Electromagnetism

Physics 15b
Lecture #5
Curl
Conductors
Purcell 2.133.3

What We Did Last Time

Defined divergence: div F = lim

V 0

Linked to the integral version

by the Divergence Theorem:

F da
V

F Fy F
= F = x +
+ z
y
z
x

E = 4

Guasss Law (local version):

F da =

Fdv

2f 2f 2f
+
+

x 2 y 2 z 2

Defined the Laplacian: 2f = ( f ) =

From Gausss Law:

4 = 2

Laplaces equation:

=0

Average theorem, no-max/min theorem,

impossibility theorem,
uniqueness theorem

E = 2 r dv
r

Electric Field
E

4 = E

Charge
density

= E ds

E =

r dv

Electric
potential

4 = 2

Todays Goals
Define curl of vector field
Start from line integral around a loop and
shrink
Stokes Theorem
A few examples to familiarize ourselves

Discuss conductors

Finally a real stuff ???

Consider good conductors holding

electric charges in a static condition
How do the charges distribute?
What electric field, potential should appear?
What do you mean by good?

George Gabriel Stokes

(18191903)

3-D, 2-D, 1-D, 0-D

We have
P2

V
P1

F dV =

F da

P2

P1

f d s = f (P2 ) f (P1)

3-D integral linked to 2-D integral over the boundary

1-D integral linked to values at end points (= 0-D)

Shouldnt there be a similar relation between 2-D and 1-D?

It could be a surface integral and a line integral around its border

Circulation
Consider a closed (loop) path C in space where a vector
field F exists
C

Define circulation as the line integral

F ds

ds

This is zero for static electric field

Split C into two sub-loops C1 and C2

with a bridge

The integrals along the bridge cancel

= 1 + 2 =

C1

F ds + F ds
C2

We can continue splitting into ever

smaller loops: =

C2

C1

Curl
As we make the area aj of each loop smaller, the line
integral j shrinks as well
C j F d s Cj
The ratio j /aj remains finite lim
a j 0
aj

aj

For a very small loop, the shape does not matter, but the
orientation does
Define the orientation vector n of the loop
by the right-hand rule
= x,
y,
z
At a given point, draw three loops with n
Calculate the limits and build a vector
curl of F

Curl F is a vector field, representing the circulation per unit

area in three possible orientations

Stokes Theorem
Going back to splitting circulation, in the limit of small loops
C

F d s = lim F d s = lim curlF a j =

This is Stokes

Like Gausss Divergence Theorem, this is math, not physics

a j 0

Cj

a j 0

curlF da

Theorem

Applying our (physics) knowledge that line-integral of electric

field is path independent, we get

E ds = 0 for any closed path C

curlE = 0

So far so good

Q: What exactly is a curl and how do I calculate it?

Curl in Water
You are swimming in a river, with velocity of water flow v
If you swim in a loop and come
v
back to the starting point, are you
helped, or impeded, by the flow?

Thats circulation

v d s > 0 helped, < 0 impeded

If you drop a small leaf in the

water, will it rotate?

Thats curl

curlF 0 rorates
If you drop a thousand leaves everywhere, you can tell
which way you should swim by Stokes Theorem

Cartesian Curl
y

Focus on the z-component of curl F

Draw a rectangular loop on the x-y plane

For small x, y, we can approximate the
line-integral on each side by
(length) x (value of F in the middle)

C F d s = xF (x +

x
2

,y,z) + yFy (x + x,y +

y
2

,z)

xFx (x +

x
2

,y + y,z) yFy (x,y +

y
2

,z)

= x Fx (x +

x
2

,y,z) Fx (x +

F
x

= xy

x
2

x
y

n = z
x

(x,y,z)

,y + y,z) + y Fy (x + x,y +

y
2

,z) Fy (x,y +

y
2

,z)

Fy

(curlF) z =

Dividing by the area xy

x- and y-components are similar

Fy
x

Fx
y

Cartesian Curl
F Fy
Fy F
Fx Fz

curlF = x z
+
y

+
z
x = F

y
z
x
x
y

Some people find it easier to

remember this as a determinant: curlF =

1 F

Cylindrical: curlF =

Spherical:

curlF =

Fx

Fy

Fz

( )

rF
F
Fr Fz
Fr

+ 1
z

r +
z
r
r r

z

( )

F
1 (F sin ) F
1 1 Fr (rF ) 1 rF

r +
+
r sin

r sin
r
r r

Examples

( F)z =

Fy
x

ay
Fx =
x2 + y 2

ax
F =
2
y
x + y2

Fx = ay, Fy = ax

Fy = ax

Fx
=a
y

( F)z = 2a

F = 0

Curl of Gradient
The curl of the gradient of a scalar field is (f ) = 0

Check explicitly: (f ) x =

Use Stokes Theorem:

( ) ( ) = 0
f
y

f
x

( (f )) da =
S

f d s = 0

If a vector field (like E) can be expressed as a gradient of a

scalar field (like ), it must be curl-free
On the other hand, any curl-free vector field can be
expressed as a gradient of a scalar field

If F = 0, by Stokes its line-integral must be path-independent

Line integral from an arbitrary chosen reference point will do

f (r) =

F d s F = f (r)

3-D, 2-D, 1-D, 0-D

surface

volume

F dV =

volume

surface

F =

Fx Fy Fz
+
+
x
y
z

P2

loop

F da

surface

curve

F dV =

surface

F ds

loop

F Fy
F = x z

z
y
F F
+ y x z
x
z

P1

P2

f d s = f (P ) f (P )
2

P1

f = x

f
f
f
+ y
+ z
x
y
z

Fy F
+ z
x
y
x

Conductor
Conductor vs. insulator is a matter of speed
When electric field is applied to any material, charged particles
inside move
Good conductor: many charges, quick to move
Good insulator: few charges, slow to move

Conductivity = a measure of goodness of conductor

=

n v (charge density) (average velocity)

=
E
(applied electric field)

(esu cm3 ) (cm s) 1

(C m3 ) (m s)
1
= , in SI:
=
dyne esu
s
V m
m

Unit in CGS:

Will define this properly in Lecture 8

Conductivity
Conductivity of material span 23
orders of magnitude
They fall into three broad groups:

>> 1 conductors

Mostly metals, in which free electrons act

as the charge carriers

= O(1) semiconductors
<< 1 insulartors

In electrostatics, where time is not

an issue, we only have to consider
two extreme cases
Perfect conductor : =
Perfect insulator : = 0

Material

[1/m]

silver

6.3 x 107

copper

5.9 x 107

manganin alloy

2.3 x 106

silicon

33

salt water

23

drinking water

0.0005 0.05

deionized water

5.5 x 10-6

wood

10-8 10-11

glass

10-10 10-14

sulfur

5 x 10-16

rubber

10-13 10-16

source: J.E. Hoffman

Field Inside Conductor

As long as we only consider a static condition (electrostatic
equilibrium) in which no charge is moving, there is no
electric field inside conductors

If E 0, then the charges would be still moving

When a conductor is placed in an external field Eext,

charges move inside because of F = qE
charge distribution becomes non-zero
internal electric field Eint is generated

and the process continues until Eext + Eint = 0

Sounds a little involved?

This is not really different from any system of

fluids settling into the lowest-energy state

+
+

Potential and Charge Density

B

Since E = 0 inside a conductor, BA = E d s = 0

A
for any two points connected by a conductor

The entire volume (and surface) of a contiguous

piece of conductor is an equipotential

Also, there is no net charge density inside a

conductor because 4 = E = 0

All electric charges, if any, must be on the surface

+
+

NB: There are electrons and protons inside

the conductor. Their densities are balanced
so that there is no net charge after averaging
over small volumes

Electric Field Near Surface

Consider a conductor with surface charge density

What is the E field immediately outside?

We know the surface is an equipotential

E field must be perpendicular to it

Draw a cylinder half buried into the surface

Charge inside the cylinder is A
E = 0 at the bottom (inside)
E is parallel to the side of the cylinder
E da = EA
Gausss Law: 4 A =

area = A

top

E = 4 n

where n is to the surface

Summary
Defined curl of vector field by curlF n lim

a0

F ds
a

F F
F F
F F
In Cartesian: curlF = F = x z y + y x z + z y x
z
x
y
z
y
x

Stokes Theorem:

surface

F dV =

F ds

loop

Studied (ideal) conductor in electrostatic equilibrium

E = 0 inside, = const, no net charge density inside

Field immediately outside is perpendicular to the surface and
E = 4, where is the surface charge density

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