Marina Miloevi, 2011

Modals
What are modal auxiliary verbs?
The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to and must are called modal
auxiliary verbs. These are used before the infinitives of other verbs and add certain kinds of
meaning connected with certainty, obligations, ability, etc.
Grammar
1. Modal verbs never change form. They do not have -s, -ed or ing endings.
2. Questions, negatives, tags, and short answers are made without do.
Can you swim? Yes, I can.
He shouldnt be doing that, should he?
3. After modal auxiliary verbs, we use the infinitive without to of other verbs. Ought to is an
exception. Progressive, perfect and passive infinitives are also possible.
I must water the flowers.
I may not be working tomorrow.
The kitchen ought to be painted one of these days.
4. Modal verbs do not have infinitives and participles (to may, maying, mayed do not exist),
and they do not normally have past forms (though would, could, should and might can
sometimes be used as past tenses of will, can, shell and may.)
5. However, certain past ideas can be expressed by a modal verb followed by a perfect
infinitive (have + past participle).
You should have told me you were coming.
I think I may have annoyed aunt Mary.
6. Modal verbs have contracted negative forms (cant, wont, shouldnt, mustnt, etc.) used in
an informal style. (shant and maynt are only used in BrE; maynt is very rare). Will and
would have contracted affirmative forms (ll and d).
7. There is quite often used as a preparatory subject with modal verbs, esp. when these are
followed by be. E.g. There may be rain later today.
Meanings
Most of the meanings of modal verbs can be divided into two groups:
1. Degrees of certainty => to say that a situation is certain, probable, possible or impossible.
2. Obligation, freedom to act and similar ideas => to say that somebody is obliged to do
something, that he/she is able to do something, that there is nothing to stop something
happening, that it would be better if something happened (or did not), or that something is
permitted or forbidden.

Marina Miloevi, 2011

Degrees of certainty
1. Complete certainty (positive or negative): shall, will, must, cant
I shell be away tomorrow.
There the phone. That will be Tony.
I shell not be late on Thursday.
Things will be all right.
It wont rain this evening.
You must be tired.
That cant be John he is in Dublin.
2. Probability (deduction; saying sth is logical or normal): should, ought to
She should / ought to be here soon.
It shouldnt / oughtnt be difficult to get there.
3. Possibility (talking about chances that sth is true or will happen): may
The water may not be warm enough to swim.
We may be buying a new house.
4. Week possibility: might, could
I might see you again how knows?
We could be all millionaires one day.
Things may not be as bad as they seem.

Obligation and freedom of act

1. Strong obligation: must, will, need
Students must register in the first week of term.
All sales staff will arrive at work by 8.40 a.m.
Need I get a visa for Hungary?
2. Prohibition: must not, may not, cannot
Students must not use the staff car park.
Books may not be taken out of the library.
You cant come in here.
3. Week obligation; recommendation: should, ought to, might, shall
You should try to work harder.
She really ought to wash her hair.
You might see what John thinks.
What shall we do?
4. Willingness, volunteering, resolving, insisting and offering: will, shall (in questions)
If you will come this way
I will pay for the drinks.
She will keep interrupting people.
He will definitely work harder next term.
Shall I give you a hand?
5. Permission: can, could, may, might
You can use the car if you like.
Could I talk to you for a minute?
May we use the phone?
Do you think I might take a break now?
6. Absence of obligation: neednt
You neednt work this Saturday.
7. Ability: can, could
She can speak six languages.
You could get to my old school by bus, but not by train
These roses can grow anywhere.
When I was a baby I could put my foot in my mouth.
.

Marina Miloevi, 2011

MAY and MIGHT

May1 and Might 2are used to talk about the possibility and to ask for or give permission3:
I may/might see you tomorrow. (POSSIBILITY)
Do you think I may/might borrow your typewriter? (PERMISSION)
May is used to give permission; may not to refuse permission or prohibition.
May I put the TV on? No, Im afraid you may not.
Books may be not taken out of the library.
May (but not might) is used in formal expressions of wishes and hopes.
May God be with you. May you both be very happy. May she rest in peace.
Might can suggest that there is less possibility (week possibility). Compare:
I may go to London tomorrow. (perhaps a 50% chance)
Joe might come with me. (perhaps a 30% chance)
Might is also used as past simple of may, esp. when reporting what sb has said, asked, etc.
Might is often used in affirmative clauses to make requests, suggestions and criticism.
You might see if John is free this evening. You might try asking your uncle for a job.
You might ask before you borrow my car.
Might is used for week obligation, recommendation: You might see what John thinks.
May well and might well suggest stronger possibilities.
The profits of the company may/might well reach $100 million this year.
Other words commonly used after may and might to say it is possible that sth will happen
are conceivably and possibly.
The President may conceivably call an election in June. (= it is possible)
We don't use may to ask questions about the possibility of sth happening. Instead we use,
for example, could(n't) or the phrase be likely.
Could it be that you don't want to leave?
Are you likely to be visiting Greece again this summer?
It is possible to use might in this type of question, but it is rather formal.
Might they be persuaded to change their minds?
There are two ways of making negative sentences: may / might not and cant.
May / might not = say that it is possible that something is not true.
Cant = say that it is not possible that something is true.
She may/might be at home. (= perhaps she is at home.)
She may/might not be at home. (= perhaps she is not at home.)
She cant be at home. (= she is certainly not at home.)
We use may/might have + past participle to say it is possible that sth happened in the past.
I thought I saw Tom in town, but I may/might have been wrong.
May / might have + past participle can sometimes refer to present or future possibility.
Ann isnt in her office. She may/might have been working at home today. (present)
By next Friday, I may/might have completed the report. (future)
Might have + past participle is used to criticize sb because they didnt do sth.

We prefer may in academic or formal language to talk about the characteristics or behaviour of sth
We prefer might in speech to say what we will possibly do in the future.
3
May and might are used for permission mostly in a formal style.
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Marina Miloevi, 2011

Shes gone without us. She might have waited.

We use might + infinitive to talk about what was typically the case in the past:
During the war, the police might arrest you for criticizing the king.
We use may/might + be + -ing to say it is possible that sth is happening now or to talk
about a possible future arrangement:
Malcolm isn't in his office. He may/might be working at home today.
CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO and BE ALLOWED TO

4
5

When we say that sb or sth has or doesn't have the ability to do sth, we can use can / cant
(for the present) or could / couldnt (for the past).
I can speak three languages.
Anita could speak three languages before she was six.
Could can be used to talk about theoretical possibility. However we can use can to talk
about actually possibility.
It could be expensive to keep a cat.
It can be expensive to keep a cat.
We use cant and couldnt to say that sth is theoretically or actually impossible.
There cant be many people in this word who havent watched television.
The doctor cant see you this morning. He is busy.
Can and could 4are used to ask for and give permission.
Can I use your bike, John?
You can stop work earlier today?
Could I speak to Mr Davis, please?
We use cant and couldnt to refuse permission.
Can I have some more cake? No, you cant.
Could I ask you something? No, Im afraid you cant. (not could)
To say that in the past sb had general permission to do sth (to do it at any time) we can use
could or was/were allowed to. However, to talk about permission for one particular past
action, we use was/were allowed to, but not could. Compare:
Last century, women were not allowed to vote, (or ...couldn't vote.)
Although he didn't have a ticket, Ken was allowed to come in. (not ...could come in.)
In negative sentences, we can use either couldn't or wasn't/weren't allowed to to say that
permission was not given in general or particular situations:
We couldn't / weren't allowed to open the presents until Christmas.
Can and could 5are used to talk about requests.
Could I have some more tea?
Could you possibly turn that music down a little, please?
Can is used in polite offers of help. Can I help you with those bags?
Could is used for making a suggestion.
We could go for a drink after work tomorrow, if you like.
Could is be used for criticizing people. You could ask before you borrow my car.
We can use be able to instead of can/could to talk about an ability that sb has or had.

Could is used as a more polite form of 'can' when asking for permission.
Could is used as a more polite form of 'can' when asking someone to provide something or do something.

Marina Miloevi, 2011

Helen can / is able to read well, even though she's only three.
He could / was able to draw on the support of over 20,000 troops.
In general, we use be able to when we talk about a single/specific achievement (particularly
if it is difficult, requiring some effort) rather than a general ability.
He can speak Spanish. (general ability)
He has recovered from his injury and is able to drive again. (specific achievement)
We avoid be able to:
1. when we talk about sth that is happening as we speak: Watch me mum! I can fly.
2. before passives: CDs can be copied easily.
3. when the meaning is know how to: Can you cook?
However, could is usually more natural:
1. in negative sentences: I tried to get up but I couldnt move.
2. with verbs of the senses - feel, hear, see, smell, taste - and with verbs of 'thinking' believe, decide, remember, understand: She could feel the spray on her face.
3. after phrases the only thing/place/time and after all when it means the only thing: All
we could see were his feet.
4. to suggest that sth almost didnt happen, with almost, hardly, just, nearly: I could nearly
touch the ceiling.
We use could have + past participle to talk about past possibility or unrealized past ability.
I could have married anybody I wanted to.
I was so angry I could have killed her.
We use could have + past participle to criticize people for not doing things.
You could have helped me why did you just sit and watch?
MUST and HAVE (GOT) TO

We use must or have (got) to 6when we say that it is necessary to do sth.

To get a cheap ticket, you must / have (got) to book in advance.
To say that sth will be necessary in the future, we use must / have (got) to / will have to.
To get there on time, I must / have (got) to / will have to leave home by 8.30.
We use have (got) to when sb else or some outside circumstances or authority makes sth
necessary. We use must when the speaker decides it is necessary. Compare:
I have to see the head teacher, (...she has called me to her office)
I must see the head teacher. (...I want to discuss something with her)
We prefer have (got) to when we talk about a necessity that is characteristic of a person:
Ann has got to have at least eight hours' sleep a night.
She has to drink two cups of coffee in the morning before she feels really awake.
We use must to express deduction or conclusion that sth is certain, probable and true.
The hall is packed. There must be about 2,000 people at the meeting.
Im in love. You must be very happy.
But, in informal speech, we can use have (got) to: Shes pregnant? Youve got to be joking!
When we give a negative conclusion we rarely use must not or hasn't / haven't got to.
Instead, we use can't (cannot) or couldn't:
'I'm seeing Dr Evans next week.' 'That can't be right. He's on holiday then.'

Have got to is less formal than the others, and is particularly common in spoken English.

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

However, mustnt is used in question tags. It must be nice to have a cat, mustnt it?
To draw a conclusion or express certainty about sth in the past, we use must have + past
participle. You must have been upset when you heard the news.
We use must and must not in formal rules and regulations and warning.
Booking must be made at least seven days before departure.
The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.
We use must to give strong advice and orders to ourselves or other people.
I really must stop smoking.
You must be here by 8 oclock tomorrow.
Sometimes we can use either have to or have got to. However
we use have to with frequency adverbs such as always, never, normally, rarely, sometimes,
etc.: I often have to work at the weekend to get everything done.
with the past simple, we use had to, esp. in questions and negative sentences: When did
you have to give the books back? (not When had you got to...)
if have is contracted (e.g. I've, He's, It'd) we use got: It's got to work this time.
In formal English we prefer have to rather than have got to.
we dont use have got to with other modals: He will have to accept the truth.
NEED, NEEDNT, DONT NEED TO, DONT HAVE TO and MUSTNT

We can use need as an ordinary verb or as a modal verb (before bare infinitive). Compare:
You needn't speak so loudly. (= modal verb)
She's thirsty. She needs a drink. (= ordinary verb)
When it is a modal verb need is most commonly used in negative sentences, often with
verbs like bother, concern, fear, panic, worry.
Ive already cleaned the car so you neednt bother about it.
It is sometimes used in questions, but we prefer to use need as an ordinary verb or have to.
Need you go home so soon? (or, more commonly Do you have to go...?)
Need is used with negative words such as hardly, never, nobody/no-one and only.
We need hardly point out that there is a water shortage at the moment.
We use mustn't to say that sth is NOT ALLOWED and needn't (or don't need to) or don't
have to to say that sth is NOT NECESSARY.
You mustn't walk on the grass here.
They proved that watching a chess match needn't be boring.
Compare the uses of neednt and dont need to.

To give permission not to do sth, we can use You needn't cut the grass, I'll do it later.
either neednt or dont need to.
You don't need to cut the grass, I'll do it later.
To talk about a general necessity, we prefer You don't need to be over 18 to get into a disco.
dont need to.

To say that it was not necessary to do sth in the past, and it wasn't done, we use didn't need
to or didn't have to. If we think that it was done sth unnecessary we use need not have.
They phoned to say that they couldn't come to eat, so I didn't need/have to cook dinner.
(= I didn't cook the dinner)

Marina Miloevi, 2011

I needn't have cooked dinner. Just as it was ready, they phoned to say that they couldn't
come to eat. (= I did cook the dinner)
We can use neednt or dont have to to say that sth in not necessarily true.
Volcanoes neednt erupt constantly to be classified as active.
SHOULD, OUGHT TO and HAD BETTER

We can often use should 7or ought to 8to talk about OBLIGATION and PROBABILITY.
Obligation
Giving ADVICE or making a RECOMMENDATION:
'This soup is too salty!' 'You should / ought to send it back.'
You'll catch cold if you go out like that. I think you should / ought to take a hat.
or saying what an outside authority recommends ( we prefer should in this case):
The manual says that the computer should be disconnected from the mains.
However, we use should (or would), not ought to, when we give advice with I:
I should leave early tomorrow, if I were you. (or I would leave...; or I'd leave...)
We prefer should in questions, particularly WH-questions:
What should I do if I have any problems?
Talking about a RESPONSIBILITY or DUTY:
People should / ought to be warned of the danger of swimming off this beach.
I should / ought to visit my parents more often.
Probability
Saying that sth is PROBABLY TRUE now or will probably be true in the future:
Have we got any string?' 'There should / ought to be some in the kitchen drawer.'
You should / ought to have received the report by now.

For logical conclusions from some situation or activity, we use must not should or ought to.
You must be mad if you think I'm going to lend you any more money.
We use should / ought to have + past participle to talk about sth that didnt happen in the
past and we are sorry that it didnt.
We should have / ought to have waited for the rain to stop.
We use should / ought to have + past participle to talk about an obligation in the past. We
often indicate some criticism or regret:
He should / ought to have asked me before he took my bike. (I'm annoyed)
We should / ought to have taken a taxi when it rained. (I'm sorry we didn't)
We also use should / ought to have + past participle to talk about an expectation that sth
happened, has happened, or will happen:
If the flight was on time, he should / ought to have arrived in Rome early this morning.
The builders should / ought to have finished by the end of the week.
We can use had better instead of should / ought to, esp. in spoken English, to say that we
think it would be sensible or advisable to do sth. However, we don't use it to talk about the
past or to make general comments:
If you're not well, you should / ought to ask Ann to go instead, (or ...you'd better ask...)
I don't think parents should / ought to give their children sweets, (not ...had better...)

In general, should is used more frequently.

Ought to is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about obligation rather then probability.

Marina Miloevi, 2011

We prefer had better if we want to express particular urgency and in demands and threats.
Theres someone moving about downstairs. Wed better call the police, quickly.
The negative form is had better not. In question forms the subject comes after had,
although many people avoid questions with had.
WILL, WOULD and USED TO
We can use will (for the present) and would (for the past) to talk about characteristic
behaviour or habits, or about things that are or were always true:
Every day Dan will come home from work and turn on the TV.
During the war, people would eat all kinds of things that we don't eat now.
A baby will recognise its mother's voice soon after it is born.
Early passenger planes wouldn't hold more than 30 passengers.
We don't use will and would in this way to talk about a particular occasion in the past.
Each time I gave him a problem he would solve it for me. and
Last night I gave him a problem and he solved it for me. {not ...he would solve it...)
In speech, we can stress will or would to criticise people's characteristic behaviour or
habits. It often suggests that criticisms have been made before but ingnored.
She just wont do the washing up when I ask her.
I was happy when Sam left. He would talk about people behind their backs.
We can also criticize a person directly or express disapproval using will.
I feel sick. Well, if you will eat so much, Im not surprised.
We use will (or '11) when we talk about WILLINGNESS to do something (e.g. in offers,
invitations, requests, and orders) and will not (or won't) when we talk about
UNWILLINGNESS to do something (e.g. reluctance, refusal):
I'll give you another opportunity to get the correct answer.
Mum! Sue won't give me back my pencil case.
We can use will to draw conclusions or state assumptions about things that are the case
now.
Jack will be at home by now. Lets go and see him.
If we want to talk about things repeated past events we can use would or used to +
infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English:
We would / used to lend him money when he was unemployed.
Tim would / used to visit his parents every other weekend.
We use used to but not would when we talk about past states that have changed.
The factory used to be in the city centre.
I used to smoke heavily when I was at university.
When we use would we need to mention a specific time or set of occasions. Compare:
We used to play in the garden, {not We would play...)
Whenever we went to my Uncle Frank's house, we would / used to play in the garden.
We don't use either used to or would when we say exactly how many times sth happened,
how long something took, or that something happened at a particular time:
We visited Switzerland four times during the 1970s.
She went on holiday to the Bahamas last week.
To talk about unreal past situations we use would have + past participle.
I would have been happy to see him, but I didn't have time.

Marina Miloevi, 2011

Modal
Can

My grandmother wouldn't have approved of the exhibition.

When we want to indicate that we think a past situation is certain, we use will (or won't)
have + past participle.
As you will have noticed, he has got new glasses.
Most people wont have seen last nights lunar eclipse.
Meanings of modal verbs
Meaning / Use
Example
Ability
Can you play the piano?
Theoretical possibility
Anyone can make a mistake.
Permission
Can I leave early, please?
Requests
Can you give me a hand?
Offers
Can I help you?

Cant / cannot

Inability
Possibility
Prohibition
Deduction

I cant play the piano.

Cant you come any earlier?
You cant leave until I say so.
This bill cant be right.

Cant have
Could

Deduction
Past ability
Possibility
Requests
Asking for permission
Permission in the past
Deduction
Idiomatic

Shes gone to the wrong door she cant have seen the sign.
The shop had nothing that I could afford.
There could be trouble if the she marries him.
Could you give me a hand?
Could I leave early, please?
When I was younger I could stay up all night and not get tired.
That could be Johns car. I can hear he said he was coming.
You could at least tell me what they said.

Couldnt

Past inability
Impossibility
Requests
Prohibition in the past
Deduction
Idiomatic

I couldnt walk until I was nearly two.

I couldnt eat another thing.
Couldnt you try again?
My mum insisted that I couldnt go out until I had finish supper.
It couldnt be John, could it? He is in Paris.
I couldnt agree more.

Could have

Possibility in the past

Annoyance

Your actions could have had serious consequences.

You could have told me.

Couldnt have

Impossibility in the past

Annoyance
Possibility
Hopes and wishes
Permission
Offers
Concession

He couldnt have taken my car by mistake. He didnt have keys.

It couldnt have been better.
We may go to France next year.
May you have a long and fruitful marriage.
A reader may borrow up to six books at any one time.
May I be of any assistance?
They may live next door but we hardly ever see them.

Possibility

We may not go to France next year.

May

May not

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Prohibition
Concession
May have /
may have not
Might

Might not

Possibility in the past

Concession
Past form of may after
past tense verbs
Possibility
Suggestions
Requests
Annoyance
Concession
Past form of may not
after past tense verbs
Possibility
Concession

You may not go until you are finished.

I may be very intelligent but I can find the answer to that
question.
They may have not left yet.
He may have written that book, but he doesnt know anything.
He said he night come with us.
I might come and visit you in America next year.
I thought you might like to join me for dinner.
Might I ask a question?
You might at least try to look like you're enjoying yourself!
Leeds might be an excellent team, but today they played
appallingly.
He said he might not come with us.
You might not like it.
He might not wear glasses, but his eyesight is not perfect either.

Might have

Possibility in the past

Annoyance
Concession

Might not have

Must

Possibility in the past

concession
Deduction
Obligation
Necessity

Driving so fast, he might have had a nasty accident.

Well, you might have warned me!
She might have worked out, but you wouldnt know it from her
results.
They might have not noticed the sign.
She might not have done all the work, but she certainly did a lot.
Harry's been driving all day - he must be tired.
You must take of your shoes here.
I must get some sleep.

Mustnt

Prohibition

You mustn't show this letter to anyone else.

Must have

Deduction in the past

Necessity in the past

Mustnt have
Shall

Necessity in the past

Prediction
Intention
Offers
Official orders
Asking for advice

There's no food left - we must have eaten it all.

In order to qualify for the job, you must have had several years
experience.
You mustnt have had any driving convictions or you wont go.
I think we shall get back early next week.
Don't worry, I shall be there to meet the train.
Shall I pick the children up from school today?
The school rules state that no child shall be allowed to
What shall we do now?

Shant

Prediction
Intention

We shant get back much before ten.

I shan't be able to come to your party.

Shall / shant
have
Should / ought

Prediction

We shall have finished by evening.

We shant have another opportunity if we dont win today.
This computer isn't working as it should / ought to.

Giving your opinion *

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to

Expressing doubt
Advice*
Obligation* (duty)
Instructions
Conditional
Advice*
Obligation* (duty)
Giving your opinion *
Expressing doubt

I should think it will rain today.

You should go out more often.
There should be an investigation into the cause of the disaster.
You should change trains at Venice if you're going to Rome.
If you're annoyed with him, you should tell him.
I shouldn't / oughtnt to worry about it if I were you.
People shouldnt / oughtnt to be so aggressive.
The traffic shouldnt / oughtnt to be too bad today.
I shouldnt think hed enjoyed it.

Advice in the past

Giving your opinion
about the past
Expressing doubt about
the past
Obligation* (duty) in the
past
Prediction
Predicting the present
Truths and facts
Obligation / orders
Habits
Annoying habits
Willingness
Intention

You should have told me before.

The traffic should have / ought to have been lighter today.

Wont

Prediction
Prediction the present
Truths and facts
Refusal
Intention

They wont be here for a while.

They wont be there yet.
This car wont start.
I won't go without you.
I wont come this evening Im afraid.

Will have /
wont have
Would

Prediction
Predicting the past
Prediction
Prediction the present
Describing imaginary
situations
Habits in the past
Annoying habits in the
past
Intention in the past
Typical (annoying)
behaviour
Advice

I wont have finished this book by the evening.

They will have easily got there by now.
They said they would be here soon.
I thought they would be here by now.
You would look better with your hair shorter.

Shouldnt /
oughtnt to

Should
have/shouldnt
have/ought to
have/oughtnt
to have
Will

I shouldnt have thought hed have enjoyed it.

They shouldnt have driven so fast.
They will be here soon.
They will be there by now.
The product with the better-known brand name will sell better.
Will you stop being such a pain!
She will always try to help you whenever she can.
He will smoke when Im trying to eat.
I will give you a hand if you like.
I will put the letter in the post this evening.

She would always try to help you.

He would smoke when Im trying to eat.
I said I would put the letter in the post later.
It would start raining just as we go out.
I would talk to him about that if I were you.

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Wouldnt

Would have /
wouldnt have

Prediction
Predicting the present
Describing imaginary
situations
Refusal in the past
Requests
Intention in the past
Advice

They said they wouldnt be here for ages.

I thought they wouldnt be here yet.
You wouldnt say so if you had met him.

Events in the past that

didnt happen
Or which did happen
Tentative thoughts
Deductions in the past

I would have met you at the station if I had known you were
coming.
I would have told you if I had known you would be so upset.
I would have thought he would have jumped at the chance.
I first went to Italy when I was at University; that would have
been in 1982.

He wouldnt do what I asked.

You wouldnt open the door for me, would you?
He said he wouldnt be coming tonight.
I wouldn't worry about it, if I were you.

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