Author

Investigation of Atomization,
Mixing and Pollutant Emissions
for a Microturbine Engine
Christopher D. Bolszo
Aerospace Engineering and Mechanical Engineering

Christopher Bolszos research

began with a strong interest in
studying
thermodynamics,
fluid dynamics, and combustion, and their roles in energy
generation and the environment. This interest led him to
his research on reducing pollutant emission levels in turbine
generators under the guidance
of Professor Samuelsen.
Christopher, now a graduate
student at UCI, hopes to
expand on this work and produce results that can be applied
to advanced liquid fueled gas
turbine systems. He describes
his undergraduate research
experience as a very rewarding opportunity to venture into
the forefront of engineering,
a venture he hopes to build
upon in the future.

Key Te r m s

Airblast Plain Jet Atomizer

Equivalence Ratio

Microturbine Generator

Distributed Power
Generation
Evaporation Time
Lean Premixed
Prevaporized Combustion

Abstract

mall gas turbine engines, referred to as a microturbine generators (MTGs), produce up to 500kW of electrical power and are ideal for distributed power generation applications. By generating power where it is used (e.g., a commercial office
building), using MTGs can increase the reliability and quality of the electrical power
and allow the waste heat to be used to meet other energy requirements at the site.
Combining electrical power generation with waste heat recovery, referred to as combined heat and power, substantially increases the overall efficiency of the unit and
significantly reduces the mass emission of air pollutants per kW-hr of power generated when compared to traditional reciprocating backup devices. This project
addresses this issue experimentally by characterizing the pollutant emissions from a
liquid fueled MTG (Capstone model C30), and establishing the extent to which the
fuel preparation processes and operating parameters affect air pollutant emissions.
The results reveal that the MTG selected produces low levels of pollutants compared
to other technologies currently used. Furthermore, the research critically examines
the steps associated with preparing the liquid fuel for combustion to identify further
potential emissions reductions, demonstrates that emissions can be further reduced,
and identifies a strategy to achieve the reduction.

Faculty Mentor
The majority of electric and motive power production in the world
today uses combustion to transform the chemical energy bound in
the fuel into thermal energy that can drive a piston, turn a turbine,
or produce steam. Combustion is also responsible for the majority
of the air pollutant and global climate change gases emitted into the
troposphere. The reduction of pollutant impact from combustion
is closely tied to the preparation of fuel and the mixing of the fuel
with air. This paper provides a basic understanding of the role of fuel air mixing in
a liquid-fueled gas turbine engine and represents a major accomplishment by an
undergraduate in the conduct of energy research.

Sauter Mean Diameter

Weber Number

Scott Samuelsen
Henry Samueli School of Engineering

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I n t ro d u c t i o n
As the demand for energy increases, the ability of traditional power generation strategies and power distribution infrastructure is being challenged. In the traditional approach,
central station power generation, power is generated at a
few large plants and then transmitted over miles of wires
known as a grid. Under an emerging concept, distributed
power generation, power is produced at the locations where
it is ultimately used, including commercial office buildings,
schools, hospitals, and industrial plants. Although this
approach reduces the loss of power across the grid, it also
results in the emission of air pollutants in the immediate
vicinity of people. Small gas turbine engines, called microturbine generators (MTGs), which produce up to 500kW of
electricity, provide an option for distributed power generation (Borbeley et al., 2001; Smith, 2001).
Distributed generation is already accepted as a form of
backup power. Backup generators are viewed strictly as
insurance against power failure with the hope they will
never be operated. As a result, it is difficult to justify large
capital investment in these devices. Reciprocating diesel
engines are a common choice, since their large scale production allows for a lower cost. While these devices can
provide power when needed, they generate substantial
amounts of pollution, require considerable maintenance
and are often unreliable.

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MICROTURBINE ENGINE

vaporize and premix fuel and air prior to combustion.

Within each fuel injector (three in the C30), the fuel droplets
are formed by an air-blast plain jet atomizer, which uses
high velocity gas (typically air) to break up a sheet or column
of liquid into a fine mist (Figure 2).
The air used for combustion enters primarily through four
openings surrounding the air-blast nozzle, improving mixing before ignition. Downstream of the atomizer is the
swirler, a collection of vertical slots that aids in mixing and

Figure 1
Capstone C30 Microturbine

MTGs offer an attractive option for reducing pollutant

emissions in comparison to reciprocating systems (Miller,
2004). Additionally, MTGs can produce power continuously, increasing the reliability of the electrical power to the
facility. Furthermore, these devices can operate on liquid
byproducts to produce power from waste, an increasing
value as the cost of natural gas rises.
A major issue with MTGs is that, because they are operated
continuously around people, their emissions must be minimized. The goals of this research are to characterize the air
pollutant emissions from an MTG and to establish the
extent to which the emissions are minimized by varying key
parameters (load, combustor fuel to air ratio, atomization of
the liquid fuel, fuel and air mixing, and reaction temperature) known to affect emission performance. The main pollutants of concern are nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
A 30 kW Capstone Model C30 MTG, a widely used MTG,
was selected for this study (Figure 1). This model, like other
turbine engines, incorporates an injection method to pre14

Figure 2
Capstone C30 liquid fired injector with enlarged cross-section
showing fuel spray
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Christopher D. Bolszo

distributing the spray by inducing a helical spin to entering

air (Figure 3). Both of these air streams play an important
role in the preparation of the fuel/air mixture and are therefore expected to influence the formation of pollutants during combustion. The ratio of fuel to air governs the degree
of combustion heat release and, in turn, determines the
fraction of pollutants formed in the exhaust products.

combustion air and swirler air. This study explores the role
of each step in the fuel preparation process and the subsequent emissions performance to assure that the design
results in ultra low emission of air pollutants, and to identify the degree and manner in which emissions can potentially be reduced even further.

Experiment
Experiments were conducted with an MTG Test Rig, a
Mixing Test Rig, and an Atomization Test Rig. Diesel Fuel
#2 (DF-2) was used in all the rigs.
MTG Test Rig
Exhaust emissions were measured with a Horiba PG-250
emissions analyzer via an extractive sample probe centered
at the exit plane of the exhaust stack. Emissions were characterized for 50 to 100 percent load operating conditions.
The accuracy of the NOx and CO measurements is 0.25
parts per million volume dry (ppmvd) and 2 ppmvd,
respectively. The PG-250 was spanned and zeroed before
each measurement and the span was verified at the end of
each test run. A special injector was fabricated to allow the
connection of pressure transducers and thermocouplers
near the air-blast nozzle exit of the injector during operation.

Figure 3

Two sets of injectors were used in the MTG to study the

effect of the fuel-air ratio on emissions (Figure 4). Because
NOx and CO emissions are a function of temperature, it is
important to assess the sensitivity of the emissions to the
reaction temperature. The increase in hole size is based on
an anticipated reduction of NOx associated with lower temperatures produced by reducing the injector fuel-air ratio.

Capstone C30 fuel injector and spray phenomena. The arrows

show the manner in which high temperature combustion air enters
the injector and vaporizes, further atomizing and mixing the fuel.
The premixer length, Lpremixer, is defined as the injector tube
length the atomized fuel droplets have to vaporize and mix with air
before they ignite. The mean droplet residence time, tresidence, and
evaporation time, tvap, in the injector tube are the two key parameters that determine whether prevaporization is attained.

The fuel preparation process involves the atomization of

liquid fuel, followed by vaporization and mixing. Air-liquid
atomization is used to enhance both the production of fine
droplets and mixing (Georjon and Reitz, 1999; Lefebvre,
1998). The rate of vaporization and mixing is determined
largely by the amount of available energy capable of performing work (enthalpy) and the fluid dynamics of the
T H E U C I U N D E RG R A D UAT E R E S E A RC H J O U R N A L

Figure 4
Baseline and modified C30 injectors

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Mixing Test Rig

The mixing test rig, a full-scale 1/3 section of the C30
engine, simulates the air flow characteristics in the engine
(Figure 5). The design of this test rig was developed and
verified by engine measurements and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) analysis using CFD-ACE+ software.

FOR A

MICROTURBINE ENGINE

fuel line. Natural gas was used as a trace in the air flow to
identify the airs role in mixing. Results obtained with this
test rig allowed mixing performance of different injector
configurations and/or operating conditions to be quantitatively compared.
Atomization Test Rig
The single injector test rig was designed to characterize C30
injector atomization performance. Tests were conducted on
the fuel injector atomization independent of the fuel-air
premixer tube (Figure 7).

Figure 5
Single injector mixing test rig with hydrocarbon measurement
probe

Gaseous methane was used as fuel in a computer aided

model of the Capstone injector and surrounding flow
geometry, which is shown in Figure 6. The inlet conditions
for the air entering the annulus shown in Figure 6 were
determined by measurements made in the MTG
test stand, and verified the
fully
developed
flow
assumption used in the
model. The fuel inlet condition was set as a constant
mass flow at the injector
centerline. The outlet of
the geometry was set to
constant pressure.

Figure 6
CFD geometry of C30 injector
and surrounding flow path;
shown with downward orientation and with air flow entering
along far right side of arc
16

In the mixing test rig configuration, a Horiba FIA236 hydrocarbon analyzer

(flame ionization detector)
was used to map fuel concentration over the exit
plane of the injector.
Rather than using liquid
fuel for these tests, natural
gas was flowed through the

Figure 7
(a) Injector without premixer tube and (b) injector in test configuration

The premixer was removed from the setup to isolate the

role of the air-blast on the atomizer performance (Figure
7a). A Malvern laser diffraction system with a 100 mm focal
length lens was used to measure and quantify the characteristics of the fuel spray (Figure 7b). A calibration reticule
(Laser Electro-Device Ltd Model RR-50.0-2.0-0.030) was
used, and measurements of the spray were taken at one
injector tube diameter (2.67 cm) from the injector exit plane.
Further traversing of the flow was performed to ensure
measured spray characteristics remained invariant throughout and a representation of the overall flow was established.

Re s u l t s a n d D i s c u s s i o n
Emissions
Emission measurements were obtained for the C30 MTG
operated on DF-2 with both sets of injectors. Results versus
load setting are presented for the baseline injector as the
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Christopher D. Bolszo

open points in Figures 8 and 9 for NOx and CO emissions,

respectively. The results are presented as corrected to a constant level of O2 (15%) to ensure that differences in the
amount of air in the exhaust stream is not simply diluting the
concentration of pollutants. For the baseline injectors, CO
emissions decrease with load and are below 10 ppmvd corrected at 15% O2 for 50100% load operation. NOx emissions increase with load and are approximately 20 ppmvd at
15% O2 at maximum power output. The results demonstrate
that the MTG produces orders of magnitude less NOx than
the current reciprocating backup generation devices.
Results are also presented for the modified injector, shown
as filled symbols in Figures 8 and 9. The results for the
modified injector are higher than those produced by the
baseline, yet are still low compared to those produced by a
typical reciprocating engine. The modified MTG produces
about 2 g of NOx and CO per kilowatt hour (kW-hr) at full
load, compared to modern reciprocating diesel generators
that easily produce 20 g of NOx and CO per kW-hr (Miller,
2004).

Figure 8
NOx emissions versus load with modified injector

For both injectors, the NOx and CO emissions levels were

below 30 ppm for all loads studied. This illustrates that,
even with a significant modification in combustion conditions (by decreasing the equivalence ratio by 12%), the
MTG still demonstrates superb emissions performance
when compared with the 1000+ ppm emissions of the
reciprocating engines currently in use as backup generators.
The results also suggest that the fuel-air mixture produced
by the injectors is not fully premixed and prevaporized. If
the fuel and air were ideally mixed, the larger air holes in the
modified injectors would result in reduced reaction temperatures and, therefore, reduced NOx emissions. To illustrate,
the expected behavior with assumed premixed/prevaporized operation is represented by the NOx and CO trend
lines derived from MTG measurements (Figure 10). Since
the actual NOx emissions increased with more injector air
flow, it can be concluded that the assumption of premixed/prevaporized is not valid.
Mixing Performance
Ideal premixed/prevaporized conditions were not attained;
therefore, the level of premixing achieved is of interest. To
help establish the degree to which the injectors were performing, the baseline emissions measurements were compared to results determined for a near perfect, prevaporized
and premixed combustion system (Figure 11) (Leonard and
Stegmaier, 1994). This comparison presents NOx as a function of average reaction temperature for the baseline results
T H E U C I U N D E RG R A D UAT E R E S E A RC H J O U R N A L

Figure 9
CO emissions versus load with modified injector

Figure 10
Expected NOx and CO behavior for two injectors assuming ideal
prevaporization and premixing
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Figure 11
Effects of nonuniform fuel and air mixing on NOx formation

along with the generalized data obtained from previous

measured emissions using high sulfur diesel (HSD) and natural gas. The HSD line represents a theoretical NOx limit
for a heavier distillate diesel fuel compared to DF-2 with
perfect premixing and is used as a worst case scenario in
terms of emissions (Lee et al., 2001). According to the
results, it appears that mixing in the C30 liquid fuel injector
can be improved (Figure 11). Note that emission results for
a natural gas fired at 60 kW MTG operating at similar conditions and with a similar fuel injection approach is able to
achieve excellent premixing (Phi et al., 2004). By plotting
these results (Figure 11), its position on the line affirms the
opportunity to improve mixing. As a result, an opportunity
to improve the emissions performance through an improvement in the premixing of the injector is apparent.
The modified injector showed increased NOx emissions,
meaning that either the atomization or mixing performance
of the modified injector was inferior to that of the baseline.
Any NOx reductions potentially achieved by reducing the
average fuel/air ratio are offset by inferior mixing.
To further assess the mixing characteristics of each injector,
tests were conducted at atmospheric conditions using the
single injector mixing test rig. Natural gas was flowed
through the liquid fuel passage as fuel and a flame ionization detector (FID) based hydrocarbon analyzer was used to
map the injector exit mixing profile by measuring the
methane concentration at discrete grid positions at the
injector exit plane.
The single injector mixing measurements were carried out
for both the baseline and modified injectors. The pressure
drop of the engine was used to scale the fuel and total air
flow rates for atmospheric conditions. Normalized concentration profiles derived from the experiments are presented
18

Figure 12
Normalized exit plane concentration profiles: (A) Baseline injector,
(B) Modified injector

in Figure 12 with orange being higher methane concentration. To quantify this variation, the coefficient of variation
of the exit plane fuel/air ratio was calculated as 11.6% and
13.6% for the baseline and modified injectors, respectively.
The results show that variation in mixing is 20% higher than
the baseline. This helps verify and quantify the inferior mixing performance of the modified injector. Variation in the
degree of mixing would lead to regions of higher local temperatures and, therefore, higher NOx emissions.
A computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model1 was developed to further assess the mixing performance of the fuel
injectors. The assumptions for this model were those
explained earlier in the experiments-mixing test rig section
of this paper. The results show that, by enlarging the air
hole size and maintaining system flow conditions, addition1. CFD-Ace+ (ESI) was used to compute the flowfield and mixing. A Reynolds Averaged
Navier Stokes (RANS) approach was used, with standard k-e turbulence model, and a turbulent Schmidt number of 0.5 (Qing, 2005).

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Christopher D. Bolszo

al mixing interactions with fuel are required for optimal

premixing. Therefore, in agreement with the experimental
mixing rig results, a less uniform concentration of fuel and
air is produced at the injector exit plane when compared to
the baseline injector (Phi et al., 2004).
It is also possible that the mixing is impacting CO emissions
by cooling the reaction in the relatively fuel lean region near
the injector wall in the upper left portion of Figure 12b. The
inferior fuel distribution seems to be more directly associated with the enlarged holes, but a slight misalignment of the
fuel tube within the atomizing air passage may have some
impact on fuel distribution. However, testing different injectors of the same type with different alignments has shown
to produce repeatable mixture distributions and emissions.
Measurement Results with Instrumented Injector
Although the mixing tests suggest significant differences in
the performance of the two injectors, the tests were conducted with natural gas, resulting in near instantaneous
vaporization. In a normal engine, liquidnot natural gas
is injected. As a result, further analyses of the role of atomization and vaporization were carried out.
Atomization tests were conducted under standard conditions. Since these conditions differ from the elevated temperatures and pressures inside the engine, the operation of
the injector had to be scaled to match the key parameters
that control atomization. Injector conditions during engine
operation were measured to establish the scaling. In air-blast
atomization, pressure, not temperature, plays the dominant
role in determining droplet formation and overall spray
behavior. Therefore, atomization studies can be performed
at atmospheric conditions by matching pressure drops in
the nozzle. Table 1 shows the associated MTG pressures
and pressure drops for full power conditions. Equation 1
defines the pressure drop of combustion and atomization
airflows. The pressure drop of the combustion airflow is
determined from the calculated total mass flow of the C30
and the measured injector area.

Atomization and Evaporation Study

Measurements of the mean fuel drop size (Sauter mean
diameter) produced by the airblasted plain jet atomizer for
the baseline injector were obtained using laser diffraction
under scaled engine conditions using DF-2. All of the
experimental data were obtained using air supplied via an
air-compressor at standard conditions. Test conditions were
derived as follows:
1. Determine combustion air flow using the pressure drop
that was obtained from engine measurement as a scaling parameter.
2. Calculate fuel flow rate matching fuel to combustion air
ratio at the maximum load.
3. Determine atomization flow using the pressure drop
that was obtained from engine measurement.
Atomization air varied such that the atomization air to liquid mass flow ratio (ALR) spanned from 0.2 to 0.7. The
results are plotted as the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) versus ALR and as in Figure 13 along with a comparison of an
empirical expression (Equation 2) that was developed to
describe drop sizes for a similar fuel injector design (Rizk
and Lefebvre, 1984).
In Equation 2, D32 is the Sauter Mean Diameter, do is the liquid discharge opening diameter, is the liquid surface tension, UR is the relative coflowing velocity of the two streams,
A is density of air, L is the liquid density, and L is the liq-

Table 1
Air flow pressure drops in MTG
Pressure of combustor
Pressure drop of combustion air flow

0.335 MPa
5.6 %

Pressure of atomization air inlet

0.344 MPa

Pressure drop atomization air flow

pressure drop P (%) =

Figure 13
Influence of ALR on SMD from calculation using Equation 2 and
measured values using laser diffraction

2.6 %

pressure drop
100
pressure of combustor

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(1)

D 32
= 0.48
2

do
A U R do

0.4

1
1+

ALR

0.4

+ 0.15 L
L do

0.5

1
1+

ALR

(2)
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uid viscosity. The error bars illustrate the lack of achievement of stable atomization, which is undesired since the
presence of large droplets causes variations in local equivalence ratio and, therefore, emissions. Given that Equation 2
was derived for ALRs between 2 and 8, finding good agreement between the equation and the experimental data for
ALRs as low as 0.30 provides a validation for the expansion
of the range of ALRs in which Equation 2 can be applied.
Based on the agreement of Equation 2 to the experimental
data shown in Figure 13, it is reasonable to apply Equation
2 to estimate the atomizers performance at actual engine
conditions. If Equation 2 is applied using the properties at
actual engine conditions, the D32 at full load is estimated to
be 50 m. Equation 2 can also be used to explore how to
alter the injector operation to change the droplet sizes produced. The insight from using the above equation for the
C30 atomizer is illustrated in Figure 14.

Figure 14
ALR and UR effect on SMD for C30 airblast atomizer. The arrow
illustrates finer drop sizes at full load condition.

If the evaporation rate is insufficient, liquid fuel enters the

primary zone, potentially contributing to higher NOx emissions. Subsequently, an analysis of the vaporization characteristics was carried out to explore whether the atomization
quality is sufficient to lead to full prevaporization.
The analysis was performed using an effective evaporation
constant, eff (Lefebvre, 1998). This concept simplified calculations of the evaporation characteristics of fuel droplets
by allowing the determination of eff algebraically from
flow properties and operating conditions, and avoids solving systems of nonlinear partial differential equations. The
average droplet lifetime was determined by the D2 Law with
the adaptation of a modified evaporation constant, eff,
where D0 is the initial drop size, which is equal to the SMD
in this case, eff is the effective evaporation constant, and te
is the evaporation time (Equation 3).
2

te =

D0
eff

(3)

Figure 15 shows the results of this analysis in the context of

C30 emissions and suggests that droplet lifetime is greater
than residence time within the C30 injector. This indicates
that droplets will persist in the combustor, which is not
desired for low emissions. This could show why measured
emissions are well above the levels associated with well-premixed systems (Figure 11).
The role of the air flowing through the combustion air
holes on atomization also needs to be considered. While it
20

Figure 15
Effect of SMD on drop lifetime

is expected that the atomizing air is the primary flow used

in air-blast atomization of the liquid fuel, the interaction of
the combustion air jets with the spray droplets also plays a
role. By computing the Weber Numberthe ratio of inertial to liquid surface tension forces (Equation 4)for the
atomization and combustion air at full operating load, it is
found that the atomization air plays a dominant role in fuel
breakup.
In Equation 4, A is the density of air, UR is the relative
velocity of the coflowing streams, D32 is the Sauter Mean
Diameter, and is the liquid surface tension. It is assumed
that the combustion air flows parallel with DF-2 at the nozzle exit.
2

We =

AU R D 32

(4)

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Christopher D. Bolszo

Based on the Weber numbers, shown in Table 2, the combustion air aids atomization. Since the modified injector has
a lower Weber number, larger droplet sizes (and therefore
longer vaporization times) are a significant factor in the
increase in NOx emissions observed for the modified injector.
Table 2
Weber numbers for baseline and modified injectors using 50
micron SMD
Atomization Air
Baseline
Modified

Combustion Air

30
30

7.6
5.8

Conclusion
NOx and CO emissions for a commercial Capstone C30 liquid fuel fired microturbine generator have been characterized. The sensitivity of the emissions performance to load,
combustor fuel to air ratio, atomization of the liquid fuel,
fuel and air mixing, and reaction temperature were established.
The results affirm the ability of a gas turbine engine to
achieve low emissions of both NOx and CO. The engine
has superior emissions performance compared to reciprocating engine technology currently being used for backup
power.
The research also clarifies the distinction between emissions
reduction strategies for a liquid fueled versus a well-premixed gasous fueled turbine engine, and demonstrates that
air pollutant emissions can be further reduced. While
increasing the airflow to the injector can, in a simplified
model, reduce reaction temperatures and NOx emissions,
the observed increase in emissions indicates that the key
assumptions of complete vaporization and perfect mixing
behind this model do not hold. This result is significant in
that it indicates that the reasonable and intuitive approach
of improving the emissions by simply reducing the injector
equivalence ratio and ensuring sufficient mixing do not
apply in the current system. This is attributed to the complexity of the phenomena involved in the preparation of
the fuel and air prior to combustion (i.e., atomization,
vaporization, and mixing). Measured mixing performance
of the two injectors reveals that NOx correlates with injector mixing performance. As a result, strategies that further
improve fuel-air mixing while maintaining a reasonable level
of atomization can potentially reduce emissions further.

T H E U C I U N D E RG R A D UAT E R E S E A RC H J O U R N A L

A c k n ow l e d g e m e n t s
A special thanks is due to my research advisors, Professor
Scott Samuelsen and Dr. Vince McDonell, whose unique
insight, guidance and encouragement have contributed to
the research presented herein. I would also like to acknowledge Josh Mauzey of the UCI Combustion Laboratory and
Sosuke Nakamura of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, whose
patience, persistence, and professional experience has provided insight and perspective to the research. I would like to
acknowledge the California Energy Commission (Contract
500-00-020) and Capstone Turbine Corporation for their
funding and support. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their unconditional love and support.

Wo r k s C i te d
Bittlinger, G., and N. Brehn. High Pressure Combustion Test of
Lean Premixed Prevaporized (LPP) Modules in an Axially
Staged Combustor Using a Multisector Rig. 14th ISABE
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Borbeley, A.M., and J.F. Kreider. Distributed Generation: The
Power Paradigm for the New Millennium. Boca Raton: CRC
Press, 2001.
Georjon, T.L., and R.D. Reitz. Atomization and Sprays 9 (1999):
23154.
Lee, J.C.Y., P.C. Malte, and M.A. Benjamin. Low NOx
Combustion for Liquid Fuels: Atmospheric Pressure
Experiments Using a Staged Prevaporizer-Premixer. Paper
2001-GT-0081, Turbo Expo. June 2001, New Orleans, LA.
Lefebvre, A.H. Atomization and Sprays. Hemisphere Publishing,
1998.
---. Gas Turbine Combustion. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Taylor and
Francis, 1999.
Leonard, G., and J. Stegmaier. Development of an
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System. Journal of Engineering Gas Turbines and Power
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Lorenzetto, G.E., and A.H. Lefebvre. Measurements of Drop
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Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal 15.7 (1977): 100610.

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Miller, Wayne. Presentation. Criteria of Emission from Backup

Generators California Energy Commission, October 6,
2004, Sacramento, California.
Phi, V.M., J.L. Mauzey, V.G. McDonell, and G.S. Samuelsen. Fuel
Injection and Emissions Characteristics of a Commercial
Microturbine Generator. Paper GT-2004-54039, Turbo
Expo. June 2004, Vienna, Austria.
Qing, Wang. Evaluation of a Gas Turbine Premixer Performance.
Thesis. University of California, Irvine, (2005).
Richards, G.A., M.M. McMillian, R.S. Gemmen, W.A. Rogers, and
S.R. Cully. Issues for Low-Emissions, Fuel Flexible Power
Systems. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 27
(2001): 14169.
Rizk, N.K., and A.H. Lefebvre. Spray Characteristics of Plain-Jet
Airblast Atomizers. Journal of Engineering Gas Turbines
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Choose. Power Engineering 105.3 (2001): 32.

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