3-14

MATHEMATICS

The non-zero numbers a, b, c, etc., form a harmonic progression if

their reciprocals 1/a, 1/b, 1/c, etc., form an arithmetic progression.

has three complex roots. If the coefficients are real numbers, then at
least one of the roots must be real. The cubic equation x3 + bx2 + cx +
d = 0 may be reduced by the substitution x = y (b/3) to the form y3 +
py + q = 0, where p = s(3c b2), q = 127(27d 9bc + 2b3). This equation has the solutions y1 = A + B, y2 = a(A + B) + (iw3/2)(A B),

Example The progression 1, s, 15, 17, . . . , 131 is harmonic since 1, 3, 5,

7, . . . , 31 form an arithmetic progression.

wqw/2
ww+ w
w,
w
y3 = a(A + B) (i3w/2)(A B), where i2 = 1, A =
R
3
wqw/2
www
w, and R = (p/3)3 + (q/2)2. If b, c, d are all real and if
w
B =
R
R > 0, there are one real root and two conjugate complex roots; if R =
0, there are three real roots, of which at least two are equal; if R < 0,
there are three real unequal roots. If R < 0, these formulas are impractical. In this case, the roots are given by yk = 7 2
ww
pw
/3 cos [(/3) +
120k], k = 0, 1, 2 where
3

The harmonic mean of two numbers a, b is 2ab/(a + b).

PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS, AND PROBABILITY
Each separate arrangement of all or a part of a set of things is called a
permutation. The number of permutations of n things taken r at a
time, written
n!
P(n, r) = } = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
(n r)!

q /4
}
!
p /27
2

= cos1

and the upper sign applies if q > 0, the lower if q < 0.

Example The permutations of a, b, c two at a time are ab, ac, ba, ca, cb,
and bc. The formula is P(3,2) = 3!/1! = 6. The permutations of a, b, c three at a
time are abc, bac, cab, acb, bca, and cba.

Example x3 + 3x2 + 9x + 9 = 0 reduces to y3 + 6y + 2 = 0 under x = y 1.

3
3
w, B =
w4w. The desired roots in y are
Here p = 6, q = 2, R = 9. Hence A = 2
3
3
3
3
3
3
w4w and a(2w 4w) 6 (i3w/2)(2w + 4w). The roots in x are x =
2w
y 1.

Each separate selection of objects that is possible irrespective of the

order in which they are arranged is called a combination. The number
of combinations of n things taken r at a time, written C(n, r) = n!/
[r!(n r)!].

Example y3 7y + 7 = 0. p = 7, q = 7, R < 0. Hence

28

} cos 1 } + 120k2
!
3
3
27
= !
} , } = 33752.
28 3

Example The combinations of a, b, c taken 2 at a time are ab, ac, bc; taken
3 at a time is abc.

xk =

An important relation is r! C(n, r) = P(n, r).

If an event can occur in p ways and fail to occur in q ways, all ways
being equally likely, the probability of its occurrence is p/(p + q), and
that of its failure q/(p + q).

where

The roots are approximately 3.048916, 1.692020, and 1.356897.

Example Many equations of state involve solving cubic equations for the
compressibility factor Z. For example, the Redlich-Kwong-Soave equation of
state requires solving

Example Two dice may be thrown in 36 separate ways. What is the probability of throwing such that their sum is 7? Seven may arise in 6 ways: 1 and 6,
2 and 5, 3 and 4, 4 and 3, 5 and 2, 6 and 1. The probability of shooting 7 is j.

Z 3 Z 2 + cZ + d = 0, d < 0

THEORY OF EQUATIONS

where c and d depend on critical constants of the chemical species. In this case,
only positive solutions, Z > 0, are desired.

Linear Equations A linear equation is one of the first degree

(i.e., only the first powers of the variables are involved), and the
process of obtaining definite values for the unknown is called solving
the equation. Every linear equation in one variable is written Ax + B =
0 or x = B/A. Linear equations in n variables have the form

Quartic Equations See Ref. 118.

General Polynomials of the nth Degree Denote the general
polynomial equation of degree n by
P(x) = a0 x n + a1 x n 1 + + an 1 x + an = 0

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1

If n > 4, there is no formula which gives the roots of the general

equation. For fourth and higher order (even third order), the roots
can be found numerically (see Numerical Analysis and Approximate
Methods). However, there are some general theorems that may
prove useful.
Remainder Theorems When P(x) is a polynomial and P(x) is
divided by x a until a remainder independent of x is obtained, this
remainder is equal to P(a).

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2

:
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = bm
The solution of the system may then be found by elimination or matrix
methods if a solution exists (see Matrix Algebra and Matrix Computations).
Quadratic Equations Every quadratic equation in one variable
is expressible in the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0. a 0. This equation has two
solutions, say, x1, x2, given by

Example P(x) = 2x4 3x2 + 7x 2 when divided by x + 1 (here a = 1)

results in P(x) = (x + 1)(2x3 2x2 x + 8) 10 where 10 is the remainder. It is
easy to see that P(1) = 10.

ww4ac
w
b 6 w
x1
b2w
= }}
x2
2a
If a, b, c are real, the discriminant b2 4ac gives the character of the
roots. If b2 4ac > 0, the roots are real and unequal. If b2 4ac < 0, the
roots are complex conjugates. If b2 4ac = 0 the roots are real and
equal.
Two quadratic equations in two variables can in general be solved
only by numerical methods (see Numerical Analysis and Approximate Methods). If one equation is of the first degree, the other of the
second degree, a solution may be obtained by solving the first for one
unknown. This result is substituted in the second equation and the
resulting quadratic equation solved.
Cubic Equations A cubic equation, in one variable, has the form
x3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0. Every cubic equation having complex coefficients

"

"

Factor Theorem If P(a) is zero, the polynomial P(x) has the factor x a. In other words, if a is a root of P(x) = 0, then x a is a factor
of P(x).
If a number a is found to be a root of P(x) = 0, the division of P(x) by
(x a) leaves a polynomial of degree one less than that of the original
equation, i.e., P(x) = Q(x)(x a). Roots of Q(x) = 0 are clearly roots of
P(x) = 0.
Example P(x) = x3 6x2 + 11x 6 = 0 has the root + 3. Then P(x) =
(x 3)(x2 3x + 2). The roots of x2 3x + 2 = 0 are 1 and 2. The roots of P(x) are
therefore 1, 2, 3.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Every polynomial of degree
n has exactly n real or complex roots, counting multiplicities.