
p, aswe pass over all such curves, the numbers p are well spread in the
interval 2 p, 2 p so it is likely we will find a curve E with #E(Fp ) =product of
small primes.
Summary (Lenstra, ECM) n > 2 a composite integer.
1. Check (n, 6) = 1 and n 6= mr for any r > 2.
2. Choose random integers b, x1 , y1 with 1 < b, x1 , y1 < n.
3. Let c = y12 x21 bx1 (mod n)
Let E : y 2 = x3 + bx + c
Let P = (x1 , y1 ) E
4. Check g = (rb3 + 27c2 , n) = 1. If g = 1 we have bad reduction so go back and get
a new b. If 1 < g < n we have a non-trivial factor, so return g.
182
5. Let k = {1, 2, . . . , K} for some K N.
6. Compute

kP =
ak b k
,
d2k d3k
7. Calculate d = (dk , n).

If 1 < d < n, return d.
If d = 1 go to 2. and choose a new curve.
If d = n go to 5. and decrease k.
So how/why does it work? What is step 6.?
Suppose we eventually found a curve E such that for p | n, #E(Fp ) | k, then each P E(Fp )
has an order o(P ) | #E(Fp ) | k so o(P ) | k hence kP = 0 i.e. kP is the point at , 0.
Then p | dk (see below). Hence p | (dk , n) and normally n - dk .
How to compute kP efficiently ((P + P ) + P + is too slow. k = k0 + k1 2 + k2
22 + + kr 2r in binary ki {0, 1}.
P0 = P
P1 = 2P0 = 2P
X
2
P2 = 2P1 = 2 P
kP =
Pi
..
ki =1
r
Pr = 2Pr1 = 2 P
183
(2 log2 (k) steps).
All computations are done mod n
Q1 = (x1 , y1 ) , Q2 = (x2 , y2 ) , xi , yi Zn (integers mod n).
Q3 = Q1 + Q2 = (x3 , y3 )
x3 = 2 x1 x2
y3 = x3 (y1 x1 )
1
where = xy22 y
where the division is carried out mod n. Note that in Z nZ = Zn , x2 x1
x1
may not have an inverse. Then
If (x2 x1 , n) = 1 inverse exists.

If 1 < (x2 x1 , n) < n return this.
If (x2 x1 , n) = n go back to 2. or 5. in Lenstra.
To double a point Q = (x, y) (mod n) we need
3x2 + 2ax + b
f 0 (x)
=
(mod n)
2y
2y
and the same choices 1.,2. or 3. apply based on (2y, n).
=
Ex n = 1, 715, 761, 513, 2n1 93, 082, 891 (mod n) n 6 P.

1. n is not a power : n, 3 n, . . . , 31 n = 1.9855 are not integers (Mathematica: check

n == Floor[n( 1/j)]j , for j = 1, . . . , 31. (n, 6) = 1.
184
2.
n 42, 422 so p | n, p < 42, 422. We want k so that some integer close to p
divides k. Try k{1, 2, . . . , 17} = 12, 252, 240 with lots of factors less than 42,422.
Choosing an elliptic curve: Choose a point P and one coefficient for E, then the other
so the point is on the curve.
Ex P = (2, 1) , c = 7 2b e.g. b = 1 c = 9 so E : y 2 = x3 + x 9 and
(2, 1) E.
Now compute kP using successive doubling
k = 12, 252, 240

= 24 + 26 + 210 + 212 + 213 + 214 + 215 + 217 + 219 + 220 + 221 + 223
so we need 2i P (mod n) for 0 6 i 6 23.
So
kP (1, 225, 303, 014, 142, 796, 033)
(421, 401044, 664, 333, 727)
This tells us nothing about the factors of n. It is when the addition law breaks that we
get a factor. So we need a new k, a new P or a new curve.
185
k = 12, 252, 240 as before, P = (2, 1) as before. b = 2 c = 7 2b = 11 so
E : Y 2 = x3 + 2x 11 and P E and kP (mod n) is still okay. b = 42 c = 91 so
E : y 2 = x3 + 42x 91, P E. The addition law breaks an d a factor is delivers. Table
(A) 2i P (mod n) is okay. then we start adding up the points to produce (B).
At the penultimate step
(24 + 26 + + 22 1)P = 3, 863, 632P
(1, 115, 004, 543, 1, 676, 196, 055)
(mod n)
Then from the new (A) 223 P (1, 267, 572, 925, 848, 156, 341) (mod n) and try to add
these points. We need the inverse mod N of the difference of their x-coordinates, but
gcd (1, 115, 004, 543 1, 267, 572, 925, n) = 26, 927 6= 1. which gives us the factor n =
26, 927 63, 719.
Note: Now we see what this means. 0 is not a finite point on the curve, so kP = 0
means we are not able to compute mod p coordinates for kP . The only way that can
happen is if p | x2 x1 a denominator, i.e. kP = 0 means at some stage the process of
building kP (using the appropriate versions of table (A) and (B) above breaks down.
Mathematica: << NumberTheoryFactorIntegerECM may be bad. ab (mod n) is
PowerMod[a, b, n] and appears bad.
Method 4 Search for solutions to x2 y 2 (mod N ) since then x2 y 2 = (xy)(x+y) =
186
kN and we might get a factor of N .
187
188
13
ABC Conjecture
A simple but powerful relation between the additive and multiplicative properties of
numbers.
Definition The radical
N (n) =
p|n
is the largest square-free divisor of n, or the core of n.

Ex n = 22 35 53 N (n) = 2 3 5
N (p ) = p p P
Proposition N is multiplicative and N (n) N (m) = N (nm) N ((n, m)).
ABC Conjecture: > 0 K > 0 such that if a, b, c are relatively prime integers
and a + b = c then
max (|a| , |b| , |c|) 6 K N (abc)1+
This is an important unsolved problem. It is so deep it implies the asymptotic Fermats
Last Theorem.
Ex a = 3k , b = 2 3k , c = 3k+1 so a + b = c and max (|a| , |b| , |c|) = c = 3k+1 .
189
abc = 2 33k+1 so N (abc) = 2 3 and 3k+1 6 K (2 3)1+ k and some K is false for some
> 0. i.e. (a, b, c) = 1 is essential.
Theorem (Asymptotic Fermat Theorem) ABC n0 N so that the Fermat
equation xn + y n = z n has no solution in relatively prime integers n > n0 .
Proof. Let x, y, z be relatively prime (i.e. each has different prime factors). Note that
N (xn y n z n ) = N (xyz) 6 xyz 6 z 3 since x < z, y < z. Apply ABC with = 1 so
z n = max (xn , y n , z n ) K1 N (xn y n z n )2 6 K1 z 6 so n log(z) 6 log(K1 ) + 6 log(z)
n66+
log(K1 )
log(K1 )
66+
log(z)
log(3)
so let
n0 = 7 +
log(K1 )
.
log(3)

Conjecture (Catalan Conjecture) 8 and 9 are the only consecutive powers i.e. the
only solution to Catalans equation
xm y n = 1
in positive integers x, y, n, m > 1 is 32 23 = 1.
Many special cases of this conjecture have been proved: e.g.
190
1. x2 y n = 1 has one solution x = n = 3, y = 2.
2. xm y 2 = 1 has no solutions.
So we need only consider n, m > 3.
Theorem (Asymptotic Catalan Conjecture) ABC the Catalan equation has only
a finite number of solutions.
Proof. Let (x, y, m, n) be a solution with m, n > 3. Then (x, y) = 1 since otherwise
p | x, p | y p | 1. The ABC Conjecture with = 41 K1/4 = K such that
max (|a| , |b| , |c|) 6 KN (abc)5/4 But xm = 1 + y n so
y n < xm 6 KN (1 xm y n )5/4
= KN (xy)5/4
6 K(xy)5/4
m log(x) 6 log(K) + 54 (log(x) + log(y))
n log(y) < log(K) + 54 (log(x) + log(y))
m log(x)
+ 52 (log(x) + log(y))
+ n log(y) < 25log(K)

5
m 2 log(x) + n 2 log(y) < 2 log(K)
But 2 6 x, 2 6 y so

5
5
5
5
m
log(2) + n
log(2) <
m
log(x) + n
log(y)
2
2
2
2
< 2 log(K)
191
m+n<
2 log(K)
+5
log(2)
Thus there are only finitely many exponents m and n for which has a solution. It is
known that, for fixed m, n, has only a finite set of solutions x, y. Hence has only a
finite set of solutions x, y, m, n.
Wieferich Primes
If p P is odd 2p1 1 (mod p)
If p is such that 2p1 1 (mod p2 ), p is called a Wieferich prime and we write
p W P.
Ex 9 - 22 1 so 3 is not one.
25 - 24 1 so 5 is not one.
49 - 26 1 so 7 is not one
Problem: Are there an infinite number of Wieferich (or non-Wieferich) primes?

Lemma Let p P be odd. If n N so 2n 1 (mod p) but 2n 6 1 (mod p2 ) then
p 6 W .
192
Proof. Let 2d 1 (mod p) with d minimal (d > 0). Then d | n (else n = ed + r, 0 < r < d
and 1 2n = 2ed 2r = (2d )e 2r 2r (mod p) contradiction d being minimal).
Now 2n 6 1 (mod p2 ) 2d 6 1 (mod p2 ) (else (2d )3 1e 2n 1 (mod p2 )). Now
2d 1 (mod p) 2d = 1 + kp and (k, p) = 1 (else 2d = 1 + k 0 p2 and 2d 1 (mod p2 )).
Also 2p1 1 (mod p) d | p 1 p 1 = de for some e with 1 6 e 6 p 1. Then
(ek, p) = 1 and 2p1 = (2d )e = (1 + kp)e 1 + ekp 6 1 (mod p2 ) so p 6 W .
Definition A powerful number is a v N such tat p | v p2 | v. For example
72 = 2 62 = 23 32 is powerful but 192 = 2 96 = 22 48 = 22 42 3 = 26 3 is not.
193
Theorem ABC |W c | = .
Proof. n N let 2n 1 = un vn where vn is the maximal powerf ul divisor of 2n 1
so un is just those primes which appear to power 1, is square free.
If p | un then 2n 1 (mod p) by but 2n 6 1 (mod p2 ) since 1 is the power of p
appearing in 2n 1. Hence p W c , so all the prime divisors of un W c . If |W c | < ,
only finitely many square-free integers with prime divisors all in W #{un : n =
1, 2, . . .} < #{vn : n = 1, 2, . . .} = and so is unbounded in size.
Since vn is powerful N (vn ) 6 vn . Let 0 < < 1 in ABC and consider (2n 1) + 1 =
a + b = c = 2n .
vn 6
<
6
=
6
6
(1+)/2
1 1
un vn = 2n 1
2n = max (|a| , |b| , |c|)
K N (2n (2n 1) 1)1+
K N (2un vn )1+
K (2un )1+ N (vn )1+
K0 vn(1+)/2
1
so vn < K0 vn
vn 2 2 < K0 vn < (K0 ) 1/2/2 = B contradicting the
unbounded nature of the {vn }.
Theorem (LeVeque, 1952) If a, b > 2 are given, the equation ax by = 1 has at most
one solution in positive integers x, y unless a = 3, b = 2 where there are two solutions:
(x, y) = (1, 1) and (x, y) = (2, 3).
194
Proof. Assume that (u, v) and (x, y) are solutions with u < x. So au bv = ax by = 1.
Then v < y since 0 < ax au = by bv and au (axu 1) = bv (byv 1). Now
au bv = 1 (a, b) = 1 bv = au 1 = axu 1 and au = bv + 1 = byv 1.
Hence au = axu so u = x u 2u = x and also byv bv = 2 so y v < v and
bv (by2v 1) = 2. Hence v = 1, b = 2, by2v 1 = 1 so y 2v = 1 y = 1 + 2v = 3.
Thus au = 1 + bv = 3 so u = 1 and a = 3.
195
14
Formulas for Primes
A function is easy: Let

f (n) := max{p P : p | n}
indeed
f (n) = lim lim lim
r0 s0 t0
s
X
u=0
1 cos
(u!)n
n
2t
Both are impractical.

A formula for pn , the nth prime, would be nice, but probably impossible to find, the
elements of P being scattered in such an irregular manner.
Easier aim: find a formula which produces only primes. Will show below that no polynomial will work but
n
f (n) = 3 does work for some R.
Ex f (n) = an + b. Let f (n) = p and f (m) = q, p, q P, p 6= q. Then (a, b) = 1
since d = (a, b) d | a and d | b so d | an + b = p. Similarly, d | q, but p 6= q so
(p, q) = 1 d = 1. So if f has more than one prime value, (a, b) = 1.
Tables of primes reveal arithmetic progressions of various lengths:
196
1. 3, 5, 7.
2. 7, 37, 67, 97, 127, 157.
3. 199, 409, 619, 829, 1039, 1249, 1459, 1669, 1879, 2089.
Proposition No arithmetic progression of N, of infinite length, can yield only primes.
Proof. Let an + b = p P, n, p fixed, and n = n + kp, k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Then the nth
k
term of the progression is

ank + b = a(n + kp) + b = an + b + akp = p(1 + ak)
so p | ank + b k > 1. Thus, since the nk numbers come at intervals every p terms, every
pth term of the original progression is divisible by p. Hence the progression contains
infinitely many composite numbers.
Note: Dirichlets Theorem (see back) says {an + b : n N} contains an infinite
number of primes if (a, b) = 1.
Proposition If p - a then every pth term of {an + b}, starting somewhere, is divisible
by p.
Proof. p - a (p, a) = 1 r, s so pr + as = 1. Let nk = kp bs, k = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
197
Then
f (nk ) = ank + b =
=
=
=
a(kp bs) + b
akp abs + b
akp b(1 pr) + b
p(ak + br).
Thus p | ank + b. Since nk+1 nk = p, the terms ank + b occur p terms apart.
Ex 2 - a every second term is divisible by 2. So {an + b} cannot have more than 1
consecutive prime values.
Ex {30, 030n6887 : n = 1, 2, 3, . . .} has 12 consecutive terms which are prime. 30, 030 =
2 3 5 7 11 13. This is a curiosity: Linear formulas fail.
Quadratic Formulas
f (n) = an2 + bn + c
Ex f (n) = n2 + 21n + 1 is not composite for n = 38, 37, . . . , 0, 1, 2, . . . , 17: 56
values. f (0) = 1 6 P of course. However, f (18) = 703 = 37 19.
198
Ex 19 | f (n) if n 1 (mod 19): since n = 1 + 19`
f (n) = (1 + 19`)2 + 21(1 + 19`) + 1
= 19(1 + 19` + 19`2 ).
Ex f (n) = n2 + n + 41 P for n {40, 39, . . . , 39} i.e. for 80 consecutive values.

Conjecture 80 is the best possible for any quadratic.
Known (1967): No f (n) = n2 + n + A (A > 41) gives primes for n = 0, 1, . . . , A 2.
Proposition No quadratic can always be prime.
Proof. f (n) = an2 + bn + c = p P f (nk ) an2 + bn + c (mod p), nk = n + kp so
every pth term of {f (n)} is divisible by p.
Does {an2 + bn + c} contain an infinite number of prime values?Unknown.
Does {n2 + 1} have an infinite number of prime values?Also unknown.
If f Z[x] is a polynomial and f (n) = p P, then p | f (n + kp) for k = 0, 1, 2, . . ., so no
such f has an infinite set of consecutive prime values.
Ex Give d N, a polynomial f Z[x] of degree d, taking on d + 1 arbitrarily assigned
199
values, which could be prime:
60f (x) = 7x5 85x4 + 355x3 575x2 + 418x + 180
has
n = 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (n) = 3 5 7 11 13 17
Method: Use Lagrange interpolation with xi = {0, 1, . . . , 5} and yi = {3, 5, 7, . . . , 17}

and
!
6
6
X
Y
(x xj )
yi
f (x) =
(xi xj )
i=1
j=1,j6=i
so f (xi ) = yi , 1 6 i 6 6.
By these examples, we see the functions must be more complex than linear or polynomial,
if they are to have all prime values.
Theorem There is a number R such that
n
f (n) = 3
is prime for all n N.
Note: This formula is not effective, since to know exactly, we would need to be able
to recognise arbitrarily large primes ( 1.3064 . . .).
200
Lemma If u1 6 u2 6 6 un 6 6 B is a bounded increasing real sequence, then
lim un =
exists.
Lemma If A 6 6 vn 6 6 v2 6 v1 is a decreasing real sequence which is bounded
below, then
lim vn =
n
also exists.
Assumption: A N such that if n > A, p P with n3 < p < (n + 1)3 1.
The proof of this assumption is very difficult (Elementary Number Theory by Underwood Dudley). Indeed, but easier than p so n2 < p < (n + 1)2 , I would say.
Proof.of the Theorem Let p1 be any prime with A < p1 and for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . let pn+1
be a prime with
p3n < pn+1 < (pn + 1)3 1
n
n1
Let un = p3n = pn3n and vn = (pn + 1)3 , n = 1, 2, . . .. Then un+1 = p3n+1 >
n
3n1
(p3n )
= p3n = un . So {un } is increasing. Also {vn } is decreasing since vn+1 =
n1
n1
n
(pn+1 + 1)3
< ((pn + 1)3 1 + 1)3
= (pn + 1)3 = vn .
From their definitions above, un < vn n N. Hence, by the two Lemmas above
lim un = and lim vn =
201
Since un < vn we have 6 , indeed un < 6 < vn because {un } is strictly increasing
and {vn } strictly decreasing.
n
n
n
n
n
from theirdefinitions,
u3n = pn and
Therefore u3n < 3 6 3 < vn3 n N. But,

n
n
n
n
vn3 = pn + 1 so pn < 3 < pn + 1 pn = 3 n N so 3 is prime.
This Theorem would be valuable if we could work out the value of without reference to
primes.
Ex

f (n) = sin
(1 + (n 1)!)
n
then f (n) = 0 n P.
Another Catalan Conjecture
0, 1, 2, . . . then
p1
p2
p3
(1876) Let p0 = 2 P and pn+1 = 2pn 1 for n =

= 22 1 = 3 P
= 23 1 = 7 P
= 27 1 = 127 P
and p4 P. Is pj P j? {pj } increases very rapidly.

Theorem (Matijasevi
c, 1971) There exists a multinomial p (p Z[a, b, c, . . . , z] of
degree 25 (Jones, Sato, Weda, 1975)) such that the set of prime numbers coincides with
the set of positive values assumed by this multinomial,as the variables range in the set of
non-negative integers Z+ = N {0}.
202
Proposition (Dixon) If p is the multinomial, r = 2 + 12 (p 2 + |p 2|) is a function
(not a multinomial) with range exactly the set of primes.
Proof. p(x) 6 0 p 2 < 0 |p 2| = 2 p so r = 2 + 12 0 = 2 P and
p(x) > 0 p(x) > 2 r = 2 + 12 (p 2 + p + 2) = 2 + p 2 = p so r(x) = p(x) P.

(Jones, 1979) F0 = 1, F1 = 1 and Fn+1 = Fn + Fn1 , n > 1, the Fibonacci numbers
are the set of positive values at non-negative integers of
p(x, y) = 2xy 4 + x2 y 3 2x3 y 2 y 5 x4 y + 2y
Hilberts 10th Problem: There is no algorithm which is good enough to decide whether
any given diophantine equation has a solution in positive integers. (Matijasevic).
(Siegel, 1972) Every quadratic diophantine equation is decidable.
Unknown: Is every multinomial in 2 variables decidable?
These results and questions relate to the axiomatic and logical foundation of arithmetic. e.g. are some problems simply impossible to solve because we do not have an
appropriate set of properties of numbers to begin with?
Resistant problems:
203
1. Twin primes conjecture: an infinite set of pn P so that pn + 2 P also.
2. There exist infinitely many Sophie Germain primes i.e. pn P and 2pn + 1 P.
3. Mp = 2p 1 is a Mersenne number. Are infinitely many composite? We believe so.
A simple new axiom/conjecture will resolve each of these questions.
204
15
Axiom D
(Dirichlet) (a, b) = 1, a 6= 0, b > 1, f (x) = bx + a then an infinite number of integers

m > 0 with f (m) P.
Conjecture/Axiom (Dixon, 1904) Let s > 1 and fj (x) = bj x + aj with bj > 1 and
aj , bj Z. If @n > 1 with
n | f1 (k)f2 (k) fs (k) k Z
OR
n > 1, k Z so n - f1 (k)f2 (k) fs (k)
Then there exist infinitely many m N with {f1 (m), . . . , fs (m)} all primes.
This is Axiom D, the weakest form of a more general Axiom H where the linear
polynomials fj are replaced with polynomials of arbitrary degree.
Proposition Axiom D m N so {f1 (m), . . . , fs (m)} are primes.
Proof. () Follows directly.
() m1 > 1 so f1 (m1 ), . . . , fs (ms ) are primes. Let gj (x) = fj (x + 1 + m1 ) for 1 6 j 6 s.
Then is satisfied by the {gj }, hence k1 > 1 so g1 (k1 ), . . . , gs (k1 ) are primes. Let
m2 = k1 + 1 + m1 > m + 1 so f1 (m2 ), . . . , f3 (m2 ) are primes. Repetition of this procedure
generates infinitely many mj N.
205
Theorem Axiom D m > 1 there exist infinitely many arithmetic progressions
consisting of m Sophie Germain primes.
Proof. Let d = (2m + 2)! > 4! (even). Consider the 2m polynomials:
f1 (x) = x + d
f2 (x) = x + 2d
..
.
fm (x) = x + md
fm+1 (x) = 2x + 2d + 1
fm+2 (x) = 2x + 4d + 1
..
.
f2m (x) = 2x + 2md + 1
so
fm+j (x) = 2fj (x) + 1, 1 6 j 6 m. These polynomials satisfy : Let f (x) =
Q2m
m
Let p P divide f (k) for
j=1 fj (x) with degree 2m and leading coefficient 2 .
Q2m
k = 1, 0, 1, . . . , p 2 (1). Now f (1) = j=1 (odd) 1 (mod 2) p 6= 2 so
f (x) 0 (mod p) has 2m roots (in a field extension of Fp ), but it has p roots from (1).
Hence p 6 2m and p | d = (2m + 2)! But we CLAIM f (1) 1 (mod 3).
f (1) = (d 1)(2d 1) (2d 1)(4d 1) (1)2m (3) 1 (mod 3). Hence p 6= 3.
206
But
f (1) = (1 + d)(1 + 2d) (3 + 2d)(3 + 4d)
|
{z
}|
{z
}
m factors
m factors
3m (mod p)
since p | d. Hence p - f (1) which is a contradiction. Hence the {fj } satisfy . By
Axiom D there exist infinitely many k so fj (k) = pi and fm+i (k) = 2pi + 1 are primes
for i = 1, . . . , m. Moreover p1 < p2 < < pm are in progression with difference d.
Corollary Axiom D there exist infinitely many Sophie Germain primes.
Proposition Let a, b, c be pairwise relatively prime non-zero integers (i.e. each consists
of products of different primes). There exist infinitely many pairs of primes (p, q) so
ap bq = c assuming Axiom D.
Proposition (Schinzel and Sierpi
nski, 1958) Axiom D there exist infinitely many
1
n with 2 (n) P where is Eulers phi function.
Proposition There exist infinitely many triples of consecutive integers, each being the
product of two distinct primes, assuming Axiom D.
Proof.
f1 (x) = 10x + 1
f1 (0)f2 (0)f3 (0) = 2
f2 (x) = 15x + 2
f1 (1)f2 (1)f3 (1) = 11 17 7
f3 (x) = 6x + 1
207
is satisfied. Thus there exist infinitely many integers m > 1 such that:
p = 10m + 1
q = 15m + 2
are primes.
r = 6m + 1
Then
3p
= 30m + 3 = 3p
3p + 1 = 30m + 4 = 2q
3p + 2 = 30m + 5 = 5r
so {3p, 3p + 1, 3p + 2} are products of two distinct primes.
Theorem Axiom D there exist infinitely many composite Mersenne numbers (Mp =
2p 1).
Proof. Let
f1 (x) = 4x 1
f2 (x) = 8x 1

f1 (0)f2 (0) = 1
Hence there exist infinitely many m > 1 such that

p = 4m 1
are primes
q = 8m 1
But then q = 2p + 1 and p 3 (mod 4).
Claim q | 2p 1: Consider the Legendre symbol (2 | q) = (1)
q 2 1
8
. p 3 (mod 4)
208
q = 2(3 + 4m) + 1 q = 7 + 8m 1 (mod 8) q 2 1 (mod 8). So (2 | q) =
q1
11
(1) 8 = 1 2 2 = 2p (mod q). Hence q | 2p 1.
Now, if m > 1 the corresponding primes p, q satisfy 2p 1 = 24m1 1 > 8m 1 = 2
16m 2 > 16m 2 16m > 16m which is true. So q | 2p 1 is a proper divisor and
Mp = 2p 1 is composite.
Theorem Let a1 < a2 < < as be non-zero integers and assume f1 (x) = x +
a1 , . . . , x + as = fs (x) satisfy . Then there exist infinitely many integers M > 1 so
{m + a1 , m + a2 , . . . , m + as } are consecutive primes.
Theorem Axiom D k N there exist infinitely many pairs of consecutive primes
with difference 2k. In particular, there exist infinitely many pairs of twin primes.
Proof. Let
f1 (x) = x + 1
f2 (x) = x + 2k + 1

then
f1 (0)f2 (0) = 1 + 2k = a
f2 (1)f2 (1) = 2(2 + 2k) = b
and
(a, b) = (1 + 2k, 4(1 + k))
= (1 + 2k, 1 + k)
= 1
since 2(1 + k) (1 + 2k) = 1. Hence {f1 , f2 } satisfy .
209
By the previous Theorem, since 1 < 2k + 1, there exist infinitely many integers m > 1
so f1 (m), f2 (m) are consecutive primes, i.e. p = m + 1 and q = m + 2k + 1 = p + 2k are
consecutive primes, so {p, p + 2k} are twins with the given property.
Axiom D has a number of other consequences e.g. on the existence of primes in arithmetic progressions.
Q
Let 1 < n and d a multiple of p6n p. Then there exist infinitely many arithmetic
progressions with difference d, each consisting of n consecutive primes.
Proving Axiom D: First try s = 2, generalising s = 1. Showing Axiom D is independentvery difficult and unlikely.
210
16
Partitions
Generating functions arise because if n, m Z

z| n {z
z m}
addition n
multiplication
{zm} !
|+
integers
polynomials/series
2
Ex (Lagrange) n xi , 1 6 i 6 4, n = x21 + x22 + x23 + x24 is equivalent to if (1 + z 1 +

2
2
z 2 + + z n + )4 = f (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + then ai > 0 i = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
Change Making How many ways can we make change for n N if the coins are of
denomination 1, 2 and 3 i.e. given N how many different solutions are there to
N = 1x + 2y + 3z
in x, y, z > 0 all integers?
Let |z| < 1 and write, using the sum to of a geometric series:
1
=
1z
=
1
=
1 z2
1
=
1 z3
1 + z + z2 + z3 +
1 + z 1 + z 1+1 + z 1+1+1 +
1 + z 2 + z 2+2 + z 2+2+2 +
1 + z 3 + z 3+3 + z 3+3+3 +
211
so
1
= (1 + z 1 + z 1+1 + )(1 + z 2 + z 2+2 + )(1 + z 3 + z 3+3 + )
(1 z)(1 z 2 )(1 z 3 )
X
=
c(n)z n
n=0
c(0) = 1.
what happens when we multiply out the RHS? We get terms like z 1+1+1+1 z 2 z 3+3 = z 12
but this is z four 1s + one 2 + two 3s i.e. a method of changing 12 into 1s, 2s and
3s. Every way of changing 12 will appear so c(12) is exactly the number of ways 12 can
be changed. Similarly, c(n) is the number of ways n can be changed
X
n=0
c(n)z n =
1
(1 z)(1 z 2 )(1 z 3 )
so our number theory counting problem has been transformed into an analytic problem,
i.e. finding coefficients of a Taylor series. Dont do the series multiplication to get the
c(n)s. Use partial fractions (check by simplifying the RHS):
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
=
+
2
3
3
2
2
(1 z)(1 z )(1 z )
6 (1 z)
4 (1 z)
4 (1 z ) 3 (1 z 3 )
Then
d
dz
1
1z
1
d
=
=
(1 z)2
dz
X
n=1
!
zn
X
n=0
(n + 1)z n
212
and
d
dz
1
2(1 z)2
d
1
=
=
(1 z)2
dz
X
n=0
n+1 n
z
2
!
=
1 (n + 1)(n + 2) 1
+ (n + 1) +
c(n) =
6
2
4
2

n
n
=
+ + 1 (see below)
12 2
X
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n=0
1
4
1
3
n even
3|n
If 2 | n and 3 | n get

3
1
1 1 1
n2
2
+
+
+ + +
c(n) =
n+
12
12 4
12 4 4 3
2
n
n
=
+ +1
12 2
But c(n) N so
n2 n
c(n) =
+ +1
12 2

zn
213
If 2 | n and 3 - n
n2 n
1
+ +1
12 2 2
3
n
n
=
+ +1
12 2
c(n) =
since c(n) N. Similarly, if 2 - n and 3 | n:

n2 n
1
+ +1
12 2 2
4
n
n
=
+ +1
12 2
c(n) =
Crazy Dice
Normal die have faces labelled 16. When tossed there exist 6 6 = 36 equally likely
1
outcomes e.g. the probability of (6, 6) is 36
. What are the probabilities for sums? s =
214
x + y, 2 6 s 6 12.
p(z) = z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + z 6
Combined possibilities for sums are encoded in

(z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + z 6 )(z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + +z 6 )
= z 2 + 2z 3 + 3z 4 + 4z 5 + 5z 6 + 6z 7 + 5z 8 + 4z 9 + 3z 10 + 2z 11 + z 12
so there are 3 ways in which we can achieve s = 10:
5+5
6+4
4+6
=
=
=
10
10
10
215
Question: Can we label the two cubes with other positive integers and obtain the same
frequencies for sums? i.e do there exist a1 , . . . , a6 ; b1 , . . . , b6 N so
pa (z) pb (z)
= (z a1 + z a2 + z a3 + z a4 + z a5 + z a6 )(z b1 + z b2 + z b3 + z b4 + z b5 + z b6 )
= z 2 + 2z 3 + 3z 4 + 4z 5 + 5z 6 + 6z 7 + 5z 8 + 4z 9 + 3z 10 + 2z 11 + z 12
Call these Crazy Dice:

LHS = (z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + z 6 )2
2

(1 z 6 )
= z
1z

2
(1 z 2 )(1 + z 2 + z 4 )
= z
1z

2
= z(1 + z)(1 + z + z 2 )(1 z + z 2 )
Since Z[x] is a unique factorisation domain, the polynomials pa and pb must consist
of these factors. Since ai > 1, bi > 1, 1 6 i 6 6, a factor z must occur in both.
pa (1) = 1a1 + 1a2 + 1a3 + 1a4 + 1a5 + 1a6 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 so (1 + z + z 2 )(1 + z)
must appear in a factorization of pa . The same applies to pb . This leaves the two factors
216
(1 z + z 2 ) to distribute. One to each normal die. Both to pa crazy die.
pa (z) =
=
pb (z) =
=
z(1 + z)(1 + z + z 2 )(1 z + z 2 )2

z + z3 + z4 + z5 + z6 + z8
z(1 + z + z 2 )(1 + z)
z + 2z 2 + 2z 3 + z 4
so {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4} are the labels.
Representation Function
Let A Z+ = N {0} a subset of non-negative integers.
How many ways can a given n N be written as the sum of two elements of A?
Order counts and the summands can be equal :
r(n) = #{(a, b) A A : n = a + b}
Order does not count, but they can be equal :
r+ (n) = #{(a, b) A A : a 6 b, n = a + b}
217
Order does not count, and they cannot be equal :
r (n) = #{(a, b) A A : a < b, n = a + b}
Let A(z) be the generating function for the set A i.e.
X
zn
A(z) =
nA
Then
r(n)z n = (A(z))2 = A2 (z)
n=0
and
r (n)z n =
n=0
finally

1 2
A (z) A(z 2 ) = B(z) say
2
r+ (n)z n = B(z) + A(z 2 ) =
n=0

1 2
A (z) + A(z 2 )
2
Question: Is there an infinite set A Z+ , with A =

6 , for which r+ (n) = C =
constant n or n > n0 ?
Then
1
2
(A2 (z) + A(z 2 )) =
C
1z
+ P (z) where P is a polynomial with P < n0 .
218
Let z 1+ . Then |P (z)| 6 B1 a bound,

C

1 z 6 B2 a bound,
A2 (z) > 0 and A(z 2 ) A(1) so the RHS is unbounded. Hence the answer to the
question is no.
Question: Can we split Z+ into two disjoint sets A and B so every non-negative integer
is expressible in the same number of ways as the sum of two distinct members of A as it
is the sum of two distinct members of B?
Trial-and-error: Let 0 A, then 1 B else 1 = 1 + 0 = a + a0 but not 1 = b + b0 . Then
2 B else 2 = 2 + 0 = a + a0 6= b + b0 (1 + 1 is not distinct). then 3 A else 3 6= a + a0
whereas 3 = 1 + 2 = b + b0 etc. Then
A = {0, 3, 5, 6, 9, . . .}
B = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, . . .}
What is the pattern? Are A and B unique?
Use generating functions A(z) for A and B(z) for B so
1 2

1 2
A (z) A(z 2 ) =
B (z) B(z 2 ) (1)
2
2
+
Also, because A t B = Z is a splitting
1
A(z) + B(z) =
= 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + (2)
1z
219
(1) A2 (z) B 2 (z) = A(z 2 ) B(z 2 ) so (A(z) B(z))(A(z) + B(z)) = A(z 2 ) B(z 2 ).
A(z) B(z)
1z
A(z) B(z)
A(z 2 ) B(z 2 )
A(z) B(z)
(2)
z z2
= A(z 2 ) B(z 2 )
= (1 z)[A(z 2 ) B(z 2 )] z, |z| < 1
= (1 z 2 )[A(z 4 ) B(z 4 )]
= (1 z)(1 z 2 )[A(z 4 ) B(z 4 )]
Iterating this gives:

n1
A(z) B(z) = (1 z)(1 z 2 )(1 z 4 ) (1 z 2

n
n
) A(z 2 ) B(z 2 )
But A(0) = 1, B(0) = 0 and z 2 0 as n since |z| < 1

Y
2j
1z
[A(0) B(0)]
A(z) B(z) =
=
j=0

Y
1z
2j
(3)
j=0
We can easily multiply this out!

Every n Z+ has a unique binary representation, i.e. expression as a sum of powers f 2,
2j . Indeed,
220
n = sum of an even number of powers of 2 z n has coefficient +1.
n = sum of an odd number of powers of 2 z n has coefficient 1.
so A = {n : n is an even . . .}, B = {n : n is an odd . . .}
This is not trivial, not something we might have guessed.
0 = 0
1 = 20
2 = 21
3 = 20 + 21
5 = 20 + 22
4 = 22
A=
B
=
1
2
7 = 20 + 21 + 22
6 = 2 +2
8 = 23
9 = 20 + 23
..
..
.
.
Eulers Identity
Consider the number of ways of expressing n as the sum of (any number of) distinct
221
positive integers p(n):
6 =
=
=
=
1+2+3
2+4
1+5
6
so p(6) = 4. Also express n as the sum of positive odd numbers, q(n) allowing repeats so:
6 =
=
=
=
1+5
3+3
1+1+1+3
1+1+1+1+1+1
so q(6) = 4 and p(6) = q(6). This is not a coincidence!

Theorem (Euler) The number of ways of expressing N as the sum of distinct positive
integers equals the number of ways of expressing n as (not necessarily distinct) odd positive
integers.
P
P
n
n
Proof. To prove
n=0 p(n)z =
n=0 q(n)z i.e
(1 + z 1 )(1 + z 2 )(1 + z 3 ) =
This is Eulers identity.
1
(1 z)(1 z 3 )(1 z 5 )
222
1
LHS = (1 z)(1 z 3 )(1 z 5 ) (1 + z)(1 + z 2 )(1 + z 3 ) . This is
Consider RHS
(1 z)(1 + z)(1 z 3 )(1 + z 3 ) (1 + z 2 )(1 + z 4 )(1 + z 6 )

= (1 z 2 )(1 z 6 )(1 z 10 ) (1 + z 2 )(1 + z 4 )(1 + z 6 ) = P (z), say
But then
P (z 2 ) =
=
=
=
(1 z 4 )(1 z 12 ) (1 + z 4 )(1 + z 8 )
(1 z 2 )(1 + z 2 )(1 z 6 )(1 + z 6 ) (1 + z 4 )(1 + z 8 )
(1 z 2 )(1 z 6 ) (1 + z 2 )(1 + z 4 )
P (z)
So P (z) = P (z 2 ) so P 0 (z) = 2zP 0 (z 2 ) and P 0 (0) = 0 similarly P 00 (0) = 0, P 000 (0) =

0, . . . , p(n) (0) = 0 n N so (Taylor expansion) P (z) = P (0) + 0 = P (0) |z| < 1. But
P (0) = (1 0)(1 0) (1 + 0)(1 + 0) = 1. Hence P (z) = 1 |z| < 1 so LHS = RHS
and we have proved Eulers mysterious identity.
Ex Eulers identity at z =
1
2
is

Y
j=1
i.e.
3
2
1
1+ j
2

=

Y
i=1
1
1
22i1
54 98 = 21 87 32
or take log and use log(1 + z) = z z2 + z3 z4 (|z| < 1).
31
X
X
j=1 n=1
nz
(1)
jn
X
z (2i1)n
i=1 n=1
223
Partition Function p(n)

Question: In how many ways can n N be expressed as a sum of natural numbers?
First let order count:
Ex
4 =
=
=
=
=
1+3=3+1
2+2
4
2+1+1=1+2+1=1+1+2
1+1+1+1
8 = 241 ways
Proposition If order counts, n can be expressed as a sum in 2n1 = q(n) ways.

Proof. n = 1 : q(1) = 1 = 211 so the result is true.
Given n > 1 assume it is true for n 1 and write
n = (n 1) + 1 = (n 2) + 2 = = 1 + (n 1)
by the induction hypothesis each of these brackeded numbers can be expressed in a total
2n1 1 = 2n2 + 2n3 + + 1
224
ways and this represents the sums for n with 2 or more terms with order counting. The
only remaining sum is n = n so we get q(n) = 2n1 n N.
If order does not count then the counting is much more complex: p(1) = 1, p(2) =
2, p(3) = 3,
4 =
=
=
=
=
1+1+1+1
1+1+2
1+3
2+2
4
and p(4) = 5. Similarly p(5) = 7. There is no pattern.

Major MacMahon computed hundreds of values of p(n) by hand and it suddenly occurred
to him that from a distance, the outline of the digits formed a parabola!
# of digits C n so p(n) e n . Later work showed
e 2n/3
(Rademacher)
p(n)
4 3n
At n = 200, RHS ; 4 1012 ; p(200). the proof uses elliptic modular functions. We will
derive an upper bound for the RHS. p(n) is call the (unrestricted) partition function.
225
Geometric Representation
Ex 15 = 6 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1
Reading vertically, 15 = 5+4+3+1+1+1 is another, conjugate partition. Then number

of parts in the first equals the size of the largest part in the second, and vice-versa.
Proposition
The number of partitions of n into m parts is equal to the number of
226
partitions of n into parts, the largest of which is m.
Theorem (Euler)
X
1
p(n)xn
=
m
1
x
n=0
m=1
|x| < 1, p(0) = 1. So the LHS is a generating function for p(n).
Proof. Expand each factor on LHS as a power series using the sum to of a geometric
series:
LHS = (1 + x + x2 + x3 + )(1 + x2 + x4 + )(1 + x3 + x6 + )
Now multiply out and collect like powers of x so
LHS = 1 +
a(j)xj
j=1
We need to prove a(j) = p(j). If we take a term xk1 from the first, x2k2 from the second,
x3k3 from the third,. . . , xmkm from the mth where each ki > 0, their product is
xk1 x2k2 xmkm = xk
say, where k = k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 + + mkm or
k = (1 + 1 + + 1) + (2 + 2 + ) + (3 + 3 + ) + + (m + m + )
|
{z
} |
{z
} |
{z
}
|
{z
}
k1
k2
k3
km
227
so this is a partition of k into positive summands. Conversely each term xk comes from
such a partition. Hence a(k) = p(k). (This can be made into a more rigorous proof.)
Similarly other types of partitions can be described using generating functions:
Generating function for the number of partitions of
n into parts which are
Q
1
even
Qm=11 1x2m
prime
Qp1xp
m
(1 + x )
unequal
Qm=1
m2
(1
+
x
)
distinct squares
Qm=1
1
squares
Qm=1 1xpm2
distinct primes
p (1 + x )
Pentagonal Numbers
These belong to the family of polygonal numbers, beloved by the Greek Pythagoreans.
228
1
1+4
1+4+7
1 + 4 + 7 + 10
= 1
= 5
= 12
= 22
In general, the nth pentagonal number is the nth partial sum of the arithmetic progression
229
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . , 3n + 1, . . . n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Let
(n) =
n1
X
(3j + 1)
j=0
= 3
n1
X
j+
j=0
n1
X
j=0
3
=
n(n 1) + n
2
3n2 n
=
2
2
Then, normally, (n) = 3n 2n and (n) =

(1) = 1, (2) = 5, (3) = 12, . . ..
3n2 +n
2
are called pentagonal numbers.
Theorem (Eulers Pentagonal Number Theorem) Let |x| < 1, then
(1 x ) =
m=1
(1)n x(n)
n=
So, surprisingly, the LHS is a sort of generating function for the (n). Note also the
surprising relationship between the p(n) and (n):
!
!
X
X
1=
p(n)xn
(1)n x(n)
n=0
n=
230
Proof. (Euler by induction 1750, Legendre 1830, Jocobi 1846, Franklin 1881 gave this
remarkable combinatorial proof) Let
(1 xm ) = 1 +
m=1
a(n)xn
n=1
Now every partition of n into unequal parts contributes to a term on the right with
+1 if xn is the product of an even number of terms.
1 if xn is the product of an odd number of terms.
Hence
(1 x ) = 1 +
m=1
(pe (n) po (n))xn (1)
n=1
Franklin showed that there is a 1-1 correspondence between even and odd partitions, so
pe (n) = po (n), except when n is pentagonal.
Consider the graph of a partition. It is in standard form if the parts are in strictly
decreasing order going down the page.
Definition The base of the graph is the longest line segment connecting points in the
last row. Let b be the number of points.
231
Definition The slope of the graph is the longest 45o segment joining the last point in
the first row with the last point in successive rows. Let s be the number of points in the
slope.
...
. .. .. .
..-,-.
-
. -Slope
(s=4)
'-&"""-21
---'
Definition Operation A: Move points on the base so they all lie on a line parallel to
the slope. It is permissible if the resulting graph is in standard form.
Definition Operation B: Move all points on the slope so they lie on a line below the
base. Again it is permissible if the resulting graph is in standard form.
232
If A is permissible we get a new partition of n into unequal parts with 1 less term. If B
is permissible we get a new partition of n into unequal parts with 1 more term.
If for a given n and every partition of n, exactly one of A or B is permissible, there will
be a 1-1 correspondence between partitions of n into an even and odd number of terms
pe (n) = po (n) for these n.
Determination whether A or B is permissible:
Case 1 b < s : b 6 s 1 A is okay but B is not.

Case 2 b = s: B is not okay. A is okay except when the base and slope intersect.
Case 3 s < b: A is not permissible, B is okay except when b = s + 1
there are just two exceptions, (a) and (b) above.
233
Consider (a): Let there be k rows so b = k and counting s:
3k 2 k
= (k)
2
So if k is even we get an extra partition into an even number (k) of parts. If K is
odd we get an extra odd partition. pe (n) po (n) = (1)k .
n = k + (k + 1) + + (2k 1) =
In (b):
3k 2 k
+ k because there s an extra point on each row
n =
2
3k 2 + k
=
2
= (k)
and again pe (n) po (n) = (1)k .
Hence, by (1)
(1 xm ) = 1 +
m=1
X
X
(1)k x(k) +
(1)k x(k)
k=1
k=1

Theorem (Euler) Let p(0) = 1 and p(n) = 0 for n < 0:
p(n) =
X
(1)k+1 {p(n (k)) + p(n (k))}
k=1
234
Proof. By the above two theorems

1+
!
{x(k) + x(k) }
!
p(m)xm
=1
m=0
k=1
For n > 1 the coefficient of xn on RHS is zero. So equating coefficients of xn on each

side:
X
X
X
X
k
m+(k)
n
(1)k p(m)xm+(k) = 0
(1) p(m)x
+
p(n)x +
p(n)x +
n=0
m=0 k=1
m=0 k=1
n=0
"
X
X
n=0
#
k
(1) p(n (k)) x +
n=0
k=1
p(n) =
"
X
X
#
k
(1) p(n (k)) xn = 0
k=1
(1)k+1 {p(n (k)) + p(n (k))}
k=1

P
k+1
Ex p(5) =
{p(5(k))+p(5(k))}. Using (0) = 0, (1) = 1, (2) =
k=1 (1)
5, (3) = 12, (1) = 2, (2) = 7, (3) = 15. we get:
p(5) =
=
=
=
(1)2 {p(5 (1)) + p(5 (1))} + (1)3 {p(5 (2)) + p(5 (2))}
1 {p(4) + p(3)} {p(0) + p(2)} + 0
{5 + 3} {1 + 0}
7
235
as before.
An upper bound for p(n)

q
Theorem n > 1, p(n) < ek n where k = 23 .

P
Q
k
m 1
= 1+
Proof. Let F (x) =
k=1 p(k)x and restrict x to lie in 0 < x < 1.
n=1 (1 x )
Then p(n)xn < F (x), each term being positive. So

log(p(n)) < log(F (x)) + n log x1
=
A
+
B
236
First estimate A, then B:
A = log(F (x))
!
Y
= log
(1 xn )
n=1
=
=
log(1 xn )
n=1
XX
xmn
m
n=1 m=1
X
1 X m n
=
(x )
m n=1
m=1
X 1
xm
=
m 1 xm
m=1
Now
1xm
1x
= 1 + x + x2 + + xm1 and 0 < x < 1 so
1 xm
<m
1x
m(1 x)
1 xm
m(1 x)
<
<
x
xm
xm
with all terms positive so inverting gives:
xm
1
xm
1
x
6
6 2
2
m
m (1 x)
m 1x
m 1x
mxm1 <
237
Sum on m
Let t =
1x
x
X
1
xm
x X 1
2
x
A=
6
=
m
2
m 1x
1 x m=1 m
6 1x
m=1

1
1
2 1
so 1 + t = 1 + 1x
=
so
A
6
and
log
= log(1 + t) < t
x
x
6
t
x
Hence log(p(n)) < log(F (x)) + n log

Now the minimum value of (t) =
2
6t
1
x
<
2
6t
+ nt
+ nt occurs when t0 =
.
6n
238
For this value of t
2n
(t0 ) = 2nt0 = = K n
6n
Hence log(p(n)) < K n p(n) < eK n .
We can use generating functions and logarithmic differentiation to devise recursion

formulas for arithmetical functions:
Let A N be a subset. Let f (n) be an arithmetical function. Let the product
Y
f (n)
(1 xn ) n
FA (x) =
nA
and the series

GA (x) =
X f (n)
nA
xn
239
converge absolutely for |x| < 1. Then
log(FA (x)) =
X f (n)
n
nA
=
=
log(1 xn )
X f (n) X
xmn
nA
n=1
1
GA (xm )
m
m=1
Then differentiate and multiply by x to obtain:

x
X
FA0 (x)
G0A (xm )xm
=
FA (x)
m=1
=
=
X
X
m=1 nA
X
f (n)xmn
xA (n)f (n)xmn
m=1 n=1
= RHS
where

xA (n) =
1 nA
0 n
6 A
is the so-called characteristic function of A.
240
Now collect terms with mn = k to get
RHS =
fA (k)xk
k=1
where
fA (k) =
x(d)f (d) =
d|k
f (d)
d|k,dA
Hence
xFA0 (x)
= FA (x)
fA (k)xk (1)
k=1
Now write FA (x) as a power series in x. The coefficient will depend on A and f of course
so call them pA,f (n):
FA (x) =
pA,f (n)xn , pA,f (0) = FA ()) =
n=0
1=1
nA
Finally, equate the coefficients of xn on both sides of (1) to obtain

npA,f (n) =
n
X
fA (k)pA,f (n k)
k=1
with
pA,f (0) = 1 and fA (k) =
X
d|k,dA
f (d)
241
Ex A =P
N, f (n) = n pA,f (n) = p(n), the (unrestricted) partition function, and
fA (k) = d|k d = (k) the divisor sum function so:
np(n) =
n
X
(k)p(n k)
k=1
Check: p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5, p(5) = 7, so LHS = 35

RHS = (1)p(4) + (2)p(3) + (3)p(2) + (4)p(1) + (5)p(0)
= 15+33+42+71+61
= 35

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1

Definition N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} are the natural numbers.

Definition If a = cb (a, b, c Z) we say a is a multiple of b, or b divides a and write

is the standard factorisation of n.

N . We are left with all

How many primes are there ?

so the primes are denser than the squares.

these is prime, then p must be one of them. If n = p1 1 pi i = q11 qj j are two

with j > 0, j > 0 then

Definition Let a, b Z+ = {0, 1, 2, . . .} = N {0}. The least common multiple or

Proposition 11 Any common multiple of a and b is a multiple of the least common

But x, y max (x, y) + min (x, y) = x + y. Hence

Alternative Characterisation of the GCD

divisors of 12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} = D12

So 6 satisfies the property. Hence, fixing the sign, 6 = (12, 18).

so m is perfect. Let a be an even perfect number. a = 2n1 u, u > 1, 2 - u. (Note that

since a is perfect. Hence

| u so u has just two divisors hence u P and

Conjecture There are no odd perfect numbers.

F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, F4 = 65537.

(Euler, 1732): 641 | 22 + 1 = 641 6700417.

Definition a b (mod m) if m | a b, m 6= 0, a, b, m Z. If so we say a is congruent

Eulers Phi Function

pj j is the standard factorisation,

Proof. Consider the natural numbers in the interval 1 6 j 6 p . There are

Theorem 12 (Wilson) If p P, (p 1)! 1 (mod p).

Note on Fermat Numbers

= (1)f (1) + (p)f (p) + (p2 )f (p2 ) +

Proof. Let f (d) = 1 in Proposition 26 and note

Definition The function u(n) = 1 n N.

and for Theorem 14:

where N (n) = n is the identity. If f (1) 6 0 there is a unique function f 1 with f f 1 =

Then is completely multiplicative.

= (1) + (p) + (p2 ) + + (p )

Averages of Arithmetic Functions

is the divisor function.

Need the partial sums

and write f (x) g(x), x .

Theorem 17 (Euler Summation) If f has a continuous derivative f 0 on [y, x] R

+ f (x)(bxc x) f (y)(byc y).

Proof. Let m = byc , k = bxc. If n, n 1 [y, x]:

= (n 1)(f (n) f (n 1))

btc f 0 (t) dt + kf (k) mf (m + 1)

f (t) dt (by parts) gives

f (t) dt = xf (x) yf (y)

Then (4) (5) (3).

in Theorem 17 with y = 1 so f 0 (t) = t12 and

d(n) = x log(x) + (2 1)x + O

Now d | n n = qd so we can express the double sum as

= 2#(below line q = d) + #(on q = d)

where we have use Lemma 1 below for the middle sum.

Note: Improvements in the error term O( x)

The Distribution of Primes

in Dirichlets theorem for d(n) have come

the numbers are prime

Theorem 20 For n > 2,

log(n) 6 H(n) 6 log(n) so, by the RHS of Chebychevs Lemma,

This completes the proof of the theorem.

This proves the claim.

By (11) and (12)

k((2k+1 ) (2k )) + (2k+1 )

Apply this for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k and add ((20 ) = (1) = 0):

If x 6 Z, n Z so n < x < n+1 and x = n+ 12 + where || < 21 . Then 2x = 2n+1+2.