History of Radiography

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) who

was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Working with a cathode-ray
tube in his laboratory, Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table
near his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working with consisted of a glass
envelope (bulb) with positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it. The air in
the tube was evacuated, and when a high voltage was applied, the tube produced a
fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and
discovered a green colored fluorescent light generated by a material located a few
feet away from the tube.
He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the
tube. This ray was capable of passing through the heavy paper
covering and exciting the phosphorescent materials in the room. He
found that the new ray could pass through most substances casting
shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered that the ray
could pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal
objects. One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film
of the hand of his wife, Bertha. It is interesting that the first use of X-rays were for
an industrial (not medical) application, as Roentgen produced a radiograph of a set
of weights in a box to show his colleagues.
Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received with
extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists everywhere could
duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during this
period. Many scientists dropped other lines of research to pursue the mysterious
rays. Newspapers and magazines of the day provided the public with numerous
stories, some true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newly discovered
rays.
Public fancy was caught by this invisible ray with the ability to pass
through solid matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate,
provide a picture of bones and interior body parts. Scientific fancy
was captured by the demonstration of a wavelength shorter than
light. This generated new possibilities in physics, and for
investigating the structure of matter. Much enthusiasm was generated about
potential applications of rays as an aid in medicine and surgery. Within a month
after the announcement of the discovery, several medical radiographs had been
made in Europe and the United States, which were used by surgeons to guide them

in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after Roentgen announced his
discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to locate bullets in
wounded soldiers.
Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine and dentistry,
though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The reason that X-rays were
not used in industrial application before this date was because the X-ray tubes (the
source of the X-rays) broke down under the voltages required to produce rays of
satisfactory penetrating power for industrial purposes. However, that changed in
1913 when the high vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge became available.
The high vacuum tubes were an intense and reliable X-ray source, operating at
energies up to 100,000 volts.
In 1922, industrial radiography took another step
forward with the advent of the 200,000-volt X-ray
tube that allowed radiographs of thick steel parts to
be produced in a reasonable amount of time. In
1931, General Electric Company developed
1,000,000 volt X-ray generators, providing an effective tool for industrial
radiography. That same year, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) permitted X-ray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels that further
opened the door to industrial acceptance and use.
A Second Source of Radiation

Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was
discovered. In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural
radioactivity. Many scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and
other scientists were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be
subdivided. Some of the new research showed that certain types of atoms
disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel who discovered this
phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals. Becquerel
was researching the principles of fluorescence, wherein certain minerals glow
(fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to record this
fluorescence.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day
when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored
some of the compound in a drawer with his photographic plates. Later when he
developed these plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure to

light). Becquerel questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had
wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray
light. In addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound
gave off a type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and expose
photographic film. Becquerel continued to test samples of uranium compounds and
determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. Bacquerel's
discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually unnoticed by laymen and
scientists alike. Relatively few scientists were interested in Becquerel's findings. It
was not until the discovery of radium by the Curies two years later that interest in
radioactivity became widespread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist
Marie Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore
known as pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her
husband, French scientist Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In
1898, the Curies discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende, and named
it 'polonium' in honor of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that year, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element which they named radium, or shining
element. Both polonium and radium were more radioactive than uranium. Since
these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed
castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed. During World War II,
industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding
program. In 1946, man-made gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium
became available. These new sources were far stronger than radium and were
much less expensive. The manmade sources rapidly replaced radium, and use of
gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography.
Health Concerns

The science of radiation protection, or "health physics" as it is more properly

called, grew out of the parallel discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity in the
closing years of the 19th century. Experimenters, physicians, laymen, and
physicists alike set up X-ray generating apparatuses and proceeded about their
labors with a lack of concern regarding potential dangers. Such a lack of concern is
quite understandable, for there was nothing in previous experience to suggest that
X-rays would in any way be hazardous. Indeed, the opposite was the case, for who

would suspect that a ray similar to light but unseen, unfelt, or otherwise
undetectable by the senses would be damaging to a person? More likely, or so it
seemed to some, X-rays could be beneficial for the body.
Inevitably, the widespread and unrestrained use of X-rays led to serious injuries.
Often injuries were not attributed to X-ray exposure, in part because of the slow
onset of symptoms, and because there was simply no reason to suspect X-rays as
the cause. Some early experimenters did tie X-ray exposure and skin burns
together. The first warning of possible adverse effects of X-rays came from
Thomas Edison, William J. Morton, and Nikola Tesla who each reported eye
irritations from experimentation with X-rays and fluorescent substances.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated
causes of disease. Although much still remains to be learned, more is known about
the mechanisms of radiation damage on the molecular, cellular, and organ system
than is known for most other health stressing agents. Indeed, it is precisely this vast
accumulation of quantitative dose-response data that enables health physicists to
specify radiation levels so that medical, scientific, and industrial uses of radiation
may continue at levels of risk no greater than, and frequently less than, the levels
of risk associated with any other technology.
X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature
as light, but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is on the
order of 6000 angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one
angstrom and that of gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short wavelength
is what gives x-rays and gamma rays their power to penetrate materials that light
cannot. These electromagnetic waves are of a high energy level and can break
chemical bonds in materials they penetrate. If the irradiated matter is living tissue,
the breaking of chemical bonds may result in altered structure or a change in the
function of cells. Early exposures to radiation resulted in the loss of limbs and even
lives. Men and women researchers collected and documented information on the
interaction of radiation and the human body. This early information helped science
understand how electromagnetic radiation interacts with living tissue.
Unfortunately, much of this information was collected at great personal expense.
Present State of Radiography
In many ways, radiography has changed little from the early days of its use. We
still capture a shadow image on film using similar procedures and processes
technicians were using in the late 1800's. Today, however, we are able to generate

images of higher quality and greater sensitivity through the use of higher quality
films with a larger variety of film grain sizes. Film processing has evolved to an
automated state, producing more consistent film quality by removing manual
processing variables. Electronics and computers allow technicians to now capture
images digitally. The use of "filmless radiography" provides a means of capturing
an image, digitally enhancing, sending the image anywhere in the world, and
archiving an image that will not deteriorate with time. Technological advances
have provided industry with smaller, lighter, and very portable equipment that
produce high quality X-rays. The use of linear accelerators provide a means of
generating extremely short wavelength, highly penetrating radiation, a concept
dreamed of only a few short years ago.
While the process has changed little, technology has evolved allowing radiography
to be widely used in numerous areas of inspection. Radiography has seen
expanded usage in industry to inspect not only welds and castings, but to
radiographically inspect items such as airbags and canned food products.
Radiography has found use in metallurgical material identification and security
systems at airports and other facilities.
Gamma ray inspection has also changed considerably since the Curies' discovery
of radium. Man-made isotopes of today are far stronger and offer the technician a
wide range of energy levels and half-lives. The technician can select Co-60 which
will effectively penetrate very thick materials, or select a lower energy isotope,
such as Tm-170, which can be used to inspect plastics and very thin or low density
materials. Today gamma rays find wide application in industries such as
petrochemical, casting, welding, and aerospace.
Addressing Health Concerns

It was in the Manhattan District of US Army Corps of Engineers that the name
"health physics" was born, and great advances were made in radiation safety. From
the onset, the leaders of the Manhattan District recognized that a new and intense
source of radiation and radioactivity would be created. In the summer of 1942, the
leaders asked Ernest O. Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at the University of
Chicago, to form a group to study and control radiation hazards. Thus, Wollan was
the first to bear the title of health physicist. He was soon joined by Carl G.
Gamertsfelder, recently graduated physics baccalaureate, and Herbert M. Parker,
the noted British-American medical physicist. By mid 1943, six others had been
added. These six include Karl Z. Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R. Coveyou, O.G.
Landsverk, L.A. Pardue, and John E. Rose.

Within the Manhattan District, the name "health physicist" seems to have been
derived in part from the need for secrecy (and hence a code name for radiation
protection activities) and the fact that it was a group of mostly physicists working
on health related problems. Activities included developing appropriate monitoring
instruments, physical controls, administrative procedures, monitoring radiation
areas, personnel monitoring, and radioactive waste disposal. It was in the
Manhattan District that many of the modern concepts of protection were born,
including the rem unit, which took into account the biological effectiveness of the
radiation. It was in the Manhattan District that radiation protection concepts
realized maturity and enforceability.
Future Direction of Radiographic Education
Although many of the methods and techniques developed over a century ago
remain in use, computers are slowly becoming a part of radiographic inspection.
The future of radiography will likely see many changes. As noted earlier,
companies are performing many inspections without the aid of film.
Radiographers of the future will capture images in digitized form and e-mail them
to the customer when the inspection has been completed. Film evaluation will
likely be left to computers. Inspectors may capture a digitized image, feed them
into a computer and wait for a printout of the image with an accept/reject report.
Systems will be able to scan a part and present a three-dimensional image to the
radiographer, helping him or her to locate the defect within the part.
Inspectors in the future will be able to peal away layer after layer of a part to
evaluate the material in much greater detail. Color images, much like computer
generated ultrasonic C-scans of today, will make interpretation of indications much
more reliable and less time consuming.
Educational techniques and materials will need to be revised and updated to keep
pace with technology and meet the requirements of industry. These needs may well
be met with computers. Computer programs can simulate radiographic inspections
using a computer aided design (CAD) model of a part to produce physically
accurate simulated x-ray radiographic images. Programs allow the operator to
select different parts to inspect, adjust the placement and orientation of the part to
obtain the proper equipment/part relationships, and adjust all the usual x-ray
generator settings to arrive at the desired radiographic film exposure.

Computer simulation will likely have its greatest

impact in the classroom, allowing the student to see
results in almost real-time. Simulators and computers
may well become the primary tool for instructors as
well as students in the technical classroom
Nature of Penetrating Radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced
by an x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.

They are both part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms, as are
light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen,
felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not
influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight
lines. However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.

Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
small "packets" of energy and are referred to as "photons." Electromagnetic
radiation has also been described in terms of a stream of photons (massless
particles) each traveling in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light.
Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all
electromagnetic radiation consists of these photons. The only difference between
the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found in the
photons. Due to their short wavelength they have more energy to pass through
matter than do the other forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they
pass through matter, they are scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration
depends on the kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different
materials.
They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic
particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living
cells.
X-Radiation

X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be
produced in parcels of energy called photons, just like light. There are two
different atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons. One is called
Bremsstrahlung and is a German term meaning "braking radiation." The
other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in the heavy atoms of
tungsten. Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode of the
x-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons.
However, Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea
that radiation is emitted when the velocity of the electron shot at the
tungsten changes. The negatively charged electron slows down after
swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged tungsten atom. This
energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered elastically and
inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered
electron loses energy, which appears as Bremsstrahlung. Elastically
scattered electrons (which include backscattered electrons) are generally
scattered through larger angles. In the interaction, many photons of different
wavelengths are produced, but none of the photons have more energy than
the electron had to begin with. After emitting the spectrum of X-ray
radiation, the original electron is slowed down or stopped.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to
energies of several hundred kilovolts with velocities of several hundred
kilometers per hour and colliding them into a heavy target material. The
abrupt acceleration of the charged particles (electrons) produces
Bremsstrahlung photons. X-ray radiation with a continuous spectrum of
energies is produced with a range from a few keV to a maximum of the
energy of the electron beam. Target materials for industrial tubes are
typically tungsten, which means that the wave functions of the bound

tungsten electrons are required. The inherent filtration of an X-ray tube must
be computed, which is controlled by the amount that the electron penetrates
into the surface of the target and by
the type of vacuum window
present.
The bremsstrahlung photons
generated within the target material
are attenuated as they pass through
typically 50 microns of target
material. The beam is further
attenuated by the aluminum or
beryllium vacuum window. The
results are an elimination of the
low energy photons, 1 keV through l5 keV, and a significant reduction in the
portion of the spectrum from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum from an
x-ray tube is further modified by the filtration caused by the selection of
filters used in the setup.
The applet below allows the user to visualize an electron accelerating and
interacting with a heavy target material. The graph keeps a record of the
bremsstrahlung photons numbers as a function of energy. After a few events,
the "building up" of the graph may be accomplished by pressing the
"automate" button.
K-shell Emission Radiation
Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of
different energies. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An
incoming electron can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out
of its energy state. About 0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell vacancies;
most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of higher energy (from an
outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling electron
shows up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons
fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on. K-shell
emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the xray photon comes out at a single wavelength.

 When outer-shell electrons drop into inner

shells, they emit a quantized photon
"characteristic" of the element. The
energies of the characteristic X-rays
produced are only very weakly dependent
on the chemical structure in which the
atom is bound, indicating that the nonbonding shells of atoms are the X-ray
source. The resulting characteristic
spectrum is superimposed on the
continuum as shown in the graphs below. An atom remains ionized for a
very short time (about 10-14 second) and thus an atom can be repeatedly
ionized by the incident electrons which arrive about every 10 -12 second.

Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity
are alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are
the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength
of less than one-tenth of a nanometer.
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be
stable or unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the
nucleus of an atom together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable

nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the
nucleus. Over time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or
transform, in a process known as radioactive decay. Various types of penetrating
radiation may be emitted from the nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons.
Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are called radionuclides. Any material
which contains measurable amounts of one or more radionuclides is a radioactive
material.
Types Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation
with sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts. Ionizing radiation
can consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or
electromagnetic radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital
electrons.

Alpha Particles
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the
emission of alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two
neutrons and two protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission
of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of atomic
number (Z) and four units of mass number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with
discrete energies characteristic of the particular transformation from which they
originate. All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide transformation will
have identical energies.
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the
emission of a high speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change
of one unit of atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the
beta particles emitted by a specific radionuclide will range in energy from near

zero up to a maximum value, which is characteristic of the particular

transformation.
Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does
not alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect
of moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable).
Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear
decay processes.
Activity (of Radionuclides)
The quantity which expresses the degree of
radioactivity or the radiation producing potential of a
given amount of radioactive material is activity. The
curie was originally defined as that amount of any
radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate
as one gram of pure radium. The curie has since been
defined more precisely as a quantity of radioactive
material in which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate per
second. The International System (SI) unit for activity
is the Becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity of
radioactive material in which one atom is transformed
per second. The radioactivity of a given amount of
radioactive material does not depend upon the mass
of material present. For example, two one-curie
sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses depending upon the relative
proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source. Radioactivity is
expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume.
The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of
radioactive material and the activity, is called "specific activity." Specific activity is
expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. Each
gram of cobalt-60 will contain approximately 50 curies. Iridium-192 will contain
350 curies for every gram of material. The shorter half-life, the less amount of
material that will be required to produce a given activity or curies. The higher
specific activity of iridium results in physically smaller sources. This allows
technicians to place the source in closer proximity to the film while maintaining
geometric unsharpness requirements on the radiograph. These unsharpness
requirements may not be met if a source with a low specific activity were used at
similar source to film distances.

Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life)

Each radionuclide decays at its own unique rate which cannot be altered by any
chemical or physical process. A useful measure of this rate is the half-life of the
radionuclide. Half-life is defined as the time required for the activity of any
particular radionuclide to decrease to one-half of its initial value. In other words
one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable state material. Half-lives of
radionuclides range from microseconds to billions of years. Half-life of two widely
used industrial isotopes are 74 days for iridium-192, and 5.3 years for cobalt-60.
More exacting calculations can be made for the half-life of these materials,
however, these times are commonly
used.
The applet below offers an interactive
representation of radioactive decay
series. The four series represented are
Th232, Ir192, Co60, Ga75, and C14.
Use the radio buttons to select the
series that you would like to study.
Note that Carbon-14 is not used in radiography, but is one of many useful
radioactive isotopes used to determine the age of fossils. If you are interested in
learning more about Carbon-14 Dating, follow this link: Carbon-14 Dating.
The Sequence Info button displays a chart that depicts the path of the series with
atomic numbers indicated on the vertical axis on the left, and the number of

neutrons shown along the bottom. Colored arrows represent alpha and beta decays.
To return to the main user interface, click the "Dismiss" button.
Initially, a selected series contains all parent material, and the amount is
represented by a colored bar on a vertical logarithmic scale. Each line represents a
factor of ten. In order to step forward through the sequence by a specified number
of years, you may type the appropriate number into the "Time Step" field and hit
"Enter." A negative time step will backtrack through the sequence.
You may choose a step interval in years and progress through each step by pressing
the "Enter" key. The "Animate" button will automate the progress through the
series. You can either choose a time step before you animate or leave it at zero. If
the time step is left at zero, the system will choose time steps to optimize viewing
performance.
Ionization
As penetrating radiation moves from point to point in matter, it loses its energy
through various interactions with the atoms it encounters. The rate at which this
energy loss occurs depends upon the type and energy of the radiation and the
density and atomic composition of the matter through which it is passing.
The various types of penetrating radiation impart their energy to matter primarily
through excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. The term "excitation" is used
to describe an interaction where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged
particle but are not removed completely from their atom. Excited electrons may
subsequently emit energy in the form of x-rays during the process of returning to a
lower energy state. The term "ionization" refers to the complete removal of an
electron from an atom following the transfer of energy from a passing charged
particle. In describing the intensity of ionization, the term "specific ionization" is
often used. This is defined as the number of ion pairs formed per unit path length
for a given type of radiation.
Because of their double charge and relatively slow
velocity, alpha particles have a high specific
ionization and a relatively short range in matter (a
few centimeters in air and only fractions of a
millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have a much
lower specific ionization than alpha particles and,
generally, a greater range. For example, the
relatively energetic beta particles from P32 have a
maximum range of seven meters in air and eight
millimeters in tissue. The low energy betas from

H3, on the other hand, are stopped by only six millimeters of air or six micrometers
of tissue.
Gamma-rays, x-rays, and neutrons are referred to as indirectly ionizing radiation
since, having no charge, they do not directly apply impulses to orbital electrons as
do alpha and beta particles. Electromagnetic radiation proceeds through matter
until there is a chance of interaction with a particle. If the particle is an electron, it
may receive enough energy to be ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization
by direct interactions with other electrons. As a result, indirectly ionizing radiation
(e.g. gamma, x-rays, and neutrons) can cause the liberation of directly ionizing
particles (electrons) deep inside a medium. Because these neutral radiations
undergo only chance encounters with matter, they do not have finite ranges, but
rather are attenuated in an exponential manner. In other words, a given gamma ray
has a definite probability of passing through any medium of any depth.
Neutrons lose energy in matter by collisions which transfer kinetic energy. This
process is called moderation and is most effective if the matter the neutrons collide
with has about the same mass as the neutron. Once slowed down to the same
average energy as the matter being interacted with (thermal energies), the neutrons
have a much greater chance of interacting with a nucleus. Such interactions can
result in material becoming radioactive or can cause radiation to be given off.
Newton's Inverse Square Law
Any point source which spreads its
influence equally in all directions
without a limit to its range will obey the
inverse square law. This comes from
strictly geometrical considerations. The
intensity of the influence at any given
radius (r) is the source strength divided
by the area of the sphere. Being strictly
geometric in its origin, the inverse
square law applies to diverse
phenomena. Point sources of
gravitational force, electric field, light,
sound, and radiation obey the inverse
square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation
source can be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking
about Roentgens, rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the
inverse square law. For example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch
from a source, the exposure will be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.

The applet below shows a radioactive source. The distance to the green source is
shown below. You can also drag the little person and his Geiger counter around to a
distance of your choice. When the mouse button is released, a point is plotted on
the graph. The dosage the person receives at the particular distance is shown
numerically and graphically. The graph allows you to confirm Newton's Inverse
Square Law

If the distance is too small, the dosage will be too high and our brave technician
will face severe medical effects.
Interaction between Penetrating Radiation
and Matter

When x-rays or gamma rays are directed into an object, some of the
photons interact with the particles of the matter and their energy can be
absorbed or scattered. This absorption and scattering is called attenuation.
Other photons travel completely through the object without interacting with
any of the material's particles. The number of photons transmitted through
a material depends on the thickness, density and atomic number of the
material, and the energy of the individual photons.

Even when they have the same energy, photons travel different
distances within a material simply based on the probability of their
encounter with one or more of the particles of the matter and the type of
encounter that occurs. Since the probability of an encounter increases with
the distance traveled, the number of photons reaching a specific point
within the matter decreases exponentially with distance traveled. As shown
in the graphic to the right, if 1000 photons are aimed at ten 1 cm layers of a
material and there is a 10% chance of a photon being attenuated in this
layer, then there will be 100 photons attenuated. This leave 900 photos to
travel into the next layer where 10% of these photos will be attenuated. By
continuing this progression, the exponential shape of the curve becomes
apparent.

The Linear Attenuation

Coefficient ()
The linear attenuation
coefficient () describes
the fraction of a beam of
x-rays or gamma rays that
is absorbed or scattered
per unit thickness of the
absorber. This value
basically accounts for the
number of atoms in a cubic
cm volume of material and
the probability of a photon
being scattered or absorbed
from the nucleus or an
electron of one of these
atoms.
Using the transmitted
intensity equation above,
linear attenuation

coefficients can be used to make a number of calculations. These

include:

the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material

when the incident x-ray intensity, the material and the material
thickness are known.

the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the

transmitted x-ray intensity, material, and material thickness are
known.

the thickness of the material when the incident and

transmitted intensity, and the material are known.

the material can be determined from the value of when the

incident and transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are
known.
Linear attenuation coefficients can sometimes be found in the
literature. However, it is often easier to locate attenuation data in
terms of the mass attenuation coefficient. Tables and graphs of
the mass attenuation coefficients for all of the elements Z = 1 to 92,
and for compounds and mixtures of radiological interest are
available at the National Institute for Standards and Technology
website. The tables on the NIST website cover energies of photons
(x-ray, gamma ray, bremsstrahlung) from 1 keV to 20 MeV. A
mass attenuation coefficient can easily be converted to a linear
attenuation coefficient as discussed below.
Mass Attenuation Coefficient and Conversion to Linear
Attenuation Coefficient
Since a linear attenuation coefficient is dependent on the density of
a material, the mass attenuation coefficient is often reported for
convenience. Consider water for example. The linear attenuation
for water vapor is much lower than it is for ice because the
molecules are more spread out in vapor so the chance of a photon
encounter with a water particle is less. Normalizing by dividing
it by the density of the element or compound will produce a value
that is constant for a particular element or compound. This
constant () is known as the mass attenuation coefficient and has
units of cm2/gm.
To convert a mass attenuation coefficient () to a linear
attenuation coefficient (), simply multiply it by the density () of

Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing
radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide or silver chloride,
and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base. The emulsion is different from those
used in other types of photography films to account for the distinct characteristics
of gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to light. Usually, the
emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about 0.0005 inch thick.
Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of radiationsensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed. The emulsion layers are
thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be accomplished in a reasonable
time. A few of the films used for radiography only have emulsion on one side
which produces the greatest detail in the image.
When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the
sensitive silver halide in the emulsion, some of the
Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. This
change is of such a small nature that it cannot be detected
by ordinary physical methods and is called a "latent
(hidden) image." However, the exposed grains are now
more sensitive to the reduction process when exposed to a
chemical solution (developer), and the reaction results in
the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin on
both sides of the base, that creates an image. See the page on film processing for
additional information.
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends on a
number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that must be
considered when selecting a film and developing a radiographic technique.

1. Composition, shape, and

size of the part being
examined and, in some
cases, its weight and
location.
2. Type of radiation used,
whether x-rays from an xray generator or gamma
rays from a radioactive
source.
3. Kilovoltages available with
the x-ray equipment or the
intensity of the gamma
radiation.
4. Relative importance of high
radiographic detail or quick and economical results.
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique
usually involves arriving at a balance between a
number of opposing factors. For example, if
high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of
overall importance, a slower and finer grained
film should be used in place of a faster film.
Film Packaging
Radiographic film can be purchased in a number
of different packaging options. The most basic
form is as individual sheets in a box. In preparation for use, each sheet must be
loaded into a cassette or film holder in the darkroom to protect it from exposure to
light. The sheets are available in a variety of sizes and can be purchased with or
without interleaving paper. Interleaved packages have a layer of paper that
separates each piece of film. The interleaving paper is removed before the film is
loaded into the film holder. Many users find the interleaving paper useful in
separating the sheets of film and offer some protection against scratches and dirt
during handling.
Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in
a light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing
it from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the
darkroom for processing. This form of packaging has the advantage of eliminating
the process of loading the film holders in the darkroom. The film is completely

protected from finger marks and dirt until the time the film is removed from the
envelope for processing.
Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut the
film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape in the
darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and the
examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great
economic advantage. The film is wrapped around the outside of a structure and the
radiation source is positioned on axis inside, allowing for examination of a large
area with a single exposure.
Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between two
lead oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at energy levels
below 150keV and as intensification screens above 150 keV.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semiflexible holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be
sure pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as on
an un-ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to produce desensitized areas
in the radiograph. This precaution is particularly important when using envelopepacked films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with
processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always
grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels should be
kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often and well. Use of envelopepacked films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons,
exposure holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or treelike
black markings in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static electric
discharges.
Exposure Vaults & Cabinets
Exposure vaults and cabinets allow personnel to work safely in the area while
exposures are taking place. Exposure vaults tend to be larger walk in rooms with
shielding provided by high-density concrete block and lead.

Exposure cabinets are often self-contained units

with integrated x-ray equipment and are
typically shielded with steel and lead to absorb
x-ray radiation.
Exposure vaults and cabinets are equipped with
protective interlocks that disable the system if
anything interrupts the integrity of the
enclosure. Additionally, walk in vaults are equipped with emergency "kill buttons"
that allow radiographers to shut down the system if it should accidentally be started
while they were in the vault.
Image Considerations
The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest
amount of detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different
variables that can affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of
the quality of an image in terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be
detected. Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the combined effects of two
independent sets of variables. One set of variables affects thecontrast and the other
set of variables affects the definition of the image.

Radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference between two areas on a

radiograph. Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of interest, such as
defects, from the surrounding area. The image to the right shows two radiographs
of the same stepwedge. The upper radiograph has a high level of contrast and the
lower radiograph has a lower level of contrast. While they are both imaging the
same change in thickness, the high contrast image uses a larger change in
radiographic density to show this change. In each of the two radiographs, there is a
small circle, which is of equal density in both radiographs. It is much easier to see

in the high contrast radiograph. The factors affecting contrast will be discussed in
more detail on the following page.
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one area of a
given radiographic density to another. Like contrast, definition also makes it easier
to see features of interest, such as defects, but in a totally different way. In the
image to the right, the upper radiograph has a high level of definition and the lower
radiograph has a lower level of definition. In the high definition radiograph it can
be seen that a change in the thickness of the stepwedge translates to an abrupt
change in radiographic density. It can be seen that the details, particularly the small
circle, are much easier to see in the high definition radiograph. It can be said that
the detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to the physical change present
in the stepwedge. In other words, a faithful visual reproduction of the stepwedge
was produced. In the lower image, the radiographic setup did not produce a faithful
visual reproduction. The edge line between the steps is blurred. This is evidenced
by the gradual transition between the high and low density areas on the radiograph.
The factors affecting definition will be discussed in more detail on a following
page.
Since radiographic contrast and definition are not dependent
upon the same set of factors, it is possible to produce
radiographs with the following qualities:
Low contrast and poor definition
High contrast and poor definition
Low contrast and good definition
High contrast and good definition

Radiographic Contrast
As mentioned on the previous page, radiographic contrast describes the differences
in photographic density in a radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the
image is what forms the image and the greater the contrast, the more visible
features become. Radiographic contrast has two main contributors: subject contrast
and detector (film) contrast.

Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation
intensities transmitted through different
areas of the component being evaluated. It
is dependant on the absorption differences
in the component, the wavelength of the
primary radiation, and intensity and
distribution of secondary radiation due to
scattering.
It should be no surprise that absorption
differences within the subject will affect the
level of contrast in a radiograph. The larger
the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger the difference in radiographic density
or contrast. However, it is also possible to radiograph a particular subject and
produce two radiographs having entirely different contrast levels. Generating xrays using a low kilovoltage will generally result in a radiograph with high
contrast. This occurs because low energy radiation is more easily attenuated.
Therefore, the ratio of photons that are transmitted through a thick and thin area
will be greater with low energy radiation. This in turn will result in the film being
exposed to a greater and lesser degree in the two
areas.
There is a tradeoff, however. Generally, as contrast
sensitivity increases, the latitude of the radiograph
decreases. Radiographic latitude refers to the
range of material thickness that can be imaged This
means that more areas of different thicknesses will
be visible in the image. Therefore, the goal is to balance radiographic contrast and
latitude so that there is enough contrast to identify the features of interest but also
to make sure the latitude is great enough so that all areas of interest can be
inspected with one radiograph. In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses,
multiple radiographs will likely be necessary to get the necessary density levels in
all areas.
Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film used,
how it was exposed, and how it was processed. Since there are other detectors

besides film, this could be called detector contrast, but the focus here will be on
film. Exposing a film to produce higher film densities will generally increase the
contrast in the radiograph.
A typical film characteristic curve, which shows how a film responds to different
amounts of radiation exposure, is shown to the right. (More information on film
characteristic curves is presented later in this section.) From the shape of the
curves, it can be seen that when the film has not seen many photon interactions
(which will result in a low film density) the slope of the curve is low. In this region
of the curve, it takes a large change in exposure to produce a small change in film
density. Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is relatively low. It can be seen that
changing the log of the relative exposure from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film
density from 0.20 to about 0.30. However, at film densities above 2.0, the slope of
the characteristic curve for most films is at its maximum. In this region of the
curve, a relatively small change in exposure will result in a relatively large change
in film density. For example, changing the log of relative exposure from 2.4 to 2.6
would change the film density from 1.75 to 2.75. Therefore, the sensitivity of the
film is high in this region of the curve. In general, the highest overall film density
that can be conveniently viewed or digitized will have the highest level of contrast
and contain the most useful information.
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to
0.015 inch typically reduce scatter radiation at
energy levels below 150,000 volts. Above this
point they will emit electrons to provide more
exposure of the film to ionizing radiation, thus
increasing the density and contrast of the
radiograph. Fluorescent screens produce visible
light when exposed to radiation and this light
further exposes the film and increases contrast.
Definition
As mentioned previously, radiographic definition is the abruptness of change from
one density to another. Geometric factors of the equipment and the radiographic
setup, and film and screen factors both have an effect on definition. Geometric
factors include the size of the area of origin of the radiation, the source-to-detector
(film) distance, the specimen-to-detector (film) distance, movement of the source,
specimen or detector during exposure, the angle between the source and some
feature and the abruptness of change in specimen thickness or density.

Geometric Factors
The effect of source size, source-to-film
distance and the specimen-to-detector
distance were covered in detail on
the geometric unsharpness page. But
briefly, to produce the highest level of
definition, the focal-spot or source size
should be as close to a point source as
possible, the source-to-detector distance
should be a great as practical, and the
specimen-to-detector distance should be a
small as practical. This is shown
graphically in the images below.

The angle between the radiation and some features will also have an effect on
definition. If the radiation is parallel to an edge or linear discontinuity, a sharp
distinct boundary will be seen in the image. However, if the radiation is not parallel
with the discontinuity, the feature will appear distorted, out of position and less
defined in the image.

Abrupt changes in thickness and/or density

will appear more defined in a radiograph than
will areas of gradual change. For example,
consider a circle. Its largest dimension will a
cord that passes through its centerline. As the
cord is moved away from the centerline, the
thickness gradually decreases. It is sometimes
difficult to locate the edge of a void due to
this gradual change in thickness.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source
or detector during the exposure will reduce definition. Similar to photography, any
movement will result in blurring of the image. Vibration from nearby equipment
may be an issue in some inspection situations.
Film and Screen Factors
The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine
grain film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is
a coarse grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess.
As the wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of
the film will increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the
apparent graininess of the radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a
couple of different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used
is because incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the
film. However, the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in
adjacent areas, as well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident
radiation. Fluorescent screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen
mottle is associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of photons that
interact with the screen from one area to the next.
Radiographic Density
Radiographic density (AKA optical, photographic, or film density) is a measure of
the degree of film darkening. Technically it should be called "transmitted density"
when associated with transparent-base film since it is a measure of the light
transmitted through the film. Radiographic density is the logarithm of two
measurements: the intensity of light incident on the film (I 0) and the intensity of
light transmitted through the film (It). This ratio is the inverse of transmittance.

Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of significantly
different sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. The following
table shows the relationship between the amount of transmitted light and the
calculated film density.
Percent
Film
Density
Transmittance Transmittance Inverse of
(It/I0)
Transmittance (Log(I0/It))
(I0/It)
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001

100%
10%
1%
0.1%
0.01%
0.001%
0.0001%
0.00001%

1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

From this table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only
0.01% of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and
standards typically require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for
acceptable viewing with common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright
viewing lights is necessary for evaluation. Contrast within a film increases with
increasing density, so in general, the higher the density the better. When
radiographs will be digitized, densities above 4.0 are often used since digitization
systems can capture and redisplay for easy viewing information from densities up
to 6.0.
Film density is measured with a densitometer. A densitometer simply has a
photoelectric sensor that measures the amount of light transmitted through a piece
of film. The film is placed between the light source and the sensor and a density
reading is produced by the instrument.
Film Characteristic Curves
In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the film
determines how dense the film will become when other factors
such as the developing time are held constant. The number of
photons reaching the film is a function of the intensity of the radiation and the time

that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used to describe the control of
the number of photons reaching the film is exposure.
Film Characteristic Curves
Different types of radiographic film respond differently to a given amount of
exposure. Film manufacturers commonly characterize their film to determine the
relationship between the applied exposure and the resulting film density. This
relationship commonly varies over a range of film densities, so the data is
presented in the form of a curve such as the one for Kodak AA400 shown to the
right. The plot is called a film characteristic curve, sensitometric curve, density
curve, or H and D curve (named for developers Hurter and
Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of measuring the response of photographic
emulsions to light or radiation.
A log scale is used or the values are reported
in log units on a linear scale to compress the
x-axis. Also, relative exposure values
(unitless) are often used. Relative exposure is
the ratio of two exposures. For example, if
one film is exposed at 100 keV for 6mAmin
and a second film is exposed at the same
energy for 3mAmin, then the relative
exposure would be 2. The image directly to
the right shows three film characteristic
curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log scale, while the image below and
to the right shows the log relative exposure
plotted on a linear scale.
Use of the logarithm of the relative exposure
scale makes it easy to compare two sets of
values, which is the primary use of the
curves. Film characteristic curves can be
used to adjust the exposure used to produce
a radiograph with a certain density to an
exposure that will produce a second
radiograph of higher or lower film density.
The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced with one type of film
to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the same density with a second type
of film.

Adjusting the Exposure to Produce a

Different Film Density
Suppose Film B was exposed with 140 keV
at 1mA for 10 seconds and the resulting
radiograph had a density in the region of
interest of 1.0. Specifications typically
require the density to be above 2.0 for
reasons discussed on the film density page.
From the film characteristic curve, the
relative exposures for the actual density and
desired density are determined and the ratio of these two values is used to adjust
the actual exposure. In this first example, a plot with log relative exposure and a
linear x-axis will be used.
From the graph, first determine the difference between the relative exposures of the
actual and the desired densities. A target density of 2.5 is used to ensure that the
exposure produces a density above the 2.0 minimum requirement. The log relative
exposure of a density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log of the relative exposure when the
density of the film is 2.5 is 2.12. The difference between the two values is 0.5.
Take the anti-log of this value to change it from log relative exposure to simply the
relative exposure and this value is 3.16. Therefore, the exposure used to produce
the initial radiograph with a 1.0 density needs to be multiplied by 3.16 to produce a
radiograph with the desired density of 2.5. The exposure of the original x-ray was
10 mAs, so the new exposure must be 10
mAs x 3.16 or 31.6 mAs at 140 keV.
Adjusting the Exposure to Allow Use of a
Different Film Type
Another use of film characteristic curves is
to adjust the exposure when switching types
of film. The location of the characteristic
curves of different films along the x-axis
relates to the film speed of the films. The
farther to the right that a curve is on the
chart, the slower the film speed. It must be noted that the two curves being used
must have been produced with the same radiation energy. The shape of the
characteristic curve is largely independent of the wavelength of the x-ray or
gamma radiation, but the location of the curve along the x-axis, with respect to the
curve of another film, does depend on radiation quality.

Suppose an acceptable radiograph with a density of 2.5 was produced by exposing

Film A for 30 seconds at 1mA and 130 keV. Now, it is necessary to inspect the part
using Film B. The exposure can be adjusted by following the above method, as
long at the two film characteristic curves were produced with roughly the same
radiation quality. For this example, the characteristic curves for Film A and B are
shown on a chart showing relative exposure on a log scale. The relative exposure
that produced a density of 2.5 on Film A is found to be 68. The relative exposure
that should produce a density of 2.5 on Film B is found to be 140. The relative
exposure of Film B is about twice that of Film A, or 2.1 to be more exact.
Therefore, to produce a 2.5 density radiograph with Film B the exposure should be
30mAs times 2.1 or 62 mAs.
Exposure Calculations
Properly exposing a radiograph is often a
trial and error process, as there are many
variables that affect the final radiograph.
Some of the variables that affect the density
of the radiograph include:
The spectrum of radiation
produced by the x-ray generator.
The voltage potential used to generate the x-rays (KeV).
The amperage used to generate the x-rays (mA).
The exposure time.
The distance between the radiation source and the film.
The material of the component being radiographed.
The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel
through.
The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.
The film being used.
The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the
contact time.

The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an

acceptable density by trail for each specific x-ray generator. This process may
begin using published exposure charts to determine a starting exposure, which
usually requires some refinement.
However, it is possible to calculate the density of a radiograph to a fair degree
accuracy when the spectrum of an x-ray generator has been characterized. The
calculation cannot completely account for scattering but, otherwise, the
relationship between many of the variables and their effect on film density is
known. Therefore, the change in film density can be estimated for any given
variable change. For example, from Newton's Inverse Square Law, it is known
that the intensity of the radiation varies inversely with distance from the source. It
is also known that the intensity of the radiation transmitted through a material
varies exponentially with the linear attenuation coefficient (m) and the thickness of
the material.
A number of radiographic modeling program are available that make this
calculation. These programs can provide a fair representation of the radiograph
that will be produce with a specific setup and parameters. The effect of the energy
and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film density after exposure.
Controlling Radiographic Quality
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are also referred to as penetrameters,
provide a means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity
and definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of
change in material thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the
radiograph has a certain level of definition so that the density changes are not lost
due to unsharpness. Without such a reference point, consistency and quality could
not be maintained and defects could go undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI styles are prevalent:
the placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types
so that one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being
radiographed can be used.

Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
group classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates eight
groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching
system is incorporated into the requirements, which allows the radiographer to
easily determine if the IQI is the correct material type for the product. The notches
in the IQI to the right indicate that it is made of aluminum. The thickness in
thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by one or more lead number.
The IQI to the right is 0.005 inch thick. IQIs may also be manufactured to a
military or other industry specification and the material type and thickness may be
indicated differently. For example, the IQI on the left in the image above uses lead
letters to indicate the material. The numbers on this same IQI indicate the sample
thickness that the IQI would typically be placed on when attempting to achieve two
percent contrast sensitivity.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part
expression such as 2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness
expressed as a percentage of the region of interest of the part
being inspected. The second term in the expression refers to the
diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a
multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would
mean that the shim thickness should be two percent of the material
thickness and that a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be
detectable on the radiograph. This presentation of a 2-2T IQI in
the radiograph verifies that the radiographic technique is capable
of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a
defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in the
IQI represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues within
the part may contain gradual changes and are often less visible. The IQI is used to
indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not intended to be used as a
measure of the size of a cavity that can be located on the radiograph.

Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire
IQIs to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires arranged in
order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets of clear plastic.
E747 specifies four wire IQI sets, which control the wire diameters. The set letter
(A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the IQI. The number in the
lower left corner indicates the material group. The same image quality levels and
expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs.
The wire sizes that correspond to various hole-type quality levels can be found in a
table in E747 or can be calculated using the following formula.

Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When
a block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if
placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should also be placed
slightly away from the edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible
in the radiograph.

Film Processing
As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted
base coated on both sides with an emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin
containing microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver

bromide and silver chloride. When x-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the the
crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions.
In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent (hidden) image because
the change in the grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are now
more sensitive to reaction with the developer.
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemicals solutions
for controlled periods of time. Processing film basically involves the following five
steps.
Development - The developing agent gives up
electrons to convert the silver halide grains to metallic
silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert
exposed grains to pure silver while keeping
unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
Stopping the development - The stop bath simply
stops the development process by diluting and
washing the developer away with water.
Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed
by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver
halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
Washing - The film is washed with water to remove
all the processing chemicals.
Drying - The film is dried for viewing.
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical
concentration, temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is
done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a high
degree of consistency and quality control.
Manual Processing & Darkrooms
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located in a
central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance from the
exposure area. For portability, darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trailers.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a metal
bin that is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin that is dry
and free of dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. Another area,

the wet side, should be used to process the film. This method protects the film from
any water or chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to develop the image,
wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the
radiograph. The objective of processing is two fold: first, to produce a radiograph
adequate for viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for archival storage.
Radiographs are often stored for 20 years or more as a record of the inspection.
Automatic Processor Evaluation
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray
department. The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when
compared to manual development by a factor of four. To monitor the performance
of a processor, apart from optimum temperature and mechanical checks, chemical
and sensitometric checks should be performed for developer and fixer. Chemical
checks involve measuring the pH values of the developer and fixer as well as both
replenishers. Also, the specific gravity and fixer silver levels must be measured.
Ideally, pH should be measured daily and it is important to record these
measurements, as regular logging provides very useful information. The daily
measurements of pH values for the developer and fixer can then be plotted to
observe the trend of variations in these values compared to the normal pH
operating levels to identify problems.
Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films in
the automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve measurement
of basic fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1 C intervals of
temperature. The range of temperature measurement depends on the type of
chemistry in use, whether cold or hot developer. These three measurements: fog
level, speed, and average gradient, should then be plotted against temperature and
compared with the manufacturer's supplied figures.
Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally
viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common to digitize
radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper viewing
conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The viewing
conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.

Viewing Radiographs
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph,
the viewing equipment and area should be
considered. The area should be clean and free of
distracting materials. Magnifying aids, masking
aids, and film markers should be close at hand.
Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn
to prevent fingerprints on the radiograph. Ambient
light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of
less than 2 fc are often recommended, but subdued
lighting (rather than total darkness) is preferable in the viewing room. The
brightness of the surroundings should be about the same as the area of interest in
the radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that there are no reflections
from the surface of the film under examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four
groups of film viewers. These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers,
and a combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a source
of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can cause
distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow
only 1% of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4.0 will allow
only 0.01% of the incident light to pass. With such low levels of light passing
through the radiograph, the delivery of a good light source is important.
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written
procedure or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required
documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary
when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as
required by the procedure, should first be determined. It should be verified that the
radiograph was produced to the correct density on the required film type, and that
it contains the correct identification information. It should also be verified that the
proper image quality indicator was used and that the required sensitivity level was
met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not contain
processing and handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of
interest. The technician should develop a standard process for evaluating the
radiographs so that details are not overlooked.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity with

knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated

discontinuities. If the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of
applied loads and history of the component is helpful. A process for viewing
radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom, etc.) is helpful and will prevent
overlooking an area on the radiograph. This process is often developed over time
and individualized. One part of the interpretation process, sometimes overlooked,
is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to occasionally rest when interpreting
radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light
source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the
intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indications.
Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help identify and
evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected is very often
helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By
using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the
interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be
skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in
three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these
steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to
resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect
discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place
of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various features in the image.
The following material was developed to help students develop an understanding
of the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph.
Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities

The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.

Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not
melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into
the base material without bonding.

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take
many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or
specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is
elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to
escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All
porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than
the surrounding area.
.

Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the

weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity
in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.

Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between
weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the
weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack
may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined,
straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line
or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or
joining area.

Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a
radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges
and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the
weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the
centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it
does not follow a ground edge.

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of
the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside
edge of the weld area.

Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a
noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density
is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused
by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld

metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to
determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the
image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the
image density of the surrounding base material.

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in
excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a
radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the
engineering requirements.

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a

direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam.
Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can
sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process, including aluminum
and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous
weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in
the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are
used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more
dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct
outline on the radiograph.

Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding
material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the
radiograph.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as
light, "wire like" indications.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a
thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred

to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often

surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

Radiograph Interpretation - Castings

The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects
that adversely affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that
often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the
casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with
this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process
deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject
decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes
of defects have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important
that the radiographer is able to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM
E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the
radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The
castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analyzed
to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief
description of the most common discontinuity types included in existing reference
radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air which is trapped
by the metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a
spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide
the necessary heat transfer needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas or
air will be trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused
by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas

cannot escape. Too high a moisture content in the sand makes it difficult to carry
the excessive volumes of water vapor away from the casting. Another cause of
blows can be attributed to using green ladles,
rusty or damp chills and chaplets.
Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic
oxides, which appear on the radiograph as
irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core walls
and/or from oxides (formed in the melt)
which have not been skimmed off prior to
the introduction of the metal into the mold
gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and skimming of
the melt during pouring will minimize or
obviate this source of trouble.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that
appears as dark spots on the radiograph.
Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in all
cases it occurs because molten metal shrinks
as it solidifies, in all portions of the final
casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure
that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain
the shrinkage. Shrinkage in its various forms can be recognized by a number of
characteristics on radiographs. There are at least four types of shrinkage: (1)
cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents
designate these types by numbers, without actual names, to avoid possible
misunderstanding.
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may be
produced when metal solidifies between two original streams of melt coming from
opposite directions to join a common front. Cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a
time when the melt has almost reached solidification temperature and there is no
source of supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities.

Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very

fine lines or small elongated cavities that
may vary in density and are usually

unconnected.

occurs

Filamentary shrinkage usually

as a continuous structure of
connected lines or branches of
variable length, width and density, or

occasionally as a network.

Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines,
generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage
may be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears
more blurred because it is projected through the relatively thick coating between
the discontinuities and the film surface.

Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly

disposed discontinuities that occur after the
melt has solidified. They generally appear
singly and originate at casting surfaces.

Cold shuts generally appear on or near a

surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to
unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded
edges.

Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid metallic matrix. They

may be less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in
light metal castings.

Core shift shows itself as a variation in

section thickness, usually on radiographic views representing diametrically
opposite portions of cylindrical casting
portions.

Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a
metal during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur
due to overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot
tears as a stress concentration is similar to that of an ordinary crack, and hot tears
are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a
casting type, explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required.
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions
with a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not
readily eliminated by specific remedial actions in the process.
Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or
less dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively
vague, thin-section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling
is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary material with low-energy Xrays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider
mottling as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced
interpreters often have to check the condition by re-radiography from slightly
different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are then very pronounced, while
true casting discontinuities change only slightly in appearance.

Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds

Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective
conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting
repair that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here.
The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For additional information,
see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the
"Radiographic Control of Welds."
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
material and base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from
long narrow indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from
gray to very dark.
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is
generally cylindrical or elliptical in shape.

Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left
unfilled by weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be
corrected, and appears as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.
Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration
through the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is
located at the center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a
weld joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On
a radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the
centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring,
strip, fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a
localized region but without the development of a void or open hole. On a
radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication.
Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent
base metal.
Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in
surface contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by
the heat generated when electrical energy passes between the surfaces of the
finished weld or base metal and the current source.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled
during welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter
appears as many small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph.
Tungsten inclusion is usually more dense than base-metal particles. Tungsten
inclusions appear very light radiographic images. Accept/reject decisions for this
defect are generally based on the slag criteria.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting
in oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the
weld atmosphere. The condition is also called sugaring.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or
into the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears
in radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.

Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal

surface of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.

Real-time Radiography
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is a nondestructive test
(NDT) method whereby an image is produced electronically, rather than on film, so
that very little lag time occurs between the item being exposed to radiation and the
resulting image. In most instances, the electronic image that is viewed results from
the radiation passing through the object being inspected and interacting with a
screen of material that fluoresces or gives off light when the interaction occurs.
The fluorescent elements of the screen form the image much as the grains of silver
form the image in film radiography. The image formed is a "positive image" since
brighter areas on the image indicate where higher levels of transmitted radiation
reached the screen. This image is the opposite of the negative image produced in
film radiography. In other words, with RTR, the lighter, brighter areas represent
thinner sections or less dense sections of the test
object.
Real-time radiography is a well-established
method of NDT having applications in
automotive, aerospace, pressure vessel,
electronic, and munition industries, among
others. The use of RTR is increasing due to a
reduction in the cost of the equipment and resolution of issues such as the
protecting and storing digital images. Since RTR is being used increasingly more,
these educational materials were developed by the North Central Collaboration for
NDT Education (NCCE) to introduce RTR to NDT technician students.
Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) is a powerful nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
technique for producing 2-D and 3-D cross-sectional images of an object from flat
X-ray images. Characteristics of the internal structure of an object such as
dimensions, shape, internal defects, and density are readily available from CT
images. Shown below is a schematic of a CT system.

The test component is placed on a turntable stage that is between a radiation source
and an imaging system. The turntable and the imaging system are connected to a
computer so that x-ray images collected can be correlated to the position of the test
component. The imaging system produces a 2-dimensional shadowgraph image of
the specimen just like a film radiograph. Specialized computer software makes it
possible to produce cross-sectional images of the test component as if it was being
sliced.
How a CT System Works
The imaging system provides a shadowgraph of an object, with the 3-D structure
compressed onto a 2-D plane. The density data along one horizontal line of the
image is uncompressed and stretched out over an area. This information by itself is
not very useful, but when the test component is rotated and similar data for the
same linear slice is collected and overlaid, an image of the cross-sectional density
of the component begins to develop.
In the image below left is a set of cast aluminum tensile specimens. A radiographic
image of several of these specimens is shown below right.

CT slices through several locations of a specimen are shown in the set of images
below.

A number of slices through the object can be reconstructed to provide a 3-D view
of internal and external structural details. As shown below, the 3-D image can then
be manipulated and sliced in various ways to provide thorough understanding of
the structure.

-Ray Inspection Simulation

One of the most significant recent advances in NDT has been the development and
use of computer modeling that allows inspection variables to be scientifically and
mathematically evaluated. In a few cases, these models have been combined with a
graphical user interface to produce inspection simulation programs that allow
engineers and technicians to evaluate the inspectability of a component in a virtual
computer environment. One such program, XRSIM, was designed and developed
at Iowa State University's Center for Nondestructive Evaluation. The program
simulates radiographic inspections using a computer aided design (CAD) model of
a part to produce physically accurate simulated radiographic images. XRSIM
allows the operator to select a part, input the material properties, input the size,
location, and properties of a defect. The operator then selects the size and type of
film and adjusts the part location and orientation in relationship to the x-ray source.
The x-ray generator settings are then specified to generate a desired radiographic
film exposure. Exposure variables are quickly and easily revised allowing the
operator to make and see results of defect size, material, and part or defect
orientation.
The almost instantaneous results produced by simulation programs make them
especially valuable in education and training settings. Successful radiography

depends on numerous variables that affect the outcome and

quality of an image. Many of these variables have a
substantial effect on image quality and others have little
effect. Using inspection simulation programs, inspections can
be modified and the resulting images viewed and evaluated to
assess the impact these variables have on the image. Many
inspection scenarios can be rapidly modeled since the shot
setup and exposure can be quickly accomplished and the filmdeveloping step is eliminated. Not only can a greater number
and variety of problems be explored, but also the effects of variables can be
learned and self-discovered through experimentation, which is one of the most
effective modes of learning. Results are not complicated by unnecessary variables
such as film processing variables and artifacts. Distractions unrelated to the
primary learning exercise are eliminated. Through the use of simulation programs a
more effective understanding of the scientific concepts associated with radiography
will be developed.
Another important aspect of the program is that it does not require a real part for
the inspections. Inspections can be simulated that would otherwise be impossible
or too costly to perform outside the computer environment. Flaws of various
shapes, sizes, and materials can be easily introduced into the CAD model to
produce a sample set for probability of detection
exercises.
It should be noted that densities produced in the
simulated images may not match exactly the images
produced in the laboratory using similar equipment
settings. The difference between the actual and
simulated radiographs are due to variations in the Xray spectrum of various tubes and approximations
made in the scattering model used to keep the computation times reasonable. As
scattering effects become more dominant, the predicted density will agree less with
the actual density on the radiograph. For example, when a one-inch steel sample is
radiographed at 250 keV, over half of the total flux reaching the detector is due to
scattering.
For more information on how the XRSIM program operates, the users manual is
available here for downloading. The educational version of the program is
available commercially.

Doses from various sources

Limits for Exposures
Occupational Dose limit (US - NRC)
Occupational Exposure Limits for Minors
Occupational Exposure Limits for Fetus
Public dose limits due to licensed activities
(NRC)
Occupational Limits (eye)
Occupational Limits (skin)
Occupational Limits (extremities)

Exposure

Range

50 mSv/year
5 mSv/year
5 mSv
1 mSv/year
150 mSv/year
500 mSv/year
500 mSv/year

Source of Exposure
Average Dose to US public from All sources
Average Dose to US Public From Natural
Sources
Average Dose to US Public From Medical
Sources
Average dose to US Public from Weapons
Fallout
Average Dose to US Public From Nuclear
Power

3.6 mSv/year

Coal Burning Power Plant

X-rays from old TV set (1 inch)
Airplane ride (39,000 ft.)
Nuclear Power Plant (normal operation at
plant boundary)
Natural gas in home

1.65 microSv/year
5 microSv/hour
5 microSv/hour

Average Natural Background

Average US Cosmic Radiation
Average US Terrestrial Radiation
Terrestrial background (Atlantic coast)

0.008 mR/hour
0.006-0.015 mR/hour
270 microSv/year
280 microSv/year
160 microSv/year

3.0 mSv/year
530 microSv/year
< 10 microSv/year
< 1 microSv/year

6 microSv/year
90 microSv/year

Terrestrial background (Rocky Mountains)

Cosmic Radiation (Sea level)
Cosmic Radiation (Denver)
Background Radiation Total (East, West,
Central US)
Background Radiation Total (Colorado
Plateau)
Background Radiation Total (Atlantic and
Gulf in US)

400 microSv/year
260 microSv/year
500 microSv/year

Radionuclides in the body (i.e., potassium)

Building materials (concrete)
Drinking Water
Pocket watch (radium dial)

390 microSv/year
30 microSv/year
50 microSv/year
60 microSv/year
60 - 110
microSv/year
50 microSv

Eyeglasses (containing thorium)

Coast to coast Airplane roundtrip

460 microSv/year 350-750 microSv/year

900 microSv/year 750-1400 microSv/year
230 microSv/year 150-350 microSv/year

Chest x-ray
80 microSv
Extemities x-ray
10 microSv
Dental x-ray
100 microSv
Head/neck x-ray
200 microSv
Cervical Spine x-ray
220 microSv
Lumbar spinal x-rays
1.30 mSv
Pelvis x-ray
440 microSv
Hip x-ray
830 microSv
Shoe Fitting Fluroscope (not in use now)
1.70 mSv
Upper GI series
2.45 mSv
Lower GI series
4.05 mSv
Diagnostic thyroid exam (to the thyroid)
0.5 Gy
Diagnostic thyroid exam (to the Whole Body) 0.35 mGy
CT (head and body)
11 mSv
Therapeutic thyroid treatment (dose to the
thyroid)
Therapeutic thyroid treatment (dose to the
whole body)
7 cSv

Earliest Onset of Radiation Sickness

Onset of hematopoietic syndrome
Onset of gastrointestinal syndrome
Onset of cerebrovacular syndrome

0.75 Gy
3 Gy
10 Gy
100 Gy

50 - 200 microSv

50-100 Gy
5-15 cGy

1 to 8 Gy
5 - 12 Gy
>500 Gy

Thershold for cataracts (dose to the eye)

Expected 50% death without medical
attention
Doubling dose for genetic effects

2 Gy
4 Gy
1 Gy

Doubling dose for cancer

5 Gy
Dose for increase cancer risk of 1 in a 1,000 1.250 cSv
Consideration of theraputic abortion
threshold (dose in utero)
10 cSv
SL1 Reactor Accident highest dose to
survivor

27 cSv

Three Mile Island (dose at plant duration 0.80 mSv

of the accident)

3 to 5 Gy
(8% per Sv, natural level
at 20%)
(8% per Sv)