Q1

Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child
of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork and Catherine Fenton. Richard Boyle arrived in Dublin from
England in 1588 during the Tudor plantations of Ireland and obtained an appointment as a
deputy escheator. He had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born. Catherine
Fenton was the daughter of Sir Geoffrey Fenton, the former Secretary of State for Ireland, who was
born in Dublin in 1539, and Alice Weston, the daughter of Robert Weston, who was born
in Lismore in 1541. Boyle returned to England from continental Europe in mid-1644 with a keen
interest in scientific research.[9] His father had died the previous year and had left him the manor
of Stalbridge in Dorset, England and substantial estates in County Limerick in Ireland that he had
acquired. From that time, Robert devoted his life to scientific research and soon took a prominent
place in the band of enquirers, known as the "Invisible College", who devoted themselves to the
cultivation of the "new philosophy". They met frequently in London, often atGresham College, and
some of the members also had meetings at Oxford.Having made several visits to his Irish estates
beginning in 1647, Robert moved to Ireland in 1652 but became frustrated at his inability to make
progress in his chemical work. In one letter, he described Ireland as "a barbarous country where
chemical spirits were so misunderstood and chemical instruments so unprocurable that it was hard
to have any Hermetic thoughts in it. In 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously
and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his communications to the Royal
Society, and advertising his desire to be excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions
very extraordinary", on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In
the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his spirits, range his papers", and prepare some
important chemical investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the
studious disciples of that art", but of which he did not make known the nature. His health became still
worse in 1691, and he died on 31 December that year,[15] just a week after the death of the sister with
whom he had lived for more than twenty years. Boyle died from paralysis. He was buried in the
churchyard of St Martin-in-the-Fields, his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Gilbert
Burnet. In his will, Boyle endowed a series of Lectures which came to be known as the Boyle
Lectures. Boyle was the earliest-known scientist to really publish his work. He carefully collected his
experiments, along with his failures and findings. His 1660 scientific paper, The Spring and Weight
of Air, mentioned the usage of an improved vacuum pump of a custom design. Boyle siginificantly
modified the clumsy and inefficient pump of Von Guericke, which needed two men to operate, and
with great effort. In Boyles new design, vacuum could be sustained with only one operator in a very
efficient manner .Boyle carried out various experiments which helped him in the discovery of the
relationship between pressure and volume of gases. This resulted in the Boyle-Mariotte Law which
implies that if the temperature is constant, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure. The phrase chemical analysis was also coined by him.In that era, it was widely believed
that elements like salt and water could be broken down no further. Boyle largely opposed the
theories of basic element.

Reference : - en.wikipedia.org
Q2
Einstein has suggested that light can behave as a waves as well as like a particle i.e., it has dual
character. In 1924, Louis de Broglie suggested that just as light exhibits wave and particle
properties, all microscopic material particles such as electrons, protons, atoms, molecules etc. have
also dual character. They behave as a particle as well as wave. This means that an electron which
has been regarded as a particle also behaves like a wave. Thus, according to de Broglie, all the
material particles in motion possess wave characteristics. Although the dual nature of matter is
applicable to all material objects but it is significant for microscopic bodies only. For large bodies, the
wavelengths of associated waves are very small and cannot be measured by any of the available
methods. Therefore, practically these bodies are said to have no wavelengths. Thus, any material
body in motion can have wavelength but it is measurable or significant only for microscopic bodies
such as electron, proton, atom or molecule.
According to Einsteins mass energy relation, E=mc2.
Broglie compared the above relation with the relation for energy of electron given by Bohr.
H =mc2
as =c/
: . hc/=mc2
h=mc/ or m. (Hence proved)

Angular Momentum Quantization

In the Bohr model, the wavelength associated with the electron is

given by the DeBroglie relationship

and the standing wave condition that circumference = whole number of wavelengths.
In the hydrogenic case, the number n is the principal quantum number.

These can be combined to get an expression for the angular momentum of the electron
in orbit.
Reference: - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/bohr.html

Q3
In organic chemistry, Huckel's rule estimates whether a planar ring molecule will
have aromatic properties. The quantum mechanical basis for its formulation was first worked out
by physical chemist Erich Hckel in 1931.The succinct expression as the 4n+2 rule has been
attributed to von Doering (1951),although several authors were using this form at around the same
time. A cyclic ring molecule follows Huckels rule when the number of its -electrons equals 4n+2
where n is zero or any positive integer, although clear-cut examples are really only established for
values of n = 0 up to about n = 6. Huckels rule was originally based on calculations using the Hckel
method, although it can also be justified by considering a particle in a ring system, by the LCAO
method and by the method. Aromatic compounds are more stable than theoretically predicted by
alkene hydrogenation data; the "extra" stability is due to the delocalized cloud of electrons, called
resonance energy. Criteria for simple aromatics are:
1. The molecule must follow Huckels rule, having 4n+2 electrons in the delocalized, conjugated porbital cloud;
2. The molecule must be able to be planar;
3. The molecule must be cyclic; and,
4. Every atom in the ring must be able to participate in delocalizing the electrons by having a porbital or an unshared pair of electrons.
But, Huckels rule is not valid for many compounds containing more than three fused aromatic nuclei
in

cyclic

fashion.

For

example, pyrene contains

16 conjugated

electrons (8

bonds),

and coronene contains 24 conjugated electrons (12 bonds). Both of these polycyclic molecules are
aromatic, even though they fail the 4n+2 rule. Indeed, Huckels rule can only be theoretically justified
for monocyclic systems.
Reference: - en.wikipedia.org
Q4
Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. The alkyl group may be
transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion or a carbene (or their
equivalents).Alkylating agents are widely used in chemistry because the alkyl group is probably the
most common group encountered in organic molecules. Many biological target molecules or their
synthetic precursors are composed of an alkyl chain with specific functional groups in a specific
order. Selective alkylation, or adding parts to the chain with the desired functional groups, is used,

especially if there is no commonly available biological precursor. Alkylation with only one carbon is
termed methylation. In oil refining contexts, alkylation refers to a particular alkylation
of isobutane with olefins. For upgrading of petroleum, alkylation produces synthetic C7C8 alkylate,
which is a premium blending stock for gasoline.In medicine, alkylation of DNA is used
in chemotherapy to damage the DNA of cancer cells. Alkylation is accomplished with the class of
drugs called alkylating antineoplastic agents.

FriedelCrafts alkylation involves the alkylation of an aromatic ring with an alkyl halide using a
strong Lewis acid catalyst.[6] With anhydrous ferric chloride as a catalyst, the alkyl group attaches at
the former site of the chloride ion. The general mechanism is shown below.

This reaction has one big disadvantage, namely that the product is more nucleophilic than the
reactant due to the electron donating alkyl-chain. Therefore, another hydrogen is substituted with
an alkyl-chain, which leads to overalkylation of the molecule. Also, if the chloride is not on
a tertiary carbon or secondary carbon, then the carbocation formed (R+) will undergo
a carbocation rearrangement reaction. This reactivity is due to the relative stability of the tertiary
and secondary carbocation over the primary carbocations.
Steric hindrance can be exploited to limit the number of alkylations, as in the t-butylation of 1,4dimethoxybenzene.