The Japanese Geotechnical Society

TheJapaneseGeotechnical
Society

SOILS AND

FOUNDATIONS
Japanese Geetechnical SocietyVol.

49, No. 5. 699-709, Oct. 2e09

OF SASW TEST CONFIGURATIONS

AND
ASSOCIATED
DATA
UNCERTAINTIES
IN GENERATING
SITE SPECIFIC DISPERSION
CURVES
EVALUATION

MousuMI

MuKHERJEEi)

and

Apagl'rPRAsHANTti)

ABSTRACT
Spectral analysis
of surfaee
waves
method
soil
used for near surface
(SASW) technique is an in-situnondestructive
In
the
related
with
study
experimental
uncertainties
to
this
mcthod
are
assessed
in
connection
test
profiling.
present
configuration
have been conducted
for thispurpose with various
specification and dataquality. Field experimentations
spatial
configurations
of source
to near receiver
distance and inter-receiverdistance under various
impact source magnitudes
and
heights of fall,Based on the experimental
findings, a method
has been proposed to identify the frequency
range
ofinterest based on a threshold minimum
cross power spectrurn value. Further, itisproposed to consider subset
stacking
combination
with
data
which
can
be estimated
based on weighted
evaluation
of the coherence
of
good
quality
each
frequencyand importance of different frequency ranges. A procedure of obtaining
the site specific dispersion
curve
isillustrated
with
due consideration
to the issuesassociated
with
data quality and power spectra,
site

Key

words:

coherence,

dispersion,power

spectra,

rayleigh

Test

wave,SASW

human intervention
and

nificant

INTRODUCTION

(IGC:C21C81D7)
during the

manipulation

process,

Near-surfacesoil site characterization isan important

issuerelated to various types of geotechnical construction
e,g., highway or railway
track foundation and earthquake related problem. In-situtests are widely used for
determination of soil stifiness and material
property for
this purpose, Since its introduction in the mid-80s,
the
SASW
Analysis of Surface Waves) method
has
(Spectral
gained a largerole into in-situtesting fer determination
of soil stifftiess at small
strains.
This method
can
be used
for testing a large area of soil deposits economically.
SASW test is performed by generating waves of a wide
range
of
frequency under
a vertical
impact loading,
Waves in the form of signals are then captured by sensors
and
then soil profilingisdone by generating experimental

Heisy et al. (1982a)

firstmentioned
the concept
of
SASW. Nazarian and Stokoe (1986,1987) developedthe
theoretical
experimental
and
aspects
ef the SASW
as applied
to geotechnical and pavement enforconductgineering. They developed a suitable method
ing the in-situtests. Sayyedsadr and Dmevich (1989)
developed
a software
code
SASWOPR
to operate
on SASW
data for generating a combined
dispersioncurve. As coherence and phase values were directly
used
as input,data
depending on energy
content
and
quality assessment
method

relevance

of

frequency range

could

not

be

considered,

the sole signal qualitydeciding

factor,Some literature
isalso available addressing the issues related
to the source and receiver spacing and arrandispersion curve and appiying
subsequent
inversion gement. Heisy et al. illustrated(1982b)the factors that
method.
However, this method is alTected by a large affect the source and receiver geometry. Based on the exdegree of uncertainties due to various factorssuch as far perimental studies, it was suggested that the source to
fieldand near fieldeffects arising from attenuation of sarnear receiver distance
(S)might bc equal to intcr-receiver
face wave and body wave interference,
mechanical
and
distance(d),provided that wavelengths
Z<O.5d and
electrical noise at low frequencies,
and specifieations of
A> 3d are eliminated from the data.Nazarian and Stokoe
data acquisition
add
to such
uncertainties.
As a result,
that Common
Receiver Midpoint
(1983)recommended
the construction
dispersioncurve is (CRMP) geometry was the most suitable for SASW test
of the experimental
strongly
affected
by the operator's experience
and
deci- in case of soil site due to lessscatter in dispersioncurve
sion making
for significant and corrected
dataactually re- arising due to non-homogeneity.
In CRMP
geometry
Itleadsto the analysis being a
receivers are placed at equal distanceapart from an imaquired forinterpretations.
considerably
time consuming
and
they are shifted
by equal distancc
process and involves sigginary centerline
and

coherence

values were

ResearchEellow,Dept. of CivilEnginccring,
IndiaiInstituteof Techno!egy, Ka"pur, lndia.
Assistant Professor, ditto (aprashan@iitk.in}.
The manuscript
for thLs paper was received
for revievif on August 1I, 2008; approved
on June 8, 2e09,
Written discussionson this papei should be submitted before May 1, 201O to the Japancse Gcotechnicat Sociely,4-3S-2,Seneoku,Bunkyo-ku,
one
month.
Tokyo 112-OOI1, Japan, Upon request
tbe closing datemay be extended

/)mFormerly

699

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700

MUKHERJEE

AND

from that lineafter each test set up duringfieldtest,as illustratedin Fig. 1. Hence, the soil site under testing
the

remains

same

the

after

test assuring

whole

PRASHANT
Table 1. Borehole data
Depth(m)1.5
SPTvalue(M

relatively

homogeneous soil site condition.

Sanchez-Salineroet al. (1987)
analytically studied the
most feasible
source-receiver
configuration.
They indicated that a desirable
distancebetween the sQurce and the
near receiver isequal to the distance
between the adjacent
receivers and for that set-up the wavelengths
(A)consito
dered during analysis of the fielddata were suggested
be equal to or lessthan one halfof the distancebetween
the receivers (A<O.5d).Hiltunen and Woods (1990)
study
to predict the variables
wave
pavements by the surface
Different inter-rcceiver distancewith
varying
type and source
distances were used to predict the
of S and
source
type. It was found that phase veloc-

presented
affecting
method.
source
etfect

an
experimental
the testing of

itieswere independentof S/d forvalues

dicatingno further effect of body wave
works

mainly

focused on the

Earlier

energy.

of

effects

d/A)O.5 in-

of

previously

men-

SoilBulkunitweight
classification'

(kNlmi)

CL

16.6

29
3'12lCL
4.5

of the site

14J

'
14

Nlojsture
content(%)

6.10

,10.50

13.94.85.8

ML

9.5016.8016.70

combinations.

EXPERIMENTAL

PROGRAM

were
conducted
at a site locatedin the
IIT Kanpur. The testswere performed by following Common
Receiver Midpoint (CRMP) geometry
configuration
and Stokoe, 1983) for different
(Nazarian

The

campus

experiments
of

diMcultiesin high inter-geophonedistances(2m, 4m, 6 m). The borehole

rnuch
literatureis available
dataforthe tested soil site isgivenin Table l,DitferentS
addressing
such effects on soil site characterization
by values with Sfd= O.5,1 2,3 were used foreach inter-geoSASW method and furtherinvestigations
are needed
for phone distance,Testswere performed with drop rnass of
automating
the dispersioncurve generationprocess.
1kg, 2.5kg, 5 kg, 10 kg and 18 kg and heightof fallof
As discussedabove, the interpretation
of SASW test is the mass were maintained
as O.25m, O.5 m and O.9 m at
largelyaffected by several uncertainties related to data each test configuration.
Figure2 illustrates
the above
mentioned
in detail.
The drop mass,
configuration
and
source type
test configurations
quality, source-receiver
used. Marosi and Hiltunen (2004)
channeled
through a guide rod, was made
to fallon a
presented a study on
measurement
uncertainty
related to shear wave velocity
base plate; thus, producing an impulse as a consequence
issueson pavement
'frequency range, Not
tioned

systems

with

in SASW

They proposed an analytical

in measured
shear
wave
SASW
testbased on statistical distributionand
uncertainty
in phase angle and phase velocity
testing.

determineuncertainty

predicting the

results

with

reasonable

impact, Figure 3 depicts the schematic

diagram of
loading arrangement.
The test was repeated
for both
forward and reverse
side
of the receiver
geometry. Six

method

to

of

velocity

in

the

measured

the

data, For

confidence,

is required
considering
different
proper methodology
data stacks for various source type and source-receiver
arrangements.
To progress with the above mentioned
discussion
furtherexperimental
investigation
was carried
out during this study to investigate
the effect of both
source impulse and Sld. Based on the experimental
findings,a method has been proposed to identifythe frequency range of interestbased on cross power spectrum
and quality data was
determined by differentstacking

Tnter-geophonedistancesCm)

RatioofsourcctoncarTccejver
andinter-geophonedistmicc

o.s1

23

Source

Rl

Recqivers

R2

Dropmass(kg)

l{k'N"{{{gtnytgg"S"'.t,",..",L',:k'tag"E."".ft#i,H',tk"Sq,.s.-:C.'.t.ts=tk,tk"tift
(ctttg.(qg,t.ml
-rv,!

Rl

R2

n"tp-tlt"t"=ttt'eitE'l
t -dir"vt"ttttet+"t"Het"H
R'tltet"Iett'-e'nF'd='-"t"t
.h-%tS----uF.-unt".-."-.t--ve.X.-.
-----E-t:n

-=-:t---tt

51018

125

"Ht-i"tep'pttt

va--....S..v.--va.li.-.S-va.fi--.-+za.va.lt---N-k..H.vae----HMtne-gt

SRl

d1

R2titct'-.stt

Heightot'fal1(m)

. t.t.t.t
tttttt
tt t.t
llSier,.i'E.Fl,f;/"iE'it,t.t,t.tt{ilif,recif's.lg'tg;,t,ttt
tmtefset"lt=t"HiJttmltet-.telt-tt-

:ts:va.IV"IE!XklVS)1.IXIIts.-.1:kS

Fig.1.Common

receiver

mid-point

d;

O.25O.5O.9

{CRMP) array

Fig,2, Varioustestconfigurations

in Experimentat Program

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EVALUATION

OF SASW

'ssl

TEST

:zo,e
Guide

DATA
SIGNALS
OF

STACKING

,Heightof

-Rod

fall

One

four

of

out

Schematic diagram

ef

the

londing

major

testinterpretation
was dividedin

discussed

steps

subsequently.

intet]pretationofCoherence Fleinction
Generally coherence
function is used to assess data
at
any
fyequency.
It isa measure
of the degreeby
quaLity
which
two signals are linearlycorrelated.
Coherence
functionvalue close to unity isconsidered
as a good qual-

tp

Fig, 3,

VVITH

the main
objectives of the present study was to
quality data subset from the stacking done for
each
configuration.
Considering various
factors inducing
the uncertainty
of data, the procedure of evaluating
the
find

data qualityfor SASW

BasePIateX

QUALITY

OF

EVALUATION

'ws

701

CONFIGURATIONS

arrangement

../.1
Shuntdamping34%

Stokoe (1986)
considered
a minifunction
O.9
i)
their
...
tttttttt
t
t
/t
analysis
for
system,
Sayyedsadr
and
Drnevieh
t/t
tttt
pavement
tt/tt
l
/ ttt
used
a defaultvalue of O.98 as a minimum
coherttt
(1989)
,1
ence rnagnitude.
Al-Hundai (1992)
used a minimum
-,:...:1:1/F.1,
.,//111.11i
11/'i.'ili/,..111i'i..
filtering
criterion of O,9 for coherence
funetion.For the
.t/tl.
t./
1..
ttttt/tt
t
/ttt
analysis
threshold
minimum
coherence
value
was
present
-.11/ ../..
./.
..t:.i,. t..l. 1111'
considered
as O.98to ensure good data quality.
The
phase
//
1
difference
between two signals may be more than once cycle (2n);
however, the phase angle iscalculated to have its
1
10Frequency(Hz)
100
values
between -z to +n. These values,
which
are
referred
to as wrapped
angle,
are
corrected
to
inphase
Fig. 4. 0utput response curve for thc geophone used during test
clude the number
of missing
cycles based on an expected
response
of phase distribution.Such process of the phase
100axE)=glogo

itydata.Nazarian and
mum

::4.tt
t-//1

acceptable

value

of coherence

II
/ttt
/tttt/t

//.

t.

were

recorded

for each

setup

configuration.

The SASW
control
unit
was
used
for data recording
during the test.
Two geophones with 4.5 Hz natural
frequency were
used as sensors. Figure 4 givesthe response curve of the
geophones used in the presentstudy with shunt resistance

34%. The shunt resistance controls electrical

the geophone. A large value
of shunt
decreasesthe sensitivity of sensor to mechanical
of
of

damping

resistance
vibration

in response
the same time reduces
amplification
due to natural frequency of geophone, Though the linear
output is obtained
from 20 Hz, the minimum
frequency
range
considered
for the present analysis
is twice the
natural
frequency, i.e.,9 Hz to avoid loss of lower freare important for deep soil site profiling.
quencies which
The nonlinearity
due to electrical resonance
of the geo9-20 Hz may
not
sigphone for the frequency range
nificantly affect the obtained
results.
Below 9 Hz, output
value does not truly represent the variation due to input
signal and original signal along with the ambient
noise get
amplified creating swamp
in the output signal. The maximum
frequency required for analysis depends upon the
depth of interest and in case of near surface
soil site
and

at

characterization

the

minimum

depth

maximurn

nitude

in

unwrapping

is shifted by 2n for each

which

missing

calculations
during further
pretations in phase velocity
analysis. However, such irregular
were
sometimes
jumps
in
spite
of
high
coherence
present in the wrapped
phase
values
corresponding
to those frequencies.
These may be
due to the low power content of both the signals resulting
ina good coherence value, though the signal isaffeeted by
the background noise.
Such irregular jumps can also be
noted
at soil layer interfacesdue to sharp change
of medium
properties. These issues are further discussed laterunder the section on Signal 9uatity
Based on Power Spectrum.

Dij7lerentStacking

9uality
The

spectral
stacked.

coherence

Combinations for Enhancing

values

quantitiesof

Ifit is assumed

were

calculated

by

Data

averaging

the

signal over the number

of data
that the background noise is ran-

interestis apdom in nature, by averaging the surn of the background

that 150-200 Hz fre- noise in the signals, itcan be reduced
by a largeextent
such depths(Nazarian, (Nazarian,
1984).Theoretically,
the higherthe number
of
of

proximately O.5m, It is observed

waves of
quencies are able to yield
1984; Foti, 2ooO; Ganji et al., 1998). For the present
study

is called

the phase magcycle, Figure 5

coherence
and
wrapped
magnitudes
of phase anpresents
each
varying
over
the
frequency
range
9-200
Hz, for
gle,
and
bad
data.
It
can
be
observed
that
fregood
quality
with
low
coherence
5)
lead
to
irregular
quencies
(Fig.
can
lead to misinterjumpsin the wrapped
phase which
correction

data stacks

frequencyconsidered

is200 Hz.

signals

the

averaged

be. Practically, the

timized. Law

of

more
number

statistics

enhanced
of

the
averages

suggests

fina}results
should

that the

be

reliability

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MUKHERJEE

702

AND PRASHANT

Highcohe'enceregio]i

(goodql]ali"'datn)

G.9 1

o.v

es

o,s

O.T:

O.7Y

O.6;

e.G:/

O.5t

X
\,,g,,'11h
i,Ii
For3

S:

st"ckillgs

Fovs
l/i'/SN'-stnckings

O.4

O.3

Q.3

O.2

O.2

".1

O.1

o
o

50

100Fitq"ency(H-)150

ii
----T-=

200

l.[EI

f"

o.s8o.4

",}

so

tOO

IS()

100

]'tvqucnny'(llz)
3.S

Fig, 6.

1,o"'cnhetence:egion
2.5E

,.,-;"

e.sE-;e
'

10ri

1 o

i15.0

Coherence

amd

wrapped

S=d=4

lttt.t.,t.t..t'Htt..ttttt

phase
m,

mnss

angle

of

cross

==10 kg,

nnd

povver spectrH
ht=O.9 m

with

and

1'reqi]encl'(IIz}

configuration:

combinatiolls
m,

mass

for e"haiicing data qualit}'

10kg, ht=O,9 m}
=

data quality of each freof

importance for every
quency
combination
case
of soil profileinvestithe
lower
range
frequencies
gation,
yielding longer
wavelengths
were
of
interest
which
could
allow
greater
sampling
of deeper soil stratum.
Hence, the frequency
range
was
firstdiyidedinto two equal segments and a
weight
i)
(wi,was assigned foreach of these frequencysegments.
The firstsegment containing lower range of frequencies was given higherweight than the second one. A
terest

.,to
-d.sl-2.,'.3.5
'

test

stacking

y,./Sk.it..

-o.sk:

Fig. 5.

Different

S== d=4
(TestConfigurntio":

(ilrc"u]a]jUMPS)

for

curnulative
value

the

on

frequency range
of the stacks.
In

weight

(CW)

was

then

calculated

(w2,i) given based on the

(CH) at the corresponding frequency.

ther weights
getting a value closer to the real value by averaging the
signals is inversely
proportionalto the square root of the
Based on their experimental
number
of experiments.
study Nazarian (1984)
proposed 5 stacking for averaging

emphasis

were

where

fur-

coherence

Cur=

E)

w,,i w,,]

(1)

i=1

signals.
wi,i=2
frequency
Asmean value of the considered
In the present study experimental
data were stacked
six
range
for variwi,i== 1 f>mean value
of the considered
frequency
times and the spectral quantities were calculated
ous
stack
combinations,
considering
three to six stacks
range
out
of six stacks
obtained
for each setup configuration.
w,,,:O
CH<O.98
Such analysis helped in idcntifying
the combination
for
w,,]=1
O.98<CH<O.99
which
the noise effects were lessin comparison
to the
w2,i=2
CH>O,99
other combinations.
The good quality data was estimated
Cumulative weights were used
insteadof normalized
through increasein magnitude
of
coherence
function. weighted
average
values
to quantify the data quality of
Frequencies with coherence values
Coherence values for different
frequenciesare presented various combinations,
in Fig. 6 forboth 3 stack and 5 stack combinations.
Itis lessthan O.9g were masked out by assigning zero weight
evident that 3 stack results yielded good result than 5
and cumulative
weights were calculated for each combiincrease nation.
The best of various
cornbinations
was
found
stacks. Though the interpreted data quality may
by decrease in the number
of seiected
stacks,
itisimperabased on the highest value of cumulative
weight
under
the
tiveto maintain a minimum
number
of stacking to ensure
condition
that the number
of deleted
points was lessthan
confidence
in representatiyeness
of data. It was
observed
50% of total frequency points.
from the prescntstudy that four stacks combination
may
be taken to satisfy both coherence
and
representativity
Signat 9uatity
Based on Power Eipectrum
conditions.
The power spectrum
ofa
signal
gives an ideaabout the
amount
of energy
associated
with
each
frequency. Low
Iilnding the Best Stacking Combination Based on Cumagnitude
of power spectrum
means
energy
content is
mutative
VVeight
low under the testconfiguration. For the frequencies
with
lt was required
to establish
a qualitative index to get
low energy
content,
the interpretations may
be highly
the best stacking
combination
out of all combinations
unmisleading
due to background noise and sensitivity
of the
der consideration for a setup configuration. Such index geophones, Therefore,the spectrum
values
were
also
was
calculated
over
the whole
frequency range (f,)
of inconsidered
as one
of the criteria
of masking
the frequen-

the

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EVALUATION
10UOO

703

4
3E,:tli'ogn.-1$.

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Freq"ellny'(Hz)

Fig. 7. Cross power

tion: S!d=2
m,

spectrum
mass

FTeq"encyCHi)

(CPS) and Coherence for testconfigura10 kg, ht

=O.9

Fig. 8, Wrapped
coiifiguration:

The auto-power
spectra give an estimate
of the frequency distributionof energy for each signal. The crosshelps in identifying
the predominant frepower spectrum
quenciesthat are present in both the signals. Figure 7 ilIustrates
the cross power spectrum
curve and coherence

aficl

U"wrapped Phase

S=. d=2

m,

power

of cross

kg, ht

mass=10

spectra

for test

=09

cies.

PhaseVle]ocity{mis)

receiver
phase lag of second
with respect to the firstone.
Though coherence
values
(Fig.7) were quitegood for the region O to 50 Hz, the
phase velocities were found to be negative due to negative
8) obtained at frequencieslower than 20
phase lag(Fig.
Hz. On the contrary, unwrapping
of such
negative
phases
Such
yields very Iow velocities at considered frequencies.
negative
phase lag values may be due to the presence of

other
ond

and

to

for obtaining

or signal with

directionfrom sec-

the firstone, Hence, masking

was required
feasible phase velocity for these frequen-

cies.

On the other side of frequency range, from 100 Hz to

150 Hz the power value decreasesagain and after 160 Hz
becomes nearly constant with a very low magnitude,
From Fig. 7, itcan be observed that the coherence
value
decreases to a largeextent at these low power content
regions and spurious
jumps are also presentin wrapped
after
150
Hz
8). In the present study, such
phase
(Fig.
low power

regions

were

masked

out

to

avoid

these

spuri-

for identifying the frequencyrange with

jumps
data
of masking
for Iow power
good
quality, The regions
have been indicatedin unwrapped
phase distribution
ous

and

400

22,5

33.5

44.5

unwrapped

background noise

sensor

3eo

75ftu5ttkb

distribution
for test configuTation
m with
impact mass o'f 1O kg and height of fallO.9m. Itwas observedthat
the power content
was
low up to 50 Hz and increases significantly
for60 to 100 Hz, Figure8 shows the
wrapped

200

1,5

d =:S=2

value

10fi

55.S

F;g. 9. Experimentnl dispersion curve

ht=:O,9m

for d=S==2m,

mass=:10

kg,

in Fig. 8, The finaldispersioncurve after applicamasking

has been shown
in Fig, 9. From the exthat the threshold
perimental results, it was observed
value was 500 (mV)2for the instrument
power magnitude
used for profiling of the soil site.
shown

tion

of

Each instrumentcarries specific sensitivity of measurewhich

may
depend on the specifications of both
sensors and data acquisition system,
The measurements
with
low power do not necessarily represent
the true

ment,

response,

albeit

the

coherence

value

of

such

measure-

be high for few associated

frequencies. The
approximations
in transformation of signal to frequency
demain and interference of noise make itcomplex
to ac-

ments

may

curately
measurement.

determine the threshold power

As a pragmatic approach,

for each
instrument

value
an

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be calibrated foritsresponse by performing

can

AND

PRASHANT
700006onoo5.0000tt

number

in different configurations
of testing,
then the threshold power value can be taken as an
average magnitude
of power below which
the associated
frequency range
mostly
shows:
considerably
low co(i)
of

measurements

and

frequencies,
negative
(ii)
lag,
irregular
in
distribuphase
(iii)
jumps phase

herencevalues
value

of

tion,

and

4oonogut:

for a

number

3000020000loooeoo

of

(iv)unacceptable

phase

The

velocities.

same

followed in this study (e.g,,

Figs. 5-8),
procedure
which
value
of
the instruthe
threshold
yielded
power
was

so

100Frequclc}'(Hz}ISO

100

(mV)2.

be 500

to

ment

3Uoeo!:ow!onoo'sE

NEAR
POWER

FIELD

AND

FAR

FIELD

EFFECTS

AND

SPECTRUM

Near fieldand far fieldeffects were analyzed in the

presentstudy based on cross power spectrum values to
avoid body wave effects and poor signal quality due to attenuation of surface waves
respectively,
The filtering
criterion proposed by Heisey (1982)
was considered
in
this study. According to that filtering
criterion the minimum

wavelength

receiver

be greater than half

should

distanceand

rnaximurn

of

wavelength

the

inter-

should

as thrice the inter-receiver distance.In the

curves
were
studied
to
present analysis
power spectrum
efiect
of source
impact and spatial
predict the combined
for
configuration
of source and inter-receiver
distance
satisfying
the above
mentioned
filteringcriterion,
Far
fieldeffect could be eliminated
by selecting proper upper
frequency cut off from the threshold cross power spectrum value, Through masking
of higher frequencies
with
lower power content, adulteration
of signal
quality due to
of surface

be

be

could

waves

From Fig.9, it can

observed

yielded after masking

tO,9oso.7O.6o.s

8stseU

1o.posO.7O.6o.s

satisfies

8EbgU

related

due to presence

of

1u.yo.sO.7O,6O.5o

s:liiU

fyingHeisey'sfiltering
criterion. The focus of discussion
isthe combined
effect of source type, heightof fallof imon the dispersioncurve
pact load and S/d arrangernent
and

power spectrum

so

OF SOURCE

Fig. 11.

TYPE

Figure 10 presents the variation in power spectrum

Auto Power Spectrum at firststation (APS1)
and
Cross Power
Spectrum (CPS),under
increasing
source impact and different
heightof fallfor a test setup
with
d= 2 m and S= 1 m. For the same S and d configuration, increase
in either the magnitude
of load (wt)
or the
height of fall(ht)
of impact load increasedthe power
spectrum
values due to increasein input energy. A conmagnitudes,

10UFrequcncy{Hz)150

200

values,
ent

EFFECT

!Uu

avoided.

to the increase of phase velocity values

body wave in the wave generated by
the impact load during SASW
test. A detailed discussion
on the spectral
quantities has been presented in the following sections
threugh a comparative
study, which
would
guide to select the proper source type and itsspatialarrangement
to eliminate
near
fieldeffect by satiseffects are

IUOFrtgvent}'OII)ISO

Fig, 10, Power Spectru ford=: 2 m and S= 1 m under different$ource

impact conditions, (a) Auto po-,cr spectrum
(APSI) for near
receiyer (b)CTosspower spectrum
(CPS)ror two receiyers

that the minimum

Heisey'sfiltering criterion; i.e.,minimum

wavelength
should be greater
than
half of the inter-geophone distance.Near field
wavelength

s"

be

considered

attenuation

isolluzu10000fiowou

mass

Coherenceys.)'reqllencyford=2mafidS=1munderdifferimpact conditions
kg and ht=025
(a)mass=5

source
==5

kg alld ht=O,5 m

nnd

(c)mass=18

m,

kg and ht=O.5m

(b)

increase in coherence
function (Fig.11) indicated
improvement in the data quality, with increase in impact
loads due to increasedenergy values forthe same spatial
configuration
of experimental
set-up. Figure 10 indicates
that the distribution of energy over the frequencyrange
was
independent of the height of fall and it only depended on the mass used forgenerating the impaet.For
tinuous

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EVALUATION

OF SASVgiTEST CONFIGURATIONS

PhascVeluc".)'(m/s)
2so
3oe
3so400

ISO]oo

705

lsoeo

4SO

13

20000

ISOOO
;gl7

tL's

:f-7;t91113

10DOO

sooo

o
o

Fig.12. Experimental dispersion

differcn't
impac"oad

lower mass
range

of

for

d=2m,

S=1m

distribution
was

case

of

higher

concentrated

200

looFrcqlimic.yCll7.}150

200

-;gEu

(18kg) the

mass

over

100FrequeneyMz)15.0

7UOO6000sooo4eooscoo1000100Dioo

under

(5kg) the energy was distributedover a wide

frequency (40-170Hz)
with
at
peak value

110-120 Hz. Whereas, in

energy

curve

so

lower range

frequency (35--140
Hz) and peak values at 100-1 10 Hz.
Figure 12 depicts the experimental
dispersion curve for 5
kg and 18 kg load with the same height of fallof O.9m
spatial
configuration
of d=2
m and
S= 1 m .For the lower mass
to a
(5kg), the upper frequency cut off extended
of

higherfrequencyand smaller wavelengths

were
present in
the experimental
dispersion
curve.
Similarly, incase of 18
kg higher wavelengths
were
present in the dispersion
curve
due to dominant lower frequencies.

o
o

50

Fig. 13. Power Spectru ford=4m,

mass=18
kg, ht=O.9 ill, a"d umder different
Sld sourcc impact conditions, (E}A"to power spectvum (APSI)for fiear rcceiver (b)Cross pos'er spectrum (CPS) for
trv'orecelvers

to.posO.7O.6o,s

EFFEC[I] OF SPATJAL

SENSOR

AND

Auto power
were

CONFIGURATION

spectrum

and

cross

power

test

spectrum

for different
configurations

observed

Subsequently, the change

of coherence
and the qualityof dispersion
curve
were
such

OF

ustsEv

SOURCE
of

curves

function
a)so

analyzed

d.

and
values

for

d)J"

406080

100

120

140

160

ISO

200

Freque:]cy(Hz)

configurations.
1o.vo.sO,7O.Go.s

ofSource
EfiZiet

The experiments
and keepingdthe

to

AJear Receiver Distance

ssbEU
four ditferent
S
same. Figure 13 depicts
the variation of
S/d rapower spectrums
(APSI and CPS) with different
tio (for
d=4m) for the same impact load (18kg)
and
hejghtof fallO,9m. Itwas observed that with increasein
U
50
100Freque]cy(lh)ISO
200
Sfd ratio pewer spectrum
magnitude
decreased significantly due to attenuation
of energy
for travelling
distance.The rate of decrease Fig. I4. Coherence value distributionfor Sld[= O.5 and 1.0 Cl'est
greater source to receiver
conof power spectrums
were higher when
S/d>1. In such
figuration:d=: 4 m, mass ==
18 kg, ht O.9 m)
cases, the power spectrum
value went below 500 (mV)2
which
was
below the threshold value. So, no dispersion
curves could be obtained
in such conditions, The coherthe case of Sfd=1 and 20-100 Hz in the case of S/d=
were

carried

out

at

==

function and the dispersion curve (forS/ds1) are

presentedin Figs. I4 and 15 respectively. The experimental dispersion
curve was plotted after masking
the zone
values
with cross power spectrum
belew the threshQld
value.
The frequency range of analysis was chosen
based
on power spectrum
Based
on
Power
(Signat
2uatity
spectrum), and the considered
frequency was 30-110 Hz in
ence

O.S. Coherenee values

(Fig,14) of these regions were
than
the
acceptable
value (O.98)
indieating
a good
greater
data quality, Small variation
was
observed
between the
magnitudes
of phase velocities (Fig.
15) at a particular
wavelength,
though
the pessible depth of exploration
in
case

S/d=O.5

of

J,.. 21
==

was

more

with

maximum

than that in case of S/d

wavelength,

1 with Aniax=7m.

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15e200Phase

2SO

AND

PRASHANT

lleloc;t}.
(mls)
300350400

27000
2400"

21000ny.

ISooo:t
ISOOOt,

5a7ggg'

l!VVO
gooo
GUUO

30oo

iir/

ooso

i3f

lno

15

lso

200

Fvcqucncv{Hl)

17
Fig, 16, Cross power spectrum
(CPS) bet}yecn two geopholles for
S=dconfigurutlon(muss=18kg,ht=iO,9m)

19
21
Fig. 15, Experimental dispersion curve fer Sfd=O.5
configuration:
d=4 m, muss = 18 kg, ht=O.9 m>

and

1.0 (Test

Velecit),
(mls)
o

100Phase

200

300400soe

At low Sfd ratio, itisdiencult

to ascertain that the wave
travellingto the receivers are surface waves and not body
waves.
It is quite Iikelythat the interpretation of velocity
at

high A (Iowfrequency)had

waves,

for such

wavelength

can

wavelength

gsgg7Tls9

infiuenceof body
Heisey's
the interpretations,

mislead
near

acceptable

be 12m.
tion

could

which

criterion

some

fieldeffect suggests the maximum

for a4 m inter-receiverdistanceto

Hence, thedata obtained from Sfd=O,5 condibe considered

in the analysis provided maximum
disconsidered
as thrice the inter-receiver

11
13

tance.

Fig. 17. Dispersien curve for S= d co"figuration (d=2, 4, a"d 6m,

Efilectofbi ter-Receiver Distance
mass!=18kg,ht=O.9m)
The depthup to which
soil profile can be determined
depends on the chosen
inter-receiverdistance and the apimpact
load,
Three
inter-re
were
by reducing
the S/d factor.However, in such case body
eiver distances
plied
considered
m,
4
m,
and
6
m)
for
l
and
wave
interference
may
S/d=
condition
be present in the acquired signal
(2
18kg impact source
and
O.9m height of fall.Figure 16
and
hence analysis
results
can
be misleading.
shows

the

cross

power

spectrum

plotted in Fig. 17, In the

case

and
of

dispersion
curves
are
d=2m
and
4m, the

COMBINED
EFFECT
OF SOURCE
TYPE AND
greater than the threshold
SPATIAL
CONFIGURATION
OF
SOURCE
AND
was
power and their masking
performed based on the
RECEIVER
ON
POWER
SPECTRUM
criteria
describedin Signateuatity
Based on Power Spectrum. The dispersioncurves were plottedafter applicaFrom EFFECT
OF SOURCE
TYPE and EFFECT
OF
tion of masking
17)
and
it
was
observed
that
the
SPATIAL
CONFIGURATION
OF
SENSOR
AND
(Fig.
maximum
wavelength
SOURCE
it can be observed
that the power spectrum
(19m) obtained from d=2m was
than
that
m)
of
d=4m
for
18
kg
mass
with
values
largely
affected
by
the
source
type and spatial
greater
(8
get
heightof fallO.9m. However, for satisfying the filtering configuration of source and receiver. For smaller receiver
criterion of near fieldeffect, the maximum
wavelength
distance(2m) higherfrequencies
are of moTe
importance
should be taken as 6 m for the inter-receiver
distanceof 2 to generatelow wavelengths forsarn plingshallow depths,
m. Further, the minimum
wavelength
was nearly the
Lower masses (5-10kg) can be used for such cases for
same
for both inter-receiver distances (2m and 4m).
10), However, in
generating higher frequency range (Fig.
Hence, it is advisable
to take lower masses
(5-10kg) for such a case it is possible that such a mass may leadto a
smaller
inter-receiver
distanceto get a betterrepresentasignal
with
low power and hence height of fallshould be
tive frequencyrange (EFFECTOF SOURCE
TYPE). In increased<height
more than 1m) to increasethe energy
case
of
d=6m,
the CPS magnitude
went
below the content, On the other hand, for sampling greater depth
threshold magnitude
and
a scattered
dispersion curve is with longer receiver
distance(4-6m or more), higher
obtained
to get a better dismass
with
lower frequency of excitation
should
be used.
(Fig.17), For this condition,
In the present study, itwas observed
that in case of d
persion curve, itissuggested to use either a heavy source,
or generate a greater irnpact under
height of
m
enhanced
and 18 kg drop mass with O.9 m heightof fall
under S
fall.In either case, greater inputenergy is required
to be
configuration
was
justable to fulfi11the threshold
transferred to the soil. Input energy can also be increased
However, the same mass with S/d=O.5
power criterion.
CPS

values

(Fig.16)

were

==4

=d

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EVALUATION
configurations
tion

contributed

in wavelength

and

moTe

phase

energy

OF SASW

TEST

Iittle
varia-

with

(Effect
ofSource

4, Unrvrapping

was
done for the best stackgle and itsunwrapping
ing combination.
Using this phase information,
Rayleigh wave
was
calculated
for
phase velocity
each
frequency from the known receiver
distance.
User interactive interfaces were used in the developed
code during automated
unwrapping
of the
phase data to avoid problem arising from fietitious
jumps due to low coherence and real jumpswith
phase jump lessthan 2n due to change of stratification. To consider
real jumps with
phase jump less
than 2n due to change
of stratification,
the jump
was
For
tolerance
assumed
to be 3n/2.
the phase
was
jumps in between z to 3n12, the unwrapping
firstdone both by considering and without considering the phase jurnpand dispersioncurves were plotted, The decision was
then
made
heuristically

nitude.

DISPERSION

set of analy-

of PV)'apped Phase and Construction

ThecalculationofphaseanofDispeflsionCurve:

Receiver Distance and

Fig, 15), In the present
itwas observed
that the etfect of body wave
not
only depends on source
configuration
but also on itsmagstudy,

OF

in combination

sis.

Nbar

GENERATION

four stacks

minimum

to

velocity

707

CONFIGURATIONS

CURVE

For each test set up, the waves

were
generated by imload
and
captured
at
some
distance
with
the help of
pact
The
was
repeated
for
two geophones.
six stacks.
process
A procedure of obtaining the dispersion
curve for the soil
strata
was
developed with due consideration
to the issues
associated
with
data quality and power spectra.
This
well
for
be used
automated
procedure can as
generation
of dispersion curve
from time domain data so as to be
to evenused further during inversion!forward analysis
determine
the
wave
velocity
tually
shear
profile of the
strata,
The steps involvedin this procedure are discussed
below.
whether
to consider
the jump or not.
1. 7'kansprmation of TVme Domain
Data to neThe accuracy
of
interpretations
is governed by the
Domain:
The
two
tirne
domain
signals
representativeness
of
the
data,
and
the output
of
quency
(y]
and
acquiTed
through
the
durmethod
more
reliable
data
in
com(t) y2(t))
geophones
proposed
promises
ing each stack were
transformed into frequency
parison to the conventional
procedures. Besides selecting
domain using Fast Fourier Transform to obtain the
coherence
data
from
multiple
stacks,
itiseffective in
good
Iinear
spectra
and
}3.(w)).
minimizing
ambiguities
of
unwrapping
corresponding
(Yi(ca)
procedure and
2. Masking of R'equencies with Low Power Spectramasking
of the unrepresentative
data based en simple
Values: lnitially,the frequency range
of analysis
rules.
Hence, the strength
of proposed method
is itsfast
was
eonsidered
as 9-200 Hz
based on the sensor
and
efrective
automated
Figure
IS
ilLustrates
procedure,
specifications
the spectral

and

PROGRAM),
(EXPERIMENTAL
APS2
and
CPS)
quantities (APSI,

were
calculated
for each of the data stack, Then
these quantities were averaged
in various cornbinations of five,four and three stacks out of the six
stacks.
Through observation
over
power spectra,

an

example

the

of

of the proposed
method,
thTee dispersioncurves of different
d
the conventional
empirical
approach
advantages

Figure 18(a) shows

values
based on
the

considering

for fullstack

)O.98

coherence

combina-

tion and rimitsof includedwavelengths

as d/2}A23d.
The dispersioncurves in Fig. 18(b) are the results of
the final
frequencyrange of analysis was identified. proposed method, which eliminated the case of d=6m
The maximum
frequencyrange among all the stack
due to low power content. The largescatter of datain the
combinations
more

where

CPS

values

were

than the threshold power value was

obtained

taken as

importance (Fig.
10).The
was
considered
to be
power
500 (mV)2.
0ne should note that the threshold power magnitude
could be instrumentdependent.
3. Masking ofF)'eguencieswith Low Coherence and
finding the Best 9uality
Data Set: In the next
values,
cumulative
weights
step, coherence
based on
frequencyand coherence CIiinding
the BestStacking
Combination Based on Cumutative PVeight) and
the frequency range

of

magnitude

minimurn

estimated
for each of
count of deleted points were
The quality of each combination
the combinations,
weights
as
set was defined based on the cumulative
described in Finding the Best StackingCombination

Based

on

se!ected

Cumulaiive PVeight.
The bestdata set was
out

of

these

combination

sets

based

on

the

quality ot' data and degree of representativeness,

Tbe quality of data was
assured
by cumulative
weight
and at the same
time degree of representativeness of data was retained
by considering a

of conventional
approach
indicatesuncertainty of
data,and the interpretations
based on any of the testconfigurations
will have a largeerror bar associated with it.
The proposed approach provides only the representative
case

.PhHseNlePocit],(]nls)

Ve]ocits.'
(mis)
150Phflse

11

200

d;2]n

ZSO300

"i"-

ISO

200

ISO300

' '

ig
/t,spa-wt

'
3:t4f:.o5:.6S7

:liR
-.

d-:ilmiE,

o-

-o'''1?-''"''"''"''--''''"'''

-e-

,:L:t

oa
g

s
9

""

o.

`.

.r-...-.

iol-O-T--

{a}

lo

Fig. 18.
mcthod

Comparison
of

of

annl},sis

filtcringcriteria

conve"tional

for dispersion

curves

and

proposed

(S==d=2,4, and 6m,

mass=18kg,ht=O,9rn)

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data based

on

encourages

variation

the

quality

the data for wider

of

test

of

stacks.
It
for obtaining
instead of using the

collected

multiple

range

producing misleading
results.
As another
in Fig, 8 the unwrapping
at
example,
low frequenciesto correct for the positive phase values
based on the assumption
of low power
couid be avoided
unrepresentative

of

PRASHANT
rangement

trum

configurations

wavelength

data

AND

It is imperative to
of uncertainty
tations and
test

from

results

loading

an

understand

inducedthrough
configuration

SASW

test.

arrangements,

and
the
the amount
the instrumentlimi-

interpretingthe

while

Several issues associated

spatial

configuration,

with

sion curve

with

ment

eliminate

will

combinations

APSI

of

the same

frequency

range

Auto power

interest.The

based on the magnitude

frequency and importance
signed
ranges

3. A

for every

comparative

power

of coherence

of each

differentfrequency

of

of the stacks,
presented to show the imimpact magnilude
to obtain a

combination
study

was

portance of source
good quality data satisfying
ment
and
also
its effect on
terest,

as-

were

weights

spectrum

values

the

coherence

frequency

requirerange

of

in-

dispersioncurve.
produced by

and

dorninant frequency content

a
could be a key factorto be considered
while
depth of inperforming a test for certain ground
The

source

terest.

The falling mass

source

was

during this

used

indicatedthat the interpretations could be infiuencednot only by the energy induced by the source but also by the mass of the fallstudy

and

the

results

ing object.
4, The effect of spatial configuration
ter-receiverdistancewas studied
spectTum
magnitude.
power
criterion
was
satisfied
by choosing

of

source

based on
Heisey's
proper

in-

and

the

cross

filtering
source

spectrum

at

1st geophone

at

2nd geophone po-

posi-

power spectrum
sltlonCross-power

spectrum
of two geophones
Inter-receiverdistance
Frequency
Wavelength of Rayleigh wave
Source to near-receiver distanee
Weight assigned
for each
of
these fre-

quency
Weight

segrnents

based on the

coherence

value

at

frequency
Signalsin time domain
Linear Spectra obtained
each

time-domain

by transforming
into frequency
Fast Fourier Trans-

signals

domain signals using

formation (FFT)

test

considered

of

Such developdecisionmaking
during

uncertainty.

some

tionAuto

sensor

during analysis to
obtain qualitydata.The bestdata stack was identifiedbased on cumulative weight calculated over the

reduced

NOTATION

the

were

spec-

fieldand far field

can be inereased
by

the time of calculaand will reduce

tion of experimental
dispersioncurve by a great
amount,
This experimental
dispersion curve
then
again can be used as inputof the inversion
procedure for profiling the soil site,

and
analysis
were
discussedin the APS2
scheme
a simple
methodology
paper. Based on the observations,
was
to obtain
dis- CPSdfAsWl,i
a representative
proposed eventually
domain. Key findings
persion curve for the measurement
of the present study
are giyen below,
1, The power spectrum
values
could
be used to determine
for which
the response
the frequency range
would
be interpreted
based on propagation of induced mechanical
waves
and
not
due to surrounding noise or sensitivity of sensors. It was proposed
W],i
to consider a threshold minirnum
cross
power spectrum va!ue for selecting
the frequency range.
The Yi(t),),2(t)
magnitude
of the value could
be site and instrument Yi(to),k(co)

configuration

the power

on

near

data processing

specifications,

dependent.
2. Differentstacking

depending

eliminating

5. The proposed method

of analysis
has the potential
to automate
the generation of experimental
disper-

CONCLUSION
cause

for

issues.
The depth of exploration
having largerinter-receiverspacing
and
suMcient
impact energy
with
low frequency content
propagating to both the receivers from the source.

setup

data being unrepresentative.

Such unwrapping
would
have produced interpretation
of velocity ranging
from
150 m/s to 50 m/s for the wavelength
between 1 m to 2.3
m,
which
was considerably
lower than the velocities suggested by the other test configurations.

type

and

values

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