Valley

s article is about the physical-geographic term. For places name "Valley", see Valley
(disambiguation).
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Calchaqu Valleys in Argentina

U-shaped valley in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA

Romsdalen in Western Norway is an almost vertical valley.

Fljtsdalur in East Iceland, a rather flat valley (in Scotland, this type of valley is
called a "strath")

A valley is a low area between hills, often with a river running through it.

The Valley of Marvels in Babille, Ethiopia.

In geology, a valley or dale is a depression that is longer than it is wide. The terms U-shaped and
V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to characterize the form of valleys. Most valleys
belong to one of these two main types or a mixture of them, (at least) with respect of the cross
section of the slopes or hillsides.
Contents

1 Valley terminology

2 River valleys

3 Vale

4 Glacial valleys
o

4.1 U-shaped valley

4.2 Tunnel valley

4.3 Meltwater valley

5 Transition forms and valley shoulders

6 Hanging valleys

7 Valley floors

8 Hollows

9 Famous valleys

10 Rift valleys

11 See also

12 References

13 External links
o

13.1 Extraterrestrial valleys

Valley terminology

A valley in its broadest geographic sense is also known as a dale. A valley through which a river
runs may also be referred to as a vale. A small, secluded, and often wooded valley is known as a
dell or in Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley through which a river runs is known in Scotland
as a strath. A mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one or both ends, in the central or
southern Appalachian Mountains which sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic
window. A small valley surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes known as a hollow. A
deep, narrow valley is known as a cwm (also spelled combe or coombe). Similar geological
structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, and kloofs, are not usually referred to as
valleys. See also: "chine". A valley formed by erosion is called an erosional valley; a valley
formed by geologic events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is called a structural valley.
[1]

River valleys
For a comprehensive list of world wide river valleys see: River valleys
(category)
Further information: River phenomenon

A valley formed by flowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped. The exact shape will
depend on the characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in
mountain ranges, produce steep walls and a bottom. Shallower slopes may produce broader and
gentler valleys. However, in the lowest stretch of a river, where it approaches its base level, it
begins to deposit sediment and the valley bottom becomes a floodplain.
Some broad V examples are:

North America: Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, and others in
Grand Canyon NP

Europe:
o

Austria: narrow passages of upper Inn valley (Inntal), affluents of Enns

Switzerland: Napf region, Zurich Oberland, Engadin

Germany: affluents to the middle reaches of Rhine and Mosel

Some of the first human complex societies originated in river valleys, such as that of the Nile,
Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, Huang He, Mississippi, and arguably Amazon. In
prehistory, the rivers were used as a source of freshwater and food (fish and game), as well as a
place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided
a source for irrigation, stimulating the development of agriculture. Most of the first civilizations
developed from these river valley communities. Another word for river valley is River
phenomenon.
Vale
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improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013)

In geography, a vale is a wide river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat
valley bottom.
In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the escarpment slopes of pairs of chalk
formations, where the chalk dome has been eroded, exposing less resistant underlying rock,
usually clay.
Glacial valleys

U-shaped valley on the Afon Fathew near Dolgoch

Yosemite Valley from an airplane

A glaciated valley in the Mount Hood Wilderness showing a characteristic U-shape,

the bottom's rocky 'rubble' accretion and the broad shoulders

There are various forms of valley associated with glaciation that may be referred to as glacial
valleys.
U-shaped valley
Main article: U-shaped valley

A valley carved by glaciers is normally U-shaped. The valley becomes visible upon the recession
of the glacier that forms it. When the ice recedes or thaws, the valley remains, often littered with
small boulders that were transported within the ice. Floor gradient does not affect the valley's
shape, it is the glacier's size that does. Continuously flowing glaciers especially in the ice age
and large-sized glaciers carve wide, deep incised valleys.
Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in every mountainous region that has experienced
glaciation, usually during the Pleistocene ice ages. Most present U-shaped valleys started as Vshaped before glaciation. The glaciers carved it out wider and deeper, simultaneously changing
the shape. This proceeds through the glacial erosion processes of glaciation and abrasion, which
results in large rocky material (glacial till) being carried in the glacier. A material called boulder
clay is deposited on the floor of the valley. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with
very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. A river or stream may remain in the valley. This replaces
the original stream or river and is known as a misfit stream because it is smaller than one would
expect given the size of its valley.
Other interesting glacially carved valleys include:

Yosemite Valley (USA)

Side valleys of the Austrian river Salzach for their parallel directions and
hanging mouths.

Some Scottish glens full with bushes and flowers.

That of the St. Mary River in Glacier National Park in Montana, USA.

Tunnel valley
Main article: Tunnel valley

A tunnel valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the
margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering
portions of all continents during past glacial ages.[1]
A tunnel valley can be up to 100 km (62 mi) long, 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep
(its depth may vary along its length).
Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial erosion by water. They served as subglacial drainage
pathways carrying large volumes of melt water. Their cross-sections exhibit steep-sided flanks
similar to fjord walls, and their flat bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion.
Meltwater valley
Main article: Urstromtal

In northern Central Europe, the Scandinavian ice sheet during the various ice ages advanced
slightly uphill against the lie of the land. As a result its meltwaters flowed parallel to the ice
margin to reach the North Sea basin, forming huge, flat valleys known as Urstromtler. Unlike
the other forms of glacial valley, these were formed by glacial meltwaters.
Transition forms and valley shoulders

Look from Paria View to a valley in Bryce Canyon, Utah, with very striking shoulders

Depending on the topography, the rock types and the climate, a lot of transitional forms between
V-, U- and plain valleys exist. Their bottoms can be broad or narrow, but characteristic is also the
type of valley shoulder. The broader a mountain valley, the lower its shoulders are located in
most cases. An important exception are canyons where the shoulder almost is near the top of the
valley's slope. In the Alps e.g. the Tyrolean Inn valley the shoulders are quite low (100200
meters above the bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. at the sunny side) because the
climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's floor is completely filled with fog, these
villages are in sunshine.
In some stress-tectonic regions of the Rockies or the Alps (e.g. Salzburg) the side valleys are
parallel to each other, and additionally they are hanging. The brooks flow into the river in form

of deep canyons or waterfalls. Usually this fact is the result of a violent erosion of the former
valley shoulders. A special genesis we find also at artes and glacial cirques, at every Scottish
glen, or a northern fjord.
Hanging valleys

Bridal Veil Falls in Yosemite National Park flowing from a hanging valley.

A hanging valley is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley. They are most
commonly associated with U-shaped valleys when a tributary glacier flows into a glacier of
larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped valley with nearly vertical sides while
the tributary glacier, with a smaller volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the
surfaces of the glaciers were originally at the same elevation, the shallower valley appears to be
'hanging' above the main valley. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley.[2]
Glaciated terrain is not the only site of hanging streams and valleys. Hanging valleys are also
simply the product of varying rates of erosion of the main valley and the tributary valleys. The
varying rates of erosion are associated with the composition of the adjacent rocks in the different
valley locations. The tributary valleys are eroded and deepened by glaciers or erosion at a slower
rate than that of the main valley floor, thus the difference in the two valleys' depth increases over
time. The tributary valley composed of more resistant rock then hangs over the main valley.[3]
Valley floors

Usually the bottom of a main valley is broad independent of the U or V shape. It typically
ranges from about one to ten kilometers in width and is commonly filled with mountain
sediments. The shape of the floor can be rather horizontal, similar to a flat cylinder, or terraced.
Side valleys are rather V than U-shaped; near the mouth waterfalls are possible if it is a hanging
valley. The location of the villages depends on the across-valley profile, on climate and local

traditions, and on the danger of avalanches or landslides. Predominant are places on terraces or
alluvial fans if they exist.
Historic siting of villages within the mainstem valleys, however, have chiefly considered the
potential of flooding.
Hollows

Wheat in the Hula Valley, Israel

A hollow (holler) is a small valley or dry stream bed. This term is commonly used in New
England, Appalachia, Ozarks, Arkansas and Missouri to describe such geographic features. In
rural areas, it may be pronounced as "holler". Hollows may be formed by river valleys, such as
Mansfield Hollow, or they may be relatively dry clefts with a notch-like characteristic in that
they have a height of land and consequent water divide in their bases.

River Indus running through Kohistan valley in Pakistan

Famous valleys

The Valley of Flowers in Uttarakhand, India

The Harau Valley in West Sumatra, Indonesia

Hell's Gate, British Columbia

A view of Oros, Costa Rica

Gudbrandsdalen in Eastern Norway near Gl

Aburra Valley (Colombia)

Barossa Valley (Australia)

Cauca Valley (Colombia)

Central Valley (California) (California, United States)

Dalen, Telemark (Telemark, Norway)

Danube Valley (Eastern Europe)

Death Valley (California, United States)

Fraser Canyon (British Columbia, Canada)

Fraser Valley (British Columbia, Canada)

Glen Coe (Scotland, United Kingdom)

Grand Canyon (Arizona, United States)

Great Glen (Scotland, United Kingdom)

Gudbrandsdalen (Oppland, Norway)

Hallingdalen (Buskerud, Norway)

Hell's Gate (British Columbia, Canada)

Heddal (Telemark, Norway)

Hudson Valley (New York, United States)

Hunter Region (Australia)

Hunza Valley (Pakistan)

Hutt Valley (New Zealand)

Ihlara, Turkey

Indus Valley (Pakistan)

Iron Gate (Romania/Serbia)

Jordan Valley

Kaghan Valley (Pakistan)

Kathmandu (Nepal)

Las Vegas Valley (Nevada, United States)

Lauterbrunnen Valley (Bern, Switzerland)

Little Cottonwood Creek Valley (Utah, United States)

Loire Valley with its famous castles (France)

Valley of the Moon, San Juan Argentina

Midt-Telemark (Telemark, Norway)

Monument Valley (United States)

Nant Ffrancon (Wales, United Kingdom)

Napa Valley (California, United States)

Neelum Valley (Pakistan)

Nile Valley (Egypt/Sudan/Ethiopia/Uganda)

Numedalen (Buskerud, Norway)

Okanagan Valley (British Columbia, Canada)

Ottawa Valley (Ontario/Quebec, Canada)

Palo Duro Canyon (Texas, United States)

Kings of the Akkad Dynasty

Originally a cupbearer (Rabshaqe) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon
thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. This gave him
access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers.
Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign
conquest.[15] Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he spent three years thoroughly
subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire."
However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create
an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus (Kaptara);
northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king
Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over Elam; and as far south as Magan
(Oman) a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "yearnames" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing the earlier
opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty would thus be
ensured.[16] Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in
Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan. This consolidation of the citystates of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia.
The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system of northern Mesopotamia
(Assyria) and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production.
Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and
cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the
northern part of Mesopotamia (Assyria/Subartu) were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer
were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against
Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the "four
quarters" the lands surrounding Akkad to the north (Assyria), the south (Sumer), the east
(Elam) and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he
rebuilt the city of Babylon (Bab-ilu) in its new location near Akkad.[17]
Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly
Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The
anointed priest of Anu" and "the great ensi of Enlil" and his daughter, Enheduanna, was installed
as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur.

Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states;
"In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the
city)"...but "he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their
vast army".
It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated a coalition army led by the King of Awan,
where he forced the vanquished to become his vassals.[18] Also shortly after, another revolt had
been made;
"the Subartu (mountainous tribes of Assyria) the upper countryin their turn attacked, but they
submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously".
Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in the reign of
his sons, where revolts broke out during the 9-year reign, Rimush (22782270 BC), who fought
hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own
courtiers. Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (22692255 BC) succeeded and reigned for a
period of 15 years. The latter king seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had
gathered against him and took control over their country of what is today the United Arab
Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, similarly to his brother, he seems to have been
assassinated in a palace conspiracy.[19]
Naram-Sin

Stele of Naram-Sin,[20] celebrating victory against the Lullubi from Zagros 2260
BC.He is wearing a horned helmet, a symbol of divinity, and is also portrayed in a
larger scale in comparison to others to emphasize his superiority. [21] Brought back
from Sippar to Susa as war prize in the 12th century BC

Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (22542218 BC) (Beloved of Sin), due to vast
military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four quarters"
(Lugal Naram-Sn, ar kibrat 'arbaim"), the four quarters as a reference to the entire world. He
was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DINGIR,
Akkadian = ilu) of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were

only representatives of the people towards the gods.[21][22] He also faced revolts at the start of his
reign,[23] but quickly crushed them.
Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king.[24]
Armanum location is debated, its sometimes identified with a Syrian kingdom mentioned in the
tablets of Ebla as Armi, the location of Armi is also debated, historian Adelheid Otto identify it
with the Citadel of Bazi Tall Banat complex on the Euphrates River between Ebla and Tell
Brak,[25][26] others like Wayne Horowitz identify it with Aleppo,[27] and while most scholars place
Armanum in Syria, Michael C. Astour believes it to be located north of the Hamrin Mountains in
northern Iraq.[28]
To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the
Khabur River basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted;
Naram-Sin, "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he
instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the
northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to
the carving of the famous "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre. Hittite sources
claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings
Pamba of Hatti, Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others. This newfound Akkadian wealth may have
been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of
the wealth of other peoples.[29]

Inscription of Naram Sin found at the city of Marad in Iraq, ca. 2260 BCE

The economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were
distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and
labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing
huge agricultural surpluses.[30]
In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad, together with Sumer, appears as part of
the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian ar mt umeri u
Akkadi,[31] translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king who
seized control of Nippur,[31] the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia.
During the Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle
East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a
spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the
Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Akkadian texts later

found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia
(Behistun).
Collapse of the Akkadian Empire

The Empire of Akkad collapsed in 2154 BCE, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a
Dark Age period of regional decline that lasted until the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur in 2112
BC. By the end of the reign of Naram-Sin's son, Shar-kali-sharri (22172193 BC), the empire
had weakened. There was a period of anarchy between 2192 BC and 2168 BC. Shu-Durul
(21682154 BC) appears to have restored some centralized authority, however he was unable to
prevent the empire eventually collapsing outright from the invasion of barbarian peoples from
the Zagros Mountains known as the Gutians.
Little is known about the Gutian period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform sources suggest that
the Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining agriculture, written records, or
public safety; they reputedly released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia freely, and
soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The decline coincided with severe
drought, possibly connected with climatic changes reaching all across the area from Egypt to
Greece. The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (21122095 BC) cleared the Gutians from Mesopotamia
during his reign.
It has recently been suggested that the regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of
the First Intermediary Period that followed the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom) was associated
with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused
by a global centennial-scale drought.[32][33] H. Weiss et al. have shown "Archaeological and soilstratigraphic data define the origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium rain-fed
agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia on the Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 B. C., a
marked increase in aridity and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a
considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four centuries of urban life, this abrupt
climatic change evidently caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and collapse of
the Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous collapse in adjacent regions
suggests that the impact of the abrupt climatic change was extensive.".[34] Peter B. deMenocal,
has shown there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the stream flow of the
Tigris and Euphrates at this time, which led to the collapse of the Akkadian Empire".[35]
The Sumerian King List, describing the Akkadian Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari,
states:
"Who was king? Who was not king? Irgigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Ilulu, the
kingthe four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; ShuTurul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. ... Agade was defeated and its kingship carried off to
Uruk. In Uruk, Ur-ningin reigned 7 years, Ur-gigir, son of Ur-ningin, reigned 6 years; Kuda

reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Ur-Utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with
weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.
However, there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence verifying any of these
later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from a single artifact referencing king Dudu of Akkad. The
named kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but in any event
could not have been very prominent.
In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme
reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6
years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; ... reigned 3 years; Kurum rained 1
year; ... reigned 3 years; ... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year;
Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7
years; ... reigned 7 years; ... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.

"Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion" (Old Akkadian). [36] The Walters
Art Museum.

Evidence from Tell Leilan in Northern Mesopotamia shows what may have happened. The site
was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its
grain production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed show no trace of human
activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced
rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep
and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas
elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the
Amorites moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with
Akkadian populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the
Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.[37]

This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern
Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water
levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell 1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although
they stabilised for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and
farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in
agricultural lands, such as the building of a 180 km (112 mi) wall known as the "Repeller of the
Amorites" between the Tigris and Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to
increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression occurred to re-establish
demographic equilibrium with the less favorable climatic conditions.[38]
The period between ca. 2112 BC and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again
began to be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical
language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval Europe.[39]
The Curse

Later material described how the fall of Akkad was due to Naram-Sin's attack upon the city of
Nippur. When prompted by a pair of inauspicious oracles, the king sacked the E-kur temple,
supposedly protected by the god Enlil, head of the pantheon. As a result of this, eight chief
deities of the Anunnaki pantheon were supposed to have come together and withdrawn their
support from Akkad.[40]
For the first time since cities were built and founded,
The great agricultural tracts produced no grain,
The inundated tracts produced no ostriches,
The irrigated orchards produced neither wine nor syrup,
The gathered clouds did not rain, the masgurum did not grow.
At that time, one shekel's worth of oil was only one-half quart,
One shekel's worth of grain was only one-half quart. . . .
These sold at such prices in the markets of all the cities!
He who slept on the roof, died on the roof,
He who slept in the house, had no burial,
People were flailing at themselves from hunger. [41]

For many years, the events described in "The Curse of Akkad" were thought, like the details of
Sargon's birth, to be purely fictional. But now the evidence of Tell Leilan, and recent findings of
elevated dust deposits in sea-cores collected off Oman, that date to the period of Akkad's collapse
suggest that this climate change may have played a role.[42][43]

Government

The Akkadian government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian
states compared themselves. Traditionally, the ensi was the highest functionary of the Sumerian
city-states. In later traditions, one became an ensi by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising
the rulership through divine consent.
Initially, the monarchical lugal (lu = man, gal = great) was subordinate to the priestly ensi, and
was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the lugal who had emerged
as the preeminent role, having his own "" (= house) or "palace", independent from the temple
establishment. By the time of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was
recognised as ar kiati (= king of Kish), and was considered preeminent in Sumer, possibly
because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately
controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream.
As Sargon extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (Persian Gulf), to the "Upper Sea"
(Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the totality of the lands under heaven", or "from
sunrise to sunset", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ensis generally retained their
positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title ar kiati became recognised as
meaning "lord of the universe". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval expeditions to
Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first organised military naval expeditions in history.
Whether he also did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara (possibly
Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more questionable.
With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only
being called "Lord of the Four Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of the
dingir (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh,
become divine after death but the Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered
gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and
at some distance from their retainers.[44]
One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to
install their daughters, Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin, the
Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in the extreme south of Sumer; to
install sons as provincial ensi governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to
rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkesh and Marhashe). A well documented case of the
latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh.[45]
Economy

The population of Akkad, like nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the
agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated
farmlands of southern Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown
and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the "Upper Country."

Southern Iraq during Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level
of less than 20 mm (1 in) per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon
irrigation. Before the Akkadian period the progressive salinisation of the soils, produced by
poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country,
leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing. Urban populations there had
peaked already by 2,600 BC, and illogical pressures were high, contributing to the rise of
militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian period (as seen in the Stele of the Vultures
of Eannatum). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad
provided a temporary respite.[46] It was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south
that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving
Akkad its military advantage.
The water table in this region was very high and replenished regularlyby winter storms in the
headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from March
to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and
by the Akkadian period were a half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the
flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case
of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant
maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments
for this work from August to Octobera period of food shortageunder the control of city
temple authorities, thus acting as a form of unemployment relief. Some[who?] have suggested that
this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving him experience in effectively
organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, "Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no
rival5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him".[47]

Sea shell of a murex bearing the name of Rimush, king of Kish, ca. 2270 BC, Louvre,
traded from the Mediterranean coast where it was used by Canaanites to make a
purple dye.

Harvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites from the
northwest would pasture their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on the stubble and be watered
from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege, they would have to pay a tax in wool,
meat, milk, and cheese to the temples, who would distribute these products to the bureaucracy
and priesthood. In good years, all would go well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures would be

in short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, and conflicts with
farmers would result. It would appear that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import
of wheat from the north of the Empire temporarily overcame this problem,[citation needed] and it seems
to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region.
As a result, Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was short of almost
everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be
imported. The spread of the Akkadian state as far as the "silver mountain" (possibly the Taurus
Mountains), the "cedars" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits of Magan, was largely motivated
by the goal of securing control over these imports. One tablet reads "Sargon, the king of Kish,
triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their
walls. He made the ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun tie
up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) Dagan (and)
made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti,
(and) Ebla, up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver Mountain".
Culture
Language
See also: Sumerian language

During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the
Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.[5] The influence of
Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a
massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[5] This has prompted
scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[5] Akkadian
gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the
2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),[6] but Sumerian continued to be
used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st
century AD.[48]
Poetpriestess Enheduanna

Sumerian literature continued in rich development during the Akkadian period (a notable
example being Enheduanna). Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian "dam" = high priestess) of
Nanna [the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon"[49] of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived
ca. 22852250 BC, is the first poet in history whom we know by name. Her known works
include hymns to the goddess Inanna, the Exaltation of Inanna and In-nin sa-gur-ra. A third
work, the Temple Hymns, a collection of specific hymns, addresses the sacred temples and their
occupants, the deity to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poetess are significant,
because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the
poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poetess,
princess, and priestess, she was a personality who, according to William W Hallo, "set standards
in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries"[50]

In the Exultation of Inanna,

Enheduanna depicts Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle.
She thereby unites the warlike Akkadian Ishtar's qualities to those of the
gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens Inanna to a great
storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and sends them fluttering of
like surprised bats. Then, in probably the most interesting part of the hymn,
Enheduanna herself steps forward in the first person to recite her own past
glories, establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight. She has
been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city of Ur and from
Uruk and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god Nanna to intercede for
her because the city of Uruk, under the ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against
Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne, has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of
the greatest temples in the ancient world, and then made advances on his
sister-in-law.[51]
Technology

Bassetki Statue from the reign of Naram-Sin with an inscription mentioning the
construction of a temple in Akkad

One tablet from this period reads, "(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead,
(but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it
recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods". The copper Bassetki Statue, cast with the
lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian
period.[52]
Achievements

The empire was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular postal service. Clay
seals that took the place of stamps bear the names of Sargon and his son. A cadastral survey
seems also to have been instituted, and one of the documents relating to it states that a certain
Uru-Malik, whose name ap
The Adaptation of Cuneiform to Akkadian Piotr Michalowski.[6]

painting-brush. The outside rim motifs are spaced and limited by groups of horizontal lines. [1]

Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
The Neolithic
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Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) is a division of the Neolithic developed by Kathleen Kenyon

during her archaeological excavations at Jericho in the West Bank.
Cultural tendencies of this period differ from that of the earlier Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
period in that people living during this period began to depend more heavily upon domesticated
animals to supplement their earlier mixed agrarian and hunter-gatherer diet. In addition the flint
tool kit of the period is new and quite disparate from that of the earlier period. One of its major
elements is the naviform core. This is the first period in which architectural styles of the southern
Levant became primarily rectilinear; earlier typical dwellings were circular, elliptical and
occasionally even octagonal. Pyrotechnology was highly developed in this period. During this
period, one of the main features of houses is evidenced by a thick layer of white clay plaster
floors highly polished and made of lime produced from limestone. It is believed that the use of
clay plaster for floor and wall coverings during PPNB led to the discovery of pottery.[1] The
earliest proto-pottery was White Ware vessels, made from lime and gray ash, built up around
baskets before firing, for several centuries around 7000 BC at sites such as Tell Neba'a Faour
(Beqaa Valley).[2] Sites from this period found in the Levant utilizing rectangular floor plans and
plastered floor techniques were found at Ain Ghazal, Yiftahel (western Galilee), and Abu
Hureyra (Upper Euphrates).[3] The period is dated to between ca. 10,700 and ca. 8,000 BP or
7000 - 6000 BCE.

Danielle Stordeur's recent work at Tell Aswad, a large agricultural village between Mount
Hermon and Damascus could not validate Henri de Contenson's earlier suggestion of a PPNA
Aswadian culture. Instead, they found evidence of a fully established PPNB culture at 8700 BC
at Aswad, pushing back the period's generally accepted start date by 1,200 years. Similar sites to
Tell Aswad in the Damascus Basin of the same age were found at Tell Ramad and Tell Ghoraif.
How a PPNB culture could spring up in this location, practicing domesticated farming from 8700
BC has been the subject of speculation. Whether it created its own culture or imported traditions
from the North East or Southern Levant has been considered an important question for a site that
poses a problem for the scientific community.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Like the earlier PPNA people, the PPNB culture developed from the Earlier Natufian but shows
evidence of a northerly origin, possibly indicating an influx from the region of north eastern
Anatolia. The culture disappeared during the 8.2 kiloyear event, a term that climatologists have
adopted for a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years
before the present, or c. 6200 BCE, and which lasted for the next two to four centuries. In the
following Munhatta and Yarmukian post-pottery Neolithic cultures that succeeded it, rapid
cultural development continues, although PPNB culture continued in the Amuq valley, where it
influenced the later development of Ghassulian culture.
Work at the site of 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan has indicated a later Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period
which existed between 8,200 and 7,900 BP. Juris Zarins has proposed that a Circum Arabian
Nomadic Pastoral Complex developed in the period from the climatic crisis of 6200 BCE, partly
as a result of an increasing emphasis in PPNB cultures upon animal domesticates, and a fusion
with Harifian hunter gatherers in Southern Palestine, with affiliate connections with the cultures
of Fayyum and the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Cultures practicing this lifestyle spread down the
Red Sea shoreline and moved east from Syria into southern Iraq.[12]

Syro-Hittite states
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Neo-Hittite)
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The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite were Luwian, Aramaic and
Phoenician-speaking political entities of the Iron Age in northern Syria and southern Anatolia
that arose following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC and which lasted until
roughly 700 BC. The term "Neo-Hittite" is sometimes reserved specifically for the Luwianspeaking principalities like Milid and Carchemish, although in a wider sense the broader cultural
term "Syro-Hittite" is now applied to all the entities that arose in south-central Anatolia
following the Hittite collapsesuch as Tabal and Quwas well as those of northern and
coastal Syria.[1]
Contents

1 Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition

2 List of Syro-Hittite states

3 Inscriptions

4 See also

5 Notes

6 External links

Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition

This section may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion,
tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (November 2014)
Further information: Bronze Age collapse

The vast Hittite empire at its maximum expansion in the lands of central Anatolia

The collapse of the Hittite Empire is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern
Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the
Levantine coast, Anatolia and the Aegean.[2] In the middle of the 13th century BC, great groups
of Greeks speaking ancient Dorian dialects moved from the north through the Balkan region to
the south. The Thracians who occupied this region, and northern Greece, were forced to move to
the western coasts, and later to the inland of Anatolia, where they became known as Phrygians
and Mysians. At the end of the 13th century BC, the Mycenean palaces in inland Greece were
destroyed by invaders and almost simultaneously sea-raiders devastated the palace at Pylos. [3] [4]
A few decades later, at the beginning of the 12th century BC, Homeric Troy was destroyed[5] and
the Hittite Empire suffered a sudden devastating attack from the Kaskas, who occupied the coasts
around the Black Sea, and who were joined with the Mysians. They proceeded to destroy almost
all Hittite sites but they were finally defeated by the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near
Tigris[6] These great population movements in the Eastern-Meditterannean are documented in the
records of Ramesses III (11861155 BCE) as an invasion by the so-called sea peoples.[7]
Mentioned as being among them are the people of Adana (Dnnym or Danuna) in Cilicia and
probably the Troyans. Hatti, Arzawa (Lydia), Alashiya (Cyprus), Ugarit and Alalakh were
destroyed.[8] The invaders were defeated near the borders of Egypt.

It seems that the sea-peoples contributed to the collapse of the Empire, although they are only
mentioned in the Egyptian records and the archaeological evidence is insufficient. Their invasion
caused the movement, by both land and sea, of large populations seeking new land to settle.[9] In
fact, it is recorded that the foreign countries made a conspiracy in their islands and that no land
could stand before their arms. The Hittites were strong enough to survive the first stream of
emigrations, but they didn't escape the second, where they were surrounded by enemies. The
Caska were a continuous trouble, the borders with Arzawa were never considered safe, Mitanni
to the south was always an enemy and a few decades earlier the Hittites suffered a great defeat
against the Assyrians beyond the borders.[10] These Neo-Hittite Kingdoms gradually fell under
the control of the Neo Assyrian Empire (911608 BC).
Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and
the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern Mesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and
ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads.[11] Syro
Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of
regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to
trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Countrylords" of Melid and Karkamish of the Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity
between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites.[12]
Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity in the region
of Neo-Hittite states from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age is now further confirmed by
the recent archaeological work at the sites of Aleppo (Temple of the Storm God on the Citadel)[13]
and Ain Dara (Temple of Ishtar-Shawushka),[14] where temples built in the Late Bronze Age
continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, and those temples witness multiple rebuildings in the
Early Iron Age.
List of Syro-Hittite states

Historical map of the Neo-Hittite states, c. 800 BCE. Borders are approximate only.

The SyroHittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers
remained in power, and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BC.
Although these states are considered somewhat unified, they were thought to actually be
disunified, even in separate kingdoms.[15][16]
The northern group includes:

Tabal. It may have included a group of city states called the Tyanitis (Tuwana,
Tunna, Hupisna, Shinukhtu, Ishtunda)

Kammanu (with Melid)

Hilakku

Quw (with a stronghold at modern Karatepe)

Gurgum

Kummuh

Carchemish

The southern, Aramaic, group includes:

Palistin (cpital was probably Tell Tayinat)[17][18]

Bit Gabbari (with Sam'al)

Bit-Adini (with the city of Til Barsip)

Bit Bahiani (with Guzana)

Pattin (also Pattina or Unqi) (with the city of Kinalua, maybe modern Tell
Tayinat[19])

Ain Dara, a religious center

Bit Agusi (with the cities of Arpad, Nampigi, and (later on) Aleppo)

Hatarikka-Luhuti (the capital city of which was at Hatarikka)

Hamath

Inscriptions

Luwian monumental inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue uninterrupted from the 13thcentury Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkamish,
Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere.[20] Luwian hieroglyphs was chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite
regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi or tri-lingual
inscriptions with Aramaic, Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern
Mesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing in Aramaic and Phoenician. During
the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth
through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the
Phoenicians.[21]

Hammurabi
For other uses see Hammurabi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Ammurapi.

Hammurabi

Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving

his royal insignia from Shamash. Hammurabi
holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of
prayer[1] (relief on the upper part of the stele of
Hammurabi's code of laws).
Born

~1810 BC
Babylonia

Died

1750 BC middle chronology

Babylon

Known for

Code of Hammurabi

Title

King of Babylon

Term

42 years; c. 1792 1750 BC

(middle)

Predecessor

Sin-Muballit

Successor

Samsu-iluna

Religion

Babylonian religion

Partner(s)

Unknown

Children

Samsu-iluna

Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC

and upon his death in c. 1750 BC

Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite Ammurpi, "the kinsman is a healer", from Ammu,
"paternal kinsman", and Rpi, "healer"; died c. 1750 BC) was the sixth Amorite king of Babylon
(that is, of the First Babylonian Dynasty, the Amorite Dynasty) from 1792 BC to 1750 BC
middle chronology (1728 BC 1686 BC short chronology[2]). He became the first king of the
Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his father, Sin-Muballit, who had become very ill
and died, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against
neighboring kingdoms.[3] Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his
death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire. Hammurabi is known for the set of
laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history.

This bust, known as the "Head of Hammurabi", is now thought to predate

Hammurabi by a few hundred years [4] (Louvre)

Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the
power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC.[5] Babylon was one of the many largely
Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged
war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.[6] Though many cultures co-existed in
Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes
throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.[7] The kings who came before Hammurabi had
founded a relatively minor City State in 1894 BC which controlled little territory outside of the
city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger and more powerful kingdoms such as
Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna and Larsa for a century or so after its founding. However his
father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia
under Babylonian hegemony and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of
Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.[7]
Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a
complex geopolitical situation. The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris
River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful
kingdom of Elam which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern
Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already
inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his territory into the
Levant and central Mesopotamia,[8] although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his
empire.[9]

The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to
undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes,
and expanding the temples.[10] In c. 1801 BC, the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled
important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[11] With
allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying
a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.[12] In order to
consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and
the kingdom of Larsa.[13] Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they
discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute
greatly to the military effort.[13] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned
on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by
c. 1763 BC.[14]
As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as
Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.[14] Continuing his expansion,
Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest and soon after crushing
Eshnunna.[15] Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including
Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the 'conquest' of Mari was a surrender
without any actual conflict.[16][17][18]
Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of
Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper
hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. MutAshkur the new king of Assyria was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi, however Babylon did
not rule Assyria directly.
In just a few years, Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.[18]
The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major
city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their
independence.[18] However, one stele of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir,
where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".[19]
Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been
discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.[20] These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of
ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to
taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[21] Hammurabi died and passed the reins of
the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC, under whose rule the Babylonian empire
began to quickly unravel.[22]
Contents

1 Code of laws
o

1.1 Significant laws in Hammurabi's code

2 Legacy and depictions

3 See also

4 Notes

5 References

6 Further reading

7 External links

Code of laws
Main article: Code of Hammurabi

Code of Hammurabi stele. Louvre Museum, Paris

Hammurabi is best known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the Code of
Hammurabi. One of the first written laws in the world,[citation needed] the Code of Hammurabi was
inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that
few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital,
Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The
code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it
was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any
literate person in the city.[23]

The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment.
The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in
death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of
Retaliation") philosophy.[24] The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of
presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity
to provide evidence.[25] However, there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the
prescribed punishment.
A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash or
possibly Marduk,[26] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people
to bring the laws to them. Parallels between this narrative and the giving of laws by God in
Jewish tradition to Moses and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common
ancestor in the Semitic background of the two. Fragments of previous law codes have been
found.[27][28][29][30] David P. Wright argues that the Jewish law used Hammurabi's collection as a
model, imitating both its structure and content.[31]
Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations, including the earlier
Mesopotamian examples of Ur-Nammu's code, Laws of Eshnunna, and Code of Lipit-Ishtar, and
the later Hittite code of laws.[32]
Significant laws in Hammurabi's code
(Text taken from Harper's translation, readable on wikisource)

59 - If a man cut down a tree in a man's orchard, without the consent of the
owner of the orchard, he shall pay one-half mina of silver.

55 - If a man open his canal for irrigation and neglect it and the water carry
away an adjacent field, he shall measure out grain on the basis of the
adjacent fields.

168 - If a man set his face to disinherit his son and say to the judges: "I will
disinherit my son," the judges shall inquire into his antecedents, and if the
son have not committed a crime sufficiently grave to cut him of from
sonship, the father may not cut of his son from sonship.

169 - If he have committed a crime against his father sufficiently grave to

cut him of from sonship, they shall condone his first (ofense). If he commit a
crime a second time, the father may cut of his son from sonship.

8 - If any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belong

to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they
belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold; if the thief has
nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.

196-201 - If a man destroy the eye of another man, they shall destroy his
eye. If one break a man's bone, they shall break his bone. If one destroy the

eye of a freeman or break the bone of a freeman he shall pay one mana of
silver. If one destroy the eye of a man's slave or break a bone of a man's
slave he shall pay one-half his price. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of
his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth. If one knock out a tooth of a
freeman, he shall pay one-third mana of silver.

218-219 - If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze

lancet and cause that man's death; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a man
with a bronze lancet and destroy the man's eye, they shall cut of his fingers.
If a physician operate on a slave of a freeman for a severe wound with a
bronze lancet and cause his death, he shall restore a slave of equal value.

229-232 - If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its
construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause the
death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. If it cause
the death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a son of
that builder. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he
shall give the owner of the house a slave of equal value. If it destroy property,
he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make the
house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which
collapsed from his own property (i.e., at his own expense).

21 - If a man make a breach in a house, they shall put him to death in front
of that breach and they shall thrust him therein.

195 - If a son strike his father, they shall cut of his fingers.

2.1 Classical dating

3 Early Assyria, 26002335 BC

4 Assyria in the Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empires

5 Old Assyrian Kingdom

5.1 Dynasty of Puzur-Ashur I, 20251809 BC, Old Assyrian Empire

5.2 Amorite Period in Assyria, 18091750 BC

5.3 Assyria under Babylonian domination, 17501732 BC

5.4 Assyrian Adaside dynasty, 17321451 BC

5.5 Assyria in decline, 14501393 BC

6 Middle Assyrian Empire, 13921056 BC

6.1 Assyrian expansion and empire, 13921056 BC

6.2 Assyria during the Bronze Age Collapse, 1055936 BC

6.3 Society in the Middle Assyrian period

7 Neo-Assyrian Empire, 911612 BC

o

7.1 Expansion, 911627 BC

7.2 Downfall, 626605 BC

8 Assyria after the empire

o

8.1 Achaemenid Assyria, Athura, Assuristan, Assyria province,

Adiabene, Osroene and Hatra

8.1.1 Achaemenid Assyria (549330 BC)

8.1.2 Seleucid Assyria

8.1.3 Parthian Assyria (150 BC 116 AD); Adiabene (69 BC 117

AD)

8.1.4 Roman Assyria (116 AD 118 AD)

8.1.5 Parthian Assyria restored (119 AD 225 AD), Osroene,

Hatra

8.1.6 Sassanid Assyria (Assuristan (226 AD circa 650 AD)

9 Assyrians after Assyria

10 Assyrian religion

11 Language

12 Arts and sciences

13 Legacy

14 See also

15 Notes

16 References

17 Literature

18 External links

Names

Assyria was also sometimes known as Subartu prior to the rise of the city state of Ashur after
which it was Aryu, and after its fall, from 605 BC through to the late 7th century
AD variously as Athura and also referenced as Atouria[4] according to Strabo, Syria (Greek),
Assyria (Latin) and Assuristan. After its dissolution in the mid 7th century AD it remained The
Ecclesiastical Province of Ator. The term Assyria can also refer to the geographic region or
heartland where Assyria, its empires and the Assyrian people were (and still are) centered. The
modern Assyrian Christian (AKA Chaldo-Assyrian) ethnic minority in northern Iraq, north east
Syria, south east Turkey and north west Iran are the descendants of the ancient Assyrians (see
Assyrian continuity).[5][6]
Pre-history of Assyria

In prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to
a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in
Assyria were the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the centre of the Hassuna culture,
c. 6000 BC.
During the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the
Sumerians and the Semitic Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread
bilingualism.[7] The influence of Sumerian (a language isolate, i.e. not related to any other
language) on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a
massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[7] This has prompted
scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a sprachbund.[7]

Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of Lagash (maybe Urukagina),
informing him of his son's death in combat, c. 2400 BC, found in Girsu.

Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere after
the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),[8] but

Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in

Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.
The cities of Assur (also spelled Ashur or Aur) and Nineveh, together with a number of other
towns and cities, existed since at least before the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (c. 2600 BC),
although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centres at this time, rather than
independent states.
According to some Judaeo-Christian writers[who?], the city of Ashur was founded by Ashur the son
of Shem, who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god[citation needed]. However, it is
not among the cities said to have been founded by him in Genesis 10:1112, and the far older
Assyrian annals make no mention of the much later Judeo-Christian figures of Shem and Ashur.
Assyrian tradition lists an early Assyrian king named Ushpia as having dedicated the first temple
to the god Ashur in the city in the 21st century BC. It is highly likely that the city was named in
honour of its patron Assyrian god with the same name.
Classical dating

George Syncellus in his Chronographia quotes a fragment from Julius Africanus which dates the
founding of Assyria to 2284 BC.[9] The Roman historian Velleius Paterculus citing Aemilius Sura
states that Assyria was founded 1995 years before Philip V was defeated in 197 BC (at the Battle
of Cynoscephalae) by the Romans.[10] The sum therefore 197 + 1995 = 2192 BC for the
foundation of Assyria. Diodorus Siculus recorded another tradition from Ctesias, that dates
Assyria 1,306 years before 883 BC (the starting date of the reign of Ashurnasirpal II) and so the
sum 883 + 1306 = 2189 BC.[11] The Chronicle of Eusebius provides yet another date for the
founding of Assyria, with the accession of Ninus, dating to 2057 BC, but the Armenian
translation of the Chronicle puts this figure back slightly to 2116 BC. Another classical dating
tradition found in the Excerpta Latina Barbari dates the foundation of Assyria, under Belus, to
2206 BC.
Early Assyria, 26002335 BC

The city of Ashur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to have been established
by 2600 BC, however it is likely that they were initially Sumerian dominated administrative
centres. In c. the late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant Sumerian ruler in
Mesopotamia, mentions "smiting Subartu" (Subartu being the Sumerian name for Assyria).
Similarly, in c. the early 25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of
Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him.
Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. In the Assyrian King
List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. In archaeological reports from Ebla, it appeared that
Tudiya's activities were confirmed with the discovery of a tablet where he concluded a treaty for
the operation of a karum (trading colony) in Eblaite territory, with "king" Ibrium of Ebla (who is
now known to have been the vizier of Ebla for king Ishar-Damu). This entire reading is now

questionable, as several scholars have more recently argued that the treaty in question may not
have been with king Tudiya of Assyria, but rather with the unnamed king of an uncertain location
called "Abarsal".
Tudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu and then a further thirteen rulers (Yangi, Shuhlamu,
Harharu, Mandaru, Imshu, Harshu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belu and Azarah).
Nothing concrete is yet known about these names, although it has been noted that a much later
Babylonian tablet listing the ancestral lineage of Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon,
seems to have copied the same names from Tudiya through Nuabu, though in a heavily corrupted
form.
The earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who are recorded as kings who lived in tents, were
independent semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers.[2] These kings at some point became fully urbanised
and founded the city state of Ashur.[12]
Assyria in the Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empires

During the Akkadian Empire (23342154 BC) the Assyrians, like all the Mesopotamian Semites
(and also the Sumerians), became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad, centered in
central Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great, claimed to encompass
the surrounding "four quarters". The region of Assyria, north of the seat of the empire in central
Mesopotamia had also been known as Subartu by the Sumerians, and the name Azuhinum in
Akkadian records also seems to refer to Assyria proper.
Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Ashur became a
regional administrative center of the Empire, implicated by the Nuzi tablets.[13]
During this period, the Akkadian-speaking Semites of Mesopotamia came to rule an empire
encompassing not only Mesopotamia itself but large swathes of Asia Minor, ancient Iran, Elam,
the Arabian Peninsula, Canaan and Syria.
Assyria seems to have already been firmly involved in trade in Asia Minor by this time; the
earliest known reference to Anatolian karums in Hatti, was found on later cuneiform tablets
describing the early period of the Akkadian Empire (c. 2350 BC). On those tablets, Assyrian
traders in Burushanda implored the help of their ruler, Sargon the Great, and this appellation
continued to exist throughout the Assyrian Empire for about 1,700 years. The name "Hatti" itself
even appears in later accounts of his grandson, Naram-Sin, campaigning in Anatolia.
Assyrian and Akkadian traders spread the use of writing in the form of the Mesopotamian
cuneiform script to Asia Minor and The Levant (modern Syria and Lebanon).
However, towards the end of the reign of Sargon the Great, the Assyrian faction rebelled against
him; "the tribes of Assyria of the upper countryin their turn attacked, but they submitted to his
arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously".[14]

The Akkadian Empire was destroyed by economic decline and internal civil war, followed by
attacks from barbarian Gutian people in 2154 BC.
The rulers of Assyria during the period between c. 2154 BC and 2112 BC once again became
fully independent, as the Gutians are only known to have administered southern Mesopotamia.
However, the king list is the only information from Assyria for this period.
Most of Assyria briefly became part of the Neo-Sumerian Empire (or 3rd dynasty of Ur) founded
in c. 2112 BC. Sumerian domination extended as far as the city of Ashur, but appears not to have
reached Nineveh and the far north of Assyria. One local ruler (shakkanakku) named Zriqum
(who does not appear on any Assyrian king list) is listed as paying tribute to Amar-Sin of Ur.
Ashur's rulers appear to have remained largely under Sumerian domination until the mid-21st
century BC (c. 2050 BC); the king list names Assyrian rulers for this period and several are
known from other references to have also borne the title of shakkanakka or vassal governors for
the neo-Sumerians.
Old Assyrian Kingdom

The first written inscriptions by 'urbanised' Assyrian kings appear in the mid-21st century BC,
after they had shrugged off Sumerian domination. The land of Assyria as a whole then consisted
of a number of city states and small Semitic kingdoms, some of which were initially independent
of Assyria. The foundation of the first major temple in the city of Ashur was traditionally
ascribed to king Ushpia who reigned c. 2050 BC, possibly a contemporary of Ishbi-Erra of Isin
and Naplanum of Larsa.[15] He was reputedly succeeded by kings named Apiashal, Sulili,
Kikkiya and Akiya (died c. 2026 BC), of whom little is known, apart from much later mentions
of Kikkiya conducting fortifications on the city walls, and building work on temples in Ashur.
The main rivals, neighbours or trading partners to early Assyrian kings during the 22nd, 21st and
20th centuries BC would have been the Hattians and Hurrians to the north in Asia Minor, the
Gutians, Lullubi and Turukku to the east in the Zagros Mountains of northwest Ancient Iran, the
Elamites to the southeast in what is now south central Iran, the Amorites to the west in what is
today Syria, and their fellow Sumero-Akkadian city-states of southern Mesopotamia such as Isin,
Kish, Ur, Eshnunna and Larsa.[2]
Like many city-states in early Mesopotamian history, Ashur was, to a great extent, originally an
oligarchy rather than a monarchy. Authority was considered to lie with "the City", and the polity
had three main centres of poweran assembly of elders, a hereditary ruler, and an eponym. The
ruler presided over the assembly and carried out its decisions. He was not referred to with the
usual Akkadian term for "king", arrum/Sharru; that was instead reserved for the city's patron
deity Assur, of whom the ruler was the high priest. The ruler himself was only designated as "the
steward of Assur" (iiak Assur), where the term for steward is a borrowing from Sumerian
ensi(k). The third centre of power was the eponym (limmum), who gave the year his name,
similarly to the later archons and consuls of Classical Antiquity. He was annually elected by lot
and was responsible for the economic administration of the city, which included the power to

detain people and confiscate property. The institution of the eponym as well as the formula iiak
Assur lingered on as ceremonial vestiges of this early system throughout the history of the
Assyrian monarchy.[16]
Dynasty of Puzur-Ashur I, 20251809 BC, Old Assyrian Empire

In approximately 2025 BC (long chronology), Puzur-Ashur I (perhaps a contemporary of Shuilishu of Larsa and Samium of Isin) is speculated to have overthrown Kikkiya and founded a new
dynasty which was to survive for 216 years. His descendants left inscriptions mentioning him
regarding the building of temples to gods such as Ashur, Adad and Ishtar in Assyria. The length
of his reign is unknown.
Shalim-ahum (died c. 2009 BC) succeeded the throne at a currently unknown date. He left
inscriptions in archaic Old Assyrian regarding the construction of a temple dedicated to the god
Ashur, and the placement of beer vats within it.
Ilushuma[17] (c. 20081975 BC) took the throne in c. 2008 BC, and is known from his inscription
(extant in several copies) where he claims to have "washed the copper" and "established liberty"
for the Akkadians in Sumerian city-states as far as the Persian Gulf. This has been taken by some
scholars to imply that he made military campaigns into Southern Mesopotamia to relieve his
fellow Mesopotamians from Amorite and Elamite invasions, however some recent scholars have
taken the view that the inscription means he supplied these areas with copper from Hatti, and that
the word used for "liberty" (adduraru) is usually in the context of his exempting the southern
Mesopotamian kings from tariffs.
"The freedom[nb 1] of the Akkadians and their children I established. I purified their copper. I
established their freedom from the border of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal, and Kish,
Der of the goddess Ishtar, as far as the City of (Ashur)."[18]
Assyria had long held extensive contact with Hattian, Hittite and Hurrian cities on the Anatolian
plateau in Asia Minor. The Assyrians who had for centuries traded in the region, and possibly
ruled small areas bordering Assyria, now established significant colonies in Cappadocia (e.g., at
Kanesh (modern Kltepe) from 2008 BC to 1740 BC). These colonies, called karum, from the
Akkadian word for 'port', were attached to Hattian cities in Anatolia, but physically separate, and
had special tax status. They must have arisen from a long tradition of trade between Assyria and
the Anatolian cities, but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade consisted of
metals (copper or tin and perhaps iron; the terminology is not entirely clear) being traded for
textiles from Assyria.
Erishum I[19] (c. 19741935 BC) vigorously expanded Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor during his
long reign, the major ones appearing to be at Kanesh, attua (Boazky) (the future capital of
the Hittite Empire) and Amkuwa (Alisar Hyk), together with a further eighteen smaller
colonies. He created some of the earliest examples of Written Law, conducted extensive building
work in the form of fortifying the walls of major Assyrian cities and the erection of temples
dedicated to Ashur and Ishtar. It is from his reign that the continuous limmum lists are known,

however there are references to the eponym-books for his predecessors having been destroyed at
some point.
Ikunum (c. 19341921 BC)[20] built a major temple for the god Ningal. He further strengthened
the fortifications of the city of Assur and maintained Assyria's colonies in Asia Minor.
Sargon I (c. 19201881 BC)[21] succeeded him in c. 1920 BC, and had an unusually long reign of
39 years. It is likely he was named after his illustrious predecessor Sargon of Akkad. He is
known to have refortified the defences of major Assyrian cities, and maintained Assyrian
colonies in Asia Minor during his reign. Apart from this, little has yet been unearthed about him.
At some point he appears to have withdrawn Assyrian aid to southern Mesopotamia. It was
during his reign in Assyria that the initially minor city-state of Babylon was founded in 1894 BC
by an Amorite Malka (prince) named Sumuabum.
Puzur-Ashur II (c. 18811873 BC) came to the throne as an already older man due to his fathers
long reign. Little is known about his rule, but it appears to have been uneventful.
Naram-Suen (c. 18721818 BC) ascended to the throne in 1872 BC, and is likely named after his
predecessor Naram-Sin of the Akkadian Empire. Assyria continued to be wealthy during his 54
year long reign (one of the longest in the ancient Near East), and he defeated the future usurper
king Shamshi-Adad I who attempted to take his throne.
Erishum II (c. 18181809 BC) was to be the last king of the dynasty of Puzur-Ashur I, founded
c. 2025 BC. After only eight or nine years in power he was overthrown by Shamshi-Adad I, the
Amorite usurper who had previously been defeated in an attempt to unseat Naram-Suen, and
who claimed legitimacy by asserting descent from the mid 21st century BC Assyrian king,
Ushpia.
Amorite Period in Assyria, 18091750 BC

The Amorites were successfully repelled by the Assyrian kings of the 20th and 19th centuries
BC. However, in 1809 BC the native Mesopotamian king of Assyria Erishum II was deposed,
and the throne of Assyria was usurped by Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1809 1776 BC) in the expansion
of Semitic Amorite tribes from the Khabur River delta in the north eastern Levant.
Although regarded as an Amorite by later Assyrian tradition, Shamshi-Adad's descent is
suggested to be from the same line as the native Mesopotamian ruler Ushpia in the Assyrian
King List. He put his son Ishme-Dagan on the throne of a nearby Assyrian city, Ekallatum, and
maintained Assyria's Anatolian colonies. Shamshi-Adad I then went on to conquer the kingdom
of Mari (in modern Syria) on the Euphrates putting another of his sons, Yasmah-Adad on the
throne there. Shamshi-Adad's Assyria now encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia and
included territory in central Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and northern Syria. Shamshi-Adad I
mentions conducting raids on the Canaanite coasts of the far off Mediterranean, where he erected
stelae to commemorate his victories. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in the
Khabur valley in northern Mesopotamia, called Shubat-Enlil.

Ishme-Dagan I (17741763 BC) inherited Assyria, but Yasmah-Adad was overthrown by a new
king called Zimrilim in Mari. The new king of Mari allied himself with the Amorite king
Hammurabi of Babylon, who had made the recently created, and originally minor state of
Babylon into a major power. It was from the reign of Hammurabi onwards that southern
Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia.
Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making
an alliance with the enemies of Babylon, and the power struggle continued without resolution for
decades. Ishme-Dagan, like his father was a great warrior, and in addition to repelling
Babylonian attacks, campaigned successfully against the Turukku and Lullubi of the Zagros
Mountains (in modern Iran) who had attacked the Assyrian city of Ekallatum, and against
Dadusha, king of Eshnunna, and the state of Iamhad (modern Aleppo).
Assyria under Babylonian domination, 17501732 BC

Hammurabi, after first conquering Mari, Larsa, and Eshnunna, eventually prevailed over IshmeDagan's successor Mut-Ashkur (17501740 BC), and subjected him to Babylon c. 1750 BC.
With Hammurabi, the various karum colonies in Anatolia ceased trade activityprobably
because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians. The Assyrian
monarchy survived, however the three Amorite kings succeeding Ishme-Dagan, Mut-Ashkur
(who was the son of Ishme-Dagan and married to a Hurrian queen), Rimush (17391733 BC)
and Asinum (1732 BC), were vassals, dependent on the Babylonians during the reign of
Hammurabi, and for a short time, of his successor Samsu-iluna.
Assyrian Adaside dynasty, 17321451 BC

The short lived Babylonian Empire quickly began to unravel upon the death of Hammurabi, and
Babylonia lost control over Assyria during the reign of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna
(17501712 BC). A period of civil war ensued after Asinum (a gran
used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.[18]
Astronomy
Main article: Mesopotamian astronomy

From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain
positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times when Limmu lists were
created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have
survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for
establishing the history of Mesopotamia.
The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and
solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related
to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the
cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of
astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to
astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe
and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an
important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus
referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.[19] This new approach to
astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much
earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian
development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major
episode in the history of astronomy.
The only Greek Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of
planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[20][21][22] Seleucus is known from the
writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth
rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch,
Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used
(except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).
Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian,
Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.[23]
Medicine

The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half
of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the
Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummn, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[24]
during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).[25]
Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of
diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic
Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and
rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and
often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed
symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[26]
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as
bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians
often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic
Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that
through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine
the patient's disease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's
recovery.[24]

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his
Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related
ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.[27]
Technology

Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass
and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also
one of the first Bronze age people in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold
on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals.
Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as
swords, daggers, spears, and maces.
According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used by Sennacherib,
King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the
7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times.
[28]
Later during the Parthian or Sassanid periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the
world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.[29]
Religion and philosophy

The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800 BC

Mesopotamian religion was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was
a flat disc,[citation needed] surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They also
believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born
from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the
beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional

variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess
Ki.[citation needed] Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful
god. He was the chief god of the Pantheon, equivalent to the Greek god Zeus and the Roman god
Jupiter. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are
we?, How did we get here?.[citation needed] They attributed answers to these questions to explanations
provided by their gods.
Philosophy

Giorgio Buccellati believes that the origins of philosophy can be traced back to early
Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the
forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs.
Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.[30]
The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic
nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the
"ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an
open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms.[31] Logic was employed to
some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek and Hellenistic philosophy. In
particular, the Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic
thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialectic and dialogs of
Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic method of Socrates.[32] The Ionian philosopher
Thales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.
Culture

Alabaster with shell eyes, Sumerian male worshiper, 2750-2600 BC

Festivals

Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for
each month was determined by at least six important factors:
1. The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a
waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the
Underworld)
2. The phase of the annual agricultural cycle
3. Equinoxes and solstices
4. The local mythos and its divine Patrons
5. The success of the reigning Monarch
6. The Akitu, or New Year Festival (First full moon after spring equinox)
7. Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories,
temple holidays, etc.)
Music
Main article: Music of Mesopotamia

Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events.
Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked
to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed
them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral
tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through
the centuries highly important information about historical events.
The Oud (Arabic: )is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians. The
oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over
5000 years ago. It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by
Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat,
playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian
history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck
varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the
Arabic word al-d 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud
was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.)
Games

Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and
some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather
than on horses.[33] They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a
ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now
known as the "Royal Game of Ur."
Family life

The Babylonian marriage market by the 19th-century painter Edwin Long

Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and
Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the
men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period,
the "en", or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses, a man.
Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was
ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over
time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring
and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to
school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.[34]
Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after

the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusual
for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they
had good reason, get a divorce.
Burials

Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about
Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under
their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets.
Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains
have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very
precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods,
have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.[35]
Economy and agriculture

Mining areas of the ancient West Asia. Boxes colors: arsenic is in brown, copper in
red, tin in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and lead in
black. Yellow area stands for arsenic bronze, while grey area stands for tin bronze.

Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji
Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.[36] Sumerian temples functioned as banks and
developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the
earliest system of commercial banking. It was comparable in some ways to modern postKeynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach.[31]
In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining
over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word Ensi was used to
describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are
known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples
or palaces.[37]
The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation
and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of early
Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to
build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities,
such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash,
were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both
for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials). With irrigation, the food supply

in Mesopotamia was compabale to the Canadian prairies.[38] The Tigris and Euphrates River
valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan
River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for
crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the
development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian
innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of
fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as
barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people
to make beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers
did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There
were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slave).
Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire
cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often
ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. Over time the
southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils,
leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.
Government

The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the
region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with
irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic
tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous.
Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its
independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were
resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost
constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous
and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331 BC only a generation later. The
Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful
succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them
within only a few generations.
Kings
Further information: Sumerian King List, List of kings of Babylon and List of Assyrian
king
Slow loss over geologic time
Main article: Atmospheric escape

The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical
elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where
the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles
of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[25] Planets with

hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of
hydrogen.[26]
History of hydrologic cycle theory
Floating land mass

In ancient times, it was thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of
the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the
works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
Precipitation and percolation

By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be
attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the
belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers.
Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the
evolution of land animals from fish[27]) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE).[28] Chinese
scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BC) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts.
[29]
The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of
Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and
Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle.
Precipitation alone

Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was thought that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed
rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans
were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as
did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of
rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer" of the modern
theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study
commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even so, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream
science until early nineteenth century.[30]

Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements.[1] Waste sorting
can occur manually at the household and collected through curbside collection schemes, or
automatically separated in materials recovery facilities or mechanical biological treatment
systems. Hand sorting was the first method used in the history of waste sorting.[2]
Waste can also be sorted in a civic amenity site.
Waste segregation means dividing waste into dry and wet. Dry waste includes wood and related
products, metals and glass. Wet waste, typically refers to organic waste usually generated by
eating establishments and are heavy in weight due to dampness. Waste can also be segregated on
basis of biodegradable or non-biodegradable waste.
Landfills are an increasingly pressing problem.[citation needed] Less and less land is available to deposit
refuse, but the volume of waste is growing all time. As a result, segregating waste is not just of
environmental importance, but of economic concern, too.
Contents
[hide]

1 Methods

2 By country

3 See also

4 References

5 External links

Methods[edit]

Waste is collected at its source in each area and separated. The way that waste is sorted must
reflect local disposal systems. The following categories are common:

Paper

Cardboard (including packaging for return to suppliers)

Glass (clear, tinted no light bulbs or window panes, which belong with
residual waste)

Plastics

Scrap metal

Compost

Special/hazardous waste

Residual waste

Organic waste can also be segregated for disposal:

Leftover food which has had any contact with meat can be collected
separately to prevent the spread of bacteria.
o

Meat and bone can be retrieved by bodies responsible for animal waste

If other leftovers are sent, for example, to local farmers, they can be
sterilised before being fed to the animals

Peel and scrapings from fruit and vegetables can be composted along with
other degradable matter. Other waste can be included for composting, too,
such as cut flowers, corks, cofee grindings, rotting fruit, tea bags, egg- and
nutshells, paper towels etc.

Chip pan oil (fryer oil), used fats, vegetable oil and the content of fat filters can be collected by
companies able to re-use them. Local authority waste departments can provide relevant
addresses. This can be achieved by providing recycling bins.
By country[edit]

In Germany, regulations exist that provide mandatory quotas for the waste sorting of packaging
waste and recyclable materials such as glass bottles.[3]