CHAPTER 5

Ion:111111111

Forces on a ship

1.General
Longitudinal strength
Shearing forces
Explaining bending moments
Longitudinal reinforcements
The loading programme
Torsion of the hull
Local stress
Panting stresses
Pitching loads
Diagonal loads
Vibration loads
Docking loads
Ship in waves
Stiffening
Purpose or stiffeners
Longitudinal framing system and transverse framing system

1 General
There are many forces acting on a ship. How they act is largel y determined by
the purpose the ship was built for. Forces on a tugboat will be different from
the forces acting on a container ship. The types of forces that occur in waves
are the same for every ship but the magnitudes and points of action depend on
the shape of the ship below the waterline .
The pattern of forces on a ship is very
complicated and largely depends on
the following parameters:
- the weight of the empty ship
- the weight of the cargo, fuel,
bal last, provi sions, etc.
- ice
- h ydrost atic "' pressure on the hull
applied by the water
- hydrodynamic * forces resulting
from the movement of the ship in
the waves
- vibration s cau sed by engines,
propeller , pitching
,;\\ \ l lfp 11il1h 1/ w.,/ 1i;1 1111 1111M11l!ltt vil1.111.1i.11;,1,
- incident forces caused by docking,
collisions

2 Longitudinal strength

These and other forces cause the ship

to be deflected. When the force stops
acting, the ship will regain its original
shape. Every ship is different and
some have more or less of this
flexibility. If, however, the forces
exceed a certain limit , the defor
mation can be permanent.

2.1 Shearing forces

When a ship is in calm water, the total
upward force will equal the total
weight of the sh ip . Locally th is
equilibriu m will not be realised
because the ship is not a rectangular
homogeneou s object. The local

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Ship Knowledge, a modern encyclopedia

8
4

differences between upward pressure

and the local weight give rise to
shearing forces
that lead to
longitudinal tensions. The shearing
force is the force that wants to shift
the (athwart-ship) plane from one
part of the ship to another. The
submerged pai1 of the ship clearly
shows the difference in volume
between the midships, the fore- and
the aft ship; this is the reason for the
difference in

upward pressure. In the drawing on

the right a part of the aft ship is
depicted along with the shearing
force near a bulkhead . The shearing
force at the bulkhead is 400200=200 tons. The downward force
causes a hogging moment of 400t x
6111. The upward force causes a
sagging moment of 200t x 3m. The
bend ing moment at the bulk head
is: 2400tm- 600tm = 1800tm
hogging.

The longitudinal
forces occur
because:
a. the weights in the ship are not
homogeneous in the fore and aft
direction
b. the upward pressure differs
becau se of the shape of the
underwater body

400!

200!
sheenng

f rce

The submerged part of this ship clear/ r .1hmrs the d( fjere1Jce i11 1'0/ wne het11eeJJ the
111id.1hips
section 011d the a(i .1hip. This cxp/oi111 the tli(ler<'llCe in 11puurd pre
rnre.

200 tons shearing force at

;his /J11/khead

Weight

Buoyancy force
The black 1cc1ors reJ1l'l'.lf!11/ the up ward f'l' <'s.rnre w1d the 1reighr 0(1/ie ship.
Th' red 1ec/l!n R i1e the rcs11/1wr 1 per sef'/ io11.

f - --i f -)-j f - . -fj. - --f

Initial draught

This is /row tir e -"Cf!{ll'ate cr1m11arr11wJJ1s nnuld/loat. The dashed !iJJ e ;<i1e.1 thei r ac/1111/ draught.

]t ii
Q.

-t
4

It
H

Q2

-t
,

It ti
Q,

-t
z

Ui[
G4

The hlack 1ecton g i1e rhe res11 /10 111 s/rearinR f urces het H een rhe different comprlr!ments.

+'

The red iecwn giv11/r,, rc.1ul1n111 per rection

Ship Knowledxe. u modern e11cyclopedi11

85

2.2 Explaining bending moments

Below is an explanation of how
bending moments and shearing forces
are continuously changing. As an
example a rectangular vessel is used
which is divided into three compart
ments (A, B and C). In figures 1, 2
and 3 both outer compartments are
filled with cargo. In figures 4 and 5
the inner compartment (B) is filled
with cargo. In figures 2 and 5 the
Comainerfe eder in hemy weorher. The ship is purrially un o l\'avetop; hogg ing vessel is on a wavetop and in figures
3 and 6 the vessel is in a trough. The
u pward pressures keep changing
because the wave pattern is also
changi ng. The downward forces
however stay the same. The up and
downward forces per compartment
are depicted as vectors.
T/1e .1/1ip is parti ally in u 1m11g li. In this rnse 1/1e.fiJreship will e.1pairnce a
large sagging 11wme/lf while rite qfi .rhip experiences u lart:e hogg ing moment.

fig 2
calm water

wavetop

fig 3
trough

+
resultant

---

load curve

---

sheering force curve

bending moment

Ship Knowledg e, a modem encycloped

ia

The mean resultant per compartment

is given as a vector on the line below.
The load curve gives the difference
of the up- and downward forces per
metre at each point on the baseline
. The sum of the areas above the
baseline and the areas below the
baseline should be equal.
The shearing force curve gives a sum
of the shearing forces on the right part
produced by the left side, going from
left to right. If the direction of the
force is changing (from upward to
downward or vice versa), the shearing
force curve will change from rising to
falling or vice versa. The shearing
force curve has an extreme value at
the points where the direction of the
force is changing. Converting the
load curve to a shear force curve is

fig 4
calm water

called summing. The sum of the areas

above the baseline has to equal the
sum of the areas below the baseline.
The shearing forces are expressed in
tons.
The bending moment is determined
by summing the shearing forces going
from left to right.
The bending moment is expressed in
tonmetre (tm). If the shearing force
curve changes from rising to falling
or vice versa , the bending moment
will bend at the bending point from
"hollow" to "round" or vice versa.
When the shearing force curve
crosses the baseline, the bending
moment line will change from rising
to falling or vice versa. The ship will

take the shape of the bending

moment line if this has only one
extreme (maximum) value.
The situation in figures I and 2 is
called a hogging condition and the
situation in figures 3, 4, S and 6 is
called a sagging condition. Around
the half height of the vessel there is a
"neutral zone". Here there are hardly
any tension or compression stresses.
However, especially at the ends of the
vessel, heavy horizontal shearing
stress can occur.

fig 5

fig 6

wavetop

trough

resultant

load curve

sheering force curve

bending moment

2.3 Longitudinal reinforcements

The preceding shows that the biggest
stresses occur in the outer fibres: in
the shear strake, bilge strake, upper
strake of the side bu lkhead and
bottom strakes. This is were the
thickest plating is applied. The
pictures above show a view that
clearly emphasizes the difference in
plate thickness between the upper
strake of the side bulkhead and the
side bulkhead ju st below it. In this
ship (container feeder) the upper
strake of the side bulkhead is about
2.5 times as thick as the continuous
side bulkhead. The place where the
plate thickness changes (from 22 mm
to 9 mm) is called the taper.

2.4 The loading programme

When the ship's "officer has entered
the weight of all the items on the ship
into the loading programme , the
computer can calculate the stability,
shearing forces and bendin g mo ments.
The program compares the present
situation with the requi rements and
regu lations of the classification bureau
and the proper authorities.
The
following pages contain a number of
examples of loading siniations as the
computer on board depicts these. The
situations
have
been
greatly
exaggerated for clarity. Of the total
loading programme, only a few
(shortened) pages are shown.

Ship Knowledge, a modern encyclopedi a

Situation I
Only the holds in the fore and the aft
ship are loaded , resulting in a great
hogging moment. The graph shows
that the bending moment reaches the
limit for seagoing condition. There
fore, this is a dangerous situation.
During (un)loadi ng in port this
bending moment is still allowable.
The difference between maximum
allowable bendi ng moments at sea
level and in the harbour comes from
the additional bending moments due
the waves at sea.
Situation 2
The cargo is distributed equally over
the whole ship, resulting in modest
shear force and bend ing moments.
Because part of the cargo is placed on
the main deck, the initial stability
(GMO) is negative. This means that
the centre of gravity (G) is above the
metacentre (M) when the ship has no
list. When the ship starts listing M
wi ll move upwards due to the
widening of the waterline till it
reaches G In case of an increasing
difference between G and M the ship
will eventually capsize.
Situation 3
Only the holds in the midship section
are loaded. Because of this the ship
experiences a large sagging moment.
The maximum bending moment
exceeds the acceptable bending
moment for seagoing condition at
Y2 L (frame 108) by 2%. In port this is
still permissible. See also the table
"strength summary" and the graph of
bending moments.

Explanation of the above pictures:

1. Upper strake side bulkhead
(22 rrun)
2. Main deck or gangway (14 mm)
3. Longitudi nal or side bulkhead
(9 mm )
4. Deck beam (HP-profile)
5. Deck beam (flat bar)
6. Longitudina l frame (HP-profile)
7. Web frame with plate stiffeners
around manhole.
8. Inner side of the shell with
stringer.
9. Stringers on the side bulkhead.

8
8

Maximum pressure

Minimum pressure

Pressure distribution for a hogging condition

Maximum stress

Minimum stress

Global stress level (equivalent stress) for a hogging condition

liu; comp111er si11111 /at io11.1 ll'hich shu11 the tension w1d compressi1 e stresses i11 hogg ing co11Ji1i1111.

Situation 1
SEATRADE B.V.

S.W. 1025

- --

--

---

100 tonlm.

cargo

--- Tanks
--- Lightweight
--- Deadload

0
--- Buoyancy

r 1000 t

)0(

o 1Limit, Harbour

SHEAR FORCE

xx

'l ,C. .:::

I

li t

10000 tm

()

x x limit, Seagoing
-Actual

00

x xx

r)

(<. x

)(

xx x

()

00

xx

BENDING MOMENT

Ship Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

9
0

'XlLimit,

Harbour
Limit, Seagoing

-Actual

m--<)----{ ---O-r

6
4
r:-=-::=:J_

;re ------+------+-------+------

Shi/' Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

-!--

--=}-----+-- ---""""=:--c

1
2

s 1o 1s 20 2s 30

so

so

40

70
Heel

(Trim=O)

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Results
Distances
from Ap. from OX
m
-3.601

7.800

34.625
51.200
74.300
90.025
110.860
133.900
146.501

-- ----

Buoyancy
Lightweight
Compartments
BreakBulk
Bays
Wght
Moment Wght Moment
Wght
Moment Wght Moment Wght Moment
t
m
I
Im
I
Im t
Im I
Im
tm

72.851
0
-53
61.450
34.625
-1912
18.050 -4038
-5.050
-7335
-20.775 -9304
-41.610 -11017
-84.650 -11764
-n.251 -11910

0
-3403

0
401
1798
2914
3891
4788
5396
5934
6089

-86886
-142256
-163783
-138955
-87478
-49577
-39430

0
26598
97873
125683
132865
122453
102487
74204
63392

0
270
507
721
1440
1739
2277
2869
2694

STRENGTH SUMMARY
Frame

130

no.
39
51
57
61
75
61
92
106
120
125

142
150
160
171
188

From
AP

26.000
3".625
38.600
42.010
51.200
55.400
63.100
74.300
83.100
86.200
90.025
98.100
103.850
110.860
118.400
130.300

Maximum :
Position (m) :

Bays.

0
17727
28087
33685
38091
34379
16923
-2502
-4208

0
0
284
909
909
909
1329
1826
1826

0
0
10774
27895
27895
27895
12914
-11267
-11267

0
0
462
462
462
693
1046
1302
1302

SF
t

Strength
BM
tm

0
0
617
0
19448 1139
19448
968
19448 -833
15618 -1176
4026
-968
-8487
-34
-8487
0

0
3012
29862
46982
51319
36962
8584
186
15

JEADWEIGHT SUMMARY

Shear Fon:es

% of permiss.
t

Seag.

Hartl.

1199
1139
1076
1037
968
693
163

47

41
39
36
35
32
23
6

-633

-962
-1041
-1176
-1639
-1414
-968
-527

44

42
'40

37
27
7
25
37
40
44
63

52
36
19

-62

19978
29862
34253
37843
-46982
50492
53762
51319
22
32
44247
41151
35
38
36962
54
25828
16964
OW 45
RESERVE
31
8584
16
3304
2
359

-1639
63
54
98.10 98.1 98.1
2C
2C
2C

HYDROSTATICS & STABILITY

Draught AP
7.55
Draught M.
7.00
Draught FP
6.45
Trim
1.10
Air Draught
28.99
Propp.Ratio
82

Bending Moment
% of perm1!!S
tm Seag. Harb.

m
m

29
45
53
59
80
90

96
83
78
71
53
48
26
11
2

Weight
I

25

IT CONTAJNERS

1302

43
47
60
65
72
69
59

CONTAINERS

BREAKBULK

1302
1825

38

56
50

38

32

CREW ANDSTORES

HEAVY FUEL

DlESCL O!l
FRESH WATER
WATERBAllAST
MISCELLANEOUS
DEADWEIGHT

OEADlOAD

LIGHTWEJGHT
DIS?U\CEMENT

18

103

107
202
1296
91
5822
0
6089
11910
112

LCG
m

TCG

m
0

VCG
m
0

-<l.52
-<l.52
-617

0.22
-0.22
0.00

17.08
17.08
8.12

369
..J:U9
38.03
85.0t
2 7
54.54
-4.12
0
10.1
3.31

0.00
-0.00
-0.00
0.02
-0.03
0.15
-0.05
0
0.00
-0 03

13.81
2 61
0.93
8.9!
1.25
5.92
7.71
0
8.28
8.00

s.Coo".(pc&.)
m

I
I

62)

(
(

62)
SJ

0)

0 00
0 07
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00

o.oe
0.00
0.00
0.08

53956
72
65.-49 65.5 65.5
SA-48 5A-4B 5A-4B

m
m

GM solid
Correction
GM fluid
GM req.

Rollp.

21T CONTAINERS

Heel

1.37
0.08
1.29
0.15
-1.1
15.0

m
m

ss
sec.

KMT
9.37 m
LCB
1.94 m
LCF
2.92 m
Immersion
21 t/cm
TrimMom
138 tm/cm
(Values above for trim=O)

Situation 2

C DECK
F'PERDECK

- + '>
;.- /
ADEC

.l

B DECK

--- Lightweight
--- Deadload

!\
t1

05

5C 5B

_5A

---

Buoyancy

2
1000 t

Limit, Harbour

SHEAR FORCE

x X limit, Seagoing

-Actual

('

x x

xxx

)0(

2 -

BENDING MOMENT

-o--o-n--

xx x

. ID

x x

...)

10000 tm

) ('

00Limit, Harbour
Limit,
Seagoing

Actual

Ship K1101vled[ie. a modem

encyclopedia

1
4

GZ (m)

Heel (0)
Trim = O

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Results

Distances
from OX
m
m

from Ap.

-3.601
7.800
34.625
51.200
74.300
90.025
110.860
133.900
146.501

72.851
61.450
34.625
18 050
-5.050
-20.775
-41.610
.Q4.650
-77.251

Buoyancy
Lightweight
Moment
Moment Wght
tm
t
tm

Wght
t
0
-470
-3747
-13737
-10983
-13402
-15406
-16197
-16340

0
-31165
-182130
-260427
-288729
-258328
-198358
-158411
-148428

0
401
1798
2914
3891
4786
5396
5934
6069

STRENGTHSUMMARY
Frame

% of permiss.

AP

t Seag. Harb.

no.

CONTAtNERS

39
51
57
61
75
81
92
108

Shear Forte&

From

26.000
34.625
38.600
42 010
51.200
55.400
63.100

-216
-264
-160
32
306
-0
-39
-117

63.100
90.025
98.100
88200
103650
110.860
118400
130.300

127
251
139
195
3
-105
-114

12
7
1
12
0
2
5

6
10
5
1
10
0
1
4

Compartments
BreakBulk
Wght Moment Wght
Moment Wght
t
Im
tm
t
t

0
26598
97873
125683
132865
122453
102487
74204
63392

0
220
361
613
1333
1631
1742
1747
1752

Bending Momeni

0
14265
20887
27147
31553
27841
25332
25023
24681

0
0
842
2633
4103
5197
5773
5853
5853

OEADWEIGHT SUMMARY

% of pertnlss

tm Seag
707
-2096
-3060
-3269
-854
-342
-550
-1061

1
4

5
6
2
1

Hartl.

1
3
4
4

BRE>J<BUU<

CONTAINERS

CREW ANO SlORES

HEAllYFUa

OIE'.SEL Oil

FRESH WAlffi
W"-TER BALLAST

0
0
462
882
1540
2037
2390
2846
2846

LCG
m

26"<6

1 311

1311

0
150
-284
306
-117
251
-105

0
488
-2098
-854
-1081
318
1882
91
-27

-17
-0

s CorT (pco.)

VCG
m

0
--0 2J

1741

(
0)
( 126)

-023
002

1i'.41
10 31

( 126)
I 15)

1590

9.69

13
13"

<l8 38
2 85
311.27
65 01

0 00
0.00
0 00
0.02

2'7

"
121iil

Strength
BM
tm

lCG
m

5853

202

SF
t

0
0
19448
31066
33779
27744
16152
3640
3640

Weightt

20'
40' CONTAINERS

0
0
31981
81197
90039
75390
60624
56719
56719

Bays
Moment
tm

--0.03

066
0.2
8.llll
1.25

0.02
0 00
0 00
0 00

0 15
0

502
0

0 00
0.00
000

74.300
120

130
150

142
125
160
171
188

Mall!mum .
Position (m) :

Bays:

-33

5
10
6
6
2
4
4
1

6
5
7
2
3
4
1

12
10
306
51.20 34.6 51.
5C 7AB
2
5C

-1087
316
2356
-561
2559
1882
1103
181

MlSCat.ANEOUS

0
5
7
6

:;
1
5

OEAOLOAO

UGHlWElGHT
OEAOWEIGHT
DISPlACEMENT
[}N RESERVE

"
0

&aa

16340
10251

... 54

0
1041
06
&.30

7339

3
1

0 00

--003
--0.05 0 02 1

B.2B

.. .
0.

80

s
7
-3294
41.58 103.8 103.B
68-M 2C-2B 2C-2B
-

HYDROSTATICS & STABILITY

Draught AP
Draught M.
Draught FP
Trim
Air Draught
Propp.Ratio

11.07 m
8.64 m
6.20 m
4.87 m
25.85 m
143 %

GM solid
Correction
GM fluid
GM req.
Heel
Rollp_

9.72 m
2.71 m
6.88 m

0.02 m

KMT
LCB
LCF

0.15 m
10.6 ps
40.1 sec.

24 t/cm
Immersion
192 tm/cm
TrimMom
(Values above for trim=O)

Situation 3
T

4+-==r=:oT7r=i=--r--r-4'---.--

UPPER DECK

.,.....!:......--.---,-

A DECK

--------

BDEC

C DECK

>
TANl<TOP

100 tonlm.

-Lightweight

cargo
Tanks

Deadload

1000 t

10000 tm
CGIJl

c.. C limit, Harbour

x xlimit, Seagoing
-Actual

SHEAR FORCE

00

0 0

x xx

BENDING MOMENT

3---<IJ---0-

Ship K11ml'ledge. a modem encyclopf' dia

oo

--

xx x

tl

xx

If)

00L1mit, Harbour
Limit,
Seagoing
-Actual

1
6

GZ, m

/
5

15 10

/
---------

10 15 20 25 30

so

so

40

70 Heel
(Trim=O)

iI

Shear Force and Bending Moment Results

frcm Ap.

Distances

from OX
m

-3.601
7.800
34.625
74.300
90.025
110.880
133.900
146.501

Buoyancy
Wght Moment
t
tm

72.851
0
61.450
-144
34.625
-2661
-5.050
-9763
-20.775 -12518
-41.610 -15155
-64.650 -16367
-77.251 -16538

STRENGTH SUMMARY

Frame

CONTAINERS

51
57
61
75
61
92
108
120
125
130
1<12
150
160
171
188

0
401
1798
3891
4788
5396
5934
6089

0
0
0
3800
6519
7500
7500
7500

% Of permi5S.

t Seag. Hart>
462
18
16
-558
2<1
20
-999
42
35
47
-1351
57
74
-2202
86
-2163
74
6"
49
-1377
56
-290
11
10
745
29
25
1064
42
36
1466
57
49
16"1
69
56
117<1
47
39
685
27
23
301
12
10
1
27
1

AP
26.000
34 625
38600
<12.010
51.200
55<100
63.100
74.300
83100

40' CONTAINERS
39

Wght

Sheer Fon::e

From

no.

0
-9411
-123187
-223138
-188139
-108364
-47067
-35252

Lightweight
Compartments
Wght Moment Wght
Moment
t
t
tm
tm

86.200

90.025
98.100
103.65()
110.860
118.400

130.300

Maldmum :
Position (m) .

-2202
51.20
5C

Bays.

86

512

SC

74
512
5C

0
26598
97873
132865
122453
102487
74204
63392

0
220
305
1125
1521
1684
1689
1689

Bending Moment

lEAOWEJGHT SUMMARY

'M. of permiss
tm Seag Harb.

13049
12621
9506
5"94
-11053
-20602
-3"330
-43362
-41"464
-38641
-33716
-19802
-11609
"5188
-1547
-77

19

19
15
9
23
45
80

98
92
81
51
44
20

0
14265
18602
23788
18810
15013
14704
14704

BreakBulk
Bays
Moment Wght Moment

17
16
12
7
15
29
49
63
60
56

49

32
24
12
4

Im

0
0
0
21874
-13967
-37139
-37139
-37139

0
0
0
658
1155
1260
1260
1260

w..9h1

20' CONTAINERS

BREAJ<B\JLK
CREW AND STORES
HEAVY FUEL
DIESEL O!L
FRESHWATER
WATER BALLAST
MISCELLANEOUS
DEADWEIGHT

OEADl.OAD

LIGHTWEIGHT
DISPLACEMENT
OW RESERVE

tm

l
0

0
0
0
2713
-3322
-5704
--5704
-5704

TC.G

LCG

SF
0
476
-558
-290
1466
685
15
-0

VCG

1260

-4 53

1260
7500

-4.53
-4 95

O 25
000

17 57
7 57

8
248
11
202
1129
91
10449
0
6089
16537
6656

-16 95
748
36 27
65.0t
-1.61

0 00
0 00
0.00
0 02
O 03
0.15
0.03
0
0 00
0.02

16.61
3 22
0 24

5' !A

-2.69
0
1041

2 13

BM
tm

0
2217
12621
-43382
-33716
-5188
-5
-12

S.Corr (pcs )

0
025

Strength

17.57

0)

60)

(
(

60)
8)

0.00
0 01
0 00

000
000
0 00
0 02
0.00
0 ()0
O.D2

8 98

1.29
5 92
8.01
0
828
811

1
63
-43634
76.61 76.6 76.6
4B-4A 4B-4A 4B-4A

HYDROSTATICS & STABILITY

sa
Propp.Ratio

103

Rollp.

10

Heel
50

GZ

15

0 'i
0 31
0 'i9

m
m
m

20

0.70

25
30
40

0 93
108
1 16

m
m
m
m
m
m

so

60
70

1 06
0 82
0 49

Floodangle, Thf
Deck Subm.
Cb

12.3

sec.

51 2
21 0

Actual

0 051 Vm"2

W ind Lever lw1 0 056

Cargo WindArea
252
Total WindArea A 1o10

GM nuid

051
WindForce

(Values above for trim=O)

m
m"2
m"2

o-

IMO

Umrt

Mm

0 15

Mm

0 200

GZ 30

GZ max.
GZ max. at

1 162

Area 30

') 275 Min 0 055

Area 40
Area
40+30

0 474
")
199 Min
Min

38 B

Container COG

Min

25
0 03U
090
0

50

m
mRad
m Rad

m
Rad
Area A

0 097
mRad

Area B
Area BIA
Stab.Range

0 596
6 143

5 2'
Wind Heel ThO 1 i!

Min
Min
Max

10
16

m Rad
mRad

3 Torsion of the hull

Torsion occurs when there is an
asymmetry in the mass-distri bution
over the horizontal plan e. For
example, if there is a weight of I 00
tons on the starboard side of the fore
ship which is compensated by an
equivalent weight on the port side of
the aft ship. there will be torsion (or
torque). If both weights are 10 metres
from the centreline, the torsion will
be I OOt x !Om = I OOOtm. In
adverse weather, especially when the
waves come in at an angle, the
torsion can increase as a consequence
of the asymmetric distribution of the
up ward pressure exerted by the water
on the submerged part of the hull.
Torsion causes a ship to be subject to
extra stresses and deformations. This
can result in hatches leaking or badly
sealing. Especially "open ships", i.e.
ships with large deck openings, tend
to be torsionally weak and are
sensitive to this. A good example are
container ships and modem box hold
general cargo ships.

Hemi/r pi1c/1i11g fishing />nu/.

4 Local stresses

4.1 Panting stresses

4.2 Pitching loads

These occur mostly in the fore-ship

during pitching. The
constantly
changing water pressure increases the
stress in the skin and the frames.
Panti ng stress is not a result of
hydrostatic pressure, but more a
result of hydrodynamic pressure. To
reduce the panti ng stress effect,
panting beams in transverse direction
and stringers against the ship's shell
are added to the forepeak and aft peak
structure.

Pitch i ng loads occurs in the flat

bottom of the foreship as a result of
(heavy) pitching of the ship. The
pitching stresses are red uced by
increasing the bottom-plating thick
ness, by the addition of extra side
keelsons and closer spacing of the
frames and floors on every frame.

Force on 1/iejim 1hip

4.3 Diagonal loads

These occur when the ship is
asymmetrically laden and during
rolling of the ship in waves. The
effect of the diagonal loads is reduced
by the addition of frame brackets.
deck beam brackets, cross frames
and transverse bulk heads .

f 1he .1hip is mi u

irn re 1011 (lefl J am/ in t1 trr111gh( right).

Diagull(1/ /oat/; due 10

rolling in 11wes

4.4 Vibration loads

These can be caused by:
- vibrations of the engine
- forces on the aft ship caused by
the rotations of the propeller.

4.5 Docking loads

These result from vertical upward
forces where the keel blocks are
placed and vertical downward forces
between the keel blocks and the side
blocks.

Owm1r,e cw11ed h punting 1Hui11. D11irL' ./()fffll!a/.: tm1/.: tom olj:

Ship 1h 11!0.UO/J I. tl1:<1d 11cigh1

Ship Knowledge, o modern eHcyclopedio

96

5 Ship in waves
These figures, made by computer
simulation, show exaggeratedly how
a small container ship in heavy
waves may be distorted .

Slrit '

IJll a

1rnre lop. lwgg111g

Ship i11 u trough. Sl/.f!. i11g

Ship Knowledge, a modem e11cyc/opedia

Wme.1 ro111i11g in Jiwn slurhoard at 1111 Wlf( le. iorsi1n1

Wares coming in fro m Jl(lrfside at an 011gh. 1onim1

97

6 Stiffening
6.1 Purpose of stiffeners

HP

To prevent the planes (plate fields) of

a ship from distorting under influence
of the shearing loads, bending
moments and local loads, they have
to be stiffened. Examples of planes
are the shell, decks, bulkheads and
tank top. Compared to the dimensions
of the ship, the plating is not very
thick (about 10 - 20 mm). Once the
stiffeners are in place, they also
contribute to the reinforcement of the
plane by reducing the tensions in it
and by preventing local buckling.
This enables the stiffened planes to be
thinner than the planes, which are not
strengthened.

Angle profile
Flat bar

Forces
F

012

a plat!! wi1h on HPJrume

01

w1glc har ur 1/te pluce o( hemling. fhe pla

cing nf on HPfrume or ani.:le bar

in11eud 11f a single strip will reduce 1/ie

risk of bending.

If all the frames run parallel (in either

athwart or fore and aft direction) it is
possible that the frames can bend

An example of this are the frames on

the inside of the skin, most of wh ich

To prevent this, a stiffening is placed

perpendicular to the frame direction.
Such a stiffening is called a stringer
for transverse frames and a webframe
for longitudinal frames. Bulkheads are
also constructed using th is system.
In the case of decks, deck beams
and deck girders form the stiffening.

(HP). The drawings show the impor

tance of stiffening.

Compressionji nces on a
s1iffe11t' d pluw
/J11ckli1114 requires extru Ji
irce..

f
l'u111prnsi11g

fo rces on a plare resrtlt in

!'late buc/.:li11g.

Ship Knowledge, a modern

encyclopedia

Similar stiffenings have

names for different planes.

different

IIIIIII
The .1a111c . i111rt1ill/ t rmly nmi 1ri1h
a 11ri11ger plmn/ perpendicular to 1!1e
Pam/le{ framn 011 a plate subje('(ed to

frame Jircctimr

/lending 11w111em

i111111
98

Planes:

Stiffening:

Support:

shell

(vertical) frames

bulkhead s

horizontal stiffening
vertical stiffening
deck frames
bottom frames (fore
and aft)
bottom frames
(transverse)
upper frames (fore
and afl)
upper frames
(transverse)

stringers (horizontal)
web frames
stringers(horizontal)
web girders
deck girders
floors

decks
flat bottom

tank top

keelsons
floors
keelsons

I.
2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

Frames
Ice frames
Web frames
Deck frames
Deck beam s
Centre keelson
Side keelson

Cm1s-.\ection 0( 11 co111ai11a .1hip /!('II/' t!te engine mo111. (1ran.wene fra111e .1 )

6.2 Longitudinal framing

system and transverse
framing system.
We have seen in this chapter that
longitudinal loads are present on all
ships and that they play a larger role
if the ship is longer and/or narrower.
This is why ships with a length of
more than 70 metres are usually
constructed according to a longi
tudinal stiffening system. This means
that the frames and the deck beams
run in the fore and aft direction . Ship
shorter than 70 metres (for example
fish ing boats and tugboats ) are

usually built according to a transverse

stiffening system.
Lloyd's Register does not require a
calculation for longitudinal strength
if the ship is shorter than 65m.
On the next pages we see two
different kinds of ships. First a double
hull tanker built with the longitudinal
framing system, secondly a tug boat
built with transverse frames.

7irn J m11ing s <f a modem. Jouhlc-Jwll 1r111!.:er /wilt 11si11fi the / ong itudi11al 1y.1u111
Shi!' Knowledfi e. a modern encyclopedi
a

JOO

Plating

Stiffenings on the plating

Plate-stiffeners

Holds

I. Shell

8.
9.

Side longitudinals
Bottom frame I
Longitudinal
10. I n ner bottom
longitudinal
11. Bulkhead stiffener
12. Stiffener with brackets

13 Tie beam or cross-tie

20. Wing ballast tank

21. Double bottom
22. Cargo tank

Longitudinal bulkhead
(of the inner hull)
3. Transverse bulkhead
4. Longitudinal bulkhead
5. Lower hopper
6. Tanktop
7. Bottom
2.

14. Stringer
15. Stringer deck
16. Watertight floor
17. Full floor
18. Watertight side keelson
19. Web frame

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO

11
12
13
14
15
16

Wheel house front windows

Wheel hou se rear windows
Portside funnel
Starboard side fun nel
Mast
Deckhouse top (location for
raft I rescueboat)
Foredeck
Forward bitts
Forward bul wark w i th
fairlead
Location bow fender
Side bollard forward
Bilge keel
Towi ng bitt
Sideshell transver se frame
Deck bracket
Bilge bracket

Shir1 Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

17 Transverse full floor

18 Stringer
19 Stern fender

20 Stemroller, for
anchor handli ng

21 Bulwark toprail , gun wale

22 Thruster nozzle
23 Poop deck, work i ng deck.
24 Rubbing bar
25 Deck beam
26 Transverse bu lkhead
27 Location towi ng wi nch
28 Steering-gear room
29 Side bollard aft
30 Longitudi nal bulkhead
(Tailshaft tunnel )
31 Bilge plating

/02

Bender Shipbuilding & Repair Co., Inc.

Ship K 11mv/ ed11e, u modem <'llc_rclop

edia

10
3

Ship K 11mv/ ed11e, u modem <'llc_rclop

edia

10
3

Ship K 11mv/ ed11e, u modem <'llc_rclop

edia

10
3

Draught AP
Draught M.
Draught FP
Trim
Air Draught

8.74 m
9.07 m
9.41 m

-0.66 m

27.62 m

GM solid
Correction
GM fluid
GM req.
Heel

1.76
0.02
1.74
0.15
-0.7

m
m
m

KMT

LCB
LCF
Immersion
TrimMom

9.87
2.99
7.36
25
206

m
m
m
t/cm
tm/cm