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Definitions
Communication Process
Forms of Communication
Communication Types
Styles of Communication
Personality Model
Organizational Communication
Written and Oral Communication
The Effects of Communication at Individual Level and Organizational Level
Communication Barriers and the Ways to Beat Them
Effective Listening
eMail Writing and Corresponding
Meetings Conducting Meetings
Types of Organizational Communication
PRESENTATION GOALS
COMMUNICATION
1. Definitions
When asked to define communication, how would you respond? Most people will
relate to the form of communication talking or writing. But communication goes
beyond that. Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual
understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode)
information but also create and share meaning.
Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one
person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling
to a receiver (U.S. Army, 1983).
Communication is the art and process of creating and sharing ideas. Effective
communication depends on the richness of those ideas.
Warren Weawe defined human communication as all the processes by which a
mind can influence another mind.
The messages used in human communication include giving and taking, so this is a
transactional process of giving receiving.
In general, communication is a means of connecting people or places. In business,
it is a key function of management - an organization cannot operate without
communication between levels, departments and employees.
Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact
information or idea that the sender intended to transmit. Many of the problems that
occur in an organization are (Mistry, Jaggers, Lodge, Alton, Mericle, Frush,
Meliones, 2008):
the direct result of people failing to communicate
processes that leads to confusion and can cause good plans to fail
2. Communication process
The communication process involves multiple parts and stages. It is based on the
relation sender message - receiver.
There are:
Source/Sender the source is the sender who initiates the communication.
The source has to be clear about the message, has to know why the
communication is necessary and what result is needed. The sender can be the
one who elaborates the message, or just the one who sends it. The source is
considered to have an active role in the communication process. It has to
choose the channel and the communication language so the receive can
understand the message.
How could you give someone directions on drawing the strings of shapes
in the figure below?
concrete elements which play a role in conveying meaning through the use
of our voice are: Volume (loud, soft) Speed (quick, slow) Pauses (short,
medium, long) / Silence (very long) Rhythm (combination of speed and
pauses) Stress (emphasising sounds) Lengthening of sounds Intonation
(raising, falling, suspended) refers usually to a single syllable Pitch (high,
low) refers to a longer stretch of speaking. All these elements together we
often refer to as tone. A certain intonation, volume, speed our voice performs
while speaking, produces a certain tone. Our tone can mislead the
interpretation especially when based on diversity. Therefore it is important to
be aware of this possibility and gain the ability to listen to our voice, but also
to take into account how others may perceive our voice.
The lack of tone can create problems while transmitting the information.
One of the most important parts of any conversation is the silence. Silence
can serve many functions in a conversation and how it is managed by the
sender determines his level of sophistication in communication. Here are
some points to keep in mind about silence in communication.
Allowing silence in a conversation puts pressure on the other person in conversation between two peers and equals, it's expected both
parties will contribute to the conversation, and there will no glaring
silences. If there are any, it causes discomfort.
Silence can indicate hostility or disagreement - While it's almost never
an indication of indifference, silence can indicate that the other person
is having negative emotions. When we experience anger, fear, or
embarrassment, our thinking brain shuts down.
It can hide or highlight information
Silence can help to create focus and concentration, to organize your
thoughts
Non-verbal communication 55%
The types of interpersonal communication that are not expressed verbally
are called nonverbal communications. These include:
Appearance
Body Movements (Kinesics)
Posture
Eye Contact
Gestures with arms or hands
Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
Facial Expressions
Physiological Changes
Over half (55%) of the message that the sender is transmitting to others is
nonverbal. This means that we receive more than half a person is
communicating through the subconscious messages they are sending with
body language.
As we have seen, much of the meaning we derive from communication,
comes from non-verbal cues. While we tend to focus on what we say, it is
the non-verbal communication that proves to be significant in conveying our
message and forming judgements about others. Often a person says one
thing but communicates something totally different through vocal intonation
and body language. These mixed signals can force the receiver to choose
between the verbal and non-verbal parts of the message. Most often, the
receiver chooses the non-verbal aspects.
We instinctively recognize what body language is telling us.
Read the following example and you will have a good idea of what the
persons body language is telling.
Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are
also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color
psychology has demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods.
Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments and interpretations.
Just think of all the subtle judgements you quickly make about someone based on
his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts
suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential
employers.
Body language
Body Language - technically known as kinesics - is a significant aspect of
modern communications and relationships.
Body Language is therefore very relevant to management and leadership,
and to all aspects of work and business where communications can be seen
and physically observed among people.
Body language goes both ways:
Your own body language reveals your feelings and meanings to others.
Other people's body language reveals their feelings and meanings to you.
The sending and receiving of body language signals happens on conscious
and unconscious levels.
Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate
meaning without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and
using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and
related to culture.
Emblems (autonomous gestures)
Emblems are gestures that can be used instead of speech. The three major
characteristics of emblems are:
they have a direct verbal translation
they are known by almost everybody in a social group
they shall have a particular effect on the recipient
Emblems (autonomous gestures) are very rare in contrast to illustrators, the second
category of manual gestures. This depends on the properties of this kind gesture as
opposed to speech: gesture is more rapid to express a single unit of meaning and it
can be employed over greater distances.
Example:
Thumbs-up In the United States this gesture means "all right", but it can have a
totally different meaning in other countries. In a communication process you have
to be aware of these cultural differences. In many countries throughout Europe
"Thumbs-up" is an insulting gesture, standing for "up yours...".
There are also gestures which are used worldwide:
shoulder shrugging (don't know), headshake (negation), headnod (affirmation).
llustrators
Illustrators are gestures that are used to illustrate spoken words. Their major
functions are:
to encode difficult messages/material, which is a communicative effort of the
speaker
help the receiver to decode messages more easily than without the use of
gestures.
Examples:
Giving directions - pointing
Outlining a picture of a referent
Regulators
Regulators support the interaction and communication between sender and
recipient.
Examples:
Movements of the head, neck, eyes
Hand gestures
Posture
Affect Displays
Affect displays are facial expressions combined with posture which reflect the
intensity of an emotion.
Adaptors
Adaptors are gestures that are not used intentionally during a communication or
interaction. They are difficult to recognize.
Adaptors can take two forms:
(a) body-focused, e.g. scratching
(b) object-focused, e.g. smoking
Theories concerning adaptors:
Adaptors are gestures that were at one point used for personal convenience
but have turned into a habit (adjusting glasses in a tense situation).
Adaptors are linked with negative feelings, e.g. anxiety (increase of anxiety increase of self-contact).
Body-focused gestures are representations of uncertainty whereas objectfocused gestures depend on the type of information and the type of listner
available.
In any communicative situation the use of gestures depends on whether the speaker
thinks they are available for the listener. Thus in face-to-face communications you
will observe more gestures than in telephone communications.
Posture
Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has
identified a wide range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:
Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, open and
closed, which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or
receptivity to another person. Someone seated in a closed position might have
his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be positioned at a slight angle from the person
with whom they are interacting. In an open posture you might expect to see
someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair. An open
posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a
readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or
disinterest.
Eye Contact
Eye contact is an important aspect of non-verbal behaviour. In interpersonal
interaction, it serves three main purposes:
To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the
receiver is concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye
contact can indicate disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth
process if a listener averts their eyes too frequently.
To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to
the above point. Eye contact is more likely to be continuous when someone
is listening, rather than speaking. When a person has finished what they have
to say, they will look directly at the other person and this gives a signal that
the arena is open. If someone does not want to be interrupted, eye contact
may be avoided.
To communicate something about a relationship between people: When
you dislike someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often
reduced. On the other hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact signals
interest or attraction in a partner.
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When
people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and
pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions,
including hostility, interest and attraction.
Gestures with arms or hands
Firmness of handshake is not the reliable indicator of firmness of character
that many believe it to be. Firm handshakes tend to be those of confident
people, especially those who have spent some time in business, and who
their overall body language. Handshaking can occur within the bounds of
personal distance.
Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for
example working together in the same room or during social gatherings.
Seating is also important; communication is far more likely to be considered
as a formal relationship if the interaction is carried out across a desk. In
addition, if the seating arrangements are such that one person appears to look
down on another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social
distance, speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to
communication, otherwise feedback will be reduced and the interaction may
end.
Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public
distance. At such distances exaggerated non-verbal communication is
necessary for communication to be effective. Since subtle facial expressions
are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures are often used as a substitute.
Larger head movements are also typical of an experienced public speaker
who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived at longer
distances.
Understanding these distances allows us to approach others in non-threatening and
appropriate ways. People can begin to understand how others feel about them, how
they view the relationship and, if appropriate, adjust their behaviour accordingly.
Facial Expressions
Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and
liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly,
warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and people will react
favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and will want to listen more.
4. Communication types
Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication is when an individual has their own personal
dialogue. Their own thoughts, feelings, and ideas are communicated to themselves.
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication is the process of people exchanging ideas, feelings
and thoughts through verbal and non-verbal massages. It is usually involves face to
face interaction, because both the spoken and body language are used to
communicate. Interpersonal communication is usually a two way process.
Organizational Communication
We can talk about the organizational communication as the communication that
happens within organizations: sending emails, writing memos, talking to the
phone, having meetings, video conferences, speeches, presentations, and so on.
It is very important that the right information gets to the right people in the right
manner. If the communication is not done properly things fall apart: directions
aren't followed, customers aren't satisfied, regulations aren't obeyed, and general
chaos ensures. So organizations certainly need effective communication.
Effective communication in an organization increases productivity, decreases
employee turnover and improves office atmosphere.
to the point. Things are done using pacific procedures and rules which must be
followed.
The structure or the way in which communication flows is also important to the
effectiveness communication in the organization. In formal communication there
are four main types. These include upward, downward and horizontal.
Downwards flow of communication means that the message is being sent from
higher levels like managers or supervisors to person in the lower levels like
subordinates.
The main purposes of downward communication are:
a. To establish and disseminate goals of an organization.
b. To give information about organizational policies and procedures.
c. To develop plans for achievement of the organizational goals.
d. To select, develop and motivate members of organization.
e. To organize goals in an effective manner.
The communication channel which pushes the flow of information upward is
known as upward communication. Managers of the business organizations have to
receive information continually form the levels below them to know about the
progress of works. Its occurs when information flow upper the hierarchy form
subordinates to superiors.
The main purposes of upward communication are:
a. To give reports on various projects.
b. To enhance understanding.
c. To clarify one's situation.
d. To seek help.
e. To request for facilities.
Distrust, threat and fear - communication is a two way process, one gives
information as well as receives information. If a person is distrusted or
feared, people will avoid giving him too much or right information. Also
they will have less credibility in information provided by him.
The context in which the receiver gets the messages. Perception, which
causes individuals to mentally filter out and distort information received.
The perception itself is affected by any factors such as attitudes and
emotions.
The tendency to hear only what we are used to hear
How to eliminate the barriers?
Email is a widely used tool for business communications, but in some cases it can
cause tension, confusion, or other negative consequences for working
professionals.
So, how can you avoid your emails doing this? And how can you write emails that
get the results you want?
Don't overcommunicate by email.
One of the biggest sources of stress at work is the sheer volume of emails
that people receive. So, before you begin writing an email, ask yourself: "Is
this really necessary?"
As part of this, you should use the phone or IM to deal with questions that
are likely to need some back-and-forth discussion.
Whenever possible, deliver bad news in person. This helps you to
communicate with empathy, compassion, and understanding, and to make
amends if your message has been taken the wrong way.
Make good use of subject lines.
A newspaper headline has two functions: it grabs your attention, and it
summarizes the article, so that you can decide whether to read it or not. The
subject line of your email message should do the same thing.
Keep messages clear and brief.
Emails, like traditional business letters, need to be clear and concise. Keep
your sentences short and to the point. The body of the email should be direct
and informative, and it should contain all pertinent information.
Be polite.
People often think that emails can be less formal than traditional letters. But
the messages you send are a reflection of your own professionalism ,
values, and attention to detail, so a certain level of formality is needed.
Unless you're on good terms with someone, avoid informal language, slang,
jargon , and inappropriate abbreviations. Emoticons can be useful for
clarifying your intent, but it's best to use them only with people you know
well.
Check your tone.
When we meet people face-to-face, we use the other person's body language
, vocal tone, and facial expressions to assess how they feel. Email robs us of
this information, and this means that we can't tell when people have
misunderstood our messages. Your choice of words, sentence length,
punctuation, and capitalization can easily be misinterpreted without visual
and auditory cues.
Think about how your email "feels" emotionally. If your intentions or
emotions could be misunderstood, find a less ambiguous way to phrase your
words.
Proofread.
Finally, before you hit "send," take a moment to review your email for
spelling, grammar, and punctuation mistakes. Your email messages are as
much a part of your professional image as the clothes you wear, so it looks
bad to send out a message that contains typos. As you proofread, pay careful
attention to the length of your email. People are more likely to read short,
concise emails than long, rambling ones, so make sure that your emails are
as short as possible, without excluding necessary information.
The meeting
Formal meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place, and usually for a
definite duration to follow an agreed upon agenda. In a corporate setting, they are
divided into two main groups :
Organizational meeting: normally a regular meeting involving stockholders
(shareholders) and management, such as a board meeting and annual general
meeting (AGM).
Operational meeting: regular or ad hoc meeting involving management and
employees, such as a committee meeting, planning meeting, and sales
meeting.
Effective business communication is essential during meetings, since meetings
offer the opportunity for employees from different facets of the company to
gather together to reinforce strategies, brainstorm ideas, celebrate successes and
dissect missteps. Whether meetings are face-to-face, teleconferenced, or by
video conference, relevant parties have the chance to exchange information that
leads to company stability and growth. When mismanaged, business meetings
can waste valuable company time. Understanding the key elements of effective
business communication maximizes the effectiveness of workplace meetings.
Effective business communication breaks down in meetings when theyre too
long, scheduled without enough time to properly prepare for them and end
without establishing actionable steps. Conducting Effective Meetings at Work
recommends selecting a meeting format for the company and sticking with it so
that participants become familiar with it.
Business meetings can maximize communication by taking four steps,
according to Meeting Wizard. Prepare by choosing participants with care,
providing advance notice and planning a clearly articulated agenda. Select one
person or team of employees whose main responsibility is effective facilitation,
including note-taking and timekeeping. Make room for inspired business
Be prepared.
Start on time and end on time
Address the entire group
Be concise
Maintain the focus
Actively listen
Be positive
Get feedback
Effective Listening
Hearing vs. Listening
Hearing is the special sense by which noises and tones are received as stimuli.
Hearing is a sensory experience that gathers sound waves indiscriminately. We can
hear something without choosing to listen.
Listening is a voluntary activity. Listening includes more than just sound being
received by the ear and transmitted to the brain. Listening includes interpreting or
processing that sound. Active listening involves listening with empathy.
Active Listening
When you listen empathically, you dont just hear words. You hear thoughts,
beliefs and feelings. Empathic listening is highly active and requires hard work.
Following the steps below will help you to improve your listening skills.
Emotional interference.
Defensiveness.
Hearing only facts and not feelings.
Not seeking clarification.
Hearing what is expected instead of what is said.
Stereotyping.
The halo effect (i.e., the tendency for something to be influenced by a
loosely associated factor.).
Sensory channel. The five senses (i.e., seeing, hearing, touching, tasting,
and smelling) are the basic channels of communication. Using more
channels increases the chance that communication will be successful.
Does the person attending a meeting via a conference call have the same
communication advantages as on-site attendees?
Differences in communication styles often create an extra challenge. General
behavior patterns of our personalities form our personal communication
styles. These patterns can be productive, nonproductive, or even
counterproductive, and the interplay of these styles affects the
communications effectiveness.
Differences in previous experiences create a filter through which we hear the
world. Inference, judgment, and generalization can become as significant as
facts. The statement There is a dog in the room will be heard differently
by someone who has been bitten than by someone with a well-loved pet.
Cultural differences. Cultural differences impact how a message is sent as
well as the manner in which a message is received. To be effective, you need
to be sensitive to cultural differences without stereotyping.
Tips to Reduce Fear of Public Speaking
Preparation
Know your audience.
Preview the venue, if possible.
Do your research and know your facts.
Consider the emotional issues of your message.
Anticipate the questions you may be asked and prepare answers.
Practice
Present the speech aloud, to yourself, until it is completely familiar.
Read the speech in front of a mirror and ensure that your body language aids
your message.
Seize all opportunities to speak aloud so that you become more comfortable
(e.g., ask questions in meetings, join Toastmasters or another public-speaking
group, speak to small friendly groups, present slides to your family, or teach a
course).
Acceptance and Relaxation
Accept your nervousness as normal.
Accept that you may misspeak during your presentation and plan to correct
yourself immediately and smoothly.
Use relaxation techniques, such as:
Stretching.
Muscle tensing and relaxing.
Deep breathing.
Body alignment.
Consciously choosing to let go of tension.
Visualizing an effective presentation.
Hot issues
Investigate the logistics:
Room size
Available equipment
Number of other speakers
Be succinct. Plan to speak briefly and clearly.
Colleagues
Libraries
Files
Write the presentation
Introduction
The beginning of the speech establishes your relationship with the audience and
lets them know what to expect. This is the time and place in which you would:
Introduce yourself and establish credibility.
Express a single, topic sentence that captures the essence of your message.
Get your audiences attention through:
Relevant humor.
Provocative statements.
Startling facts.
Rhetorical questions.
Make your personal stance clear.
Discussion
This section should illustrate or prove your viewpoint. Here you should:
Present your main points.
Use statistics.
Provide details.
Draw analogies.
Stir emotion in the audience.
Personalize your message through anecdotes or examples.