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Power factor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit,[1][2] and is a dimensionless number in the closed
interval of -1 to 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent
power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to
the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is
normally the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source, which is normally considered
the generator.[3][4][5]
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power
factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the
distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and
wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where
there is a low power factor.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of
capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such
cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power
factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a
distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment.
Contents
1 Linear circuits
1.1 Definition and calculation
1.2 Power factor correction of linear loads
2 Non-linear loads
2.1 Non-sinusoidal components
2.2 Distortion power factor
2.3 Distortion in three-phase networks
2.4 Switched-mode power supplies
2.5 Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
2.5.1 Passive PFC
2.5.2 Active PFC
2.5.3 Dynamic PFC
3 Importance of power factor in distribution systems
4 Measuring the power factor
5 Mnemonics
6 References
7 External links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor
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Linear circuits
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current
waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at
the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the
load is consumed (or dissipated). Where reactive loads
are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy
storage in the loads results in a time difference between
the current and voltage waveforms. During each cycle of
the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy
consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in
electric or magnetic fields, and then returned to the
power grid a fraction of a second later in the cycle. The
"ebb and flow" of this nonproductive power increases
the current in the line. Thus, a circuit with a low power
factor will use higher currents to transfer a given quantity
of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. A
linear load does not change the shape of the waveform
of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase)
between voltage and current.
Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements
(filament lamps, cooking stoves, etc.) have a power
factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive
elements (electric motors, solenoid valves, lamp ballasts,
and others ) often have a power factor below 1.0.
If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the
angle,
, and:
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Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 1 and 1.
When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the
source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the
load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle. Capacitive
loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage).
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the
power factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each
cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with
current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate
reactive power with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the
AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source
during the rest of the cycle.
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1kVA of apparent power needs to be
transferred (1 kW 1 = 1kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred
to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5kVA of apparent power needs to
be transferred (1 kW 0.2 = 5kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in
the conventional fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission
processes.
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power. The vector
sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to
be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1.
A negative power factor (0 to -1) can result from returning power to the source, such as in the case of a building
fitted with solar panels when their power is not being fully utilised within the building and the surplus is fed back
into the supply.
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For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power
electronic devices such as the Static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used. These systems
are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor
banks, and being solid-state require less maintenance than synchronous condensers.
Non-linear loads
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc
discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces. Because current in
these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples
of the power system frequency. Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a
load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.
Non-sinusoidal components
Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form. Non-linear
loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current. Filters consisting
of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system.
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from
the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement power factor". The concept can
be generalized to a total, distortion, or true power factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic
components. This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers,
some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies and
other devices.
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A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current drawn by a nonsinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified waveform. The average response is then
calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS sensing multimeter must be used to measure the actual RMS
currents and voltages (and therefore apparent power). To measure the real power or reactive power, a watt
meter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.
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presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the
transformer. Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's
efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life.[10]
Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the
fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence. In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic
fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations.[11]
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power
factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for Computers.[26]
In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products.
Digital instruments can be made that either directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms
and so calculate the power factor, or that measure both true and apparent power in the circuit and calculate the
quotient. The first method is only accurate if voltage and current are sinusoidal; loads such as rectifiers distort the
waveforms from the sinusoidal shape.
Mnemonics
English-language power engineering students are advised to remember: "ELI the ICE man" or "ELI on ICE"
the voltage E leads the current I in an inductor L; the current leads the voltage in a capacitor C.
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Another common mnemonic is CIVIL in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads
current (I) in an inductor (L).
References
1. ^ Authoritative Dictionary of Standards Terms (7th ed.), IEEE, ISBN 0-7381-2601-2, Std. 100.
2. ^ Trial-Use Standard Definitions for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal,
Nonsinusoidal, Balanced, or Unbalanced Conditions, IEEE, 2000, ISBN 0-7381-1963-6, Std. 1459-2000. Note
1, section 3.1.1.1, when defining the quantities for power factor, asserts that real power only flows to the load
and can never be negative. As of 2013, one of the authors acknowledged that this note was incorrect, and is
being revised for the next edition. See http://powerstandards.com/Shymanski/draft.pdf
3. ^ Duddell, W. (1901), "On the resistance and electromotive forces of the electric arc", Proceedings (The Royal
Society of London): 51215, "The fact that the solid arc has, at low frequencies, a negative power factor,
indicates that the arc is supplying power to the alternator"
4. ^ Zhang, S. (July 2006), "Analysis of some measurement issues in bushing power factor tests in the field",
Trans Pwr Del (IEEE) 21 (3): 135056, "(the measurement) gives both negative power factor and negative
resistive current (power loss)."
5. ^ Almarshoud, A. F. (2004), et al, "Performance of Grid-Connected Induction Generator under Naturally
Commutated AC Voltage Controller", Electric Power Components and Systems 32 (7), "Accordingly, the
generator will consume active power from the grid, which leads to negative power factor."
6. ^ "SI Units Electricity and Magnetism"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20071211234311/http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_elecmag.htm#si_epo). CH:
International Electrotechnical Commission. Archived from the original
(http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_elecmag.htm) on 2007-12-11. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
7. ^ Sankaran, C. (1999), Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems (http://ecmweb.com/power-quality/effectsharmonics-power-systems), Electro-Test, "...and voltage-time relationship deviates from the pure sine function.
The distortion at the point of generation is very small (about 1% to 2%), but nonetheless it exists."
8. ^ "Single-phase load harmonics vs. three-phase load harmonics", Power System Harmonics
(http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/mybusiness/customerservice/energystatus/powerquality/harmonics.p
df) (PDF), Pacific Gas and Electric.
9. ^ "Harmonic Effects", Harmonics and IEEE 519 (http://energylogix.ca/harmonics_and_ieee.pdf) (PDF), CA:
EnergyLogix Solutions.
10. ^ Sankaran, C. (1999), "Transformers", Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems (http://ecmweb.com/powerquality/effects-harmonics-power-systems), Electro-Test.
11. ^ Sankaran, C. (1999), "Motors", Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems (http://ecmweb.com/powerquality/effects-harmonics-power-systems), Electro-Test, "The interaction between the positive and negative
sequence magnetic fields and currents produces torsional oscillations of the motor shaft. These oscillations
result in shaft vibrations."
12. ^ "What is an 80 PLUS certified power supply?", Certified Power Supplies and Manufacturers
(http://www.80plus.org/), 80 Plus
13. ^ Schramm, Ben (Fall 2006), "Power Supply Design Principles"
(http://www.nuvation.com/corporate/news/newsletter/fall2006/powersupply.html), Newsletter (Nuvation)
|chapter=ignored (help)
14. ^ "Quasi-active power factor correction with a variable inductive filter: theory, design and practice"
(http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1187344), Xplore (IEEE).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor
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15. ^ Wolfle, W.H.; Hurley, W. G., "Quasi-active Power Factor Correction: The Role of Variable Inductance",
Power electronics (http://www.nuigalway.ie/power_electronics/projects/quasi_active.html) (project), IE:
Nuigalway
16. ^ ATX Power Supply Units Roundup (http://www.xbitlabs.com/articles/coolers/display/atx-psu5_3.html), xBit
labs, "The power factor is the measure of reactive power. It is the ratio of active power to the total of active
and reactive power. It is about 0.65 with an ordinary PSU, but PSUs with active PFC have a power factor of
0.970.99. [] hardware reviewers sometimes make no difference between the power factor and the
efficiency factor. Although both these terms describe the effectiveness of a power supply, it is a gross mistake
to confuse them. [] There is a very small effect from passive PFC the power factor grows only from 0.65
to 0.70.75."
17. ^ The Active PFC Market is Expected to Grow at an Annually Rate of 12.3% Till 2011
(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2006_March_16/ai_n26797888), Find articles, Mar 16, 2006,
"Higher-powered products are also likely to use active PFC, since it would be the most cost effective way to
bring products into compliance with the EN standard."
18. ^ Power Factor Correction (http://www.techarp.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=81&pgno=1), TECHarp,
"Passive PFC [] the power factor is low at 6080%. [] Active PFC ... a power factor of up to 95%".
19. ^ Why we need PFC in PSU (http://www.silverstonetek.com/tech/wh_pfc.php?area=), Siverstone tek,
"Normally, the power factor value of electronic device without power factor correction is approximately 0.5.
[] Passive PFC [] 70~80% [] Active PFC [] 90~99.9%".
20. ^ Brooks, Tom (Mar 2004), "PFC options for power supplies"
(http://www2.electronicproducts.com/PFC_options_for_power_supplies-article-taiyo-mar2004-html.aspx),
Taiyo (Electronic products), "The disadvantages of passive PFC techniques are that they typically yield a power
factor of only 0.60 to 0.70 [] Dual-stage active PFC technology [yields] a power factor typically greater than
0.98".
21. ^ Power Factor Correction (PFC) Basics (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/AN-42047.pdf) (PDF)
(application note) (42047), Fairchild Semiconductor, 2004.
22. ^ Sugawara, I.; Suzuki, Y.; Takeuchi, A.; Teshima, T. (1923 Oct 1997), "Experimental studies on active and
passive PFC circuits", INTELEC 97, 19th International Telecommunications Energy Conference, pp. 57178,
doi:10.1109/INTLEC.1997.646051 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FINTLEC.1997.646051).
23. ^ Chavez, C.; Houdek, J. A. (911 Oct 2007). "Dynamic Harmonic Mitigation and power factor correction"
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/EPQU.2007.4424144). IEE. Electrical Power Quality.
doi:10.1109/EPQU.2007.4424144 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FEPQU.2007.4424144).
24. ^ Power Factor Correction Handbook (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/HBD853-D.PDF) (PDF),
ON Semiconductor, 2007.
25. ^ Program Requirements for Computers
(http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/revisions/downloads/computer/Version5.0_Compute
r_Spec.pdf) (PDF) (Version 5.0 ed.), US: Energy Star.
26. ^ Bolioli, T.; Duggirala, M.; Haines, E.; Kolappan, R.; Wong, H. (2009), Version 5.0 System Implementation
(http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/product_specs/program_reqs/Computers_Intel_Whitepaper_Spec5.pdf)
(PDF) (white paper), Energy Star.
27. ^ Fink, Donald G.; Beaty, H. Wayne (1978), Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (11 ed.), New York:
McGraw-Hill, p. 329 paragraph 80, ISBN 0-07-020974-X
28. ^ Manual of Electric Instruments Construction and Operating Principles, Schenectady, New York: General
Electric, Meter and Instrument Department, 1949, pp. 6668, GET-1087A
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External links
Harmonics and how they relate to power factor
(http://www.ece.utexas.edu/~grady/POWERFAC.pdf) (PDF), U Texas.
NIST Team Demystifies Utility of Power Factor Correction Devices
(http://www.nist.gov/pml/div684/power_121509.cfm), NIST, December 15, 2009.
Power factor calculation and correction (http://www.powerfactor.us/), US.
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