Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
a) Define the term diffusion and distinguish between active transport and
facilitated diffusion (4 marks)
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one
of lower concentration by random molecular motion. Facilitated Diffusion requires no
energy as molecules move from a high concentration to a low concentration through a
selectively permeable membrane. On the other hand, active transport is the movement
of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their concentration
gradient, going from a low concentration to a high concentration which necessitates
the use of energy.
b) (i) With the aid of a simplified diagram describe the fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure (6 marks)
According to this model, cell membranes are composed of a lipid bilayer with
globular proteins embedded in the bilayer. The lipid bilayer is fluid, allowing proteins
to move around within the bilayer. On the external surface of the
Membrane, carbohydrate groups join with some lipids and proteins to form
glycoproteins and glycolipids. The membranes lipid bilayer is mainly 2 layers of
phospholipids with the non-polar tails point inward and the polar heads lining up at
the surface. In animal cells, cholesterol molecules are present.
(ii) With reference to the fluid mosaic model, discuss how polar molecules and
ions are transported (5 marks)
Polar molecules and ions are impermeable to the cell membrane and so their transport
must therefore be "facilitated" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an
alternative route. All polar molecules are transported across membranes by proteins
that form transmembrane channels. These channels are gated, enabling them to open
and close and thus regulating the flow of ions or small polar molecules. Larger
molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins.
Question 2
a) (i) With reference to the levels of structure organization and types of bonds,
describe the structure of the protein collagen (6 marks)
The primary structure of collagen is the linear sequence of about 1000 amino acids
which are joined by peptide bonds. In the secondary structure each polypeptide chain
is a loosely coiled helix (but not an alpha helix) with CO and NH groups projecting
outwards and held by hydrogen bonds. In the quaternary structure of the protein,
helices lie parallel to each other and form a stable covalent bond with neighbouring
helices forming micro fibrils. The tertiary structure results in its fibrous nature.
(ii) Explain one functional property of collagen which makes it suitable as a
major component of tendons and ligaments (2 marks)
Due to the overlapping of the staggered ends of the collagen fibrils it possesses high
tensile strength which is suitable to maintain the elasticity of tendons and ligaments
b) (i) Outline four key stages in the mode of action of enzymes in catalysing
chemical reactions (2 marks)
The substrate binds with the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate
complex which then forms products and finally releases the enzyme unchanged.
(ii) Discuss using a specific example, how poisons such as insecticides may affect
enzymatic activity (5 marks)
Insecticides such as organophosphates inhibit enzyme activity as they act as
competitive inhibitors/non-competitive inhibitors. The binding of an inhibitor can
stop a substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and hinder the enzyme from
catalysing its reaction with the end result being that enzyme activity is decreased.
Question 3
a) (i) Give a concise description of the key stages in the fertilization of a human
secondary oocyte by a spermatozoon. Begin your account with the acrosome
reaction (5 marks)
Enzymes such as acrosin are released and digest a pathway through the follicle cells
and the zona pellucida surrounding the oocyte.
This allows sperm to penetrate the zona pellucida and fuses with the plasma
membrane of the oocyte. Fusion causes a sudden membrane depolarization which acts
as a block from further sperm entry. The oocyte finishes its second meiotic division
after entry of the sperm.
(ii) Briefly comment on the significance of the process of fertilization (2 marks)
It is significant in order for the exchange of genetic material during meiosis in order
to create genetic variation in organisms so as to aid their adaptation to a changing
environment.
b) (i) Describe two major functions of the placenta ( 4 marks)
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It is the place where maternal and fetal blood are brought into very close contact
to supply oxygen and nutrients to the foetus and at the same time remove waste
(ii) Discuss two ways in which maternal behaviour can affect foetal development
(4 marks)
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Maternal nutrition influences birth weight outcome of foetus. For example poor
nutrition could lead to poor growth of foetus and shortened gestation which in turn
Question 4
a) (i) Distinguish between binary fission and budding ( 4 marks)
Binary fission is asexual reproduction by which the original organism divides by
mitosis to produce two identical cells while binary fission is a process, not involving
mitosis, by which a small part of the parent is pushed out, becoming detached and
then exists either separately or in a colony.
b) (i) Outline the sequence of events that leads from germination of a pollen grain to
double fertilization in flowering plants ( 6 marks)
The pollen tube forms and subsequently grows down the style to the ovary. It then
enters into the embryo sac resulting in fertilization. The generative nucleus splits to
form two male nuclei which are discharged into the embryo sac via the micropyle
upon degeneration of the tube. Both male nuclei are then fused with nuclei from the
embryo sac (the ovum) and polar nuclei respectively.
(ii) Briefly comment on the significance of double fertilization in the life cycle of
a flowering plant (2 marks)
The endosperm which is produced during double fertilization is instrumental in the
provision of nourishment for the developing embryo.
Question 5
a) (i) Define the term vegetative propagation ( 2 marks)
Vegetative propagation is the ability of plants to produce new plants from existing
vegetative structures by asexual means.
(ii) Discuss four advantages and three disadvantages of using tissue culture as a
method of vegetative propagation (7 marks)
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Plants reproduced from this method have a reduced juvenile period and do not
take as long to reach maturity, flower and produce fruit as seedling plants.
The cloned plants are genetically identical and so superior traits of the donor plant
are perpetuated.
Applications of tissue culture can again be advantageous in the replication of
perennial plants. These plants are specialized to survive under extreme
environmental conditions. Using tissue culture, the extensive benefits of