The effects of acute heavy eccentric loading on post-activation potentiation. J. Aust. Strength Cond. 22(5)195-201. 2014 ASCA.

THE EFFECTS OF ACUTE HEAVY ECCENTRIC LOADING ON POST-ACTIVATION POTENTIATION

Benjamin Drury1 and Dr Craig Twist2
1University

of West England Hartpury, Gloucester, England

of Chester, Chester, England

2University

INTRODUCTION
The ability to produce high levels of muscular power has been well documented within literature as an important
physiological quality required in achieving successful sporting performance (1). In fact, when it comes to determining
the quality of performance within sport, power production can be considered one of the most important characteristics
(2). High levels of muscular power are required within dynamic high contact sports such as Rugby Union (3). This is
because an essential requirement of success in Rugby Union is an athletes ability to develop and exert high levels
of muscular power due to the fact that players are required to produce large amounts of force quickly against
contrasting external loads during a game (4). Therefore, when it comes to physical preparation for Rugby Union
players, training methods that are able to develop and improve muscular power are important (2).
Considering the influence of muscular power on sporting performance, employing training methods than maximise
this physiological quality is of importance and has consequently resulted in the comprehensive study and evaluation
of methods for developing power for athletic performance (5). One area in particular that has received much attention
is that of Complex Training (CT) and a phenomenon known as post-activation potentiation (PAP). The procedure of
CT has been defined as performing a heavy resistance exercise followed by a lighter exercise of a similar
biomechanical movement pattern to improve subsequent power output. A recent review (6) detailed that the heavy
resistance exercise, also referred to as the conditioning activity (7), can be in the form of a slow speed/ high load
exercise or a high speed/moderate load exercise (8). However, it has been suggested that as long as the lighter
exercises resistance is less than the heavier exercises (conditioning activity), subsequent power performance may
be augmented for the lighter exercise (9).
Whilst the specific underlying mechanism of PAP has not been identified it has been suggested that the main factors
that contribute to PAP are the short-term phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains (10) and the increased
recruitment of higher order motor units (11). Despite a number of physiological factors shown to attribute to PAP, the
methods utilised to adhere these responses have been shown to include training experience of the individual, rest
period between the pre-conditioning activity and subsequent power exercise, gender, strength levels and the intensity
of the pre-conditioning exercise (12).
Whilst the aforementioned areas have been largely investigated within the literature, one area that has received
relatively minor attention is the role that muscle contraction type of the conditioning activity contributes to PAP.
Furthermore, research that has investigated this area has largely focused on the effects of lower body training.
Studies investigating the upper-body PAP have shown contradicting results when using either an isometric (13), or
isoinertial contraction (14,15,9,1,16,4). In addition, to the authors knowledge, only one study to date has directly
investigated the effects of different contraction types on PAP in the upper body with isometric MVCs shown to be
more effective than eccentric and concentric contractions for improving power output (17). However, in this study,
the loading was the same for all conditions, and therefore, given that maximal eccentric force production has been
shown to be 2030% greater than maximal isometric force production (18) the load might have been inadequate to
potentiate the muscle during the eccentric contraction.
Considering the force production qualities that eccentric muscle contractions display, it has been proposed that
eccentric muscle contractions might favorably enhance PAP (19). Previous research has shown that eccentric
muscle actions may enhance greater motor recruitment of fast twitch fibers (10), increased neural frequency (20),
increased motor unit synchronisation (18) and lower energy expenditure (21) than other contraction types. Since PAP
is reliant on the interaction between fatigue and potentiation (22) it could be proposed that if eccentric muscle actions
result in less fatigue and/or heightened levels of neural activation then subsequently the muscle would favour higher
levels of potentiation which would typically result in higher force production to be achieved.
Additionally, although increased loading of the eccentric phase of the muscle contraction has not been studied in
relation to PAP, there are a number of studies which have successfully shown increases in strength performance
both longitudinally and acutely through using heavy eccentric loads (HEL) of 105% (23), 110% (24) and 120% (25)
of concentric 1 repetition maximum (1RM) which suggests that increasing loading on the eccentric phase has a
positive effect on the preceding concentric phase. Furthermore, it has also been shown that during power based
upper body movements, using dynamic accentuated external resistance (DAER) can increase power output in the

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subsequent concentric phase (26). However, the eccentric loads used in this study were not above concentric
maximum strength and the study did not aim to investigate the effects of PAP.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of using heavy eccentric loading as a conditioning
activity and its effect on PAP.
METHODS
Experimental approach
To evaluate the effects of muscle contraction type of the conditioning activity (heavy eccentric bench press) on
subsequent ballistic bench press throw, the participants completed 3 main trials. The main trials were conducted 72
hours apart in a randomised and counterbalanced order and involved HEL 105% (105% of concentric 3 repetition
maximum), HEL 110% (110% of concentric 3 repetition maximum) and a control condition (CC(no pre-conditioning
activity)). Ballistic Bench Press Throw (BBPT) was evaluated 8 minutes after which the pre-conditioning activity took
place to compare the PAP effect between the 3 trials.
Subjects
With university ethical approval and informed consent, 12 male amateur rugby union players (Table 1) volunteered
to take part in the study. Subjects were recruited on the basis that they had a minimum experience of resistance
training for at least 2 years, were currently performing a minimum of 3 resistance training sessions per week, were
free from upper body injuries for at least 1 year and were able to perform a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) bench press
that was equal to their body mass (kg).
Table 1 - Subject characteristic data (n=12) (BBPT Load was set at 40% of subjects 1RM).
Variable

Mean SD

Age (years)

23.1 4.8

Body Mass (kg)

90.8 6.5

Height (cm)

179.3 4.9

1RM (kg)

118.5 23.5

3RM (kg)

105.8 20.4

BBPT Load (kg)

47.5 9.4

HEL Load 105% (kg)

111.3 21.4

HEL Load 110% (kg)

116.5 22.4

Procedures
Subjects visited the laboratory on 5 separate occasions and completed 2 familiarisation/assessment session and 3
subsequent main testing sessions. After the initial familiarisation/assessment sessions, the 3 main testing sessions
were performed at the same time of day, 2-3 days apart. Before each session, subjects were asked to refrain from
consuming caffeine or alcohol and were instructed to avoid any kind of intense exercise 24 hours before the
experimental conditions. A standardized warm-up included 5 minutes of light cycling on a cycle ergometer (5060%
of predicted maximal heart rate) and 5 minutes of dynamic stretching preceded every preliminary measurement and
main trial.
Familiarisation and preliminary measurements
In the first preliminary visit, subjects were familiarized with eccentric bench press protocol as well as performing a 1
repetition maximum test in the bench press exercise. During the second preliminary visit, subjects returned to the
laboratory to perform a 3 repetition maximum test in the bench press exercise. The score from the 3 repetition
maximum test was used to calculate the eccentric loads to be used in the main trials. Subjects were supervised and
instructed for the correct lifting technique by an experienced certified strength and conditioning coach (NSCA
Certified).
MAXIMAL AND SUBMAXIMAL BENCH PRESS STRENGTH
Each participants 1RM and 3RM bench press was determined according to the guidelines set by the National
Strength and Conditioning Association (2008). The barbell used was a standard 20kg Olympic lifting barbell.
Participants 1RM and 3RM scores were defined as the load that caused failure but without loss of proper exercise
technique.

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For 1RM assessments, participants were required to perform a warm-up of 10 repetitions at 50% of estimated 1RM,
5 repetitions at 70% of estimated 1RM, 3 repetitions at 80% of estimated 1RM, and 1 repetition at 90% of estimated
1RM, followed by three attempts to determine their actual 1RM. If the participant was unsuccessful with lifting the
load, then a 5 minute rest period would take place before another maximal attempt was performed which was set a
reduced load (kg) that was by 2.5%-5% lower than the previous attempt.
After a 2-3-day rest period, the participants returned to the laboratory where their 3RM was assessed. Following the
same warm-up procedure as for the 1RM assessments, the load of the barbell was initially set to 93% of the
participants previously established 1RM as in accordance with NSCA guidelines (2008). Participants were provided
with three attempts to determine their actual 3RM. If the participant was unsuccessful with lifting the load, then a 5
minute rest period would take place before another maximal attempt was performed which was set a reduced load
(kg) that was by 2.5%-5% lower than the previous attempt.
Measurements
Bench press technique
All the actions were performed lying supine while maintaining both legs lifted up to the 90-degree hip angle with both
feet placed on the floor. An arched back or bouncing the bar off the chest was not allowed. Also, the grip was
controlled such that the thumb was required to go around the bar (thumb lock was not allowed). The participants
were instructed to choose the grip width on the bar that was wider than shoulder width. The final adjustment to the
grip width was performed by the participant, and then the chosen width was marked on the bar and kept for the
consecutive testing sessions. The location of the participants head on the bench was standardised and remained
the same.
Heavy eccentric bench press technique
When performing the supra-maximal eccentric bench press contractions, participants started the bench press with
their arms fully extended, and followed the same protocol as the standard bench press exercise by lowering the
barbell to the chest by flexing the arms until the elbows the barbell made contact with the chest at nipple level whilst
maintaining the 5-point body contact position. However, unlike the standard bench press exercise, participants were
required to lower the bar over a 3 second period with the duration of this period being recorded with a countdown
timer (Talking Timer, Dynamic Living, America). Once this was achieved two spotters located on either side of the
barbell raised the bar back up to the starting point for the preceding two contractions. The velocity of each repetition
being performed was lowered to the chest over a period of 3 seconds.
Ballistic bench press throw technique
The protocol for the BBPT was similar as performed in previous research (30). During each BBP throw movement,
the subject was instructed to lift the bar from the starting position perform a countermovement like action aiming to
maximally accelerate the bar throughout the upward phase of the lift releasing the bar at the top range of the motion
in order to avoid the effects of deceleration and achieve maximal bar velocity. Once the barbell had left the
participants hands the spotters would then catch the bar before returning the bar to the starting position. For
additional safety precautions, safety bars were cushioned and placed at chest height to ensure that in the unlikely
event that the barbell was not caught by the spotter then the barbell would not come into contact with the subjects
body. Considering that the BBPT was performed using a free weight exercise, ensuring that the subject accelerated
the bar in a standard trajectory could not be certain. However, familiarisation subjects were performed to counteract
this potential issue. Furthermore, the reliability of this area has been reported in other research (32).
Main trials
The main trials were conducted 2-3 days apart in a randomized and counterbalanced order and involved HEL 105%,
HEL 110% and a control condition (no preloading contraction/passive rest). In all main trials, 5 minutes after the end
of the standardized warm-up, subjects performed 3 Pre-BBPT separated by 30 seconds of rest with the best values
kept as the baseline.
Subjects completed a passive rest period of 10 minutes prior to performing the conditioning activity stimulus (PreBBPT). Once this had been completed a standardised rest period of 8 minutes was completed before Post-BBPT
was performed again (Fig 1).
.

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Figure 1 - Diagram of the experimental procedures.

Specific Warm Up
Participants initially completed a standardised warm-up consisting of 5 min light intensity cycling at 50 W at a cadence
of their choice (Keiser M3 Indoor Cycle Ergometer, California, America) before subsequently performing a number
of dynamic stretches and mobility exercises that were relevant to the BBPT, in particular focusing on the shoulder,
chest and triceps muscles. During the cycling phase of the warm up, the participants seat height and bar position
were recorded and used for the following testing sessions. Whilst the time delay between each testing stage may be
deemed vast, research has demonstrated that the ideal recovery time after a sufficient warm-up for high intensity
exercises before subsequent performance begins can be between 5 and 20 minutes (27,28,29). However, to the
authors knowledge, the optimal time period between a warm up and subsequent upper body strength/power task has
not been identified, Therefore, rest periods following the stages of the general warm up and pre-BBPT were extended
to reduce the possible effects of potentiation or fatigue that could have been generated in these stages which may
have subsequently influenced the experimental trials. In addition, Pre-BBPT were included to not resemble a typical
training session aimed at enhancing PAP but rather to observe if there were any variations between the Pre-BBPT
in the different trials which may have influenced the reliability of the results.
Experimental Trials
Following the completion of the warm up, participants were given a passive rest period of 5 minutes before performing
their Pre-BBPT. During this period the researcher placed the bench and barbell in position for the participant which
had previously been recorded and additionally attached the power transducer to the barbell.
For both pre and post BBPT conditions, the barbell load was set at 40% of the participants 1RM bench press (kg),
as this load has been shown to optimise upper body peak power output in rugby players (1). The selection of the
BBPT as the explosive activity was chosen as it has been used in many upper body PAP studies with its acceptable
reliability and validity previously demonstrated (30). Once the participants had completed their Pre-BBPT a 10 minute
passive rest period was given before participants performed a conditioning contraction to induce PAP. The length of
this rest period was utilised to ensure that the energy systems used during the BBPT (phosphate system) were fully
recovered before performing the experimental trials.
The conditioning activity performed was either 3 heavy eccentric repetitions at 105% (HEL 105%) or 110% (HEL
110%) of their dynamic 3RM, or the CC. After the conditioning activity was performed, participants were given an 8
minute passive rest period which has been shown in previous research to successful induce PAP in the upper-body
(4). Following completion of the rest period, participants performed their Post-BBPT. 3RM loads were selected at this
percentage loading to ensure that maximal contractions were not performed as research has stated that the
preloading activity should not be maximal (13).
To assess explosive performance during the BBPT, peak power output (W) was measured during the concentric
phase of the BBPT using a linear force transducer (Fitro Dyne, Bratislava, Slovakia). The Fitro Dyne consists of a
velocity sensor unit and a microcomputer. The velocity sensor unit consists of an optical sensor with a light source
to measure displacement and time measurement, and a direct current motor to monitor movement orientation. As
the disk rotates, electrical pulses are generated with each pulse corresponding to a given angular displacement.
During the BBPT, the Fitro Dyne was placed on the floor and attached via its nylon cord to the barbell. The location
of the nylon cord attachment to the barbell was the same for all measurements. Before each testing session the Fitro
Dyne was calibrated by attaching the nylon cord to the nook of the barbell and was moved a defined distance between
50 and 100 cm (to calibrate the distance) and then pulled at least 50 cm with medium velocity (to calibrate the velocity)
which was measured by a standard measuring tape. The Fitro Dyne has been reported to yield an intraclass
correlation coefficient of 0.97 for measuring muscle power (30).
Testing took place in the off-season in order for the participants to be able to rest in between testing sessions.
Participants initially visited the laboratory on two occasions separated by a 72 hour period to be familiarised with the
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testing protocol and procedures, and at the same time had their height and weight measured. Height was measured
to the nearest cm (SECA Leicester Height Measure, United Kingdom) and weight was measured to the nearest 0.1kg
using calibrated scales (Tanita Body Composition Analyser BC-418, Tokyo, Japan).
Data Analysis
Peak power output (PPO) for both pre and post BBPT were independently assessed for normality using the ShapiroWilks test before performing Repeated Measures ANOVA. The assumption of sphericity was assessed for each
ANOVA using the Mauchly test, with any violations adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser correction. The alpha
level was set at 0.05 and all statistical analyses were examined using a statistical software package (SPSS, v18.0).
RESULTS
Baseline PPO was similar between all the Pre-BBPT conditions (p > 0.05). There was a significant decrease in PPO
in the CC whilst increases in PPO from baseline in both the HEL 105% and HEL 110% conditions (p < 0.05.) were
observed. However, no difference in PPO was reported between the HEL 105% and HEL 110% (p > 0.05) conditions.

1300

Pre-BBPT

Peak Power Ouput (W)

Post-BBPT

1250
1200

**

**

**

1150
1100
1050
1000
NCC

SEL 105%

SEL 110%

Contraction Condition
Figure 2 - Mean comparisons of PPO in the BBPT for the CC, HEL 105% and HEL 110%. ** = statistically significant
with p value set at <0.05.
DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to examine if heavy eccentrically loaded muscular contractions enhanced acute power
output known as post-activation potentiation. The results from this study demonstrated that performing exercises that
involve a heavy eccentric muscle contraction (above concentric strength) are an effective method for increasing
subsequent acute PPO.
This study demonstrated that the performance of an eccentrically loaded bench press with loads that exceed
concentric muscle strength can act as an alternative and effective method to induce post-activation potentiation in
the upper body. Previous research has documented the augmentation of PPO in the upper body following a high
loading preloading stimulus (1,4,5,31). However, previous research that has investigated the type of muscular
contraction utilised to optimise PAP in the upper body has not directly focused on heavy eccentrically loaded
contractions. Although previous research (17) has compared the effects of different muscular contractions on PAP,
the eccentric loads lifted by the subjects have been equal across all muscular contraction types and therefore have
not fully elicited the potential physiological benefits that eccentric muscle contractions provide.
Considering that eccentric muscle contractions have been stated to be able to produce higher levels of neural
activation and force characteristics than both concentric and isometric muscle contractions under the same absolute
loads (18), using a preloading strategy that focuses on utilising heavy eccentric muscle contractions that exceed
concentric muscle strength may potentially induce PAP. Therefore this study utilised higher eccentric loads than
which previous studies have used and consequently demonstrated that heavy eccentric loading muscular
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contractions can increase PPO in the upper body. This information is important as it may provide coaches and
practitioners within the strength and conditioning field with alternative methods to use within their practice. However,
future research should investigate whether heavy eccentric loads induce PAP more than maximum isoinertial loads
and the loading schemes (reps, sets) that can be used to enhance the effect of the eccentric contraction. In addition,
investigating whether heavy eccentric loading induces PAP in the lower body too may provide useful information for
athletic training.
Although the specific mechanisms behind PAP have not been yet identified, research has attributed the potentiating
effects to both muscular (10) and in particular, neural factors (11). Whilst previous research has shown that PAP
responses in the upper body can be induced using isometric, concentric, and ballistic muscular contractions, it could
be suggested that muscular contractions that focus on eccentric loading movements may enhance PAP to a greater
extent that other muscle contraction types (19). However, it is acknowledged that future research should investigate
this area further. While previous research has not investigated the effects on HEL and its relationship with PAP, a
number of studies have shown that using HEL within strength training acutely increases neural activity and force
production in the proceeding concentric contraction phase (23,24,25,31). Considering that heightened neural activity
has been proposed to be a key mechanism to induce PAP, eccentric muscle contractions may enhance neural
activation and such an approach may provide additional benefits as opposed to other muscular contractions or at
least provide an alternative. Indeed, data from this study demonstrated an increase in PPO of approximately 7.5%9.5% in the HEL 105% and HEL 110% conditions respectively, which both compares and exceeds PPO increases in
other similar studies that investigated upper body PAP (1,4,31). However, in this study there were no significant
differences observed between in HEL conditions.
It should be noted that this study did not monitor EMG activity of the upper body musculature and therefore these
increases in acute muscular power may not be solely attributed to the eccentric muscle contraction and it is
recommended that future research may benefit from taking this approach. Furthermore, to the authors knowledge,
heavy eccentric muscle contraction has not been examined in the lower body, and although differences in muscle
fibre type and muscle size are evident between the upper and lower body musculature (11), it would be proposed
that HEL may have a positive relationship with lower body PAP too.
Eccentric muscle contractions have been shown to result in a lower energy cost (21) and increased neural activation
(18) when compared to other muscle contraction types and therefore it could be proposed that using HEL strategies
such as the ones used in this study to induce PAP in the upper body could offer an attractive alternative to athletes
and the strength & conditioning coach. The use of PAP techniques during training has been suggested to be
impractical as it requires long periods of rest and a subsequent low volume of work to be completed (22). However,
the results of this study could propose that using HEL could not only increase PAP to greater levels than other
contraction types, but it could also mean that a lower contraction volume and shorter rest period may be required
between the conditioning activity and subsequent explosive activity due to the potential lower levels of fatigue
provided by the eccentric contraction.
In conclusion this study has shown that utilising heavy eccentric loading strategies that are above concentric strength
in the upper body provides an effective strategy for increasing acute PPO and potentially induces PAP. This strategy
provides practitioners with and alternative and effective method in improving acute muscular power in athletes.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The data from this study suggest that a supra-maximal eccentric loading movement is capable of inducing the
postactivation potentiation effect in the upper body and thus could be included with an athletes training programme
where increases in muscular power output are targeted.

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