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PRESENTATION OUTLINE

THEORY OF VIBRATION AND ITS

APPLICATIONS IN SOIL DYNAMICS

Introduction
Problems in Soil Dynamics
Theory of Vibration

Dr. R. Ayothiraman
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
E-mail: araman@civil.iitd.ac.in
ayothiraman@yahoo.com

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Definitions
Harmonic Motion: Properties
Free and Forced Vibration of SDOF system
Free and Forced Vibration of 2DOF and MDOF systems

Application of TOV in Soil Dynamics

Summary and Conclusions

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Statics Vs Dynamics
INTRODUCTION
Static structural analysis:
Loads applied slowly / gradually
No significant motion of structure

Soil Mechanics Vs Soil Dynamics

Soil mechanics - mostly deals with engineering behaviour and

properties of soil under static stress/loads Design for static loads
Soil exhibits either drained or undrained behaviour

Time dependence of loads and responses:

y invariant with time
Generally
May vary slowly

S il dynamicsSoil
dynamics
d
i - deals
d l with
ith engineering
i
i behaviour
b h i
andd properties
ti off soil
il
under dynamic stress/loads Design for dynamic loads
Soil exhibits mostly undrained behaviour

Static equilibrium:
Pu = 0

M
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Newtons
N
second
d law
l off motion:
i

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=0

=0

=0
w

=0
4

SOURCES OF DYNAMIC LOADS

Structural dynamics:
Time-dependent motion
Significant inertial effects
Nature of motion:
Often oscillatory and periodic
Depends on characteristics of loading and system

where,
m= Mass of the structure
u = Linear acceleration
I0 = Mass moment of inertia
&&= Angular acceleration

=0

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Statics Vs Dynamics

P = mu&& M

= I 0&&

kg
m/s2
kg-m2
radian/s2
5

Bomb blasts/nuclear explosion/Quarrying

Machine
Machine--induced dynamic loads
Construction activities (such as pile driving)
Fast
Fast--moving traffic (aircraft landing/train)
Wind load
Wave load
Earthquakes

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PROBLEMS OF INTEREST IN SOIL DYNAMICS

NEED OF THEORY OF VIBRATION (TOV) IN SOIL DYNAMICS

Strength and deformation behaviour of soil under dynamic

loads
Design of machine foundations
Dynamic earth pressure and retaining wall design
Dynamic bearing capacity and shallow foundation design
Pile behaviour and design under dynamic loading
Liquefaction of soils
Slope stability/landslide problems
Vibration isolation in urban/industrial areas
Dynamic SoilSoil-FoundationFoundation-Structure Interaction

Foundation or Structure can be equivalently represented by a

mathematical model for studying its response under dynamic
loads

Fundamentals of vibration is ESSENTIAL for civil engineering

design to any dynamic loads
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THEORY OF VIBRATION: DEFINITIONS

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THEORY OF VIBRATION: DEFINITIONS

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10

THEORY OF VIBRATION: DEFINITIONS

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11

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12

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THEORY OF VIBRATION: HARMONIC MOTION

Period, T

Simple Harmonic Motion

Unit Circle

Oscillation about a Reference Point

Modeled Mathematically as

RMS
0
0 to Peak

x (t ) = X sin t

Peak-to-Peak

13

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Basic Signal
Attributes
Static
Slowly Changing
Time > 10 sec

Dynamic Signal
Fundamentals

Basic Signal Attributes

Dynamic

Sensor must respond in

fractions of a Second
Vibration, Amperage,
Pressure

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15

Peak and RMS Comparison

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14

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Amplitude
Frequency
Timing
Shape

Frequency
Signal
Amplitude
Timing,
Shape
or Phase

Proportional by
Determined
Represented
Waveform
by
to the

severity
reciprocal
delay
of vibratory
between
of the
time
Simple
motion
Period
signals
two
Complex
CPS
or Recognition
Hzas
Pattern
Leading
Expressed

RPM

Peak
to
Lagging Peak
Orders
Zero to Peak
RMS

16

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Relationships of Acceleration, Velocity and

Displacement

17

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REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC LOADS IN DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC LOADS IN DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Periodic Excitation

Dynamic response depends on applied loading

Dynamic excitation

(a) Unbalanced rotating machine in building

(simple harmonic can be expressed in sin / cosine functions)

Dynamic load types:

Free vibration
Periodic excitation
Transient excitation
Random excitation
Free Vibration

(b) Rotating propeller at stern of ship (complex)

Non-Periodic Excitation
(c) Bomb blast pressure on building (impulsive)

Structural system set in motion initially (initial conditions)

No external dynamic excitation during vibration

(d) Earthquake on water tank (long duration)

P (t ) = 0

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19

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20

Periodic Loads

Transient Loads

Load patterns repeated exactly at regular intervals

Non-periodic loading histories of short duration

Known time history

Possible sources:
Rotating or reciprocating machinery
Vortex shedding
Waves
Harmonic loading:
Horizontal or vertical components of a vector rotating at
a constant angular velocity
General form:

P (t ) = P0 sin( t + )

= 2 f
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1 2
T = =

Possible sources:
Collisions
Impacts and moving equipments
Blast
Bl t loads
l d
Manufacturing processes
Earthquakes

P0 =Amplitude

P (t )

Loading histories defined by analytical expression or measured data

Repeatable and predictable
Deterministic process

=Circular frequency
= Phase Angle
21

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22

Random Loads
STIFFNESS

Random processes cannot be predicted accurately

Often exhibit well defined characteristics
Characterize all possible loading events with similar statistical
characteristics; e.g. wind and earthquake loads
Possible sources:
Wind
Earthquakes
Traffic loads on roadways and bridges

From strength of materials, we may recall:

f

fkk
103 N
x0

P (t )

x1

x2

x3

0 0

mm
2020
mm

g x0

x1

x2

x3

P (t )
Example: Random Load due to Wind
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t
23

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24

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STIFFNESS

STIFFNESS AND MASS

Elastic restoring forces:

Strains induced in structural members
Bending, axial contraction or extension, or twisting
Always act to return the structure to its un-deformed position

Vibration is cause by the interaction of two different forces one

related to position (stiffness) and one related to acceleration (mass).

Mathematical model of elastic restoring force:

Spring with stiffness (spring constant) = k
k = static external force (or moment) required to produce Pak corresponding unit
displacement in the structure
Elastic restoring force, Pk :
Linear behaviour (b): Pk u for all u

P = k (u ) u

k
Nonlinear behaviour:
Hardening spring (a) : Pk at an increasing rate as u
Softening spring (c) : Pk at a decreasing rate as u

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Fm = ma (t ) = m x&&(t )

Pendulum

Mass

28

Summary of simple harmonic motion

x(t)

x(t)

x ( t ) = A sin( n t + )

Period

T =

Differentiating twice gives:

x& (t ) = n A cos( n t + )
Substituting back into the equations of motion gives:

m A sin( n t + ) + kA sin( n t + ) = 0
2
n

Natural
frequency

fn =
29

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Amplitude A

Slope
here is v0

x0

x&&(t ) = n2 A sin( n t + ) = - n2 x (t )

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J &&(t ) + k (t ) = 0

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Solution to 2nd order DEs

k
m

Moment
of inertia J

g
&&(t ) + (t ) = 0
l
27

n =

Torsional
Stiffness
k

Spring

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or

26

Shaft and Disk

l=length

k
Gravity g

m n2 + k = 0

Spring

Examples of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

Lets assume a solution:

Mass

Proportional to acceleration

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25

Displacement
x

This is a 2nd order differential equation

and all phenomena that have differential
equations of this type for their equation
of motion will exhibit oscillatory
behavior.

dynamics

m x&&(t ) + kx (t ) = 0

statics

Mass (m)

From Newtons Law for this simple mass-spring system the two
forces must be equal i.e. FM = Fk.

or

Displacement
x

Fk = kx (t )

EQUATION OF MOTION

m x&&(t ) = kx (t )

Proportional to displacement

Stiffness (k)

t
Maximum
Velocity

nA

n rad/s
cycles n
= n
=
Hz
2 rad/cycle
2 s
2
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Initial Conditions

Initial Conditions

Solving these equation gives:

If a system is vibrating then we must assume that something must have

(in the past) transferred energy into to the system and caused it to move.
For example the mass could have been:

x
1
A=
n2 x 02 + v 02 , = tan 1 n 0
v

1 4 4n 424 4 43 1 4 4
424 404
3

moved a distance x0 and then released at t=0 (i.e. given Potential energy)
or

Amplitude

given an initial velocity v0 (i.e. given Kinetic energy) or

x 0 = x (0 ) = A sin( n 0 + ) = A sin( )
v 0 = x& (0 ) = n A cos( n 0 + ) = n A cos( )
31

n2 x 02 + v 02
x0

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x0

From our earlier solution we know that:

Example:

Slope
here is v0

x(t)

Some combination of the two above cases

Phase

v0

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32

Compute the solution and max velocity and acceleration

Hardware store spring, bolt: m= 49.2x10-3 kg, k=857.8 N/m and x0

=10 mm. Compute n and the max amplitude of vibration.

n =

k
=
m

857 .8 N/m
= 132 rad/s
49.2 10 -3 kg

f n = n = 21 Hz
2
2 1
1
T =
= =
n f n 21 cyles
x(t ) max = A =

v(t )max = n A = 1320 mm/s = 1.32 m/s

Note: common
Units are Hertz

To avoid Costly errors use fn when

working in Hertz and n when in rad/s

0.0476 s
sec

x + v02 = x0 = 10 mm
2 2
n 0

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x
v

x& (t ) = n A cos( n t + )

x&&(t ) = A sin( n t + )

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Time (sec)

0.7

0.8

0.9

0
-200
0

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Energy dissipation:
Reduction in kinetic and potential energy
Non-recoverable

-20
0
200
2
n

0.2

34

Damping used to describe all types of energy dissipation

A=1, n=12

0.1

= 174.24
174 24 m/s
/ 2 17.8g!
17 8 !
g = 9.8 m/s2

1 n x 0
90
= tan
= rad
0 2
x(t ) = 10 sin(132 t + / 2) = 10 cos(132 t ) mm

DAMPING, c

-1
0
20

Note how the relative magnitude increases for n>1

2.92 mph

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Relationship between Displacement, Velocity and

Acceleration

x (t ) = A sin( n t + )

~0.4 in max
33

Units depend on system

a(t ) max = n A = 174 .24 10 mm/s

2

35

P (t )

Sources:
Imperfect elasticity Hysteresis loops
Damping force remains directly proportional to velocity, (u& )
Viscous damping constant c is defined as the force associated with a unit
relative velocity between ends of the dashpot
Adequate for aerodynamic, hysteresis and radiation damping
Very approximate for friction damping
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Viscous Damping

Differential Equation Including Damping

All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate. To account for this
we must consider damping. The most simple form of damping (from a
mathematical point of view) is called viscous damping. A viscous damper
(or dashpot) produced a force that is proportional to velocity.

For this damped single degree of freedom system the force acting on the
mass is due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. FM=Fk+Fc.
Displacement
x

m x&&(t ) = kx (t ) c x& (t )

Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing

a solution to the resulting equations of motion that predicts
reasonable (observed) amounts of energy dissipation.
dissipation

or

m x&&(t ) + c x& (t ) + kx (t ) = 0

Damper (c)

To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a solution of

the form:

Fc = cv (t ) = c x& (t )

x(t) = ae t

Fc
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Solution to DE with damping included

(dates to 1743 by Euler)

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38

Solution to DE with Damping Included

The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:

x& (t) = ae

For convenience we will define a term known as the damping ratio as:

&x&(t) = 2 ae t

ae (m + c + k) = 0
2

( 2 + c

Solving for then gives,

1,2 = n n 2 1

+ n2 ) = 0

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Lower case Greek zeta

(2 + 2 n + n2 ) = 0

Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and assume a

non-trivial solution

ae t 0

c
2 km

The equation of motion then becomes:

If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:

39

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Critically damped motion

Possibility 1. Critically damped motion

a1 and a2 can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

v 0 = n a1 + a 2

ddefinition
fi iti off critical
iti l
damping coefficient

a2 = v 0 + n x0

1,2 = 1 n n 1 1 = n
2

The solution then takes the form

No oscillation occurs
Useful in door mechanisms,
analog gauges

A repeated, real root

x (t ) = a1e n t + a 2 te n t
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Needs two independent solutions, hence the t

in the second term

a1 = x 0
v = ( n a1 n a 2 t + a 2 )e n t

=1 c = 1
ccr 4
=2
2 4km
3 = 2 m n
Solving for then gives,

x = ( a 1 + a 2 t )e n t

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0.6

k=225N/m m=100kg and =1

x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s

0.5

Displacement (m
mm)

Critical damping occurs when =1. The damping coefficient c in this

case is given by:

x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
0

2
Time (sec)

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Possibility 3: Underdamped motion

Possibility 2: Overdamped motion

An underdamped case occurs when <1. The roots of the equation

are complex conjugate pairs. This is the most common case and the
only one that yields oscillation.

An overdamped case occurs when >1. Both of the roots of the equation are
again real.
k=225N/m m=100kg and =2

0.6

1,2 = n n 2 1
1

+ a 2 e n t

a1 andd a2 can again

i be
b calculated
l l t d from
f
initial conditions (t=0),

a1 =

v0 + ( + 1) n x 0
2 n 2 1
2

0.4

= Ae

0.2
0.1

2
Time (sec)

Slower to respond than

critically damped case

43

C e nt

Displacement

TD =
0.5

-0.5

u n
=
= 2
un

2
3
Time (sec)

5
45

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2
D

= en pTD

ln

un
u n +1

A free vibration test can be used to

determine experimentally the natural
frequency and the damping of a
structure.
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un
2
= n p TD = n p
un + p
n 1 2

< 0. 1

12 1 =

1
u
ln n
2p un + p
46

COULOMB-DAMPED FREE VIBRATION

= 2

1 2
=

= 2

Coulomb damping
results from friction
against sliding of two
dry surfaces.

u(t )
k
m

2
1- 2

The constants A1, B1, A2, B2 depend on the initial

conditions of each successive half-cycle motion.

dry friction

The friction force is F = N where denotes the

coefficients of static and kinetic friction, taken to be equal,
and N the normal force between the sliding surfaces.

The plot of the solution is

u

F is assumed to be independent of the velocity of the

motion and its direction opposes motion.

u
1
= lln n
N un+ N

Logarithmic Decrement,

C e ntn sin( Dtn + )

un
=
un + p
C e n (tn + pTD ) sin( D (t n + pTD ) + )

Decay of motion

= ln

tn + p = tn + pTD
t

t n+p

Alternative measure of damping and is related to as:

Exact and approximate relations

between logarithmic decrement and
damping ratio

p periods between two maximal

points un and un + p

un

Logarithmic Decrement

When
h damping
d
i is
i quite
i small,
ll

44

tn

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For small values of damping,

sin ( d t + )

un + p

-1
0

(v 0 + n x 0 )2 + (x 0 d ) 2

Gives an oscillating response

with exponential decay
Most natural systems vibrate
with
and
underdamped
response

1 2

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A and can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

x 0 d
= tan 1

v0 + n x 0

+ a 2 e j n t

d = n 1 2

Underdamped motion
1

n t

1 2

The frequency of oscillation d is called the damped natural

frequency is given by.

-0.1
0

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x(t) = e n t (a 1e j n t

0.3
03

v + ( + 2 1) n x 0
a2 = 0
2 n 2 1

A=

1,2 = n n j 1 2

x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

0.5

Displacemen
nt (mm)

x(t) = e n t (a1e n t

The equations of motion from left to right are

= 2

m u&& + k u = F

u(t ) = A1 cos(nt ) + B1 sin(nt ) F / k

The equations of motion from right to left are

Damping Ratio,

m u&& + k u = F
47

u8/26/2013
(t ) = A 2 cos(nt ) + B2 sin(nt ) + F / k

48

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Example:

consider the spring of 1.2.1, if c = 0.11 kg/s, determine the damping

ratio of the spring-bolt system.

Example:

m = 49.2 10 3 kg, k = 857 .8 N/m

ccr = 2 km = 2 49.2 10

The human leg has a measured natural frequency of around 20 Hz when in its
rigid (knee locked) position, in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the length of
the bone) with a damping ratio of = 0.224. Calculate the response of the tip if
the leg bone to an initial velocity of v0 = 0.6 m/s and zero initial displacement (this
would correspond to the vibration induced while landing on your feet,
feet with your
knees locked form a height of 18 mm) and plot the response. What is the
maximum acceleration experienced by the leg assuming no damping?

857 .8

= 12.993
12 993 kg/s
c
0.11 kg/s
=
=
= 0.0085
ccr 12.993 kg/s
the motion is underdamped
and the bolt will oscillate
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49

v
A = x02 + 0 , n = 125.66, v0 = 0.6, x0 = 0
n
v
0 .6
A= 0 m=
m

20 cycles 2 rad
= 125 .66 rad/s
s
cycles
1

d = 125 .66 1 (.224 ) = 122 .467 rad/s

2

A=

50

Use undamped formula to get max acceleration:

Solution:
n =

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2
0 6 + (0.224
0 224 )(125 .66
66 )( 0 )) + (0 )(122 .467
467 )2
(0.6

122 .467

0.6
2
2
max(&x&) = n2 A = n2
= (0.6 ) 125.66 m/s = 75.396 m/s
n

= 0.005 m

(0 )( d )
=0
v0 + n (0 )

= tan -1

maximum acceleration =

x( t ) = 0.005 e 28.148 t sin (122 .467 t )

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75.396 m/s 2
g = 7.68 g' s
2
9.81 m/s

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52

SDOF FORCED VIBRATION

Example 2

Plot of the response:

A harmonic load
is applied to the
structure.

Displacement (mm)

u
po sin(t )

Example 1

The system consisting

of the mass m and the
excentric mass m is
considered for writing
Newtons equation.

-1
-2
-3
-4

k /2

k /2

ug (t ) = ugo sin(t )

m u&& + k u = po sin(t )

If u is to be studied (e.g. earthquake)

m ( u&& + u&&g ) = k u

v = r sin(t )

m u&& + k u = m ugo 2 sin(t )

k /2 k /2

If y is to be studied (e.g. floor isolation)

Time (s)

-5
0

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y = u + ug

m y&& = k u

Without damping, the equation of motion is

u(t )
k

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

(m m ) u&& + m ( v&& + u&& ) = k u

53

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m u&& + k u = m r 2 sin(t )

m y&& = k ( y ug )

m y&& + k y = k ugo sin(t )

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WITHOUT DAMPING

m u&& + k u = po sin(t )

po sin(t )

WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

C and are determined by the initial conditions

u(t )
k

u(t ) = uh (t ) + u p (t )

u(t ) = u p (t ) =

uh (t ) = C sin(nt + )

particular solution

u p (t ) = A sin(t )

po k

1 ( n )

u&&p (t ) = A sin(t )
m A 2 + kA = po A =

u(t ) = C sin(nt + ) +
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k m2

po / k

1 ( n )2

The homogeneous solution uh(t)

response) disappears after some time.

The amplitudes of the vibration are infinite when

= n .

po k

sin(t )

This numerical example shows that the transient

response uh(t) disappears after some time and that
only the steady state response up(t) is then left.

55

2 ( n )

sin(t )

0 < < 180o

1 ( n )2

Remarks
The total response is u(t) = uh(t) + up(t). But after
some time uh(t) disappears and u(t) = up(t) (steady
state response).

The particular solution up(t) (steady state

response) is of the form:

After some time, the structure vibrates with the

same frequency as the applied force.

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56

SDOF under
Harmonic
Force

1
0.8

0.6

Response
of
undamped system
to harmonic force

0.4
0.2

u(t ) = uh (t ) + u p (t )

k
+ [2 ( n )]

(transient

u p (t ) = A sin(t )

up(t) is the steady state response

po
2 2

[1 ( ) ]
tan =

uh (t ) = C e nt sin( Dt + )

After some time, the structure vibrates with the

same frequency as the applied force.

uh(t) is the transient response

1 ( n )2

u p (t ) =

m u&& + c u& + k u = po sin(t )

po

po sin(t )
m

sin(t )

conclusions

c
k

In reality, the damping implies that uh(t)

disappears after some time. Then the solution (
steady state response ) is

The solution u(t) of the differential equation is

the sum of two parts uh (t) and up (t).

homogeneous solution

after calculations (see the book), it is obtained

u(t )

u(t) is a summation of two sinus and is not defined

for = n.

0
-0.2
-0.4

nt
u(t ) = C e
sin( Dt + )

-0.6

po k

[1 ( ) ]

2 2

+ [2 ( n )] 2

sin(t )

-0.8

10

15

20

25

total response u(t)

Response
of
damped system to
harmonic force

transient response uh(t)

C and are determined by the initial conditions.
For this case, the steady state is obtained
after about 20 seconds.
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57

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58

u0

Dynamic factor
After some while, the structure vibrates with the same
frequency as the applied force. It is the steady state
response up(t).

Rd can be plotted as function of the ratio /n for

different values of the damping coefficient .

Frequency Response
Curve

p0
c n

Resonant Frequency (Rd)max

5
4.5

The amplitude of these vibrations are now studied.

= 0.1

4
3.5

u p (t ) =

po k

[1 ( ) ]
n

2 2

+ [2 ( n )]

sin(t )

Rd

= 0.2

2.5

(ust )o =

po
k

The amplitude of the vibration is equal to the

product of the static deformation times a
dimensionless dynamic factor Rd.

u0

0.5
0
0

Rapidly varying force has less effect

Rd is unbound at: 1

p0
k

= 0.4

15
1.5

The static deformation due

to a static load po is

u0

p0
m 2

Rd =

u0

1.5

2.5

( n )

n < 0.25 Rd 1 " quasi static" response

(u ) [1 ( / ) ] + [2 ( / ) ]
Resonance
Deformation response factor and
phase angle for a damped system
excited by harmonic force
st o

0.5

2 2

m u&& + c u& + k u = po sin(t ) u = po k sin(t )

Rd ( , n ) =
8/26/2013

[1 ( ) ]
n

2 2

+ [2 ( n )]

n the amplitudes of vibrations

become large : Resonance

59

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60

10

8/26/2013

Effect of Damping
Energy dissipated into heat or radiated away:
The loss of energy from the oscillatory system results in the decay of amplitude
of the free vibration.
In steady-state forced vibration, the loss of energy is balanced by the energy
which is supplied by the excitation.
Energy dissipated mechanism may emanate from:
(i) Friction at supports and joints
(ii) Hysteresis in material, internal molecular friction, sliding friction
(iii) Propagation of elastic waves into foundation, radiation effect
(iv) Air-resistance, fluid resistance
(v) Cracks in concrete, may dependent on past load-history etc.

Simplified damping models have been proposed. These models are found to be adequate
in evaluating the system response.
Depending on the type of damping present, the force-displacement relationship when
plotted may differ greatly.
Force-displacement curve enclose an area, referred to as the hysteresis loop that is
proportional to the energy lost per cycle.

E d = Fd du
In general Ed depends on temperature
temperature, frequency
frequency, amplitude
amplitude.
For viscous type:

E d = Fd du
Fd = c u&

& = cu& dt = c 2 u 02
E d = c u = ( cu& )udu
2
0

Exact mathematical description is quite complicated and not suitable for vibration analysis.
8/26/2013

2 /

cos 2 ( t - )dt = c u 02

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61

62

Types of Damping
DAMPING USED IN MOST CASES

Different damping models can be used, a viscous proportional damping is

the most used approach.

Coulomb damping

Equivalent viscous damping

There are two reasons for that:

The mathematical equation which describes the motion is easy.
Viscous damping
This model gives results which are often in very good agreement with
experiments.
Structural damping

Hysteretic damping
(Material/Structural)
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63

Resonance

Band-width method

Resonance is reached for

The structure is excited by a harmonic load. The

frequency of the load is increased step by step. At
each step, the amplitudes of vibrations of the steady
state response are measured. This implies that at each
step, some time must be waited so that the transient
response disappears. The curve Rd as function of is
then obtained experimentally.

( Experimental method to determine )

= r = n 1 2 2
For this value of , the dynamic factor is
Rd max =

1
2 1

if < 0.1 then Rd max

n = k m D = n 1 2 r = n 1 2 2
Example

Rd max

Rd
2

Relationship between frequency and damping ratio

Rd max
2

Resonance frequency =

d = n 1

r = n 12 2

= 2% Rd = 25
8/26/2013
The deformations
are 25 times the static ones.

Damped Natural Frequency

Damped natural frequency =

1
and
2

64

< 0.1

1 r 2
2 1 f2 f1
=
2 + 1 f2 + f1

f65=

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66

11

8/26/2013

Force transmission and vibration isolation

A harmonic load is applied to a structure. This
structure is connected to the ground through a
support modelled by a spring k and a damper c.
p(t ) = po sin(t )

u
Steady state response

m
k

fT (t ) = poRd [sin(t ) + 2 ( n ) cos(t )]

= poRd 1 + [2 ( n )] sin(t + )
2

The transmissibility TR is defined as the ratio between

the amplitude of the transmitted force fT and the
amplitude of force applied to the structure.

p
u(t ) = o Rd sin((t )
k
1 + [2 ( n )]

[1 ( ) ]
n

2 2

+ [2 ( n )]

The force transmitted to the ground is

TR is dimensionless.
fT (t ) = ku(t ) + cu& (t )
= poRd sin(t ) +

poc
Rd cos(t )
k

TR as function of the ratio /n is plotted for

different values of .
n = k m

The objective is to choose the support (k, c) such

that TR is as small as possible.

8/26/2013

67

=0
2.5

= 0.2
= 0.25

TR
The transmitted force is less than the applied one if the
natural frequency n is such that
/n > 1.4 .
A low TR is obtained for low values of n and .

f
TR = T max =
po

fT

The mass m of the structure and the frequency of

the load are imposed. The problem is to choose a
support with k and such that the transmissibility TR
is minimal.

1
1.5

However, a very low n implies a low k and therefore a

too large static displacement po / k.

Besides, a very low implies high displacement amplitude

while passing through resonance which may occur before
the load reaches the circular frequency .

0.5

= 0.5

0.5

1.5

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2.5

68

FBD of SDOF Base Excitation

Base Excitation

System Sketch
Important class of vibration analysis
Preventing excitations from passing from a
vibrating base through its mount into a structure
Vibration
ib i isolation
i l i
Vibrations in your car
Satellite operation
Disk drives, etc.

x(t)

System FBD

m
m
k

y(t)

c
k ( x y ) c( x& y&)

base

F =-k (x -y )-c (x& -y& )=mx&&

mx&&+ cx& + kx = cy& + ky

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Natural rubber is a good compromise and is often used for

the isolation of vibrations.

69

(2.61)

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SDOF Base Excitation (cont)

70

Particular Solution (sine term)

With a sine for the forcing function,

Assume: y (t ) = Y sin( t ) and plug into Equation(2.61)

mx&&+cx& + kx = cY cos( t ) + kY sin( t ) (2.63)
14444244443
harmonic forcing
g functions
For a car,

&&
x +2n x& + n2 x =f 0 s sin t
x ps = As cos t + Bs sin t = X s sin( t s )
where

2 V

As =

The steady-state solution is just the superposition of the

two individual particular solutions (system is linear).
f0 s
f0 c
}
6
474
8
&&
x +2 n x& + x = 2nY cos( t ) + n2Y sin( t )
1442443
14243
2
n

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Bs =

(2.64)
71

8/26/2013

2 n f 0 s

( 2 ) 2 + ( 2 n )
2
n

Use rectangular form to

Use
make it easier to add
the cos term

( n2 2 ) f 0 s

( n2 2 ) 2 + ( 2 n )

2
72

12

8/26/2013

Magnitude X/Y

Particular Solution (cos term)

Now add the sin and cos terms to get the magnitude of
the full particular solution

With a cosine for the forcing function, we showed

&&
x +2n x& + n2 x =f 0 c cos t

X =

where

where f0 c = 2 n Y and f0 s = n2Y

Ac =
Bc =

( ) f 0 c
2
n
2 2

( n2 ) + ( 2 n )
( ) + ( 2 n )
2 2

X
=
Y

2
73

The relative magnitude plot

of X/Y versus frequency ratio: Called the Displacement Transmissibility
40
=0.01
=0.1
=0.3
=0.7

30
20

-10

= nY

(2 )2 + n2

( 2 )2 + (2 n )

1.5
2
Frequency ratio r

2.5

2
n

X =Y

1 + (2 r ) 2

(1 r 2 ) 2 + (2 r )

1 + (2 r)2

(1 r 2 )2 + (2 r )

(2.70)

(2.71)

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74

From the plot of relative Displacement Transmissibility

observe that:
X/Y is called Displacement Transmissibility Ratio
Potentially severe amplification at resonance
Attenuation for r > sqrt(2) Isolation Zone
If r< sqrt(2) transmissibility decreases with
damping ratio Amplification Zone
If r >> 1 then transmissibility increases with
damping ratio Xp~2Y/r

0.5

10
10

-20
0

2 2

if we define r = n this becomes

2 n f 0 c

2
n

( ) + (2 n )
2
n

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X/Y ((dB)

f02c + f02s

x pc = Ac cos t + Bc sin t = X c cos( t c )

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75

Comparison between force and displacement

transmissibility

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76

Example : Effect of speed on the amplitude of car vibration

Force
Transmissibility

Displacement
Transmissibility

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77

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78

13

8/26/2013

Two-Degree-of-Freedom Model (Undamped)

Free-Body Diagram of each mass

Figure 4.2
k2(x2 -x1)
k1 x1

A 2 degree of freedom system used to base

much of the analysis and conceptual
development of MDOF systems on.
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x1

79

Rearranging terms:
m1 &&
x1 (t ) + ( k1 + k 2 ) x1 (t ) k 2 x2 (t ) = 0
m 2 &&
x2 (t ) k 2 x1 (t ) + k 2 x2 (t ) = 0

(4.1)

80

Note that it is always the case that

A 2 Degree-of-Freedom system has
Two equations of motion!
Two
T natural
t l frequencies
f
i (as
( we shall
h ll see)!
)!

(4.2)

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81

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The dynamics of a 2 DOF system consists of 2

homogeneous and coupled equations

82

Initial Conditions

Free vibrations, so homogeneous eqs.

Equations are coupled:

Two coupled, second -order, ordinary

differential equations with constant coefficients
Needs 4 constants of integration to solve
Thus
Th 4 initial
i i i l conditions
di i
on positions
ii
andd
velocities

Both have x1 and x2.

If only one mass moves,
moves the other follows
Example: pitch and heave of a car model

In this case the coupling is due to k2.

Mathematically and Physically
If k2 = 0, no coupling occurs and can be solved as two
independent SDOF systems
8/26/2013

x2

8/26/2013

Summing forces yields the equations of motion:

m1 &&
x1 (t ) = k1 x1 (t ) + k 2 ( x2 (t ) x1 (t ) )
m 2 &&
x2 (t ) = k 2 ( x2 (t ) x1 (t ) )

m2

m1

83

x1 (0) = x10 , x&1 (0) = x&10 , x2 (0) = x20 , x&2 (0) = x&20
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84

14

8/26/2013

Solution by Matrix Methods

Initial Conditions

The two equations can be written in the form of a

single matrix equation
are a struggle for you) :

(see pages 272-275 if matrices and vectors

x (t )
x& ( t )
x (t ) = 1 , x& (t ) = 1 , &&
x (t ) =
x2 (t )
x& 2 (t )
m
M = 1
0

k + k2
K = 1
k2

0
,
m 2

x1 (t )
&&
&&

x2 (t )

x
x (0) = 10 , and x& (0) =
x20

k2
k 2

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85

The approach to a Solution:

For 1DOF we assumed the scalar solution ae Similarly,
now we assume the vector form:
t

Let x (t ) = u e j t

8/26/2013

86

This changes the differential equation of motion

into algebraic vector equation:

( -

M + K )u = 0

(4.17)

This is two algebraic equation in 3 uknowns

( 1 vector of two elements and 1 scalar):

1, u =/ 0, , u unknown

( - 2 M + K ) u e j t = 0

u
u = 1 , and
u 2

( - 2 M + K ) u = 0
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87

The condition for solution of this matrix equation requires that

the matrix inverse does not exist:
If the inv ( - M + K ) exists u = 0 : which is the
1

det ( - M + K ) = 0
2

does not exist

Back to our specific system: the

characteristic equation is defined as
(4.20)

=
0

2 m 2 + k 2

k 2

m1m 2 4 (m1k 2 + m 2 k1 + m 2 k 2 ) 2 + k1 k2 = 0

(4.19)

The determinant results in 1 equation

(4.21)

Eq. (4.21) is quadratic in 2 so four solutions result:

12 and 22 1 and 2

in one unknown (called the characteristic equation)

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88

2 m1 + k1 + k 2
det
k2

static equilibrium position. For motion to occur

u =/ 0 ( - 2 M + K )

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det (- 2 M + K ) = 0

or

x&10
x&
20

m1 &x&1 (t ) + ( k1 + k 2 ) x1 (t ) k 2 x 2 (t ) = 0
m 2 &x&2 (t ) k 2 x1 (t ) + k 2 x 2 (t ) = 0

x + Kx = 0
M &&

j=

ICs can also be written in vector form

89

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90

15

8/26/2013

Once is known, use equation (4.17) again to calculate the

Examples: calculating u and

corresponding vectors u1 and u2

This yields vector equation for each squared frequency:

( 12 M + K )u1 = 0

(4.22)

( 22 M + K )u 2 = 0

(4
(4.23)
23)

m1=9 kg,m2=1kg, k1=24 N/m and k2=3 N/m

The characteristic equation becomes
4-62+8=(2-2)(2-4)=0
2 = 2 and 2 =4 or

and

Each of these matrix equations represents 2 equations in the 2

unknowns components of the vector, but the coefficient matrix is
singular so each matrix equation results in only 1 independent
equation. The following examples clarify this.
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91

Computing the vectors u

1,3 = 2 rad/s, 2,4 = 2 rad/s

Each value of 2 yields an expression or u:
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92

Only the direction of vectors u can be determined, not the

magnitude as it remains arbitrary

u
For 12 =2, denote u1 = 11 then we have
u12

u11 1
1
= u11 = u12 results from both equations:
u12 3
3

(-12 M + K )u1 = 0

only the direction, not the magnitude can be determined!

3 u11 0
27 9(2)

=
3
3 (2) u12 0

9u11 3u12 = 0 and 3u11 + u12 = 0

This is because: det( 12 M + K ) = 0.

The magnitude of the vector is arbitrary. To see this suppose
that u1 satisfies
( 12 M + K )u1 = 0, so does a u1 , a arbitrary. So

2 equations, 2 unknowns but DEPENDENT!

( 12 M + K ) a u 1 = 0 ( 12 M + K )u1 = 0

(the 2nd equation is -3 times the first)

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93

Likewise for the second value of 2:

u
For = 4, let u 2 = 21 then we have
u 22
2
(-1 M + K )u = 0
2
2

27 9(4)
3

9u 21 3u 22
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94

What to do about the magnitude!

Several possibilities, here we just fix one element:
Choose:

u12

3 u 21 0

=
3 (4) u 22 0
1
= 0 or u 21 = u 22
3

Note that the other equation is the same

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Choose:

u 22
95

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13
= 1 u1 =
1
1 3
= 1 u2 =
1
96

16

8/26/2013

Thus the solution to the algebraic

matrix equation is:
1, 3

Return now to the time response:

We have computed four solutions:

x (t ) = u1e j1t , u1e j1t , u 2 e j 2 t , u 2 e j 2 t

3
= 2 , has mode shape u1 =
1
1

x (t ) = a u1e j1t + b u 1e j1t + cu 2 e j 2 t + d u 2 e j 2 t

x (t ) = ( ae j1t + be j1t ) u1 + ( ce j 2 t + de j 2 t ) u 2

1 3

2 , 4 = 2, has mode shape u 2 =

1
Here we have introduce the name
mode shape to describe the vectors
u8/26/2013
1 and u2. The origin of this name comes later

= A1 sin(1t + 1 )u1 + A2 sin( 2 t + 2 )u 2

(4.26)

where A1 , A2 , 1 , and 2 are const ants of integration

determined by initial conditions.
97

8/26/2013

Physical interpretation of all that math!

Note that to go from the exponential

form to to sine requires Eulers formula
for trig functions and uses up the
98
+/- sign on omega

What is a mode shape?

Each of the TWO masses is oscillating at TWO natural

frequencies 1 and 2
The relative magnitude of each sine term, and hence of
the magnitude of oscillation of m1 and m2 is
determined by the value of A1u1 and A2u2
The vectors u1 and u2 are called mode shapes because
the describe the relative magnitude of oscillation
between the two masses
8/26/2013

(4.24)

Since linear, we can combine as:

99

First note that A1, A2, 1 and 2 are determined by the

initial conditions
Choose them so that A2 = 1 = 2 =0
Then:
x1 (t )
u11
x(t ) =
= A1 u sin 1t = A1u 1 sin 1t
x
(t
)
2
12

Thus each mass oscillates at (one) frequency 1 with

magnitudes proportional to u1 the 1st mode shape

8/26/2013

100

A graphic look at mode shapes:

If ICs correspond to mode 1 or 2, then the response is purely in
mode 1 or mode 2.
x1
k1

Mode 1:

m1

k2

Mode 2:

x1

m1
x1=-A/3

8/26/2013

m2

13
u1 =
1

m2

1 3
u2 =
1

APPLICATIONS: MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

x2=A

x1=A/3
A/3
k1

x2

k2

x2

x2=A

101

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102

17

8/26/2013

Steam Turbine-Generator
(Moreschi and Farzam, 2003)

STG Pedestal Structure

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103

8/26/2013

104

Modeling Foundations

Foundation Movement

Lumped Parameter (m,c,k) Block System

Parameters Constant, Layer, Special

Impedance Functions
Function of Frequency
q
y ((),
), Layers
y

Boundary Elements (BEM)

Infinite Boundary, Interactions, Layers

Finite Element/Hybrid (FEM, FEM-BEM)

Complex Geometry, Non-linear Soil

8/26/2013

105

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106

Lumped Parameter

Lumped Parameter System

m z &z& + c z z& + k z z = P0 sin( t )
Z

P = Po sin( t )

m
c

Cz

Kz

K
107

X
Cx

m &z& + c z& + kz = P0 sin( t )

8/26/2013

Kx

k
m

n =

8/26/2013

C/2

C/2

D = c c cr

ccr = 2 k m
108

18

8/26/2013

Machine Performance Chart

Performance Zones
A=No Faults, New
B=Minor
Faults,
Good Condition
C = Faulty, Correct In
10 Days To Save Money
D = Failure
F il
I Near,
Is
N
Correct In 2 Days
E = Stop Now

0.002

8/26/2013

109

450
450

8/26/2013

r -2

110

r -2 r -0.5
+

Rayleigh wave
+

APPLICATIONS: GOUND VIBRATION PROBLEMS

Vertical Horizontal
component component

Shear
wave

Relative
amplitude

rr -1

+
Shear
window

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111

8/26/2013

Waves
Rayleigh,
Surface

r
1

+
r
Wave Type

Percentage of
Total Energy

Rayleigh

67

Shear

26

Compression

7112

Courtesy/Acknowledgement

Prof. D.J. Inman (PPT files on Engineering Vibrations)

Prof. G. V. Ramana and Dr. Vasant Matasgar (IIT Delhi) for
sharing their resources on theory of vibration.
My students for their help in searching resource materials
from Google.
Google

Shear,S
Secondary
Compression,
Primary
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P
113

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114

19