Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2004
Brian Feldman
The Pennsylvania State University
College of Engineering
A Thesis in
Mechanical Engineering
by
Bachelor of Science
May 2004
We approve the thesis of Brian David Feldman.
Date of Signature
________________________________________ ______________________
Daniel C. Haworth
Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Thesis Co-Advisor
________________________________________ ______________________
Domenic A. Santavicca
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Honors Advisor
Abstract
The FutureTruck team’s main goals this year are to improve the emissions output
and fuel economy of their hybrid electric vehicle through a combination of engine
and variable displacement diesel were modeled using a diesel engine model
developed in Ricardo’s WAVE software. Data from the baseline engine model
model. The results from the model can be used to predict general trends in engine
engine. According to data obtained from the model, intake throttling and cooled
aftertreatment perspective.
iii
Table of Contents
List of Figures V
Acknowledgements X
Intake Throttling
Thermal Intake Throttling
Variable Displacement Diesel
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Exhaust Backpressure Increase
Timing Retardation
Chapter 5 – Results 41
Intake Throttling
Thermal Intake Throttling
Variable Displacement Diesel
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Hot EGR
Cooled EGR
Exhaust Backpressure Increase
Timing Retardation
iv
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: Peak BHP vs. RPM, Lab vs. Wave vs. Rated 31
Figure 4.2: Minimum BSFC vs. RPM, Lab vs. Wave vs. Rated 32
Figure 4.3: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 32
Figure 4.4: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 33
Figure 4.5: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 33
Figure 4.6: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 34
Figure 4.7: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 34
Figure 4.8: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 35
Figure 4.9: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 35
Figure 4.10: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 36
Figure 4.11: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 36
Figure 4.12: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 37
Figure 5.1: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 700 rpm 42
Figure 5.2: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 43
v
Figure 5.3: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 43
Figure 5.4: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 44
Figure 5.5: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 44
Figure 5.6: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 45
Figure 5.7: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 45
Figure 5.8: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 46
Figure 5.9: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 46
Figure 5.10: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 47
Figure 5.13: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 50
Figure 5.14: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 50
Figure 5.15: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 51
Figure 5.16: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 51
Figure 5.17: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 52
Figure 5.18: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 52
Figure 5.19: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 53
Figure 5.20: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 53
Figure 5.21: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 700 rpm 56
Figure 5.22: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 700 rpm 57
Figure 5.23: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 57
Figure 5.24: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 58
Figure 5.25: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1300 rpm 58
Figure 5.26: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1300 rpm 59
Figure 5.27: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 59
Figure 5.28: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 60
vi
Figure 5.29: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 60
Figure 5.30: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 61
Figure 5.31: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 61
Figure 5.32: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 62
Figure 5.35: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 66
Figure 5.36: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 67
Figure 5.37: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 67
Figure 5.38: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 68
Figure 5.39: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 68
Figure 5.40: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 69
Figure 5.41: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 69
Figure 5.42: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 70
Figure 5.44: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 72
Figure 5.45: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 72
Figure 5.46: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 73
Figure 5.47: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 73
Figure 5.48: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 74
Figure 5.49: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 74
Figure 5.50: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 75
Figure 5.51: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 75
vii
Figure 5.54: Baseline PPM NO Map 77
Figure 5.57: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 81
Figure 5.58: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 81
Figure 5.59: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 82
Figure 5.60: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 82
Figure 5.61: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 83
Figure 5.62: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 83
Figure 5.63: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 84
Figure 5.64: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 84
Figure 5.65: 700 mbar max Backpressure Exhaust System Pressure Map 85
Figure 5.67: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 87
Figure 5.68: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm 87
Figure 5.69: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 88
Figure 5.70: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm 88
Figure 5.71: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 89
Figure 5.72: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm 89
Figure 5.73: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 90
Figure 5.74: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm 90
viii
Figure 5.80: Baseline BSNO2 Map 93
ix
Acknowledgements
Dan Haworth for his support and guidance throughout the research project
Fawzan Al-Sharif of Ricardo for his time and training in WAVE modeling
software
The Penn State FutureTruck Emissions Team for setting up the engine on the
The Penn State FutureTruck Team for revealing the need for research like this to
Brian Feldman
x
Chapter 1 – Goals of Powertrain Modifications
The goals of modeling the 2.5L Detroit Diesel engine used for this thesis are to
effects of each one. This will allow vehicle designers to make more educated
decisions about how to best utilize the engine for minimum emissions and
One group that stands to reap immediate benefits from the knowledge gained
through this research is the Penn State FutureTruck Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Team. The FutureTruck team is using the same 2.5L Detroit Diesel engine that
consumption and emissions data and being able to determine which projects to
pursue for maximum benefit and having the data to back up those decisions, the
team will have a detailed and fairly accurate model upon which future testing can
1
The Need for Engine Modeling
Modeling an engine through software is one of the least expensive and quickest
methods can be obtained from a model as well. Modeling the 2.5L Detroit Diesel
engine will help the FutureTruck team to make quick and informed decisions
about which modifications to the engine will help them to best achieve their goals.
This research will develop a reasonably accurate model of the 2.5L Detroit Diesel
that will be useful for further research into engine modifications and control
The FutureTruck project aims to modify a stock vehicle to achieve 25% better
fuel economy and lower emissions while retaining the capabilities and features of
a stock 2002 Ford Explorer. [FutureTruck 2004] Fifteen schools across the
electric powertrain for the vehicle. Penn State’s strategy incorporates a diesel
2
engine in conjunction with an electric motor and battery pack. The diesel engine
engine. The tradeoff in choosing a diesel engine is that emissions are much
tougher to control due to particulate matter formation and the inability to employ
One major issue with aftertreatment of exhaust is that the treatment components
work best within a certain range of exhaust gas temperatures. Research into
methods of increasing the exhaust gas temperatures is important to the Penn State
FutureTruck team because during the 2002 competition, the diesel particulate
filter being used was clogged due to exhaust gas temperatures that were too low to
regenerate the filter, as a result of extended idling during the competition. Penn
Penn State chose a turbocharged 103 kW 2.5L Detroit Diesel engine for use in the
truck because they have extensive experience with this particular engine and it
was one of the few diesel engines that was available at the time it was selected
with a power rating that met the requirements for the hybrid powertrain design.
Unfortunately this engine is equipped with a closed Bosch ignition and engine
3
Computer controls and sensors used are calibrated specifically for the stock
engine and thus extensive modifications to the engine itself would likely not result
to the engine, emissions control can still be achieved through trying to run the
engine near certain load and speed ranges by use of the hybrid powertrain,
a diesel engine based on the Atkinson cycle, in which the compression and
expansion ratio are variable. If fuel could be injected into the cylinder over a
longer period of time, this would slightly decrease efficiency but would greatly
reduce the temperature spike characteristically observed in Otto cycle and Diesel
cycle combustion. The Atkinson cycle engine also offers higher efficiency than an
Otto or Diesel cycle engine due to the adjustable compression and expansion
ratio, which could offset any efficiency penalties due to delayed timing. If NOx
emissions to treat. The Atkinson cycle reduces available power and torque, but if
used in conjunction with an electric motor as with a hybrid vehicle the effects can
be minimized. The 2004 Toyota Prius and 2005 Ford Escape HEV (hybrid
electric vehicle) both use Atkinson cycle gasoline engines in their hybrid
4
powertrains. [Toyota 2004, Ford Motor Company 2004] A similar concept for a
NOx, CO, HC, and PM can all be reduced through the use of commercially
available aftertreatment products. Penn State currently uses a urea SCR (selective
catalytic reduction) system to treat NOx emissions. The use of a urea SCR
aftertreatment system for NOx reduction such as the Penn State FutureTruck team
uses may be impractical for the typical consumer because it is costly to implement
and maintain, requires precise calibration and control, and requires frequent
refills. [National Laboratory for the Environment 2004] Since the consumer will
functioning, they will have no incentive to maintain the system and may not even
treated by a diesel particulate filter. Diesel particulate filters require the exhaust
and add backpressure to the engine. Penn State must be careful of the amount of
backpressure reduce fuel efficiency and power output from the engine. Since Penn
State has determined that aftertreatment is the most effective method of emissions
5
control for this particular application, all efforts need to be taken to ensure that the
ensuring that the exhaust gas temperatures are within acceptable ranges.
especially if combustion is optimized for low NOx production due to the typical
NOx – PM tradeoff for diesels. A diesel particulate filter with a low regeneration
temperature would greatly reduce all three of these pollutants and if operating
function as a muffler, eliminating the need for a separate sound reduction device.
deposits. This service would likely only need to be performed after every 30,000
– 50,000 miles, which means that it could be done at the same time as other
gasoline engine with a diesel for higher thermal efficiency and employing a
hybrid electric powertrain so that the engine can be run near its most efficient
operating conditions and braking losses can be partially recovered. Since it has
been determined that major engine modifications are infeasible, the most effective
6
remaining ways to reduce fuel consumption include lightweighting the vehicle,
reducing accessory loads where possible, refining the hybrid powertrain control
algorithm to run the engine near its most efficient operating conditions, ensuring
that the engine intake is not restricted, and keeping the exhaust backpressure as
7
Chapter 2 – Engine Control Strategies
Intake Throttling
Restricting the airflow into the engine is one relatively simple way to increase the
EGT (exhaust gas temperature) that Penn State could implement on the
FutureTruck without too much trouble. Throttling reduces the amount of air
available to the engine for combustion. The same amount of fuel is burned with
less air, resulting in a higher fuel-air ratio than would result from normal
operation at a given operational point. For this experiment the fuel-air ratio will
be kept at a constant 0.045 over all operating points tested. Since less excess
oxygen is present during combustion, the net energy released by combustion heats
less matter than it would if more excess oxygen were present, resulting in higher
temperatures. [Mayer 2003] This could be accomplished with the use of a simple
throttle plate, which is commonly available due to its use on virtually every
production gasoline engine. Intake throttling is likely more viable than electrically
heating the exhaust or using a heated diesel particulate filter or catalyst due to
conversion losses for electricity production, high power requirements for electric
heating methods, increased loads on the electrical system, and difficulty in finding
and implementing electric exhaust heating products. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the
8
differences between an engine operating normally and an engine operating in a
throttled manner. Note that during normal operation the throttle plate is open,
Intake throttling would only be necessary when the EGT is below the required
idle. Since EGT can be measured or easily calculated based on engine model
maps it would be simple to determine when and to what degree the engine needs
to be throttled to keep the EGT in the appropriate range. By limiting use of intake
9
throttling to the periods in which it is necessary, adverse effects on fuel economy
and emissions are minimized. Reduction in peak power output of the engine using
this control strategy is not an issue because the engine would not be throttled
under normal and high-load operation, as the EGT would already be high enough
under these operating conditions. Penn State also uses insulation around the
plates are small, light, inexpensive, and commonly available. Exhaust gas
output and does not affect the engine at all over most of the operating range.
Intake throttling is also not critical to engine operation, so the loss of the ability to
throttle the intake would not prevent the FutureTruck from participating in
competition.
and may adversely affect engine out NOx emissions. Accelerator position input to
the engine may need to be modified to raise the fuel-air ratio to prevent the engine
10
from stalling when throttling is employed. Sensors such as the MAF (mass
airflow sensor) may need to be bypassed to prevent the engine from setting error
By increasing the air temperature of the intake the amount of air entering the
temperature at a fixed pressure. If the same amount of fuel is burned, the fuel-air
ratio would be higher than for a colder, denser charge of air, which means less
Also, the temperature of the exhaust will be higher partially due to the fact that
the temperature of the air at the beginning of combustion is higher. Figure 2.2
11
Figure 2.2: Visual representation of thermal throttling
intake could be located closer to the engine, radiator, or exhaust system to take in
the ability of the intercooler to cool intake air after passing through the
exchanger to take heat from the exhaust or engine coolant. By limiting use of
fuel economy and emissions are minimized. Reduction in peak power output of
12
the engine using this control strategy is not an issue because the engine would not
be thermally throttled under normal and high-load operation, as the EGT would
Thermal intake throttling would not be critical for operation of the truck, and the
inability to use the system would not prevent the FutureTruck from competing.
Intake air temperature and EGT can be easily measured to determine the amount
output of the engine as thermal throttling would only be employed near idle
conditions.
throttling because of the need for a secondary air intake in a warm location and a
method to mix warm and cold intake air in the correct proportions. Warm air for
thermal throttling would not be available immediately upon engine startup due to
the fact that the engine would be cold. If the intake air becomes too warm, the
engine may set an error code and shut down. The MAF and other sensors may
13
Variable Displacement Diesel
have never been investigated in a diesel engine before. Major automakers are
Hemi, which is being used in the 2005 Chrysler 300C and 2005 Dodge Magnum
the engine so that combustion occurs in only half of the cylinders in an engine.
Since the cylinders that would be firing would be running under much more load
than they would be if all of the cylinders were firing, the belief is that an engine-
out emissions reduction can be achieved and fuel consumption will decrease since
the engine normally operates more efficiently and produces lower emissions when
operating under heavier loads. It has also been suggested that the engine chosen
smaller engine with the power availability of a larger engine, and it would be
simpler to deactivate the cylinders than to install a smaller engine. Figure 2.3
14
Figure 2.3: Visual representation of variable displacement diesel
Variable displacement would be used at or near idle operation to increase the load
factor on the firing cylinders with the hopes of reducing emissions and fuel
consumption. The engine must have the ability to run on all cylinders if necessary
for peak power output during events such as acceleration and towing at
competition. Engine load is easily monitored and controlled, which would make it
15
Advantages and Disadvantages of Variable Displacement in a Diesel
because the engine is getting two power strokes per revolution instead of four.
This can lead to significant vibrations since the engine is designed and balanced
injectors will set engine trouble codes and cause the engine to shut down entirely
temperatures are not increased at low loads because cold intake air is pumped
through deactivated cylinders directly into the exhaust. Sensors such as the MAF
may need to be bypassed because of the vast quantity of air coming in that would
not be used in combustion. Brake specific fuel consumption increases due to the
tough to make a smooth transition between running on two and four cylinders.
16
Exhaust gas recirculation involves rerouting a fraction of exhaust gases from the
exhaust manifold to the air intake of the engine. The goal is to reduce engine out
has several effects on the combustion process. If the exhaust gas is not cooled
before being introduced into the intake, it will heat up the incoming air charge and
provide a thermal throttling effect. Adding exhaust gas to the intake also raises the
fuel-to-air ratio by lowering the concentration of oxygen. This has the effect of
of exhaust gas is also higher than that of ambient air, resulting in lower
combustion temperatures as well. Since NOx formation occurs due to the presence
operating normally and an engine operating with hot EGR, while figure 2.5 shows
17
Figure 2.4: Visual representation of hot EGR
18
Basic Strategy for use of EGR
Exhaust gas recirculation can be employed at any time during engine operation to
pressure between the exhaust and intake. At high loads and speeds with a
and operating points without a large enough pressure differential, intake throttling
can be used to lower the intake pressure and raise the pressure differential
between the exhaust and the intake. The exhaust gases can be introduced into the
Exhaust gas recirculation is fairly easy to utilize and the 2.5L Detroit Diesel, as
well as many other engines, are designed with a built-in EGR system which is
active in the stock configuration. An EGR system does not add a significant
EGR system is not critical to the engine’s ability to operate. Exhaust gas
production and may even allow the engine to be tuned to run more efficiently
19
The main disadvantages of EGR are a reduction in peak power output, a possible
increase in brake specific fuel consumption at high speeds and loads, and the
potential for increased PM, CO and HC emissions. There are also durability issues
critical to the FutureTruck team’s performance due to the fact that a urea SCR
system has been added to the truck specifically for the purpose of treating NOx
emissions. The FutureTruck team would gain the most benefit by deactivating the
EGR system to increase peak power at high engine speeds and loads.
overcome the restriction, which will result in higher pressures and temperatures
20
filters add backpressure to an exhaust system. If the effects of the additional
backpressure are not accounted for, exhaust gas temperatures, power output, and
fuel consumption may differ greatly from expectations. Exhaust backpressure can
also be intentionally added to the system by using a throttle plate in the exhaust if
desired.
exhaust stream the EGT will rise with added backpressure. The goal in
beneficial for the reduction of undesirable pollutants, such as CO, HC, PM, and
NOx. However, the sizing and usage of these aftertreatment devices and the
21
excessively high backpressure may also damage the engine or components in the
Timing Retardation
unit to inject fuel later than it normally would so that combustion and the phasing
of heat released are delayed. By causing combustion and therefore heat release to
occur later in the power stroke, the amount of expansion the combustion gases
undergo is reduced. Less expansion means that less work is performed, resulting
that peak cylinder temperatures are reduced, which reduces the formation of NOx,
22
Figure 2.6: Timing retardation effect on combustion temperatures
out NOx emissions or increase the exhaust gas temperature. Exhaust gas
timing could be left unchanged at high engine speeds and loads to avoid a
reduction in peak power output and increases in fuel consumption at high power
levels.
23
Advantages and Disadvantages of Timing Retardation
Timing retardation is very easy to control and modify with an open engine control
most benefit. Peak power and fuel consumption levels can remain unchanged if
the timing is only retarded at lower speeds and loads. Less engine-out NOx is
created. Exhaust gas temperatures increase with timing retardation, although the
consumption increases and power output decreases when the timing is retarded.
24
Chapter 3 – Engine Model
valves, injectors, compression ratios, fuel type, and the heat release rate due to
combustion can all be modified to determine their effects. WAVE employs one-
simulated engine run to create an engine map consists of modeling the engine at
many different speed and load points, with enough iterations at each point to
Model Overview
25
Figure 3.1: Image of Engine Model in WAVE
The red area indicates ambient air and the air intake system. Air moves along to
the orange area, where it passes through the compressor of the turbocharger and
then through the intercooler. It continues along through the yellow area, which is
the intake manifold. The green area indicates the four cylinders and fuel injectors.
Exhaust is pumped into the exhaust manifold, marked in blue. Exhaust then
passes through the turbine of the turbocharger, indicated in purple. The remaining
exhaust aftertreatment components and end of the tailpipe are circled in brown.
The grey circle marks the exhaust gas recirculation system, in which some
26
exhaust gas is taken from the exhaust manifold, cooled via an EGR cooler, and
There are many input parameters in the model that affect engine performance.
These parameters include but are not limited to: duct length, duct temperatures,
Output data available from the model include but is not limited to: pressure traces,
27
Chapter 4 – Engine Dyno in Lab
The engine that was used to calibrate the model was set up in the Penn State
Academic Activities Building by the FutureTruck Emissions team and testing was
conducted during Spring 2004. A blend of biodiesel, B35, was used for testing, as
this was the same specification as the fuel to be used at competition. For the initial
emissions were not measured. The EGR was also disabled. Due to time
constraints, only one baseline test matrix could be run before the model needed to
reasonably consistent and are close to expected values. Further testing on the
engine in the lab will include measuring engine out emissions and the
control unit will also allow the team to fine-tune the engine specifically for the
The WAVE engine model used to model the actual 2.5L Detroit Diesel engine is
based off a model created by Sara Inman for her master’s thesis. [Inman 2002]
After much modification using data obtained in the lab, it now compares quite
well with the engine in the lab in terms of characteristics such as power output,
28
unavailability of complete information about the engine, certain assumptions
EGR settings. Emissions output was not concentrated on in great detail because
the FutureTruck was being designed to run with several different emissions
information about the shape and properties of the combustion chamber in the
engine were unknown. The accuracy of engine-out emissions projections from the
model would therefore be extremely rough guesses at best and not of great
Comparing engine models with real test data and published data [Detroit Diesel
2004] using data points obtained at the peak power output alone is not an
entirely accurate method of verification for several reasons. One of the main
reasons is that there are so many factors in the model that can be adjusted, such as
conditions and methods in the dyno lab may be slightly different than the
and exhaust gas temperatures at different loads and speeds, which can be easily
measured and provide more useful information for calibration of the vehicle
systems over the entire range of operation. Figure 4.1 compares the peak power
29
output of the engine in the lab, the rated specifications, and the WAVE baseline
model. Figure 4.2 compares the minimum BSFC (brake specific fuel
consumption) for the engine in the lab, the published specifications, and the
WAVE baseline model. Figures 4.3 through 4.12 compare BSFC and EGT data
obtained from the lab and model baseline over the entire operating range of the
engine.
One of the main differences between the model, rated power output, and engine in
the lab was that the engine in the lab was fueled with a biodiesel blend of B35,
whereas the model and manufacturer used regular diesel fuel. Biodiesel has been
small amount. [Fedak 2003] Since the blend of biodiesel used in the engine lab
was only a 35% blend of biodiesel, these effects of using B35 instead of regular
diesel were assumed to be very minor and would not have a significant impact on
the engine calibration or the trends that the model was used to examine.
Another difference between the model, rated power output, and engine in the lab
not measured directly but is likely to be very low because there were no flow
restricting devices in the exhaust system. The backpressure on the baseline model
had no more than 110 mbar of maximum backpressure, whereas the rated
30
During calibration between the engine on the dyno and the WAVE model, EGR
was disabled and there were no exhaust aftertreatment devices. This eliminated
the need to account for two variables that could make calibrating the WAVE
model much more difficult. However, the potential of the model to include the
BHP - Lab/Wave/Rated
160
140
120
Power (bhp)
100 Lab
80 Wave
60 Rated
40
20
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
RPM
Figure 4.1: Peak BHP vs. RPM, Lab vs. Wave vs. Rated
31
BSFC (kg/kwh) - Lab/Wave/Rated
0.300
0.250
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.200
Lab
0.150 Wave
Rated
0.100
0.050
0.000
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
RPM
Figure 4.2: Minimum BSFC vs. RPM, Lab vs. Wave vs. Rated
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Lab
700
Wave
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.3: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
32
1000 RPM BSFC
1.200
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
Lab
0.600
Wave
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.4: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
0.400
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.300
Lab
0.200
Wave
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.5: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
33
2000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Lab
700
Wave
600
500
400
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.6: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
0.600 Lab
0.400 Wave
0.200
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.7: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
34
2000 RPM BSFC
0.300
0.250
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.200
Lab
0.150
Wave
0.100
0.050
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.8: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Lab
700
Wave
600
500
400
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.9: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
35
3000 RPM BSFC
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
0.300 Lab
0.200 Wave
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.10: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Lab
700
Wave
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.11: Baseline model EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
36
4000 RPM BSFC
0.400
BSFC (kg/kwhr) 0.350
0.300
0.250
Lab
0.200
0.150 Wave
0.100
0.050
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 4.12: Baseline model BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
Figures 4.3 to 4.12 show that the exhaust gas temperatures obtained from the
model correlate quite well with the values obtained in the lab at engine speeds
above 1500 rpm. At nearly all operating points at speeds of 2000 rpm and above,
the exhaust gas temperature difference between the lab and model is within 50 K
and also, more importantly, the trends are consistent. At 1500 rpm and below the
engine control unit for the engine in the lab was thought to be operating in a
different manner than normal to control operating conditions at idle, and the full
effects of these differences were unknown. Further testing in the lab would be
necessary to determine the accuracy of the EGT values gathered as there appear to
be a few minor anomalies in the data, such as an unexplained rise in the EGT in
the mid-range power output at 2000 rpm. Differences in the combustion heat
release profile, heat transfer rates, and start-of-combustion timing may be some of
the reasons that the EGT values obtained from the model differ from those in the
lab.
37
At engine loads above approximately 20% of full power for any given speed,
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) values obtained from the model and the
lab appear to correlate quite well and appear to be within 3-5% at most points and
trends appear consistent. Below 20% load the values differ, sometimes by a
significant amount. This might be due to the fact that the dyno measures power
output after driveshaft losses, whereas the model does not factor driveshaft losses
into its power output. Another reason the BSFC values obtained in the lab at very
low power outputs may have such high variation is that the engine is clearly
operating very inefficiently in this range, and very small changes in the fueling
rate might cause large changes in power output since the BSFC varies greatly
testing in the lab would be necessary to determine the accuracy of the BSFC
values gathered as there appear to be a few minor anomalies in the data, such as
random high and low BSFC points on the 1000 rpm and 4000 rpm operating
conditions that do not appear to be in line with other points gathered. Differences
in the combustion heat release profile, heat transfer rates, and start-of-combustion
timing may be some of the reasons that the BSFC values obtained from the model
differ slightly from those in the lab. Figures 4.13 and 4.14 show maps of BSFC
and EGT, respectively, over the entire operating range of the model baseline
engine.
38
Figure 4.13: Baseline Model Fuel Consumption Map
39
Figure 4.14: Baseline Model EGT map
40
Chapter 5 – Results
Intake Throttling
The results obtained from the intake throttling model match expectations. To
model an intake throttle, an orifice with a selectable diameter was used ahead of
the compressor to create a pressure drop. The fuel injectors were set to provide a
constant fuel-air ratio of 0.045 for all cases in the intake throttling test. These
results show that a constant EGT can be obtained across the entire load range at
any speed, although the maximum attainable EGT is dependent upon speed. The
EGT can be adjusted as desired at any speed by varying the amount of throttling
pumping losses, and thus brake specific fuel consumption increases when
throttling is used. The amount of extra fuel consumed and increase in exhaust gas
is only necessary when the EGT is too low for aftertreatment devices to be
41
normal driving conditions intake throttling is not necessary, and thus fuel
economy and emissions would not be adversely affected during most of the
driving cycle. Figures 5.1 through 5.10 compare BSFC and EGT data obtained
from the model baseline and intake throttled model over the entire operating range
of the engine. These graphs show that EGT can be maintained at a high level
Figures 5.11 and 5.12 provide maps of BSFC and EGT, respectively, near idle
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Intake Throttle Idle
600
500
400
0 5 10 15
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.1: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 700 rpm
42
700 RPM BSFC
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Intake Throttle Idle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.2: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Intake Throttle
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.3: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
43
1000 RPM BSFC
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Intake Throttle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.4: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Intake Throttle
600
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.5: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
44
2000 RPM BSFC
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Intake Throttle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.6: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.7: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
45
3000 RPM BSFC
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
0.200
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.8: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Intake Throttle
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.9: Intake Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
46
4000 RPM BSFC
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Intake Throttle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.10: Intake Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
47
Figure 5.12: Intake Throttled EGT Map
48
Thermal Intake Throttling
Thermal intake throttling was modeled by increasing the ambient temperature and
bypassing the intercooler, or using a heat exchanger between the intake and
Thermal intake throttling reduces the density of the air entering the engine, which
reduces the power output of the engine without reducing the intake pressure.
Since less air enters the cylinders the fuel-air ratio is effectively increased without
a corresponding increase in power output. The amount of extra fuel consumed and
is minimized because thermal intake throttling is only necessary when the EGT is
too low for aftertreatment devices to be effective, such as during extended periods
not necessary, and thus fuel economy and emissions would not be adversely
affected during most of the driving cycle. Figures 5.13 through 5.20 compare
49
BSFC and EGT data obtained from the model baseline and thermal throttled
model over the entire operating range of the engine. These show that at all
operating points thermal throttling increases EGT and slightly increases BSFC.
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Thermal Throttle
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.13: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
0.400
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.300
Wave Baseline
0.200
Thermal Throttle
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.14: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
50
2000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Thermal Throttle
600
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.15: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
0.300
0.250
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.200
Wave Baseline
0.150
Thermal Throttle
0.100
0.050
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.16: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
51
3000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.17: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
Thermal Throttle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.18: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
52
4000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Thermal Throttle
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.19: Thermal Throttled EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
0.200
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.20: Thermal Throttled BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
53
Variable Displacement Diesel
Variable Displacement Diesel was modeled by removing the fuel injectors from
cylinders 2 and 3, which fire opposite each other. The firing sequence of this
engine is 1-3-4-2. The valvetrain was left fully operational because it would be
impractical to shut down the valves for any cylinders unless the engine was
originally designed with this in mind. In some cases a higher EGT can be
obtained by shutting off two of the cylinders, but in all cases fuel consumption is
approximately 1/3 of the peak power obtainable when all cylinders are firing. If
this strategy were to be employed, provisions would need to be made to run on all
available power and torque, and nasty vibrations might be encountered. It would
reduce weight and increase efficiency if it is decided that the engine in use is
flow.
cylinders without major engine modifications and engineering effort. One idea for
implementing variable displacement involved removing the glow plugs for the
54
two non-firing cylinders and replacing them with electronically actuated valves to
reduce pumping losses when running in two-cylinder mode. However, this would
limit the ability of the engine to start properly when cold, and it could severely
compression ratio. Due to these constraints, it was decided that the easiest way to
implement variable displacement would be to cut off fuel injector pulses to the
two non-firing cylinders and devise a method to fool the engine control module
into sensing that the injectors were receiving pulses to prevent an engine fault
from registering.
Since the valvetrain would still be running, intake air would be flowing to all of
the cylinders, and exhaust gas from all the cylinders would flow into the exhaust
amount of cold unburned air would enter the exhaust stream. For this reason the
effective as it would be if the valvetrain for the two non-firing cylinders could be
stopped.
between the exhaust and intake in combination with the running valvetrain rob the
Running a four cylinder diesel engine on two cylinders in this manner would not
increase exhaust gas temperatures at all at very low loads and speeds. Since
55
exhaust gas temperatures need to be raised most at idle and two-cylinder
operation cannot be used at high loads due to limits on power output, this method
reduces emissions. Figures 5.21 through 5.32 compare BSFC and EGT data
obtained from the model baseline and variable displacement model over the entire
operating range of the engine. These show that variable displacement significantly
increases fuel consumption and only provides a small increase in EGT at low
speeds with light-to-moderate loads. Figures 5.33 and 5.34 provide maps of BSFC
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
VDD Idle
600
500
400
0 5 10 15
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.21: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 700 rpm
56
700 RPM BSFC
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
VDD Idle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.22: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 700
rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
VDD
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.23: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
57
1000 RPM BSFC
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
0.600 Wave Baseline
0.400 VDD
0.200
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.24: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000
rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
VDD Idle
600
500
400
0 10 20 30 40
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.25: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1300 rpm
58
1300 RPM BSFC
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
VDD Idle
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 10 20 30 40
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.26: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1300
rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
VDD
600
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.27: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
59
2000 RPM BSFC
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
0.200
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.28: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000
rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.29: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
60
3000 RPM BSFC
1.200
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
Wave Baseline
0.600
VDD
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.30: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000
rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
VDD
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.31: Variable Displacement Diesel EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
61
4000 RPM BSFC
1.600
1.400
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
1.200
1.000 Wave Baseline
0.800
0.600 VDD
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.32: Variable Displacement Diesel BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000
rpm
62
Figure 5.33: Variable Displacement Diesel Fuel Consumption Map
63
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Hot EGR was modeled by removing the EGR intercooler in the model and
opening an orifice to a diameter of 1 cm to let gases flow through the EGR system
from the exhaust manifold (before the turbine) to the intake manifold (after the
compressor) due to a pressure gradient. As can be seen in the EGR map, Figure
5.43, appreciable rates of EGR only occur above 2000 rpm. This may be due to
such as turbocharger and wastegate settings and timings. The drop in EGT at
higher loads at 1000 rpm as seen in Figure 5.35 may be due to flow reversal in the
EGR path. [Yang 2003] Pressure differences in the system may be such that cool
intake air was flowing into the exhaust, cooling it down. [Van Nieuwstadt 2003],
[Jacobs 2003] The maximum amount of EGR in this case occurs at the higher
loads at 3000 and 4000 rpm, and the expected effects of increased EGT and
slightly increased fuel consumption are present. However, retuning the engine
Exhaust gas recirculation has been shown to reduce NOx emissions due to the
64
However, exhaust gas recirculation can lead to higher brake specific fuel
the necessary pressure differential between the exhaust and intake to achieve
exhaust gas flow. The reduction in fuel efficiency is related to the amount of
exhaust gas recirculation employed and the degree of pumping losses. Presumably
process to account for the effects of exhaust gas recirculation and designing the
turbocharging setup for minimal pumping losses. [Jacobs 2003] Uncooled EGR
preferable to cool the EGR if the main goal is NOx reduction. [Yang 2003] In the
to 15% of intake air at high loads and speeds because the highest pressure
can be seen that heated EGR raises the exhaust gas temperature, while cooled
EGR has very little effect on exhaust gas temperature, but lowers fuel
factors like injection timing and start of combustion may need to be modified to
produce peak efficiency and emissions reduction when using EGR. For this
experiment all factors were kept the same as during operation without EGR. Also,
65
exhaust gas recirculated at lower loads and speeds. With this model the effects of
EGR are only evident at high loads and speeds because sufficient amounts of
EGR only occur under these conditions. Figures 5.35 through 5.42 compare BSFC
and EGT data obtained from the model baseline and hot EGR model over the
entire operating range of the engine. These show that hot EGR increases the EGT
if the exhaust gas is flowing to the intake, and cools the EGT if the flow is
Figure 5.43 provides a map showing the amount of exhaust gases recirculated into
the intake over the operational range of the engine occurring in the hot EGR
model. Note the large area where 0% of the composition of the intake gas is
exhaust gas. This indicates either no flow of exhaust into the intake or flow of
intake air directly into the exhaust through the EGR system.
Hot EGR
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Hot
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.35: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
66
1000 RPM BSFC
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Hot
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.36: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Hot
600
500
400
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.37: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
67
2000 RPM BSFC
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Hot
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.38: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.39: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
68
3000 RPM BSFC
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Hot
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.40: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Hot
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.41: Hot EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
69
4000 RPM BSFC
0.800
0.700
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.600
0.500 Wave Baseline
0.400
0.300 EGR Hot
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.42: Hot EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
70
Cooled EGR
flow through the EGR system from the exhaust manifold (before the turbine) to
the intake manifold (after the compressor) due to a pressure gradient. As can be
seen in the EGR map, Figure 5.52, appreciable rates of EGR only occur above
2000 rpm. This may be due to inaccuracies in the model calibration because
and timings. The drop in EGT at higher loads at 1000 rpm as seen in Figure 5.44
may be due to flow reversal in the EGR path. [Yang 2003] Pressure differences
in the system may be such that cool intake air was flowing into the exhaust,
cooling it down. [Van Nieuwstadt 2003], [Jacobs 2003] The maximum amount
of EGR in this case occurs at the higher loads at 3000 and 4000 rpm, and the
expected effects of increased EGT are present. The increase in EGT with cooled
EGR is less than the increase with hot EGR. However, it can be seen that fuel
consumption is actually reduced due to cooled EGR at 3000 and 4000 rpm. With
proper engine tuning fuel consumption with cooled EGR might be able to be
reduced even more, providing the benefits of reduced fuel consumption and
reduced NOx emissions. Figures 5.44 through 5.51 compare BSFC and EGT data
obtained from the model baseline and cooled EGR model over the entire
speeds with high amounts of EGR occurring. Figure 5.52 provides a map showing
the amount of exhaust gases recirculated into the intake over the operational range
71
of the engine occurring in the cooled EGR model. Note the large area where 0%
of the composition of the intake gas is exhaust gas. This indicates either no flow
of exhaust into the intake or flow of intake air directly into the exhaust through
the EGR system. Figures 5.53 through 5.56 provide maps comparing PPMNO
(parts per million NO) and BSNO2 (brake specific NO2) emissions from the
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Cooled
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.44: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Cooled
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.45: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
72
2000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Cooled
600
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.46: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Cooled
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.47: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
73
3000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.48: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
0.600
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
EGR Cooled
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.49: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
74
4000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
EGR Cooled
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.50: Cooled EGR EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
0.800
0.700
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.600
0.500 Wave Baseline
0.400
0.300 EGR Cooled
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.51: Cooled EGR BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
75
Figure 5.52: Cooled EGR % of Exhaust Gas in Intake Map
76
Figure 5.54: Baseline PPM NO Map
77
Figure 5.56: Baseline BSNO2 Map
78
Exhaust Backpressure Increase
device such as a muffler, catalyst, or filter. The ductwork consisted of many tiny
tubes, designed to increase the surface area and therefore provide friction and
resistance to flow on the moving air. This type of device will produce a varying
expected, peak power output is greatly reduced, exhaust gas temperatures increase
backpressure generated by the passive device in this experiment, 700 mbar, was
above the 250 mbar used for the published engine performance ratings.
and lower power output, as anything that increases the backpressure in an exhaust
system is a flow restriction, which increases the pumping work performed by the
devices varies with engine load and speed because the friction and pressure drop
79
exhaust flow rates. Therefore exhaust gas temperatures will increase most due to
backpressure at times when the exhaust is already the hottest, making the addition
of passive flow restriction devices in the exhaust stream a poor choice for
increasing EGT at low speeds and loads, which are the periods when EGT is
lowest and needs to be increased. Passive flow restriction devices can also greatly
reduce peak power output and increase fuel consumption because the most
backpressure is obtained at high speeds and loads when the most power is being
the use of a throttling device in the exhaust if desired. Figures 5.57 through 5.64
compare BSFC and EGT data obtained from the model baseline and increased
backpressure model over the entire operating range of the engine. Figures 5.65
and 5.66 provide maps showing the amount of exhaust backpressure and EGT,
backpressure model. It can be clearly seen that fuel consumption increases over
the entire operating range. Note that backpressure generally increases with
exhaust flow rate and EGT rise is dependent on the amount of backpressure.
80
1000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800 Wave Baseline
EGT (K)
700
700 mbar
600 backpressure
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.57: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
Figure 5.58: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000
rpm
81
2000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800 Wave Baseline
EGT (K)
700
700 mbar
600 backpressure
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.59: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
0.350
0.300
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
Figure 5.60: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000
rpm
82
3000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800 Wave Baseline
EGT (K)
700
700 mbar
600
backpressure
500
400
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.61: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Baseline
0.300
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.62: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000
rpm
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4000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800 Wave Baseline
EGT (K)
700
700 mbar
600 backpressure
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.63: 700 mbar max backpressure EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
Wave Std
0.300
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.64: 700 mbar max backpressure BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000
rpm
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Figure 5.65: 700 mbar max Backpressure Exhaust System Pressure Map
85
Timing Retardation
NOx reduction is also evident. The amount of timing retardation or advance could
Timing retardation increases fuel consumption because it reduces the work output
for each cylinder stroke with a given amount of fuel. This happens because the
released later in the power stroke. This also increases exhaust gas temperatures
and reduces power output, but can also lower NOx emissions due to reduced peak
cylinder temperatures. Figures 5.67 through 5.74 compare BSFC and EGT data
obtained from the model baseline and timing retarded model over the entire
operating range of the engine. Figure 5.75 and 5.76 provide maps showing the
BSFC and EGT, respectively, over the operational range of the engine occurring
in the timing retarded model. Both EGT and fuel consumption values are
increased over the entire operating range. Figures 5.77 through 5.80 provide maps
comparing PPMNO (parts per million NO) and BSNO2 (brake specific NO2)
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emissions from the baseline model and timing retarded model. Note that retarding
the timing 15 degrees greatly reduces NOx output from the engine model.
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Retarded Timing
600
500
400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.67: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Retarded Timing
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.68: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 1000 rpm
87
2000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Retarded Timing
600
500
400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.69: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
0.500
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.400
0.100
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.70: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 2000 rpm
88
3000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Figure 5.71: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
0.700
0.600
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.500
0.400 Wave Baseline
0.300 Retarded Timing
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 50 100 150
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.72: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 3000 rpm
89
4000 RPM EGT
1000
900
800
EGT (K)
Wave Baseline
700
Retarded Timing
600
500
400
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.73: Timing Retarded 15 deg EGT (K) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
1.200
1.000
BSFC (kg/kwhr)
0.800
Wave Baseline
0.600
Retarded Timing
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
Power (bhp)
Figure 5.74: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSFC (kg/kwhr) vs. BHP at 4000 rpm
90
Figure 5.75: Timing Retarded 15 deg Fuel Consumption Map
91
Figure 5.77: Timing Retarded 15 deg PPM NO Map
92
Figure 5.79: Timing Retarded 15 deg BSNO2 Map
93
Chapter 6 –Research Summary and Conclusions
Modeling an engine through software is one of the least expensive and quickest
methods can be obtained from a model as well. Modeling the 2.5L Detroit Diesel
engine will help the FutureTruck team to make quick and informed decisions
about which modifications to the engine will help them to best achieve their goals.
The FutureTruck team is very fortunate to have data from an engine dyno to
verify the model against. Without knowing how accurate a model is compared to
the actual engine, the model cannot be used to predict changes in operating
construction of the model because all operating parameters were not obtainable.
However, it can be seen that the model is sufficiently similar to the actual engine
because major characteristics such as brake specific fuel consumption and exhaust
gas temperatures are similar between the model and the dyno.
This research has just scratched the surface in modeling and researching the many
94
maintaining performance and fuel economy. The benefits and drawbacks of
best solution. The main goals are to reduce emissions of NOx, PM, CO, and HC,
while maintaining acceptable fuel economy and power. For each emission one can
economy and power and treating the emissions later with aftertreatment.
Generally the former is preferable since it results in less system complexity and
Variable displacement diesel can be ruled out as a major strategy due to its
incredibly high fuel consumption, lack of power, and vibration issues. It really
Thermal throttling only allows for a small increase in exhaust gas temperatures at
low speeds and loads, where the ability to increase the exhaust gas temperatures is
most beneficial if aftertreatments that require high exhaust gas temperatures are
used. The apparatus to perform thermal throttling can also be quite complex. Thus
95
increases with speed and load, and exhaust gas temperatures are not appreciably
raised at low speeds and loads, where it may be beneficial. Increasing exhaust
backpressure also reduces peak power and can dramatically increase fuel
consumption.
cooled EGR has been shown to reduce NOx emissions and improve fuel
consumption, although peak power output is reduced. Since cooled EGR can be
control strategy. The main issue with the use of cooled EGR is ensuring enough
EGR flow.
Intake throttling has the ability to drastically increase exhaust gas temperatures
when necessary for aftertreatment. This could be very beneficial during cold starts
to warm up the engine and aftertreatment devices more rapidly. Since intake
throttling provides this major benefit and is fairly easy to implement and control,
Retarding the timing can have an extremely beneficial effect on NOx emissions
and can increase exhaust gas temperatures, even though fuel consumption is
96
increased. Since timing is easily adjustable and can drastically change fuel
economy and emissions based on speed, load, and amount of EGR, properly
calibrating and perhaps modifying the timing would be an integral part of any
control strategy.
Since sufficient exhaust gas temperatures are needed over a portion of the duty
cycle for diesel particulate filter regeneration, intake throttling could be employed
during periods of idle or low load to raise the EGT. The adverse effects on fuel
economy would be minimized because this would only occur when normal
driving conditions did not put enough load on the engine to raise EGT for a
The most effective strategy for balancing emissions, fuel economy, performance,
the combustion cycle by redesigning the engine and using cooled EGR can reduce
NOx emissions and increase fuel economy. A diesel particulate filter can manage
the remaining emissions problems and act as a muffler. Intake throttling can be
regenerate the diesel particulate filter. This would allow for a robust, low-cost
powertrain solution that effectively controls all emissions while maintaining good
fuel economy.
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Chapter 7 - Future Work
This research leaves open many possibilities for future research based upon
engine modeling.
injection rate, combustion rates, and other parameters would allow more
PM.
3) The engine model could be specifically tuned to offer more power, better
4) Results from the models could be used to improve the control strategy of
Due to this research, the FutureTruck team will now have a reasonably accurate
model of a 2.5L Detroit Diesel engine which can be used for further research.
98
Bibliography
1. Brewbaker, Tom, and van Nieuwstadt, Michiel (2002), “Control of Oxygen for
Thermal Management of Diesel Particulate Filters,” SAE Paper No. 2002-01-
0427
8. Jacobs, Timothy, Assanis, Dennis, and Filipi, Zoran (2003), “The Impact of
Exhaust Gas Recirculation of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine,” SAE Paper No.
2003-01-1068
9. Kouremenos, D.A., Hountalas, D.T., and Binder, K.B. (2001), “The Effect of
EGR on the Performance and Pollutant Emissions of Heavy Duty Diesel Engines
using Constant and Variable AFR,” SAE Paper No. 2001-01-0198.
10. Mayer, A., Lutz, Th., Lämmle, Chr., Wyser, M., Legerer, F. (2003), “Engine
Intake Throttling for Active Regeneration of Diesel Particulate Filters,” SAE
Paper No. 2003-01-0381
12. Nester, Tyler M., Haddow, Alan G., Shaw, Steven W., Brevick, John E., and
Borowski, Victor J. (2003), “Vibration Reduction in a Variable Displacement
Engine Using Pendulum Absorbers,” SAE Paper No. 2003-01-1484.
99
14. Van Nieuwstadt, Michiel (2003), “Coordinated Control of EGR Valve and
Intake Throttle for Better Fuel Economy in Diesel Engines,” SAE Paper No.
2003-01-0362
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Appendix
101